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class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Saturday,_May_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Saturday,_May_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Saturday, May 2 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Saturday,_May_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sunday,_May_3" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sunday,_May_3"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Sunday, May 3 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sunday,_May_3-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Monday,_May_4" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Monday,_May_4"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 Monday, May 4 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Monday,_May_4-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Orders_to_disperse" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Orders_to_disperse"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5.1 Orders to disperse </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Orders_to_disperse-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-First_attempt_to_disperse_the_crowd_with_tear_gas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_attempt_to_disperse_the_crowd_with_tear_gas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5.2 First attempt to disperse the crowd with tear gas </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First_attempt_to_disperse_the_crowd_with_tear_gas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-National_Guard_advance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#National_Guard_advance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5.3 National Guard advance </div> </a> <ul id="toc-National_Guard_advance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_shootings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_shootings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 The shootings </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-The_shootings-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle The shootings subsection </button> <ul id="toc-The_shootings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Eyewitness_accounts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eyewitness_accounts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Eyewitness accounts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Eyewitness_accounts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Guardsmen's_reasons_for_opening_fire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Guardsmen's_reasons_for_opening_fire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Guardsmen's reasons for opening fire </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Guardsmen's_reasons_for_opening_fire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reaction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reaction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Reaction </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reaction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Victims" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Victims"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Victims </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Victims-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aftermath_and_long-term_effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aftermath_and_long-term_effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Aftermath and long-term effects </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Aftermath_and_long-term_effects-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Aftermath and long-term effects subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Aftermath_and_long-term_effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Legal_action" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legal_action"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Legal action </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legal_action-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Strubbe_Tape_and_further_government_reviews" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Strubbe_Tape_and_further_government_reviews"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Strubbe Tape and further government reviews </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Strubbe_Tape_and_further_government_reviews-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Memorials_and_remembrances" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Memorials_and_remembrances"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Memorials and remembrances </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Memorials_and_remembrances-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cultural_references" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cultural_references"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Cultural references </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Cultural_references-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Cultural references subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Cultural_references-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Documentary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Documentary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Documentary </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Documentary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Film_and_television" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Film_and_television"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Film and television </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Film_and_television-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Literature </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Graphic_novels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Graphic_novels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3.1 Graphic novels </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Graphic_novels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Plays" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Plays"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3.2 Plays </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Plays-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Poetry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Poetry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3.3 Poetry </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Poetry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prose" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prose"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3.4 Prose </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prose-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Music" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Music"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4 Music </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Music-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Photography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Photography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.5 Photography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Photography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_references_and_impacts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_references_and_impacts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.6 Other references and impacts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_references_and_impacts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Kent State shootings</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 26 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-26" aria-hidden="true" > 26 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kent_State-skietvoorval" title="Kent State-skietvoorval – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Kent State-skietvoorval" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kent-State-Massaka" title="Kent-State-Massaka – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Kent-State-Massaka" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Boarisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masakr_student%C5%AF_na_Kentsk%C3%A9_st%C3%A1tn%C3%AD_univerzit%C4%9B_v_Ohiu" title="Masakr studentů na Kentské státní univerzitě v Ohiu – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Masakr studentů na Kentské státní univerzitě v Ohiu" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kent-State-Massaker" title="Kent-State-Massaker – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Kent-State-Massaker" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masacre_de_la_Universidad_Estatal_de_Kent" title="Masacre de la Universidad Estatal de Kent – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Masacre de la Universidad Estatal de Kent" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kent_Estatuko_Unibertsitateko_tiroketa" title="Kent Estatuko Unibertsitateko tiroketa – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Kent Estatuko Unibertsitateko tiroketa" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%B4%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1_%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B4%DA%AF%D8%A7%D9%87_%DA%A9%D9%86%D8%AA" title="کشتار دانشگاه کنت – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="کشتار دانشگاه کنت" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fusillade_de_l%27universit%C3%A9_d%27%C3%89tat_de_Kent" title="Fusillade de l'université d'État de Kent – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Fusillade de l'université d'État de Kent" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%BC%84%ED%8A%B8_%EC%A3%BC%EB%A6%BD_%EB%8C%80%ED%95%99%EA%B5%90_%EC%B4%9D%EA%B2%A9%EC%82%AC%EA%B1%B4" title="켄트 주립 대학교 총격사건 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="켄트 주립 대학교 총격사건" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BF%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%B8%D6%81%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80_%D5%94%D5%A5%D5%B6%D5%A9%D5%AB_%D5%B0%D5%A1%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%AC%D5%BD%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B4" title="Կրակոցներ Քենթի համալսարանում – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Կրակոցներ Քենթի համալսարանում" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penembakan_Universitas_Negeri_Kent" title="Penembakan Universitas Negeri Kent – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Penembakan Universitas Negeri Kent" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sparatoria_della_Kent_State" title="Sparatoria della Kent State – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Sparatoria della Kent State" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%98%D7%91%D7%97_%D7%91%D7%A7%D7%A0%D7%98_%D7%A1%D7%98%D7%99%D7%99%D7%98" title="הטבח בקנט סטייט – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="הטבח בקנט סטייט" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kent_State-bloedbad" title="Kent State-bloedbad – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Kent State-bloedbad" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B1%E3%83%B3%E3%83%88%E5%B7%9E%E7%AB%8B%E5%A4%A7%E5%AD%A6%E9%8A%83%E6%92%83%E4%BA%8B%E4%BB%B6" title="ケント州立大学銃撃事件 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ケント州立大学銃撃事件" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skytingen_p%C3%A5_Kent_State_University" title="Skytingen på Kent State University – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Skytingen på Kent State University" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masakra_na_uniwersytecie_w_Kencie" title="Masakra na uniwersytecie w Kencie – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Masakra na uniwersytecie w Kencie" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massacre_da_Universidade_Estadual_de_Kent" title="Massacre da Universidade Estadual de Kent – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Massacre da Universidade Estadual de Kent" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BB_%D0%B2_%D0%9A%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC_%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B5" title="Расстрел в Кентском университете – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Расстрел в Кентском университете" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pucnjava_na_Kent_Stateu" title="Pucnjava na Kent Stateu – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Pucnjava na Kent Stateu" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kentin_osavaltionyliopiston_veril%C3%B6yly" title="Kentin osavaltionyliopiston verilöyly – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kentin osavaltionyliopiston verilöyly" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skottdramat_vid_Kent_State_University" title="Skottdramat vid Kent State University – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Skottdramat vid Kent State University" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%B5%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%A2%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%95%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%AA%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%97" title="เหตุกราดยิงที่มหาวิทยาลัยเคนต์สเตท – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="เหตุกราดยิงที่มหาวิทยาลัยเคนต์สเตท" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a 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.infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above summary" style="font-size:125%;">Kent State shootings</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Kent_State_massacre.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/65/Kent_State_massacre.jpg/300px-Kent_State_massacre.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/6/65/Kent_State_massacre.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="364" data-file-height="275" /></a><div class="infobox-caption"><a href="/wiki/John_Filo" title="John Filo">John Filo</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Pulitzer_Prize" title="Pulitzer Prize">Pulitzer Prize</a>–winning photograph of <a href="/wiki/Mary_Ann_Vecchio" title="Mary Ann Vecchio">Mary Ann Vecchio</a> kneeling over the dead body of <a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_Miller_(shooting_victim)" title="Jeffrey Miller (shooting victim)">Jeffrey Miller</a> minutes after the unarmed student was fatally shot by an <a href="/wiki/Ohio_Army_National_Guard" title="Ohio Army National Guard">Ohio National Guardsman</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Location</th><td class="infobox-data location"><a href="/wiki/Kent_State_University" title="Kent State University">Kent State University</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kent,_Ohio" title="Kent, Ohio">Kent, Ohio</a>, United States</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Date</th><td class="infobox-data">May 4, 1970; 54 years ago (1970-05-04) 12:24 p.m. (Eastern Daylight Time: UTC−4)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Attack type</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Mass_shooting" title="Mass shooting">Mass shooting</a>, <a href="/wiki/State_terrorism" title="State terrorism">state terrorism</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Deaths</th><td class="infobox-data">4</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Injured</th><td class="infobox-data">9</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Victims</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Kent_State_University" title="Kent State University">Kent State University</a> students</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Perpetrators</th><td class="infobox-data">Companies A and C, 1-<a href="/wiki/145th_Armored_Regiment" class="mw-redirect" title="145th Armored Regiment">145th Infantry</a> and Troop G, 2-<a href="/wiki/107th_Cavalry_Regiment" title="107th Cavalry Regiment">107th Armored Cavalry</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Ohio_National_Guard" title="Ohio National Guard">Ohio National Guard</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Accused</th><td class="infobox-data"> <ul><li>Lawrence Shafer</li> <li>James McGee</li> <li>James Pierce</li> <li>William Perkins</li> <li>Ralph Zoller</li> <li>Barry Morris</li> <li>Leon H. Smith</li> <li>Matthew J. McManus</li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Verdict</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Acquittal" title="Acquittal">Not guilty</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Charges</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Deprivation_of_rights_under_color_of_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Deprivation of rights under color of law">Deprivation of rights under color of law</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Judge</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Frank_J._Battisti" title="Frank J. Battisti">Frank J. Battisti</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="padding:0; border:none;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><div class="skin-nightmode-reset-color" style="width:100%; font-size:110%; font-weight:bold;color: #202122; background: #A8EDEF; line-height:1.5">May 4, 1970, Kent State Shootings Site</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><div style="width:100%; text-align:center; line-height:1.5;color: #202122; background: #A8EDEF;"><a href="/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places" title="National Register of Historic Places">U.S. National Register of Historic Places</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><div style="width:100%; text-align:center; line-height:1.4; color: #202122; background: #87CEEB"><a href="/wiki/National_Historic_Landmark" title="National Historic Landmark">U.S. National Historic Landmark</a></div></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><div class="switcher-container"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238443738">.mw-parser-output .locmap .od{position:absolute}.mw-parser-output .locmap .id{position:absolute;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .locmap .l0{font-size:0;position:absolute}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pv{line-height:110%;position:absolute;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pl{line-height:110%;position:absolute;top:-0.75em;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pr{line-height:110%;position:absolute;top:-0.75em;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pv>div{display:inline;padding:1px}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pl>div{display:inline;padding:1px;float:right}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pr>div{display:inline;padding:1px;float:left}@media 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div{background:transparent!important}}</style><div class="center"><div class="locmap" style="width:250px;float:none;clear:both;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto"><div style="width:250px;padding:0"><div style="position:relative;width:250px"><a href="/wiki/File:USA_Ohio_location_map.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Kent State shootings is located in Ohio"><img alt="Kent State shootings is located in Ohio" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/USA_Ohio_location_map.svg/250px-USA_Ohio_location_map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="297" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/USA_Ohio_location_map.svg/375px-USA_Ohio_location_map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/USA_Ohio_location_map.svg/500px-USA_Ohio_location_map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1010" data-file-height="1200" /></a><div class="od notheme" style="top:31.393%;left:77.802%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><img alt="Kent State shootings" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/7px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="7" height="7" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/11px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/14px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></div></div></div><div style="padding-top:0.2em"></div>Show map of Ohio</div></div></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238443738" /><div class="center"><div class="locmap" style="width:250px;float:none;clear:both;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto"><div style="width:250px;padding:0"><div style="position:relative;width:250px"><a href="/wiki/File:Usa_edcp_location_map.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Kent State shootings is located in the United States"><img alt="Kent State shootings is located in the United States" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Usa_edcp_location_map.svg/250px-Usa_edcp_location_map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Usa_edcp_location_map.svg/375px-Usa_edcp_location_map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Usa_edcp_location_map.svg/500px-Usa_edcp_location_map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1181" data-file-height="731" /></a><div class="od notheme" style="top:37.764%;left:73.768%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><img alt="Kent State shootings" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/7px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="7" height="7" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/11px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/14px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></div></div></div><div style="padding-top:0.2em"></div>Show map of the United States</div></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:bold; border: 0;">Location</th><td class="infobox-data" style="border: 0;">0.5 mi. SE of the intersection of E. Main St. and S. Lincoln St., <a href="/wiki/Kent,_Ohio" title="Kent, Ohio">Kent, Ohio</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:bold; border: 0;">Coordinates</th><td class="infobox-data" style="border: 0;"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Kent_State_shootings&params=41.1501_N_81.3433_W_region:US-OH_type:event">41°09′00″N 81°20′36″W / 41.1501°N 81.3433°W / 41.1501; -81.3433</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:bold; border: 0;">Area</th><td class="infobox-data" style="border: 0;">17.24 acres (6.98 ha)<a href="#cite_note-nrhpreg-2">[2]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:bold; border: 0;">NRHP reference <abbr title="number">No.</abbr></th><td class="infobox-data" style="border: 0;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://npgallery.nps.gov/AssetDetail/NRIS/10000046">10000046</a><a href="#cite_note-newlistings-1">[1]</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background: #A8EDEF">Significant dates</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:bold; border: 0;">Added to NRHP</th><td class="infobox-data" style="border: 0;">February 23, 2010<a href="#cite_note-newlistings-1">[1]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:bold; border: 0;">Designated NHL</th><td class="infobox-data" style="border: 0;">December 23, 2016</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><th colspan="2"> </th></tr></tbody></table> The Kent State shootings (also known as the Kent State massacre or May 4 massacre<a href="#cite_note-npr2005-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-ryan2007-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-warcamehome-5">[5]</a>) were the killing of four and wounding of nine unarmed college students by the <a href="/wiki/Ohio_Army_National_Guard" title="Ohio Army National Guard">Ohio National Guard</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Kent_State_University" title="Kent State University">Kent State University</a> campus. The shootings took place on May 4, 1970, during a rally opposing the <a href="/wiki/Cambodian_campaign" title="Cambodian campaign">expanding involvement of the Vietnam War into Cambodia</a> by United States military forces as well as protesting the <a href="/wiki/United_States_National_Guard" class="mw-redirect" title="United States National Guard">National Guard</a> presence on campus and the <a href="/wiki/Conscription" title="Conscription">draft</a>. Twenty-eight National Guard soldiers fired about 67 rounds over 13 seconds, killing four students and wounding nine others, one of whom suffered permanent <a href="/wiki/Paralysis" title="Paralysis">paralysis</a>. Students <a href="/wiki/Allison_Krause" title="Allison Krause">Allison Krause</a>, 19, <a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_Miller_(shooting_victim)" title="Jeffrey Miller (shooting victim)">Jeffrey Miller</a>, 20, and <a href="/wiki/Sandra_Lee_Scheuer" title="Sandra Lee Scheuer">Sandra Lee Scheuer</a>, 20, died on the scene, while <a href="/wiki/William_Knox_Schroeder" title="William Knox Schroeder">William Schroeder</a>, 19, was pronounced dead at <a href="/wiki/Robinson_Memorial_Hospital" class="mw-redirect" title="Robinson Memorial Hospital">Robinson Memorial Hospital</a> in nearby Ravenna shortly afterward.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> Krause and Miller were among the more than 300 students who gathered to protest the expansion of the Cambodian campaign, which President <a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Richard Nixon</a> had announced in an April 30 television address. Scheuer and Schroeder were in the crowd of several hundred others who had been observing the proceedings more than 300 feet (91 m) from the firing line; like most observers, they watched the protest during a break between their classes.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-lewis_hensley-9">[9]</a> The shootings triggered immediate and massive outrage on campuses around the country. It increased participation in the <a href="/wiki/Student_strike_of_1970" class="mw-redirect" title="Student strike of 1970">student strike</a> that began on May 1. Ultimately, more than 4 million students participated in organized walk-outs at hundreds of universities, colleges, and high schools. The shootings and the strike affected public opinion at an already socially contentious time over the <a href="/wiki/Role_of_the_United_States_in_the_Vietnam_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Role of the United States in the Vietnam War">role of the United States in the Vietnam War</a>.<a href="#cite_note-highlight-10">[10]</a> Eight of the shooters were charged with <a href="/wiki/Deprivation_of_rights_under_color_of_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Deprivation of rights under color of law">depriving the students of their civil rights</a>, but were acquitted in a <a href="/wiki/Bench_trial" title="Bench trial">bench trial</a>. The trial judge stated, "It is vital that state and National Guard officials not regard this decision as authorizing or approving the use of force against demonstrators, whatever the occasion of the issue involved. Such use of force is, and was, deplorable."<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kent_State_shootings&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:May_4th_Strike_Poster.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/May_4th_Strike_Poster.jpg/170px-May_4th_Strike_Poster.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="235" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/May_4th_Strike_Poster.jpg/255px-May_4th_Strike_Poster.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/May_4th_Strike_Poster.jpg/340px-May_4th_Strike_Poster.jpg 2x" data-file-width="908" data-file-height="1257" /></a><figcaption>Poster calling for a <a href="/wiki/Student_strike" class="mw-redirect" title="Student strike">student strike</a> on May 4, 1970</figcaption></figure> President <a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">John F. Kennedy</a> increased U.S. involvement in the <a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a>, sending 16,000 advisors in 1963, up from the 900 that President <a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Dwight D. Eisenhower</a> sent. <a href="/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="Lyndon B. Johnson">Lyndon B. Johnson</a> significantly escalated involvement, <a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War#American_ground_war" title="Vietnam War">raising the number of American troops in Vietnam to 100,000 in 1965</a>, and eventually to more than 500,000 combat troops in 1968 with no tangible results and with increasing opposition and protests at home. When <a href="/wiki/Richard_M._Nixon" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard M. Nixon">Richard M. Nixon</a> was <a href="/wiki/1968_United_States_presidential_election" title="1968 United States presidential election">elected in 1968</a>, he promised to end the conflict, claiming he had a secret plan. The <a href="/wiki/My_Lai_massacre" title="My Lai massacre">Mỹ Lai massacre</a> by American troops of 347 Vietnamese villagers, exposed in November 1969, heightened opposition to the war. On April 29, 1970, U.S. and South Vietnamese forces <a href="/wiki/Cambodian_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Cambodian Campaign">invaded eastern Cambodia</a> in what they claimed was an attempt to defeat the North Vietnamese and Viet Cong troops based there. The expansion of the war into Cambodia angered those who believed it only exacerbated the conflict and violated a neutral nation's sovereignty. Across the U.S., campuses erupted in protests in what <a href="/wiki/Time_(magazine)" title="Time (magazine)">Time</a> called "a nation-wide student strike", setting the stage for the events of early May 1970. In April 1970, Nixon told Congress that he would end undergraduate student draft deferments by Executive Order if authorized by Congress to do so.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> This request was approved by the <a href="/wiki/Senate_Armed_Services_Committee" class="mw-redirect" title="Senate Armed Services Committee">Senate Armed Services Committee</a> on April 23.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> After the draft reforms students could only postpone their service until the end of the semester. This is still the law today.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kent_State_protest_activity,_1966–1970">Kent State protest activity, 1966–1970</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kent_State_shootings&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Kent State protest activity, 1966–1970">edit</a>]</div> During the 1966 <a href="/wiki/Homecoming" title="Homecoming">Homecoming</a> Parade, protesters walked dressed in military paraphernalia with gas masks.<a href="#cite_note-Means22-26-16">[16]</a> In the fall of 1968, the <a href="/wiki/Students_for_a_Democratic_Society" title="Students for a Democratic Society">Students for a Democratic Society</a> (SDS) and Black United Students staged a <a href="/wiki/Sit-in" title="Sit-in">sit-in</a> to protest against police recruiters on campus. Two hundred fifty black students walked off campus in a successful amnesty bid for the protesters.<a href="#cite_note-Means22-26-16">[16]</a> On April 1, 1969, SDS members attempted to enter the administration building with a list of demands where they clashed with police. In response, the university revoked the Kent State SDS chapter charter. On April 16, a disciplinary hearing involving two protesters resulted in a confrontation between supporters and opponents of SDS. The <a href="/wiki/Ohio_State_Highway_Patrol" title="Ohio State Highway Patrol">Ohio State Highway Patrol</a> was called, and fifty-eight people were arrested. Four SDS leaders spent six months in prison due to the incident.<a href="#cite_note-Means22-26-16">[16]</a> On April 10, 1970, <a href="/wiki/Jerry_Rubin" title="Jerry Rubin">Jerry Rubin</a>, a leader of the <a href="/wiki/Youth_International_Party" title="Youth International Party">Youth International Party</a> (also known as the Yippies), spoke on campus. In remarks reported locally, he said: "The first part of the Yippie program is to kill your parents. They are the first oppressors." Two weeks after that, Bill Arthrell, an SDS member and former student, distributed flyers to an event where he said he was going to <a href="/wiki/Napalm" title="Napalm">napalm</a> a dog. The event turned out to be an anti-napalm <a href="/wiki/Teach-in" title="Teach-in">teach-in</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Means22-26-16">[16]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Timeline">Timeline</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kent_State_shootings&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Timeline">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Thursday,_April_30">Thursday, April 30</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kent_State_shootings&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Thursday, April 30">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">President Nixon</a> announced that the "<a href="/wiki/Cambodian_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Cambodian Campaign">Cambodian Incursion</a>" had been launched by United States combat forces.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Friday,_May_1">Friday, May 1</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kent_State_shootings&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Friday, May 1">edit</a>]</div> At Kent State University, a demonstration with about 500 students<a href="#cite_note-task_force_chronology-18">[18]</a> was held on May 1 on the Commons, a grassy knoll in the center of campus traditionally used as a gathering place for rallies and protests. As the crowd dispersed to attend classes by 1 pm, another rally was planned for May 4 to continue the protest of the <a href="/wiki/Cambodian_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Cambodian Campaign">expansion of the Vietnam War</a> into <a href="/wiki/Cambodia" title="Cambodia">Cambodia</a>. There was widespread anger, and many protesters called to "bring the war home." A group of history students buried a copy of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Constitution">United States Constitution</a> to symbolize that Nixon had killed it.<a href="#cite_note-task_force_chronology-18">[18]</a> A sign was put on a tree asking: "Why is the <a href="/wiki/Reserve_Officers%27_Training_Corps" title="Reserve Officers' Training Corps">ROTC</a> building still standing?"<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> A further protest organised by the Black United Students (BUS) also took place during the afternoon, to demonstrate solidarity with antiwar protests at Kent State University and at The Ohio State University;<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> attracting around 400 students, and ending peacefully at 3:45 pm.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> Further issues arose following President Nixon's arrival at the <a href="/wiki/The_Pentagon" title="The Pentagon">Pentagon</a> later during the day. Upon his arrival he was greeted by a group of Pentagon employees; with one female employee commenting in regards to Nixon's speech announcing the launch of the Cambodian Incursion: "I loved your speech. It made me proud to be an American".<a href="#cite_note-de_Onis_1970_1-22">[22]</a> This prompted Nixon's controversial response:<blockquote>"You see these bums, you know, blowing up the campuses. Listen, the boys that are on the college campuses today are the luckiest people in the world, going to the greatest universities, and here they are burning up the books, storming around this issue. You name it. Get rid of the war there will be another one."<a href="#cite_note-de_Onis_1970_1-22">[22]</a></blockquote>Trouble exploded in town around midnight when people left a bar and began throwing beer bottles at police cars—injuring five police officers<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a>—and breaking several windows in downtown storefronts. In the process, they broke a bank window, activating the alarm. The news spread quickly, and several bars closed early to avoid trouble. Before long, more people had joined the vandalism.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> By the time police arrived, a crowd of 120 had already gathered. Some people from the crowd lit a small bonfire in the street. The crowd appeared to be a mix of bikers, students, and transient people. A few crowd members threw beer bottles at the police and then started yelling obscenities at them.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> The entire Kent police force was called to duty, as well as officers from the county and surrounding communities. Kent Mayor <a href="/wiki/LeRoy_Satrom" title="LeRoy Satrom">LeRoy Satrom</a> declared a <a href="/wiki/State_of_emergency" title="State of emergency">state of emergency</a>, called the office of Ohio Governor <a href="/wiki/Jim_Rhodes" title="Jim Rhodes">Jim Rhodes</a> to seek assistance, and ordered all of the bars to be closed. The decision to close the bars early only increased tensions in the area. Police eventually succeeded in using <a href="/wiki/Tear_gas" title="Tear gas">tear gas</a> to disperse the crowd from downtown, forcing them to move several blocks back to the campus.<a href="#cite_note-lewis_hensley-9">[9]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Saturday,_May_2">Saturday, May 2</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kent_State_shootings&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Saturday, May 2">edit</a>]</div> City officials and downtown businesses received threats, and rumors proliferated that radical revolutionaries were in Kent to destroy the city and university. Several merchants reported they were told that their businesses would be burned down if they did not display anti-war slogans. Kent's police chief told the mayor that according to a reliable informant, the <a href="/wiki/ROTC" class="mw-redirect" title="ROTC">ROTC</a> building, the local army recruiting station, and the post office had been targeted for destruction that night.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> There were unconfirmed rumors of students with caches of arms, plots to spike the local water supply with <a href="/wiki/LSD" title="LSD">LSD</a>, and of students building tunnels to blow up the town's main store.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> Satrom met with Kent city officials and a representative of the <a href="/wiki/Ohio_Army_National_Guard" title="Ohio Army National Guard">Ohio Army National Guard</a>. Because of the rumors and threats, Satrom feared that local officials would not be able to handle future disturbances.<a href="#cite_note-lewis_hensley-9">[9]</a> Following the meeting, Satrom decided to call Rhodes and request that the National Guard be sent to Kent, a request granted immediately. The decision to call in the National Guard was made at 5:00 pm, but the guard did not arrive in town that evening until around 10 pm. By this time, a large demonstration was underway on the campus, and the campus <a href="/wiki/Reserve_Officers%27_Training_Corps" title="Reserve Officers' Training Corps">Reserve Officers' Training Corps</a> (ROTC) building was burning.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> The arsonists were never apprehended, and no one was injured in the fire. According to the report of the <a href="/wiki/President%27s_Commission_on_Campus_Unrest" title="President's Commission on Campus Unrest">President's Commission on Campus Unrest</a>: <blockquote>Information developed by an FBI investigation of the ROTC building fire indicates that, of those who participated actively, a significant portion weren't Kent State students. There is also evidence to suggest that the burning was planned beforehand: railroad flares, a machete, and ice picks are not customarily carried to peaceful rallies.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> </blockquote> There were reports that some Kent firemen and police officers were struck by rocks and other objects while attempting to extinguish the blaze. Several fire engine companies had to be called because protesters carried the fire hose into the Commons and slashed it.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> The National Guard made numerous arrests, mostly for curfew violations, and used tear gas; at least one student was slightly wounded with a <a href="/wiki/Bayonet" title="Bayonet">bayonet</a>.<a href="#cite_note-payne-33">[33]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sunday,_May_3">Sunday, May 3</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kent_State_shootings&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Sunday, May 3">edit</a>]</div> During a press conference at the Kent firehouse, an emotional Governor Rhodes pounded on the desk,<a href="#cite_note-SharkeyLamis1994-34">[34]</a> which can be heard in the recording of his speech.<a href="#cite_note-Caputo-35">[35]</a> He called the student protesters un-American, referring to them as revolutionaries set on destroying higher education in Ohio. <blockquote>We've seen here at the city of Kent especially, probably the most vicious form of campus-oriented violence yet perpetrated by dissident groups... they make definite plans of burning, destroying, and throwing rocks at police and at the National Guard and the Highway Patrol. ...this is when we're going to use every part of the law enforcement agency of Ohio to drive them out of Kent. We are going to eradicate the problem. We're not going to treat the symptoms. ...and these people just move from one campus to the other and terrorize the community. They're worse than the <a href="/wiki/Sturmabteilung" title="Sturmabteilung">brown shirts</a> and the communist element and also the <a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan" title="Ku Klux Klan">night riders</a> and the vigilantes. They're the worst type of people that we harbor in America. Now I want to say this. They are not going to take over [the] campus. I think that we're up against the strongest, well-trained, militant, revolutionary group that has ever assembled in America.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a></blockquote> Rhodes also claimed he would obtain a court order declaring a state of emergency that would ban further demonstrations and gave the impression that a situation akin to <a href="/wiki/Martial_law" title="Martial law">martial law</a> had been declared; however, he never attempted to obtain such an order.<a href="#cite_note-lewis_hensley-9">[9]</a> During the day, some students came to downtown Kent to help with clean-up efforts after the rioting, actions which were met with mixed reactions from local business people. Mayor Satrom, under pressure from frightened citizens, ordered a curfew until further notice. Around 8 pm, another rally was held on the campus Commons. By 8:45 pm, the Guardsmen used tear gas to disperse the crowd, and the students reassembled at the intersection of Lincoln and Main, holding a sit-in with the hopes of gaining a meeting with Mayor Satrom and University President Robert White. At 11:00 pm, the Guard announced that a curfew had gone into effect and began forcing the students back to their dorms. A few students were bayoneted by Guardsmen.<a href="#cite_note-13_seconds-37">[37]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Monday,_May_4">Monday, May 4</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kent_State_shootings&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Monday, May 4">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Kent_State_shootings" title="Special:EditPage/Kent State shootings">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Kent+State+shootings%22">"Kent State shootings"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Kent+State+shootings%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Kent+State+shootings%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Kent+State+shootings%22+-wikipedia">books</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Kent+State+shootings%22">scholar</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Kent+State+shootings%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a> (May 2020) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> On Monday, May 4, a protest was scheduled to be held at noon, as planned three days earlier. University officials attempted to ban the gathering, handing out 12,000 leaflets stating that the event was canceled. Despite these efforts, an estimated 2,000 people gathered<a href="#cite_note-ksu_chron-38">[38]</a> on the university's Commons, near Taylor Hall. The protest began with the ringing of the campus's iron Victory Bell (which had historically been used to signal victories in football games) to mark the beginning of the rally, and the first protester began to speak.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> According to most estimates, some 200–300 protesters gathered around the Victory Bell on the Commons, with some 1,000 more gathered on a hill behind the first crowd. The crowd was largely made up of students enrolled at the university, with a few non-students (that included Kent State dropouts and high school students) also present. The crowd appeared leaderless and was initially peaceful and relatively quiet. One person made a short speech, and some protesters carried flags.<a href="#cite_note-:1-40">[40]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Orders_to_disperse">Orders to disperse</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kent_State_shootings&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Orders to disperse">edit</a>]</div> Companies A and C, 1-<a href="/wiki/145th_Armored_Regiment" class="mw-redirect" title="145th Armored Regiment">145th Infantry</a> and Troop G of the 2-<a href="/wiki/107th_Cavalry_Regiment" title="107th Cavalry Regiment">107th Armored Cavalry</a>, Ohio National Guard (ARNG), the units on the campus grounds, under the command of Brigadier General Robert Canterbury,<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> attempted to disperse the students. The legality of the order to disperse was debated during a subsequent wrongful death and injury trial. On appeal, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Sixth_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit">United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit</a> ruled that authorities did indeed have the right to disperse the crowd.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> At about noon, the National Guard obtained a <a href="/wiki/Megaphone" title="Megaphone">bullhorn</a> from the university police department and used it to order the crowd to disperse. However, the announcement was too faint to hear as it elicited no response from the crowd.<a href="#cite_note-:1-40">[40]</a> Campus patrolman Harold Rice,<a href="#cite_note-rice-44">[44]</a> accompanied by three guardsmen, then approached the crowd in a National Guard Jeep, again using the bullhorn to order the students to disperse. Students responded by making obscene gestures at the Jeep, singing protest songs, and chanting. At some point, a few rocks were thrown at the Jeep as it drove by the crowd, with one rock striking the Jeep and a second one striking a guardsman, but without causing any damage. The crowd ignored repeated orders to disperse.<a href="#cite_note-:1-40">[40]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="First_attempt_to_disperse_the_crowd_with_tear_gas">First attempt to disperse the crowd with tear gas</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kent_State_shootings&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: First attempt to disperse the crowd with tear gas">edit</a>]</div> After the crowd failed to follow the order to disperse, grenadiers were ordered to fire tear gas from <a href="/wiki/M79_grenade_launcher" title="M79 grenade launcher">M79 grenade launchers</a>, but the canisters fell short and managed only to make the protesters retreat somewhat from their previous positions.<a href="#cite_note-:1-40">[40]</a> The tear gas was also made ineffective by the wind.<a href="#cite_note-warcamehome-5">[5]</a> Some protesters lobbed the canisters back at the Guard to the crowd's merriment.<a href="#cite_note-:1-40">[40]</a> The crowd also began to chant "Pigs off campus". Another demand to disperse was made over the loudspeaker but simply elicited more oppositional chanting.<a href="#cite_note-:1-40">[40]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="National_Guard_advance">National Guard advance</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kent_State_shootings&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: National Guard advance">edit</a>]</div> After repeatedly failing to disperse the crowd, a group of 96 National Guard troops from A Company and Company C, 145th Infantry, and Troop G, 107th Armored Cavalry, were ordered to advance. The guardsmen had their weapons "locked and loaded" (according to standard Ohio National Guard rules) and affixed with bayonets. Most carried <a href="/wiki/M1_Garand" title="M1 Garand">M1 Garand rifles</a>, with some also carrying .45 handguns, a few carrying shotguns with No. 7 birdshot and 00 buckshot[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] munitions, and one officer carrying a 22 Beretta handgun.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> Before advancing, Company C was instructed to fire only into the air and for only a single guardsman to fire. It is unknown whether the other two National Guard groups received any instructions about firing.<a href="#cite_note-:1-40">[40]</a> As the advancing guardsmen approached the crowd, tear gas was again fired at the crowd, making the protesters retreat. At this point, some protesters threw stones at the Guard to no significant effect. Some students may have brought rocks to the protest anticipating a confrontation.<a href="#cite_note-:1-40">[40]</a> The students retreated up and over Blanket Hill, heading out of the Commons area. Once over the hill, the students, in a loose group, moved northeast along the front of Taylor Hall, with some continuing toward a parking lot in front of Prentice Hall (slightly northeast of and perpendicular to Taylor Hall). The guardsmen pursued the protesters over the hill, but rather than veering left as the protesters had, they continued straight, heading toward an athletic practice field enclosed by a chain link fence. Here they remained for about 10 minutes, unsure of how to get out of the area short of retracing their path: they had boxed themselves into a fenced-in corner.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]<a href="#cite_note-:4-46">[46]</a> During this time, the bulk of the students assembled<a href="#cite_note-:1-40">[40]</a> to the left and front of the guardsmen, approximately 150 to 225 ft (46 to 69 m) away, on the veranda of[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Taylor Hall.<a href="#cite_note-:1-40">[40]</a> Others were scattered between Taylor Hall and the Prentice Hall parking lot, while still others were standing in the parking lot, or dispersing through the lot as they had been previously ordered. While on the practice field, the guardsmen generally faced the parking lot, about 100 yards (91 m) away. At one point, the guardsmen formed a loose huddle and appeared to be talking to one another. They had cleared the protesters from the Commons area, and many students had left.<a href="#cite_note-:4-46">[46]</a> Some students who had retreated beyond the practice field fence obtained rocks and possibly other objects with which they again began pelting the guardsmen. The number of rock throwers is unknown, with estimates of 10–50 throwers. According to an FBI assessment, rock-throwing peaked at this point. Tear gas was again fired at crowds at multiple locations.<a href="#cite_note-:1-40">[40]</a> Just before departing the practice field, some members of Troop G were ordered to kneel and aim their weapons toward the parking lot. The troop did so, but none of them fired. At the same time, one person (likely an officer) fired a handgun into the air. The Guard was then ordered to regroup and move up the hill past Taylor Hall. Protesters began following the Guard as it retraced its steps up the hill. Some guardsmen claim to have been struck by rocks as they retreated up the hill. The crowd on top of the hill parted to allow the guardsmen to pass through. After reaching the crest of Taylor Hall, the Guard fired at the protesters following them. The guardsmen gave no verbal warning to the protesters before opening fire.<a href="#cite_note-:1-40">[40]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_Shootings_at_Kent_State_University_in_1970.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Map_of_Shootings_at_Kent_State_University_in_1970.jpg/220px-Map_of_Shootings_at_Kent_State_University_in_1970.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Map_of_Shootings_at_Kent_State_University_in_1970.jpg/330px-Map_of_Shootings_at_Kent_State_University_in_1970.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Map_of_Shootings_at_Kent_State_University_in_1970.jpg/440px-Map_of_Shootings_at_Kent_State_University_in_1970.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="935" /></a><figcaption>Map of the shootings</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_shootings">The shootings</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kent_State_shootings&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: The shootings">edit</a>]</div> During their climb back to Blanket Hill, several guardsmen stopped and half-turned to keep their eyes on the students in the Prentice Hall parking lot. At 12:24 pm,<a href="#cite_note-shooting_time-47">[47]</a> according to eyewitnesses, a sergeant named Myron Pryor turned and began firing at the crowd of students with his .45 pistol.<a href="#cite_note-timetrial-48">[48]</a> Several guardsmen nearest the students also turned and fired their rifles at the students. In all, at least 29 of the 77 guardsmen claimed to have fired their weapons, using an estimated 67 rounds of ammunition. The shooting was determined to have lasted 13 seconds, although John Kifner reported in The New York Times that "it appeared to go on, as a solid volley, for perhaps a full minute or a little longer."<a href="#cite_note-1970_NYT_frontpg-49">[49]</a> When the Guard began firing, many protesters ran while others dropped to the ground. Some assumed the Guard was firing blanks and reacted only after they noticed the bullets striking the ground around them.<a href="#cite_note-:1-40">[40]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Perspective_of_Ohio_National_Guard_at_Kent_State.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Perspective_of_Ohio_National_Guard_at_Kent_State.JPG/220px-Perspective_of_Ohio_National_Guard_at_Kent_State.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Perspective_of_Ohio_National_Guard_at_Kent_State.JPG/330px-Perspective_of_Ohio_National_Guard_at_Kent_State.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Perspective_of_Ohio_National_Guard_at_Kent_State.JPG/440px-Perspective_of_Ohio_National_Guard_at_Kent_State.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption>Photo taken from the perspective of where the Ohio National Guard soldiers stood when they opened fire on the students</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bullet_Hole_in_Don_Drumm_Sculpture_at_Kent_State.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Bullet_Hole_in_Don_Drumm_Sculpture_at_Kent_State.JPG/220px-Bullet_Hole_in_Don_Drumm_Sculpture_at_Kent_State.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Bullet_Hole_in_Don_Drumm_Sculpture_at_Kent_State.JPG/330px-Bullet_Hole_in_Don_Drumm_Sculpture_at_Kent_State.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Bullet_Hole_in_Don_Drumm_Sculpture_at_Kent_State.JPG/440px-Bullet_Hole_in_Don_Drumm_Sculpture_at_Kent_State.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption>Bullet hole in Solar Totem #1 sculpture<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> by <a href="/wiki/Don_Drumm_(sculptor)" title="Don Drumm (sculptor)">Don Drumm</a> caused by a .30 caliber round fired by the Ohio National Guard at Kent State on May 4, 1970</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Eyewitness_accounts">Eyewitness accounts</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kent_State_shootings&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Eyewitness accounts">edit</a>]</div> Several present related what they saw. An unidentified person told <a href="/wiki/United_Press_International" title="United Press International">UPI</a>: <blockquote>Suddenly, they turned around, got on their knees, as if they were ordered to, they did it all together, aimed. And personally, I was standing there saying, they're not going to shoot, they can't do that. If they are going to shoot, it's going to be blank.<a href="#cite_note-upi.com-51">[51]</a></blockquote> <a href="/wiki/Chris_Butler_(musician)" title="Chris Butler (musician)">Chris Butler</a>, who later formed the band <a href="/wiki/The_Waitresses" title="The Waitresses">The Waitresses</a>, was there with his friend Jeffrey Miller. Butler said that as the guardsmen formed in a kneeling position and pointed their rifles, "Everybody laughed, because, c'mon, you're not going to shoot us."<a href="#cite_note-post-gazette/shooting-music-history-52">[52]</a> Another unidentified person told UPI: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">The shots were definitely coming my way, because when a bullet passes your head, <a href="/wiki/Sonic_boom" title="Sonic boom">it makes a crack</a>. I hit the ground behind the curve, looking over. I saw a student hit. He stumbled and fell, to where he was running towards the car. Another student tried to pull him behind the car, bullets were coming through the windows of the car. As this student fell behind the car, I saw another student go down, next to the curb, on the far side of the automobile, maybe 25 or 30 yards from where I was lying. It was maybe 25, 30, 35 seconds of sporadic firing. The firing stopped. I lay there maybe 10 or 15 seconds. I got up, I saw four or five students lying around the lot. By this time, it was like mass hysteria. Students were crying, they were screaming for ambulances. I heard some girl screaming, "They didn't have blank, they didn't have blank," no, they didn't.<a href="#cite_note-upi.com-51">[51]</a></blockquote> Another witness was <a href="/wiki/Chrissie_Hynde" title="Chrissie Hynde">Chrissie Hynde</a>, a Kent State student who would become the lead singer of <a href="/wiki/The_Pretenders" title="The Pretenders">The Pretenders</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Reckless:_My_Life_as_a_Pretender" title="Reckless: My Life as a Pretender">her 2015 autobiography</a> Hynde described what she saw: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote">Then I heard the tatatatatatatatatat sound. I thought it was fireworks. An eerie sound fell over the common. The quiet felt like gravity pulling us to the ground. Then a young man's voice: "They fucking killed somebody!" Everything slowed down and the silence got heavier. The ROTC building, now nothing more than a few inches of charcoal, was surrounded by National Guardsmen. They were all on one knee and pointing their rifles at ... us! Then they fired. By the time I made my way to where I could see them, it was still unclear what was going on. The guardsmen themselves looked stunned. We looked at them and they looked at us. They were just kids, 19 years old, like us. But in uniform. Like our boys in Vietnam.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a></blockquote> <a href="/wiki/Gerald_Casale" title="Gerald Casale">Gerald Casale</a>, visual artist and future bassist/singer of <a href="/wiki/Devo" title="Devo">Devo</a>, also witnessed the shootings.<a href="#cite_note-kent.edu/may-4-casale-54">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-cleveland-casale-may-4-55">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-WaPo-56">[56]</a> In 2005, Casale told the Vermont Review: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote">All I can tell you is that it completely and utterly changed my life. I was a white hippie boy and then I saw exit wounds from M1 rifles out of the backs of two people I knew. Two of the four people who were killed, Jeffrey Miller and Allison Krause, were my friends. We were all running our asses off from these motherfuckers. It was total, utter bullshit. Live ammunition and gasmasks – none of us knew, none of us could have imagined ... They shot into a crowd that was running from them! I stopped being a hippie and I started to develop the idea of devolution. I got real, real pissed off.<a href="#cite_note-vermontreview-Knight-Casale-57">[57]</a></blockquote> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote">In the paper that evening, the <a href="/wiki/Akron_Beacon_Journal" title="Akron Beacon Journal">Akron Beacon Journal</a>, said that students were running around armed and that officers had been hurt. So deputy sheriffs went out and deputized citizens. They drove around with shotguns and there was martial law for ten days. 7 pm curfew. It was open season on the students. We lived in fear. Helicopters surrounding the city with hourly rotating runs out to the West Side and back downtown. All first amendment rights are suspended at the instance when the governor gives the order. All of the class action suits by the parents of the slain students were all dismissed out of court because once the governor announced martial law, they had no right to assemble.<a href="#cite_note-vermontreview-Knight-Casale-57">[57]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Guardsmen's_reasons_for_opening_fire">Guardsmen's reasons for opening fire</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kent_State_shootings&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Guardsmen's reasons for opening fire">edit</a>]</div> Many guardsmen later testified that they fired because they feared for their lives, which was questioned partly because of the distance between them and the protesting students.<a href="#cite_note-:2-58">[58]</a> Guardsmen that claimed they feared for their lives variously listed an assortment of reasons, including: they were surrounded, the crowd pursuing them was almost on top of them, the protesters "charged" them or were advancing on them "in a threatening manner", "the sky was black with stones", and a sniper fired at them; some listed a combination of multiple such reasons, and some gave no explanation as to why they believed their lives were in danger. Most guardsmen that fired said they did so because they heard others fire or assumed an order to fire in the air had been given and did not claim they felt in danger. There was no order to fire, and no guardsmen requested permission, though several guardsmen later claimed they heard some sort of command to fire. Some guardsmen (including some who claimed their lives were in danger) had their backs turned to the protesters when the firing broke out. No guardsman claimed to have been hit by rocks immediately before firing, and the guardsmen were not surrounded. The FBI determined that at least two guardsmen who denied firing likely lied and had fired and that there was reason to believe that guardsmen's claims of fearing for their lives were fabricated after the event.<a href="#cite_note-:1-40">[40]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Adjutant_general" title="Adjutant general">adjutant general</a> of the Ohio National Guard told reporters that a <a href="/wiki/Sniper" title="Sniper">sniper</a> had fired on the guardsmen.<a href="#cite_note-:2-58">[58]</a> Eleven of the 76 guardsmen at Taylor Hall claimed they were under sniper fire or some other sort of gunfire just before guardsmen began shooting. A subsequent FBI investigation concluded that the Guard was not under fire and that the guardsmen fired the first shots.<a href="#cite_note-:1-40">[40]</a> Time magazine later wrote that "triggers were not pulled accidentally at Kent State". The <a href="/wiki/President%27s_Commission_on_Campus_Unrest" title="President's Commission on Campus Unrest">President's Commission on Campus Unrest</a> avoided probing why the shootings happened. Instead, it harshly criticized both the protesters and the Guardsmen, but it concluded that "the indiscriminate firing of rifles into a crowd of students and the deaths that followed were unnecessary, unwarranted, and inexcusable."<a href="#cite_note-:2-58">[58]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reaction">Reaction</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kent_State_shootings&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Reaction">edit</a>]</div> The shooting enraged the crowd of protesting students,<a href="#cite_note-cnn2000-59">[59]</a> with some of them preparing to attack the National Guard.<a href="#cite_note-:0-60">[60]</a> Several hundred students sat down in the Commons, demanding to know why the guardsmen opened fire. An officer told the sitting students: "disperse or we will shoot again".<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> Student photographer <a href="/wiki/John_Filo" title="John Filo">John Filo</a> also recalled guardsmen telling lingering students that they would shoot again if the students did not disperse.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> The commander of the National Guard also warned faculty members that the students must disperse immediately.<a href="#cite_note-cnn2000-59">[59]</a> Some faculty members, led by geology professor and faculty marshal <a href="/wiki/Glenn_W._Frank" title="Glenn W. Frank">Glenn Frank</a>, pleaded with the students to leave the Commons to avoid any further escalation of the confrontation, with Frank telling the students:<a href="#cite_note-:0-60">[60]</a><blockquote>I don't care whether you've never listened to anyone before in your lives. I am begging you right now. If you don't disperse right now, they're going to move in, and it can only be a slaughter. Would you please listen to me? Jesus Christ, I don't want to be a part of this ... !<a href="#cite_note-:0-60">[60]</a></blockquote> After Professor Frank's intervention, students left the area,<a href="#cite_note-cnn2000-59">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-:0-60">[60]</a> and ambulances moved in to attend to the victims.<a href="#cite_note-:0-60">[60]</a> Frank's son, who was present, said, "He absolutely saved my life and hundreds of others".<a href="#cite_note-:0-60">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-cnn2000-59">[59]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Victims">Victims</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kent_State_shootings&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Victims">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kent_State,_Site_of_Jeffrey_Miller_Memorial.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Color photograph of a memorial (six posts with lights set around a rectangular demarcation) with grass, trees, and a building in the background." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Kent_State%2C_Site_of_Jeffrey_Miller_Memorial.jpg/220px-Kent_State%2C_Site_of_Jeffrey_Miller_Memorial.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Kent_State%2C_Site_of_Jeffrey_Miller_Memorial.jpg/330px-Kent_State%2C_Site_of_Jeffrey_Miller_Memorial.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Kent_State%2C_Site_of_Jeffrey_Miller_Memorial.jpg/440px-Kent_State%2C_Site_of_Jeffrey_Miller_Memorial.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption>Memorial at the site where student <a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_Miller_(shooting_victim)" title="Jeffrey Miller (shooting victim)">Jeffrey Miller</a> fell, taken in 2007 from approximately the same perspective as <a href="/wiki/John_Filo" title="John Filo">John Filo</a>'s 1970 photograph</figcaption></figure> Killed (and approximate distance from the National Guard): <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_Miller_(shooting_victim)" title="Jeffrey Miller (shooting victim)">Jeffrey Glenn Miller</a>; 265 ft (81 m) shot through the mouth; killed instantly.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allison_Krause" title="Allison Krause">Allison Beth Krause</a>; 343 ft (105 m) fatal left chest wound; dead on arrival.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Knox_Schroeder" title="William Knox Schroeder">William Knox Schroeder</a>; 382 ft (116 m) fatal chest wound; died almost an hour later in a local hospital while undergoing surgery. He was a member of the campus <a href="/wiki/Reserve_Officers%27_Training_Corps" title="Reserve Officers' Training Corps">ROTC</a> battalion.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandra_Lee_Scheuer" title="Sandra Lee Scheuer">Sandra Lee Scheuer</a>; 390 ft (120 m) fatal neck wound; died a few minutes later from loss of blood.</li></ul> Wounded (and approximate distance from the National Guard): <ul><li>Joseph Lewis Jr.; 71 ft (22 m); hit twice; once in his right abdomen and once in his lower left leg.</li> <li>John R. Cleary; 110 ft (34 m); upper left chest wound.</li> <li>Thomas Mark Grace; 225 ft (69 m); hit in his left ankle.</li> <li>Alan Michael Canfora; 225 ft (69 m); hit in his right wrist.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a></li> <li>Dean R. Kahler; 258 ft (79 m); back wound fracturing the vertebrae; permanently paralyzed from the waist down.</li> <li>Douglas Alan Wrentmore; 329 ft (100 m); hit in his right knee.</li> <li>James Dennis Russell; 375 ft (114 m); hit in his right thigh from a bullet and grazed on his right forehead by either a bullet or birdshot; both wounds minor (wounded near the Memorial Gymnasium, away from most of the other students).</li> <li>Robert Follis Stamps; 495 ft (151 m); hit in his right buttock.</li> <li>Donald Scott MacKenzie; 750 ft (230 m); neck wound.</li></ul> Of those shot, none was closer than 71 feet (22 m) to the guardsmen. Of those killed, the nearest (Miller) was 265 feet (81 m) away, and their average distance from the guardsmen was 345 feet (105 m). The victim furthest from the Guard was 750 feet (230 m) away.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/President%27s_Commission_on_Campus_Unrest" title="President's Commission on Campus Unrest">President's Commission on Campus Unrest</a> (pp. 273–274)<a href="#cite_note-PCCU-65">[65]</a> they mistakenly list Thomas V. Grace, who is Thomas Mark Grace's father, as the Thomas Grace injured. All those shot were students in good standing at the university.<a href="#cite_note-PCCU-65">[65]</a> <big>Injured National Guard members</big> Initial newspaper reports had inaccurately stated that several National Guard members had been killed or seriously injured.<a href="#cite_note-:3-66">[66]</a> Though many guardsmen claimed to have been hit by stones that were pelted at them by protesters,<a href="#cite_note-:1-40">[40]</a> only one Guardsman, Sgt. Lawrence Shafer, was injured enough to require medical treatment (he received a sling for his badly bruised arm and was given pain medication<a href="#cite_note-:1-40">[40]</a>) and sustained his injuries approximately 10 to 15 minutes before the shootings.<a href="#cite_note-:3-66">[66]</a> Shafer is mentioned in an FBI memo from November 15, 1973, which was prepared by the Cleveland Office and is referred to by Field Office file # 44-703. It reads as follows: <blockquote>Upon contacting appropriate officers of the Ohio National Guard at Ravenna and Akron, Ohio, regarding ONG radio logs and the availability of service record books, the respective ONG officer advised that any inquiries concerning the Kent State University incident should be directed to the Adjutant General, ONG, Columbus, Ohio. Three persons were interviewed regarding a reported conversation by Sgt Lawrence Shafer, ONG, that Shafer had bragged about "taking a bead" on Jeffrey Miller at the time of the ONG shooting and each interviewee was unable to substantiate such a conversation.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a></blockquote> In an interview broadcast in 1986 on the <a href="/wiki/ABC_News_(United_States)" title="ABC News (United States)">ABC News</a> documentary series <a href="/wiki/Our_World_(TV_series)" class="mw-redirect" title="Our World (TV series)">Our World</a>, Shafer identified the person that he fired at as student Joseph Lewis, who was shot and wounded in the attack. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Aftermath_and_long-term_effects">Aftermath and long-term effects</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kent_State_shootings&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Aftermath and long-term effects">edit</a>]</div> Photographs of the dead and wounded at Kent State, distributed in newspapers and periodicals worldwide, amplified sentiment against the United States' invasion of Cambodia and the Vietnam War. In particular, the camera of Kent State photojournalism student <a href="/wiki/John_Filo" title="John Filo">John Filo</a> captured a 14-year-old runaway, <a href="/wiki/Mary_Ann_Vecchio" title="Mary Ann Vecchio">Mary Ann Vecchio</a>,<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> screaming over the dead body of <a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_Miller_(shooting_victim)" title="Jeffrey Miller (shooting victim)">Jeffrey Miller</a>, who had been shot in the mouth. The photograph, which won a <a href="/wiki/Pulitzer_Prize" title="Pulitzer Prize">Pulitzer Prize</a>, became the most enduring image of the events and one of the more enduring images of the anti-Vietnam War movement.<a href="#cite_note-filophoto-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-may4arch-70">[70]</a> The shootings led to protests on college campuses throughout the United States and a <a href="/wiki/Student_strike_of_1970" class="mw-redirect" title="Student strike of 1970">student strike</a>, causing more than 450 campuses across the country to close with both violent and non-violent demonstrations.<a href="#cite_note-Nix_Prez_Rev-71">[71]</a> A common sentiment was expressed by students at <a href="/wiki/New_York_University" title="New York University">New York University</a> with a banner hung out of a window that read, "They Can't Kill Us All."<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> On May 8, <a href="/wiki/The_University_of_New_Mexico_bayoneting_incident" class="mw-redirect" title="The University of New Mexico bayoneting incident">eleven people were bayonetted</a> at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_New_Mexico" title="University of New Mexico">University of New Mexico</a> by the <a href="/wiki/New_Mexico_National_Guard" title="New Mexico National Guard">New Mexico National Guard</a> in a confrontation with student protesters. Also on May 8, an antiwar protest at New York's <a href="/wiki/Federal_Hall_National_Memorial" class="mw-redirect" title="Federal Hall National Memorial">Federal Hall National Memorial</a> held at least partly in reaction to the Kent State killings was met with a counter-rally of pro-Nixon construction workers (organized by <a href="/wiki/Peter_J._Brennan" title="Peter J. Brennan">Peter J. Brennan</a>, later appointed U.S. Labor Secretary by President Nixon), resulting in the <a href="/wiki/Hard_Hat_riot" class="mw-redirect" title="Hard Hat riot">Hard Hat riot</a>. Shortly after the shootings, the <a href="/wiki/Urban_Institute" title="Urban Institute">Urban Institute</a> conducted a national study that concluded the Kent State shooting prompted the first nationwide student strike in U.S. history; over 4 million students protested, and hundreds of American colleges and universities closed during the student strikes. A student strike occurred at <a href="/wiki/Colorado_State_University" title="Colorado State University">Colorado State University</a> in <a href="/wiki/Fort_Collins,_Colorado" title="Fort Collins, Colorado">Fort Collins</a>, <a href="/wiki/Colorado" title="Colorado">Colorado</a> and the university's Old Main Building burned down on May 8.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> The Kent State campus remained closed for six weeks. Just five days after the shootings, 100,000 people demonstrated in Washington, D.C., against the war and the killing of unarmed student protesters. <a href="/wiki/Ray_Price_(speechwriter)" title="Ray Price (speechwriter)">Ray Price</a>, Nixon's chief speechwriter from 1969 to 1974, recalled the Washington demonstrations saying, "The city was an armed camp. The mobs were smashing windows, slashing tires, dragging parked cars into intersections, even throwing bedsprings off overpasses into the traffic down below. This was the quote, student protest. That's not student protest, that's civil war."<a href="#cite_note-Nix_Prez_Rev-71">[71]</a> Not only was the President taken to <a href="/wiki/Camp_David" title="Camp David">Camp David</a> for two days for his own protection, but <a href="/wiki/Charles_Colson" title="Charles Colson">Charles Colson</a> (Counsel to President Nixon from 1969 to 1973) stated that the military was called up to protect the Nixon Administration from the angry students; he recalled that: "The <a href="/wiki/82nd_Airborne_Division" title="82nd Airborne Division">82nd Airborne</a> was in the basement of the executive office building, so I went down just to talk to some of the guys and walk among them, and they're lying on the floor leaning on their packs and their helmets and their cartridge belts and their rifles cocked and you're thinking, 'This can't be the United States of America. This is not the greatest free democracy in the world. This is a nation at war with itself.'"<a href="#cite_note-Nix_Prez_Rev-71">[71]</a> President Nixon and his administration's public reaction to the shootings was perceived by many in the anti-war movement as callous. Then-<a href="/wiki/National_Security_Advisor_(United_States)" title="National Security Advisor (United States)">National Security Advisor</a> <a href="/wiki/Henry_Kissinger" title="Henry Kissinger">Henry Kissinger</a> said the President was "pretending indifference". <a href="/wiki/Stanley_Karnow" title="Stanley Karnow">Stanley Karnow</a> noted in his Vietnam: A History that: "The [Nixon] administration initially reacted to this event with wanton insensitivity. Nixon's press secretary, <a href="/wiki/Ron_Ziegler" title="Ron Ziegler">Ron Ziegler</a>, whose statements were carefully programmed, referred to the deaths as a reminder that 'when dissent turns to violence, it invites <a href="/wiki/Tragedy_(event)" title="Tragedy (event)">tragedy</a>.'" Three days before the shootings, Nixon had talked of "bums" who were anti-war protestors on United States campuses,<a href="#cite_note-bums-77">[77]</a> to which the father of <a href="/wiki/Allison_Krause" title="Allison Krause">Allison Krause</a> stated on national TV: "My child was not a bum."<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> Karnow further documented that at 4:15 a.m. on May 9, 1970, the president met about 30 student dissidents conducting a vigil at the <a href="/wiki/Lincoln_Memorial" title="Lincoln Memorial">Lincoln Memorial</a>, at which point Nixon "treated them to a clumsy and condescending monologue, which he made public in an awkward attempt to display his benevolence." Nixon had been trailed by White House Deputy for Domestic Affairs <a href="/wiki/Egil_Krogh" title="Egil Krogh">Egil Krogh</a>, who saw it differently, saying, "I thought it was a very significant and major effort to reach out."<a href="#cite_note-Nix_Prez_Rev-71">[71]</a> Neither side could convince the other, and after meeting with the students, Nixon expressed that those in the anti-war movement were the pawns of foreign communists.<a href="#cite_note-Nix_Prez_Rev-71">[71]</a> After the student protests, Nixon asked <a href="/wiki/H._R._Haldeman" title="H. R. Haldeman">H. R. Haldeman</a> to consider the <a href="/wiki/Huston_Plan" title="Huston Plan">Huston Plan</a>, which would have used illegal procedures to gather information on the leaders of the anti-war movement. Only the resistance of <a href="/wiki/J._Edgar_Hoover" title="J. Edgar Hoover">J. Edgar Hoover</a> stopped the plan.<a href="#cite_note-Nix_Prez_Rev-71">[71]</a> A <a href="/wiki/Gallup_(company)#Gallup_Poll" class="mw-redirect" title="Gallup (company)">Gallup Poll</a> taken the day after the shootings reportedly showed that 58 percent of respondents blamed the students, 11 percent blamed the National Guard, and 31 percent expressed no opinion.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> However, there was wide discussion as to whether these were legally justified shootings of American citizens, and whether the protests or the decisions to ban them were constitutional. These debates further galvanized uncommitted opinions through the terms of the discourse. The term "<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/massacre" class="extiw" title="wikt:massacre">massacre</a>" was applied to the shootings by some individuals and media sources, as it had been used for the <a href="/wiki/Boston_massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Boston massacre">Boston massacre</a> of 1770, in which five were killed and several more wounded.<a href="#cite_note-npr2005-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-warcamehome-5">[5]</a> In a speech at Kent State University to mark the 49th anniversary of the shootings, guest speaker <a href="/wiki/Bob_Woodward" title="Bob Woodward">Bob Woodward</a> revealed a 1971 recording of <a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Richard Nixon</a> discussing the <a href="/wiki/Attica_Prison_riot" title="Attica Prison riot">Attica Prison riot</a>, in which he compared the uprising to the shootings at Kent State and considered that they might have a "salutary effect" on his administration. Woodward labelled the previously unheard remarks "chilling" and among the "most outrageous" of the President's statements.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> Students from Kent State and other universities often received a hostile reaction upon returning home. Some were told that more students should have been killed to teach student protesters a lesson; some students were disowned by their families.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> On May 14, ten days after the Kent State shootings, two students were killed (and 12 wounded) by police at <a href="/wiki/Jackson_State_University" title="Jackson State University">Jackson State University</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Historically_black_colleges_and_universities" title="Historically black colleges and universities">historically black university</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Jackson,_Mississippi" title="Jackson, Mississippi">Jackson, Mississippi</a>, under similar circumstances – the <a href="/wiki/Jackson_State_killings" title="Jackson State killings">Jackson State killings</a> – but that event did not arouse the same nationwide attention as the Kent State shootings.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> On June 13, 1970, as a consequence of the killings of protesting students at Kent State and Jackson State, President Nixon established the <a href="/wiki/President%27s_Commission_on_Campus_Unrest" title="President's Commission on Campus Unrest">President's Commission on Campus Unrest</a>, known as the Scranton Commission, which he charged to study the dissent, disorder, and violence breaking out on college and university campuses across the nation.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> The Commission issued its findings in a September 1970 report that concluded that the Ohio National Guard shootings on May 4, 1970, were unjustified. The report said: <blockquote>Even if the guardsmen faced danger, it was not a danger that called for lethal force. The 61 shots by 28 guardsmen certainly cannot be justified. Apparently, no order to fire was given, and there was inadequate fire control discipline on Blanket Hill. The Kent State tragedy must mark the last time that, as a matter of course, loaded rifles are issued to guardsmen confronting student demonstrators.</blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Legal_action">Legal action</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kent_State_shootings&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Legal action">edit</a>]</div> In September 1970, twenty-four students and one faculty member, identified from photographs, were indicted on charges connected either with the May 4 demonstration or the one at the ROTC building fire three days before; they became known as the "Kent 25". The Kent Legal Defense Fund was organized to provide legal resources to oppose the indictments.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> Five cases, all related to the burning of the ROTC building, went to trial: one non-student defendant was convicted on one charge, and two other non-students pleaded guilty. One other defendant was acquitted, and charges were dismissed against the last. In December 1971, all charges against the remaining twenty were dismissed for lack of evidence.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-may41970.org_chronology-88">[88]</a> A grand jury indicted five guardsmen on felony charges: Lawrence Shafer, 28, and James McGee, 28, both of Ravenna, Ohio; James Pierce, 30, of Amelia Island, Florida; William Perkins, 38, of Canton, Ohio; and Ralph Zoller, 27, of Mantua, Ohio. Additionally, Barry Morris, 30, of Kent, Ohio; Leon Smith, 27, of Beach City, Ohio; and Matthew McManus, 28, of West Salem, Ohio, were indicted on misdemeanor charges. The guardsmen claimed to have fired in self-defense, testimony that was generally accepted by the criminal justice system. On November 8, 1974, U.S. District Judge <a href="/wiki/Frank_J._Battisti" title="Frank J. Battisti">Frank J. Battisti</a> dismissed civil rights charges against all accused because "the government had not shown that the defendants had shot students with an intent to deprive them of specific civil rights."<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-lewis_hensley-9">[9]</a> "It is vital that state and National Guard officials not regard this decision as authorizing or approving the use of force against demonstrators, whatever the occasion of the issue involved," Battisti said in his opinion. "Such use of force is, and was, deplorable." Civil actions were also attempted against the guardsmen, the state of Ohio, and the president of Kent State. The federal court civil action for wrongful death and injury, brought by the victims and their families against <a href="/wiki/Ohio_Governor" class="mw-redirect" title="Ohio Governor">Ohio Governor</a> <a href="/wiki/Jim_Rhodes" title="Jim Rhodes">Rhodes</a>, the president of Kent State, and the National Guardsmen, resulted in unanimous verdicts for all defendants on all claims after an eleven-week trial.<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> The judgment on those verdicts was reversed by the Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit on the ground that the federal trial judge had mishandled an out-of-court threat against a juror. On remand, the civil case was settled in return for payment of a total of $675,000 to all plaintiffs by the state of Ohio<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> (explained by the State as the estimated cost of defense) and the defendants' agreement to state publicly that they regretted what had happened: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote">In retrospect, the tragedy of May 4, 1970, should not have occurred. The students may have believed that they were right in continuing their mass protest in response to the Cambodian invasion, even though this protest followed the posting and reading by the university of an order to ban rallies and an order to disperse. These orders have since been determined by the Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals to have been lawful. Some of the Guardsmen on Blanket Hill, fearful and anxious from prior events, may have believed in their own minds that their lives were in danger. Hindsight suggests that another method would have resolved the confrontation. Better ways must be found to deal with such a confrontation. We devoutly wish that a means had been found to avoid the May 4th events culminating in the Guard shootings and the irreversible deaths and injuries. We deeply regret those events and are profoundly saddened by the deaths of four students and the wounding of nine others which resulted. We hope that the agreement to end the litigation will help to assuage the tragic memories regarding that sad day.</blockquote> In the succeeding years, many in the anti-war movement have referred to the shootings as "murders", although no criminal convictions were obtained against any National Guardsman. In December 1970, journalist <a href="/wiki/I._F._Stone" title="I. F. Stone">I. F. Stone</a> wrote: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote">To those who think murder is too strong a word, one may recall that even [Vice President Spiro] <a href="/wiki/Spiro_Agnew" title="Spiro Agnew">Agnew</a> three days after the Kent State shootings used the word in an interview on the <a href="/wiki/David_Frost" title="David Frost">David Frost</a> show in Los Angeles. Agnew admitted in response to a question that what happened at Kent State was murder, "but not first degree" since there was – as Agnew explained from his own training as a lawyer – "no premeditation but simply an over-response in the heat of anger that results in a killing; it's a murder. It's not premeditated and it certainly can't be condoned."<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a></blockquote> The Kent State incident forced the National Guard to re-examine its crowd control methods. The only equipment the guardsmen had to disperse demonstrators that day were <a href="/wiki/M1_Garand" title="M1 Garand">M1 Garand</a> rifles loaded with <a href="/wiki/.30-06_Springfield" title=".30-06 Springfield">.30-06</a> <a href="/wiki/Full_metal_jacket_bullet" class="mw-redirect" title="Full metal jacket bullet">FMJ</a> ammunition, 12 Ga. pump shotguns, <a href="/wiki/Bayonet" title="Bayonet">bayonets</a>, and <a href="/wiki/CS_gas" title="CS gas">CS gas</a> <a href="/wiki/Hand_grenade#Chemical_and_gas" class="mw-redirect" title="Hand grenade">grenades</a>. In the years that followed, U.S. military and National Guard personnel began using <a href="/wiki/Non-lethal_weapon" title="Non-lethal weapon">less lethal means</a> to disperse demonstrators (such as <a href="/wiki/Rubber_bullet" title="Rubber bullet">rubber bullets</a>) and changed its crowd control and riot tactics to attempt to avoid casualties. Many of these tactics have been used by police and military forces in the United States when facing similar situations over the decades, such as the <a href="/wiki/1992_Los_Angeles_riots" title="1992 Los Angeles riots">1992 Los Angeles riots</a> and the civil disorder incited by <a href="/wiki/Hurricane_Katrina" title="Hurricane Katrina">Hurricane Katrina</a> in 2005. One outgrowth of the events was the Center for Peaceful Change, established at Kent State University in 1971 "as a living memorial to the events of May 4, 1970".<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> Now known as The Center for Applied Conflict Management (CACM), it developed one of the earliest <a href="/wiki/Conflict_resolution" title="Conflict resolution">conflict resolution</a> undergraduate degree programs in the United States. The Institute for the Study and Prevention of Violence, an interdisciplinary program dedicated to violence prevention, was established in 1998. According to FBI reports, one part-time student, <a href="/wiki/Terry_Norman" title="Terry Norman">Terry Norman</a>, was already noted by student protesters as an informant for both campus police and the <a href="/wiki/Akron,_Ohio" title="Akron, Ohio">Akron</a> <a href="/wiki/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation" title="Federal Bureau of Investigation">FBI</a> branch. Norman was present during the May 4 protests, taking photographs to identify student leaders,<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> while carrying a sidearm and wearing a gas mask. In 1970, FBI director <a href="/wiki/J._Edgar_Hoover" title="J. Edgar Hoover">J. Edgar Hoover</a> responded to questions from then-Congressman <a href="/wiki/John_M._Ashbrook" title="John M. Ashbrook">John M. Ashbrook</a> by denying that Norman had ever worked for the FBI, a statement Norman disputed.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> On August 13, 1973, Indiana Senator <a href="/wiki/Birch_Bayh" title="Birch Bayh">Birch Bayh</a> sent a memo to then-governor of Ohio <a href="/wiki/John_J._Gilligan" title="John J. Gilligan">John J. Gilligan</a> suggesting that Norman may have fired the first shot, based on testimony Bayh received from guardsmen who claimed that a gunshot fired from the vicinity of the protesters instigated the Guard to open fire on the students.<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> Throughout the years since the shootings, the debate has continued about the events of May 4, 1970.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> Three of the survivors have since died: James Russell on June 23, 2007,<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> Robert Stamps in June 2008,<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> and Alan Canfora on December 20, 2020.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Strubbe_Tape_and_further_government_reviews">Strubbe Tape and further government reviews</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kent_State_shootings&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Strubbe Tape and further government reviews">edit</a>]</div> In 2007 Alan Canfora, one of the wounded students, located a static-filled copy of an audio tape of the shootings in a Yale library archive. The original 30-minute <a href="/wiki/Reel-to-reel_audio_tape_recording" title="Reel-to-reel audio tape recording">reel-to-reel audio tape recording</a> was made by Terry Strubbe, a Kent State communications student who turned on his recorder and put its microphone in his dormitory window overlooking the campus.<a href="#cite_note-shafer-102">[102]</a> At that time, Canfora asserted that an amplified version of the tape reveals the order to shoot, "Right here! Get Set! Point! Fire!". The tape was declared to have been recording for 10 minutes prior to the sound of the first shot,<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> with the entire sequence of shots lasting 12.53 seconds.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> Lawrence Shafer, a guardsman who admitted he fired during the shootings and was one of those indicted in the 1974 federal criminal action with charges subsequently dismissed, told the Kent-Ravenna <a href="/wiki/Record-Courier_(Ohio)" title="Record-Courier (Ohio)">Record-Courier</a> newspaper in May 2007: "I never heard any command to fire. That's all I can say on that." Referring to the assertion that the tape reveals the order, Shafer went on to say, "That's not to say there may not have been, but with all the racket and noise, I don't know how anyone could have heard anything that day." Shafer also said that "point" would not have been part of a proper command to open fire.<a href="#cite_note-shafer-102">[102]</a> A 2010 audio analysis of the Strubbe tape by Stuart Allen and Tom Owen, who were described by the Cleveland <a href="/wiki/The_Plain_Dealer" title="The Plain Dealer">Plain Dealer</a> as "nationally respected forensic audio experts", concluded that the guardsmen were given an order to fire. It is the only known recording to capture the events leading up to the shootings. According to the Plain Dealer description of the enhanced recording, a male voice yells, "Guard!" Several seconds pass. Then, "All right, prepare to fire!" "Get down!", someone shouts urgently, presumably in the crowd. Finally, "Guard! ..." followed two seconds later by a long, booming volley of gunshots. The entire spoken sequence lasts 17 seconds. Further analysis of the audiotape revealed that what sounded like four pistol shots and a confrontation occurred approximately 70 seconds before the National Guard opened fire. According to The Plain Dealer, this new analysis raised questions about the role of <a href="/wiki/Terry_Norman" title="Terry Norman">Terry Norman</a>, a Kent State student who was an FBI informant and known to be carrying a pistol during the disturbance. Alan Canfora said it was premature to reach any conclusions.<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-Strubbe-106">[106]</a> In April 2012, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Justice" title="United States Department of Justice">United States Department of Justice</a> determined that there were "insurmountable legal and evidentiary barriers" to reopening the case. Also in 2012, the FBI concluded the Strubbe tape was inconclusive because what has been described as pistol shots may have been slamming doors, and that voices heard were unintelligible. Despite this, organizations of survivors and current Kent State students continue to believe the Strubbe tape proves the Guardsmen were given a military order to fire and are petitioning State of Ohio and United States government officials to reopen the case using independent analysis. The organizations do not desire to prosecute or sue individual guardsmen, believing they are also victims.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a><a href="#cite_note-NewAnalysis-108">[108]</a> One of these groups, the Kent State Truth Tribunal,<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> was founded in 2010 by the family of <a href="/wiki/Allison_Krause" title="Allison Krause">Allison Krause</a>, along with <a href="/wiki/Emily_Kunstler" title="Emily Kunstler">Emily Kunstler</a>, to demand accountability by the United States government for the massacre. In 2014, KSTT announced their request for an independent review by the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Human_Rights_Committee" title="United Nations Human Rights Committee">United Nations Human Rights Committee</a> under the <a href="/wiki/International_Covenant_on_Civil_and_Political_Rights" title="International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights">International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights</a>, the human rights treaty ratified by the United States.<a href="#cite_note-aclu-110">[110]</a><a href="#cite_note-UNHRC-111">[111]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Memorials_and_remembrances">Memorials and remembrances</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kent_State_shootings&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Memorials and remembrances">edit</a>]</div> In January 1970, only months before the shootings, a work of <a href="/wiki/Land_art" title="Land art">land art</a>, <a href="/wiki/Partially_Buried_Woodshed" title="Partially Buried Woodshed">Partially Buried Woodshed</a>,<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> was produced on the Kent State campus by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Smithson" title="Robert Smithson">Robert Smithson</a>.<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> Shortly after the events, an inscription was added that recontextualized the work in such a way that some people associate it with the event. Each May 4 from 1971 to 1975, the Kent State University administration sponsored an official commemoration of the shootings. Upon the university's announcement in 1976 that it would no longer sponsor such commemorations, a group of students and community members formed the May 4 Task Force for this purpose. The group has organized a commemoration on the university's campus each year since 1976; events generally include a silent march around the campus, a candlelight vigil, a ringing of the Victory Bell in memory of those killed and injured, speakers (always including eyewitnesses and family members), and music. On May 12, 1977, a <a href="/wiki/Tent_city" title="Tent city">tent city</a> was erected and maintained for more than 60 days by several dozen protesters on the Kent State campus. The protesters, led by the May 4 Task Force but also including community members and local clergy, were attempting to prevent the university from erecting a gymnasium annex on the part of the site where the shootings had occurred seven years earlier, which they believed would obscure the historical event. Law enforcement finally brought the tent city to an end on July 12, 1977, after the forced removal and arrest of 193 people. The event gained national press coverage, and the issue was taken to the U.S. Supreme Court.<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> In 1978, American artist <a href="/wiki/George_Segal_(artist)" title="George Segal (artist)">George Segal</a> was commissioned by the Mildred Andrews Fund of Cleveland, in agreement with the university, to create a bronze sculpture in commemoration of the shootings, but before its completion, the sculpture was refused by the university administration, who deemed its <a href="/wiki/Binding_of_Isaac" title="Binding of Isaac">subject matter</a> (the biblical Abraham poised to sacrifice his son Isaac) too controversial.<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> Segal's completed cast-from-life bronze sculpture, Abraham and Isaac: In Memory of May 4, 1970, Kent State, was instead accepted in 1979 by <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University" title="Princeton University">Princeton University</a> and currently resides there between the university chapel and library.<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a><a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> In 1990, twenty years after the shootings, a memorial commemorating the events of May 4 was dedicated on the campus on a 2.5-acre (1.0 ha) site overlooking the university's Commons where the student protest took place.<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> Even the construction of the monument became controversial and, in the end, only 7% of the design was constructed. The memorial does not contain the names of those killed or wounded in the shooting; under pressure, the university agreed to install a plaque near it with the names.<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a><a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /><table class="infobox" style="width: 210px; clear: right; float:right;margin:0 0 1.5em 1.5em"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:115%">External videos</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:May4thMemorial.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/May4thMemorial.JPG/210px-May4thMemorial.JPG" decoding="async" width="210" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/May4thMemorial.JPG/315px-May4thMemorial.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/May4thMemorial.JPG/420px-May4thMemorial.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4752" data-file-height="3168" /></a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align: left"><img alt="video icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yV8taH8glL0">May 4, 1970 Site Makes National Register of Historic Places</a>, (1:46), Kent State TV</td></tr></tbody></table> In 1999, at the urging of relatives of the four students killed in 1970, the university constructed an individual memorial for each student in the parking lot between Taylor and Prentice halls. Each of the four memorials is located on the exact spot where the student fell, mortally wounded. They are surrounded by a raised rectangle of granite<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a> featuring six lightposts approximately four feet high, with each student's name engraved on a triangular marble plaque in one corner.<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> In 2004, a simple stone memorial was erected at Plainview-Old Bethpage John F. Kennedy High School in <a href="/wiki/Plainview,_New_York" title="Plainview, New York">Plainview, New York</a>, which <a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_Miller_(shooting_victim)" title="Jeffrey Miller (shooting victim)">Jeffrey Miller</a> had attended. On May 3, 2007, just before the yearly commemoration, KSU president <a href="/wiki/Lester_Lefton" title="Lester Lefton">Lester Lefton</a> dedicated an Ohio Historical Society marker. It is located between Taylor Hall and Prentice Hall between the parking lot and the 1990 memorial.<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> Also in 2007, a memorial service was held at Kent State in honor of James Russell, one of the wounded, who died in 2007 of a heart attack.<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> Front side of Ohio Historical Marker #67-8:<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote">Kent State University: May 4, 1970 In 1968, Richard Nixon won the presidency partly based on a campaign promise to end the Vietnam War. Though the war seemed to be winding down, on April 30, 1970, Nixon announced the invasion of Cambodia, triggering protests across college campuses. On Friday, May 1, an anti-war rally was held on the Commons at Kent State University. Protestors called for another rally to be held on Monday, May 4. Disturbances in downtown Kent that night caused city officials to ask Governor James Rhodes to send the Ohio National Guard to maintain order. Troops put on alert Saturday afternoon were called to campus Saturday evening after an ROTC building was set on fire. Sunday morning in a press conference that was also broadcast to the troops on campus, Rhodes vowed to "eradicate the problem" of protests at Kent State.</blockquote> Back side of Ohio Historical Marker #67-8:<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote">Kent State University: May 4, 1970 On May 4, 1970, Kent State students protested on the Commons against the U.S. invasion of Cambodia and the presence of the Ohio National Guard called to campus to quell demonstrations. Guardsman advanced, driving students past Taylor Hall. A small group of protesters taunted the Guard from the Prentice Hall parking lot. The Guard marched back to the Pagoda, where members of Company A, 145th Infantry, and Troop G, 107th Armored Cavalry, turned and fired 61–67 shots during thirteen seconds. Four students were killed: Allison Krause, Jeffrey Miller, Sandra Scheuer, and William Schroeder. Nine students were wounded: Alan Canfora, John Cleary, Thomas Grace, Dean Kahler, Joseph Lewis, D. Scott MacKenzie, James Russell, Robert Stamps, and Douglas Wrentmore. Those shot were 20 to 245 yards away from the Guard. The Report of the President's Commission on Campus Unrest concluded that the shootings were "unnecessary, unwarranted, and inexcusable."</blockquote> In 2008, Kent State University announced plans to construct a May 4 Visitors' Center in a room in Taylor Hall.<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> The center was officially opened in May 2013, on the anniversary of the shootings.<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> A 17.24-acre (6.98 ha) area was listed as "Kent State Shootings Site" on the <a href="/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places" title="National Register of Historic Places">National Register of Historic Places</a> on February 23, 2010.<a href="#cite_note-newlistings-1">[1]</a> Places normally cannot be added to the Register until they have been significant for at least fifty years, and only cases of "exceptional importance" can be added sooner.<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> The entry was announced as the featured listing in the <a href="/wiki/National_Park_Service" title="National Park Service">National Park Service</a>'s weekly list of March 5, 2010.<a href="#cite_note-featured-130">[130]</a> Contributing resources in the site are: Taylor Hall, the Victory Bell, Lilac Lane and Boulder Marker, The Pagoda, Solar Totem, and the Prentice Hall Parking Lot.<a href="#cite_note-nrhpreg-2">[2]</a> The National Park Service stated the site "is considered nationally significant given its broad effects in causing the largest student strike in United States history, affecting public opinion about the Vietnam War, creating a legal precedent established by the trials subsequent to the shootings, and for the symbolic status the event has attained as a result of a government confronting protesting citizens with unreasonable deadly force."<a href="#cite_note-highlight-10">[10]</a> Every year on the anniversary of the shootings, notably on the 40th anniversary in 2010, students and others who were present share remembrances of the day and its impact on their lives. Among them are <a href="/wiki/Nick_Saban" title="Nick Saban">Nick Saban</a>, who was a freshman in 1970 and later won seven <a href="/wiki/College_football_national_championships_in_NCAA_Division_I_FBS" title="College football national championships in NCAA Division I FBS">college football National Championships</a> as the head coach of the <a href="/wiki/LSU_Tigers_football" title="LSU Tigers football">LSU Tigers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alabama_Crimson_Tide_football" title="Alabama Crimson Tide football">Alabama Crimson Tide football</a> teams;<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a> surviving student Tom Grace, who was shot in the foot;<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a> Kent State faculty member Jerry Lewis;<a href="#cite_note-npr50310-133">[133]</a> photographer John Filo;<a href="#cite_note-cnn2000-59">[59]</a> and others. In 2016, the site of the shootings was named as a <a href="/wiki/National_Historic_Landmark" title="National Historic Landmark">National Historic Landmark</a>.<a href="#cite_note-npsweekly-134">[134]</a> In September 2016, Kent State University Libraries Department of Special Collections and Archives began a project, sponsored by a grant from the <a href="/wiki/National_Archives_and_Records_Administration" title="National Archives and Records Administration">National Archives</a>' National Historical Publications and Records Commission, to digitize materials related to the actions and reactions surrounding the shootings.<a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cultural_references">Cultural references</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kent_State_shootings&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Cultural references">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444" /><table class="box-In_popular_culture plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/40px-Ambox_important.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/60px-Ambox_important.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/80px-Ambox_important.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="40" data-file-height="40" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section may contain <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:What_Wikipedia_is_not#Wikipedia_is_not_an_indiscriminate_collection_of_information" title="Wikipedia:What Wikipedia is not">irrelevant</a> references to <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Trivia_sections#"In_popular_culture"_and_"Cultural_references"_material" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Trivia sections">popular culture</a>. Please help Wikipedia to <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kent_State_shootings&action=edit">improve this section</a> by removing the content or adding <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">citations</a> to <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sources" title="Wikipedia:Reliable sources">reliable</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Independent_sources" title="Wikipedia:Independent sources">independent sources</a>. (January 2020)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Documentary">Documentary</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kent_State_shootings&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Documentary">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>1970: Confrontation at Kent State (director <a href="/wiki/Richard_Myers_(filmmaker)" title="Richard Myers (filmmaker)">Richard Myers</a>) – documentary filmed by a Kent State University filmmaker in Kent, Ohio, directly following the shootings.</li> <li>1971: Allison (director Richard Myers) – a tribute to <a href="/wiki/Allison_Krause" title="Allison Krause">Allison Krause</a>.</li> <li>1971: Part of the Family (Director Paul Ronder) – one of the three segments profiles the family of <a href="/wiki/Allison_Krause" title="Allison Krause">Allison Krause</a>.</li> <li>1979: George Segal (director Michael Blackwood) – documentary about American sculptor <a href="/wiki/George_Segal_(artist)" title="George Segal (artist)">George Segal</a>; Segal discusses and is shown creating his bronze sculpture Abraham and Isaac, which was initially intended as a memorial for the Kent State University campus.</li> <li>2000: Kent State: The Day the War Came Home (director Chris Triffo, executive producer <a href="/wiki/Mark_Mori" title="Mark Mori">Mark Mori</a>), the Emmy Award-winning documentary featuring interviews with injured students, eyewitnesses, guardsmen, and relatives of students killed at Kent State.</li> <li>2007: Vier Tote in Ohio: Ein Amerikanisches Trauma ("4 dead in Ohio: an American trauma") (directors Klaus Bredenbrock and Pagonis Pagonakis) – documentary featuring interviews with injured students, eyewitnesses and a German journalist who was a U.S. correspondent.</li> <li>2008: How It Was: Kent State Shootings – <a href="/wiki/National_Geographic_Channel" class="mw-redirect" title="National Geographic Channel">National Geographic Channel</a> documentary series episode.<a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a></li> <li>2015: The Day the '60s Died (director Jonathan Halperin) – <a href="/wiki/PBS" title="PBS">PBS</a> documentary featuring build-up of events at KSU, archival photos, and film, as well as eyewitness reminiscences of the event.</li> <li>2017: The Vietnam War: The History of the World (April 1969 – May 1970) Episode 8 (directors, Ken Burns and Lynn Novick) – <a href="/wiki/PBS" title="PBS">PBS</a> documentary series featuring build-up of events at KSU, archival photos and film as well as eyewitness reminiscences of the event.</li> <li>2020: Fire in the Heartland: Kent State, May 4, and Student Protest in America – documentary featuring the build-up to, the events of, and the aftermath of the shootings, told by many of those who were present and in some cases wounded.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Film_and_television">Film and television</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kent_State_shootings&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Film and television">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>1970: <a href="/wiki/The_Bold_Ones:_The_Senator" title="The Bold Ones: The Senator">The Bold Ones: The Senator</a> – A television program starring <a href="/wiki/Hal_Holbrook" title="Hal Holbrook">Hal Holbrook</a>, aired a two-part episode titled "A Continual Roar of Musketry" which was based on a Kent-State-like shooting. Holbrook's Senator character is investigating the incident.</li> <li>1974: <a href="/wiki/The_Trial_of_Billy_Jack" title="The Trial of Billy Jack">The Trial of Billy Jack</a> – The climactic scene of this film depicts National Guardsmen lethally firing on unarmed students, and the credits specifically mention Kent State and other student shootings.<a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a></li> <li>1981: Kent State (directed by <a href="/wiki/James_Goldstone" title="James Goldstone">James Goldstone</a>) – television <a href="/wiki/Docudrama" title="Docudrama">docudrama</a>.<a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a></li> <li>1995: <a href="/wiki/Nixon_(film)" title="Nixon (film)">Nixon</a> – directed by <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Stone" title="Oliver Stone">Oliver Stone</a>, the film features actual footage of the shootings; the event also plays an important role in the course of the film's narrative.</li> <li>2000: The '70s, starring <a href="/wiki/Vinessa_Shaw" title="Vinessa Shaw">Vinessa Shaw</a> and <a href="/wiki/Amy_Smart" title="Amy Smart">Amy Smart</a>, a mini-series depicting four Kent State students affected by the shootings as they move through the decade.<a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a></li> <li>2002: The Year That Trembled (written and directed by <a href="/wiki/Jay_Craven" title="Jay Craven">Jay Craven</a>; based on a novel by Scott Lax), a coming-of-age movie set in 1970 Ohio, in the aftermath of the Kent State killings.<a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a></li> <li>2005: <a href="/wiki/Thank_You_for_Smoking_(film)" class="mw-redirect" title="Thank You for Smoking (film)">Thank You For Smoking</a> (directed by Jason Reitman) – In the satirical film, based on the <a href="/wiki/Thank_You_for_Smoking_(novel)" title="Thank You for Smoking (novel)">novel of the same name</a>, the narrator Nick Naylor describes fellow lobbyist Bobby Jay as having joined the National Guard after the Kent State shooting "so that he too could shoot college students."<a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a></li> <li>2009: <a href="/wiki/Watchmen_(2009_film)" title="Watchmen (2009 film)">Watchmen</a> (directed by Zack Snyder) – Depicts a reenacted scene of the shooting in the few opening moments of the film.<a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a></li> <li>2013: "Freedom Deal: The Story of Lucky"<a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a> (directed by Jason Rosette (as 'Jack RO') – Cambodia-made film dramatizing the US & ARVN incursion into Cambodia on May 4, 1970, as told from the perspective of two refugees fleeing the conflict. Includes US Army radio references to the Kent State protests, with accompanying archival footage.</li> <li>2017: <a href="/wiki/The_Vietnam_War_(TV_series)" title="The Vietnam War (TV series)">The Vietnam War</a> (TV series), episode 8 "The History of the World" (April 1969 – May 1970), directed by Ken Burns and Lynn Novick. Includes a short segment on the background, events, and effects of the Kent State shootings, using film footage and photographs taken at the time.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Literature">Literature</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kent_State_shootings&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Literature">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Graphic_novels">Graphic novels</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kent_State_shootings&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Graphic novels">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Issue No. 57 of <a href="/wiki/Warren_Ellis" title="Warren Ellis">Warren Ellis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Darick_Robertson" title="Darick Robertson">Darick Robertson</a>'s comic book <a href="/wiki/Transmetropolitan" title="Transmetropolitan">Transmetropolitan</a> contains an homage to the Kent State shootings and <a href="/wiki/John_Filo" title="John Filo">John Filo</a>'s photograph of <a href="/wiki/Mary_Ann_Vecchio" title="Mary Ann Vecchio">Mary Ann Vecchio</a>.<a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derf_Backderf" title="Derf Backderf">Derf Backderf</a>'s 2020 graphic novel, <a href="/wiki/Kent_State:_Four_Dead_in_Ohio" class="mw-redirect" title="Kent State: Four Dead in Ohio">Kent State: Four Dead in Ohio</a> depicts the events and the circumstances leading to them in detail.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Plays">Plays</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kent_State_shootings&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Plays">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>1976: Kent State: A Requiem by J. Gregory Payne. First performed in 1976. Told from the perspective of Bill Schroeder's mother, Florence, this play has been performed at over 150 college campuses in the U.S. and Europe in tours in the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s; it was last performed at Emerson College in 2007. It is also the basis of NBC's award-winning 1981 docudrama Kent State.<a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a></li> <li>1993 – Blanket Hill explores conversations of the National Guardsmen hours before arriving at Kent State University ... activities of students already on campus ... the moment they meet face to face on May 4, 1970 ... framed in the trial four years later. The play originated as a classroom assignment, initially performed at the Pan-African Theater and was developed at the Organic Theater, Chicago. Produced as part of the Student Theatre Festival 2010, Department of Theatre and Dance, Kent State University, it was again designed and performed by current theatre students as part of the 40 May 4 Commemoration. The play was written and directed by Kay Cosgriff. A DVD of the production is available for viewing from the May 4 Collection at Kent State University.<a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a></li> <li>1995 – Nightwalking. Voices From Kent State by Sandra Perlman, Kent, Franklin Mills Press, first presented in Chicago April 20, 1995, (Director: Jenifer (Gwenne) Weber). Kent State is referenced in <a href="/wiki/Nikki_Giovanni" title="Nikki Giovanni">Nikki Giovanni</a>'s "The Beep Beep Poem".<a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a></li> <li>2010: David Hassler, director of the Wick Poetry Center at Kent State, and theater professor Katherine Burke teamed up to write the play May 4 Voices, in honor of the incident's 40th anniversary.<a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a></li> <li>2012: 4 Dead in Ohio: Antigone at Kent State (created by students of <a href="/wiki/Connecticut_College" title="Connecticut College">Connecticut College</a>'s theatre department and David Jaffe '77, associate professor of theater and the director of the play) – An adaptation of <a href="/wiki/Sophocles" title="Sophocles">Sophocles</a>' <a href="/wiki/Antigone_(Sophocles_play)" title="Antigone (Sophocles play)">Antigone</a> using the play Burial at Thebes by Nobel Laureate <a href="/wiki/Seamus_Heaney" title="Seamus Heaney">Seamus Heaney</a>. It was performed November 15–18, 2012, in Tansill Theater.<a href="#cite_note-149">[149]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Poetry">Poetry</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kent_State_shootings&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Poetry">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>The incident is mentioned in <a href="/wiki/Allen_Ginsberg" title="Allen Ginsberg">Allen Ginsberg</a>'s 1975 poem <a href="/wiki/Hadda_be_Playin%27_on_a_Jukebox" class="mw-redirect" title="Hadda be Playin' on a Jukebox">Hadda be Playin' on a Jukebox</a>.<a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a></li> <li>The poem "Bullets and Flowers" by <a href="/wiki/Yevgeny_Yevtushenko" title="Yevgeny Yevtushenko">Yevgeny Yevtushenko</a> is dedicated to Allison Krause.<a href="#cite_note-Yevtushenko-151">[151]</a> Krause had participated in the previous days' protest during which she reportedly put a flower in the barrel of a Guardsman's rifle,<a href="#cite_note-Yevtushenko-151">[151]</a> as had been done at a war protest at <a href="/wiki/The_Pentagon" title="The Pentagon">The Pentagon</a> in October 1967, and reportedly saying, "Flowers are better than bullets."</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Makuck" title="Peter Makuck">Peter Makuck</a>'s poem "The Commons" is about the shootings. Makuck, a 1971 graduate of Kent State, was present on the Commons during the incident.<a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gary_Geddes" title="Gary Geddes">Gary Geddes</a>' poem "Sandra Lee Scheuer" remembers one of the victims of the Kent State shootings.<a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a><a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deborah_Wiles" title="Deborah Wiles">Deborah Wiles</a>' book Kent State (2020) provides a multi-perspective view of the Kent State shootings.<a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Prose">Prose</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kent_State_shootings&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Prose">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Harlan_Ellison" title="Harlan Ellison">Harlan Ellison</a>'s story collection, <a href="/wiki/Alone_Against_Tomorrow" title="Alone Against Tomorrow">Alone Against Tomorrow</a> (1971), is dedicated to the four students who were killed.<a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a> An essay in his Los Angeles Free Press column <a href="/wiki/The_Glass_Teat" title="The Glass Teat">The Other Glass Teat</a> dated May 15, 1970, discusses the events and his reaction to them. He describes television interviews with BGen Robert Canterbury (without naming him), who commanded the guard that day,<a href="#cite_note-157">[157]</a> and the student strikes in response to the murders.<a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lesley_Choyce" title="Lesley Choyce">Lesley Choyce</a>'s novel, The Republic of Nothing (1994), mentions how one character hates President <a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Richard Nixon</a> due in part to the students of Kent State.<a href="#cite_note-159">[159]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gael_Baudino" title="Gael Baudino">Gael Baudino</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Dragonsword" title="Dragonsword">Dragonsword</a> trilogy (1988–1992) follows the story of a teaching assistant who narrowly missed being shot in the massacre. Frequent references are made to how the experience and its aftermath still traumatize the protagonist decades later when she is a soldier.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_King" title="Stephen King">Stephen King</a>'s post-apocalyptic novel <a href="/wiki/The_Stand" title="The Stand">The Stand</a> includes a scene in Book I in which Kent State campus police officers witness U.S. soldiers shooting students protesting the government cover-up of the military origins of the Superflu that is devastating the country.<a href="#cite_note-160">[160]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Music">Music</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kent_State_shootings&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Music">edit</a>]</div> The best-known popular culture response to the deaths was the <a href="/wiki/Protest_song" title="Protest song">protest song</a> "<a href="/wiki/Ohio_(Crosby,_Stills,_Nash_%26_Young_song)" title="Ohio (Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young song)">Ohio</a>", written by <a href="/wiki/Neil_Young" title="Neil Young">Neil Young</a> for <a href="/wiki/Crosby,_Stills,_Nash_%26_Young" title="Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young">Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young</a>. They promptly recorded the song, and preview discs (<a href="/wiki/Acetate_disc" title="Acetate disc">acetates</a>) were rushed to major radio stations, although the group already had a hit song, "<a href="/wiki/Teach_Your_Children" title="Teach Your Children">Teach Your Children</a>", on the charts at the time. Within two and a half weeks of the shootings, "Ohio" was receiving national airplay.<a href="#cite_note-hare-161">[161]</a> <a href="/wiki/David_Crosby" title="David Crosby">Crosby</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Stills" title="Stephen Stills">Stills</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Graham_Nash" title="Graham Nash">Nash</a> visited the Kent State campus for the first time on May 4, 1997, where they performed the song for the May 4 Task Force's 27th annual commemoration. The B-side of the single release was Stephen Stills' anti-Vietnam War anthem, "<a href="/wiki/Find_the_Cost_of_Freedom" class="mw-redirect" title="Find the Cost of Freedom">Find the Cost of Freedom</a>". There are many lesser-known musical tributes, including the following: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Denver" title="John Denver">John Denver</a> wrote the song "Sail Away Home" in response. When he introduced the song at the 1970 Philadelphia Folk Festival, he told the audience he wrote the song two days after the shootings. The song appeared on his 1970 album <a href="/wiki/Whose_Garden_Was_This" title="Whose Garden Was This">Whose Garden Was This</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Kantner" title="Paul Kantner">Paul Kantner</a> and <a href="/wiki/Grace_Slick" title="Grace Slick">Grace Slick</a> wrote the song "Diana", which appears on their 1971 album <a href="/wiki/Sunfighter" title="Sunfighter">Sunfighter</a>. This song also appears on the bonus tracks version of the Jefferson Airplane album <a href="/wiki/Thirty_Seconds_Over_Winterland" title="Thirty Seconds Over Winterland">Thirty Seconds Over Winterland</a> as an introduction to the song "<a href="/wiki/Volunteers_(song)" title="Volunteers (song)">Volunteers</a>". Part 1 of the song was written in response to the story of <a href="/wiki/Weather_Underground" title="Weather Underground">Weather Underground</a> member <a href="/wiki/Diana_Oughton" title="Diana Oughton">Diana Oughton</a>, and part 2 is a response to the Kent State shootings.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvey_Andrews" title="Harvey Andrews">Harvey Andrews</a>' 1970 song "Hey Sandy"<a href="#cite_note-hare-161">[161]</a><a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a> was addressed to <a href="/wiki/Sandra_Scheuer" class="mw-redirect" title="Sandra Scheuer">Sandra Scheuer</a>.<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.molwert.de/Lieder/Hey_Sandy.htm">lyrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steve_Miller_(musician)" title="Steve Miller (musician)">Steve Miller's</a> "Jackson-Kent Blues", from the <a href="/wiki/Steve_Miller_Band" title="Steve Miller Band">Steve Miller Band</a> album <a href="/wiki/Number_5_(Steve_Miller_Band_album)" title="Number 5 (Steve Miller Band album)">Number 5</a> (released in November 1970), is another direct response.<a href="#cite_note-hare-161">[161]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Beach_Boys" title="The Beach Boys">The Beach Boys</a> released "<a href="/wiki/Student_Demonstration_Time" title="Student Demonstration Time">Student Demonstration Time</a>"<a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a> in 1971 on <a href="/wiki/Surf%27s_Up_(album)" title="Surf's Up (album)">Surf's Up</a>. <a href="/wiki/Mike_Love" title="Mike Love">Mike Love</a> wrote new lyrics for <a href="/wiki/Jerry_Leiber_and_Mike_Stoller" title="Jerry Leiber and Mike Stoller">Leiber & Stoller</a>'s "Riot in Cell Block Number Nine",<a href="#cite_note-hare-161">[161]</a> referencing the Kent State shootings along with other incidents such as <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Park_(Berkeley)#May_15,_1969:_"Bloody_Thursday"" title="People's Park (Berkeley)">Bloody Thursday</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Jackson_State_killings" title="Jackson State killings">Jackson State killings</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruce_Springsteen" title="Bruce Springsteen">Bruce Springsteen</a> wrote a song called "Where Was Jesus in Ohio" in May or June 1970 in response to the Kent State shootings.<a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a><a href="#cite_note-165">[165]</a></li> <li>Former <a href="/wiki/Yes_(Band)" class="mw-redirect" title="Yes (Band)">Yes</a> frontman <a href="/wiki/Jon_Anderson" title="Jon Anderson">Jon Anderson</a> has said that the lyrics of "<a href="/wiki/Long_Distance_Runaround" title="Long Distance Runaround">Long Distance Runaround</a>" (from the album <a href="/wiki/Fragile_(Yes_album)" title="Fragile (Yes album)">Fragile</a>, released in 1971) are also in part about the shootings, particularly the line "hot colour melting the anger to stone."<a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pete_Atkin" title="Pete Atkin">Pete Atkin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Clive_James" title="Clive James">Clive James</a> wrote "Driving Through Mythical America", recorded by Atkin on his 1971 <a href="/wiki/Driving_Through_Mythical_America" title="Driving Through Mythical America">album of the same name</a>, about the shootings, relating them to a series of events and images from 20th-century American history.<a href="#cite_note-hare-161">[161]</a><a href="#cite_note-167">[167]</a></li> <li>In 1970–1971 <a href="/wiki/Halim_El-Dabh" title="Halim El-Dabh">Halim El-Dabh</a>, a Kent State University music professor on campus when the shootings occurred, composed Opera Flies, a full-length opera, in response to his experience. The work was first performed on the Kent State campus on May 8, 1971; it was revived for the 25th commemoration of the events in 1995.<a href="#cite_note-hare2-168">[168]</a></li> <li>In 1971, the BBC commissioned George Newson's Arena, a sociopolitical piece of contemporary music theatre climaxing in the Kent State shootings (conductor, <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Boulez" title="Pierre Boulez">Boulez</a>; singer, <a href="/wiki/Cleo_Laine" title="Cleo Laine">Cleo Laine</a>).<a href="#cite_note-169">[169]</a> The piece is said to be one of the most important of its time in Britain.<a href="#cite_note-170">[170]</a></li> <li>Actress and singer <a href="/wiki/Ruth_Warrick" title="Ruth Warrick">Ruth Warrick</a> released in 1971 a single with the song "41,000 Plus 4 – The Ballad of the Kent State", an homage to the four students killed at Kent State.<a href="#cite_note-171">[171]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dave_Brubeck" title="Dave Brubeck">Dave Brubeck</a>'s 1971 <a href="/wiki/Cantata" title="Cantata">cantata</a> Truth Is Fallen was written in response to the slain students at Kent State University and Jackson State University; the work was premiered in <a href="/wiki/Midland,_Michigan" title="Midland, Michigan">Midland, Michigan</a>, on May 1, 1971, and released on LP in 1972.<a href="#cite_note-hare-161">[161]</a><a href="#cite_note-172">[172]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Isley_Brothers" title="The Isley Brothers">The Isley Brothers</a>' antiwar medley "Ohio/Machine Gun" was included on their 1971 album <a href="/wiki/Givin%27_It_Back" title="Givin' It Back">Givin' It Back</a>. Both parts of the medley are covers, with "Ohio" being the aforementioned Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young song, and "<a href="/wiki/Machine_Gun_(Jimi_Hendrix_song)" title="Machine Gun (Jimi Hendrix song)">Machine Gun</a>" being a <a href="/wiki/Jimi_Hendrix" title="Jimi Hendrix">Jimi Hendrix</a> song.<a href="#cite_note-173">[173]</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/All_Saved_Freak_Band" title="All Saved Freak Band">All Saved Freak Band</a> dedicated its 1973 album My Poor Generation to "Tom Miller of the Kent State 25". Tom Miller was a member of the band who had been featured in <a href="/wiki/Life_(magazine)" title="Life (magazine)">Life</a> magazine as part of the Kent State protests and lost his life the following year in an automobile accident.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holly_Near" title="Holly Near">Holly Near</a>'s "It Could Have Been Me" was released on A Live Album (1974). The song is Near's response to the incident.<a href="#cite_note-174">[174]</a></li> <li>The industrial band <a href="/wiki/Skinny_Puppy" title="Skinny Puppy">Skinny Puppy</a>'s 1989 song "<a href="/wiki/Tin_Omen_(single)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tin Omen (single)">Tin Omen</a>" on the album <a href="/wiki/Rabies_(Skinny_Puppy_album)" title="Rabies (Skinny Puppy album)">Rabies</a> refers to the event.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamb_of_God_(band)" title="Lamb of God (band)">Lamb of God's</a> song "O.D.H.G.A.B.F.E." on the 2000 album <a href="/wiki/New_American_Gospel" title="New American Gospel">New American Gospel</a>, references Kent State, together with the <a href="/wiki/Auschwitz_concentration_camp" title="Auschwitz concentration camp">Auschwitz concentration camp</a>, the <a href="/wiki/1989_Tiananmen_Square_protests_and_massacre" title="1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre">1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre</a>, the <a href="/wiki/1968_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1968 Democratic National Convention">1968 Democratic National Convention</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Waco_Siege" class="mw-redirect" title="Waco Siege">Waco Siege</a>.</li> <li>A commemorative 2-CD compilation featuring music and interviews was released by the May 4 Task Force in May 2005, commemorating the 35th anniversary of the shootings.<a href="#cite_note-175">[175]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magpie_(folk_duo)" title="Magpie (folk duo)">Magpie</a> covered the topic in their 1995 album, Give Light. The song "Kent" was written by band member Terry Leonino, a survivor of the Kent State shootings.<a href="#cite_note-hare2-168">[168]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genesis_(band)" title="Genesis (band)">Genesis</a> recreates the events from the perspective of the Guards in the song "<a href="/wiki/The_Knife_(song)" title="The Knife (song)">The Knife</a>", on <a href="/wiki/Trespass_(album)" title="Trespass (album)">Trespass</a> (October 1970).<a href="#cite_note-hare-161">[161]</a> Against a backdrop of voices chanting, "We are only wanting freedom", a male voice in the foreground calls, "Things are getting out of control here today", then "OK men, fire over their heads!" followed by gunshots, screaming and crying.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbara_Dane" title="Barbara Dane">Barbara Dane</a> sings "The Kent State Massacre" written by <a href="/wiki/Jack_Warshaw" title="Jack Warshaw">Jack Warshaw</a> on her 1973 album I Hate the Capitalist System.<a href="#cite_note-176">[176]</a><a href="#cite_note-177">[177]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Photography">Photography</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kent_State_shootings&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Photography">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>In her 1996 still/moving photographic project Partially Buried in three parts, visual artist <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9e_Green" title="Renée Green">Renée Green</a> aims to address the history of the shootings both historically and culturally.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_references_and_impacts">Other references and impacts</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kent_State_shootings&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Other references and impacts">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>In September 2013, a <a href="/wiki/Louisiana_State_University" title="Louisiana State University">Louisiana State University</a> fraternity hung a sign outside of their house with the text "Getting Massacred Is Nothing New to Kent St.", after a football game. <a href="/wiki/Delta_Kappa_Epsilon" title="Delta Kappa Epsilon">Delta Kappa Epsilon</a> later issued an apology.<a href="#cite_note-178">[178]</a></li> <li>In September 2014, <a href="/wiki/Urban_Outfitters" title="Urban Outfitters">Urban Outfitters</a> was criticized by media and social media for the release of a faux vintage <a href="/wiki/Kent_State_University" title="Kent State University">Kent State University</a> sweatshirt. The sweatshirt had a red and white vintage wash finish but also included what looked like bullet holes and blood splatter patterns.<a href="#cite_note-179">[179]</a></li> <li>On September 1, 2023, vice president and director of athletics, at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Central_Florida" title="University of Central Florida">University of Central Florida</a> (UCF), <a href="/wiki/Terry_Mohajir" title="Terry Mohajir">Terry Mohajir</a>, apologized to Kent State director of athletics, Randale L. Richmond for a social media post following the <a href="/wiki/UCF_Knights_football" title="UCF Knights football">UCF Knights</a>, 56-6 August 1, 2023 football victory over the <a href="/wiki/Kent_State_Golden_Flashes_football" title="Kent State Golden Flashes football">Kent State Golden Flashes</a> in which the <a href="/wiki/UCF_Knights" title="UCF Knights">UCF Athletics</a> account posted the phrase, "Someone call the National Guard." The post was reportedly intended in reference to an <a href="/wiki/National_Football_League" title="National Football League">NFL</a> sideline video clip from 1996 of <a href="/wiki/Shannon_Sharpe" title="Shannon Sharpe">Shannon Sharpe</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Denver_Broncos" title="Denver Broncos">Denver Broncos</a> pretending to phone the president of the United States during the Broncos 34–8 victory over the <a href="/wiki/New_England_Patriots" title="New England Patriots">New England Patriots</a> and telling him, "...we need the National Guard….call the dogs off, send the National Guard."<a href="#cite_note-180">[180]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kent_State_shootings&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jackson_State_killings" title="Jackson State killings">Jackson State killings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_incidents_of_civil_unrest_in_the_United_States" title="List of incidents of civil unrest in the United States">List of incidents of civil unrest in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_massacres_in_the_United_States" title="List of massacres in the United States">List of massacres in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_National_Historic_Landmarks_in_Ohio" title="List of National Historic Landmarks in Ohio">List of National Historic Landmarks in Ohio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludlow_massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Ludlow massacre">Ludlow massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orangeburg_massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Orangeburg massacre">Orangeburg massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_New_Mexico_bayoneting_incident" title="University of New Mexico bayoneting incident">University of New Mexico bayoneting incident</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kent_State_shootings&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-newlistings-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-newlistings_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-newlistings_1-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-newlistings_1-2">c</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nps.gov/history/nr/listings/20100305.htm">"Announcements and actions on properties for the National Register of Historic Places for March 5, 2010"</a>. Weekly Listings. <a href="/wiki/National_Park_Service" title="National Park Service">National Park Service</a>. March 5, 2010. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130828205628/http://www.nps.gov/history/nr/listings/20100305.htm">Archived</a> from the original on August 28, 2013. Retrieved March 5, 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Weekly+Listings&rft.atitle=Announcements+and+actions+on+properties+for+the+National+Register+of+Historic+Places+for+March+5%2C+2010&rft.date=2010-03-05&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nps.gov%2Fhistory%2Fnr%2Flistings%2F20100305.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKent+State+shootings" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-nrhpreg-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-nrhpreg_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-nrhpreg_2-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSeeman,_Mark_F.Barbato,_CaroleDavis,_LauraLewis,_Jerry2008" class="citation web cs1">Seeman, Mark F.; Barbato, Carole; Davis, Laura; Lewis, Jerry (December 31, 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nps.gov/history/nr/feature/weekly_features/KentStateShootingSite.pdf">"National Register of Historic Places Registration: Kent State Shootings Site"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/National_Park_Service" title="National Park Service">National Park Service</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100530105149/http://www.nps.gov/history/nr/feature/weekly_features/KentStateShootingSite.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on May 30, 2010. 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Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press. p. 17. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60635-405-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-60635-405-6"><bdi>978-1-60635-405-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cambodia+and+Kent+State%3A+in+the+aftermath+of+Nixon%27s+expansion+of+the+Vietnam+War&rft.place=Kent%2C+Ohio&rft.pages=17&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Kent+State+University+Press&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-1-60635-405-6&rft.aulast=Tyner&rft.aufirst=James&rft.au=Farmer%2C+Mindy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKent+State+shootings" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSimpson2016" class="citation book cs1">Simpson, Craig S. (2016). 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Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press. p. 60. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60635-291-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-60635-291-5"><bdi>978-1-60635-291-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Above+the+shots%3A+an+oral+history+of+the+Kent+State+shootings&rft.place=Kent%2C+Ohio&rft.pages=60&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Kent+State+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-60635-291-5&rft.aulast=Simpson&rft.aufirst=Craig+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKent+State+shootings" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-de_Onis_1970_1-22">^ <a href="#cite_ref-de_Onis_1970_1_22-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-de_Onis_1970_1_22-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFde_Onis1970" class="citation news cs1">de Onis, Juan (1970). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1970/05/02/archives/nixon-puts-bums-label-on-some-college-radicals-nixon-denounces-bums.html">"Nixon Puts 'Bums' Label On Some College Radicals"</a>. The New York Times. p. 1.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Nixon+Puts+%27Bums%27+Label+On+Some+College+Radicals&rft.pages=1&rft.date=1970&rft.aulast=de+Onis&rft.aufirst=Juan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1970%2F05%2F02%2Farchives%2Fnixon-puts-bums-label-on-some-college-radicals-nixon-denounces-bums.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKent+State+shootings" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLevensonSallot1970" class="citation news cs1">Levenson, Sanford; Sallot, Jeffrey (May 2, 1970). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-akron-beacon-journal/52754622/">""Down with Nixon," Scream 500 Rioting Kent Students"</a>. The Akron Beacon Journal. p. 1. 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Cleveland: Gray & Company. p. 29. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781938441639" title="Special:BookSources/9781938441639"><bdi>9781938441639</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Thirteen+Seconds%3A+Confrontation+at+Kent+State&rft.place=Cleveland&rft.pages=29&rft.pub=Gray+%26+Company&rft.date=1970&rft.isbn=9781938441639&rft.aulast=Eszterhas&rft.aufirst=Joe&rft.au=Roberts%2C+Michael+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKent+State+shootings" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFEszterhasRoberts1970" class="citation book cs1">Eszterhas, Joe; Roberts, Michael D. (1970). Thirteen Seconds: Confrontation at Kent State. Cleveland: Gray & Company. p. 32. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781938441639" title="Special:BookSources/9781938441639"><bdi>9781938441639</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Thirteen+Seconds%3A+Confrontation+at+Kent+State&rft.place=Cleveland&rft.pages=32&rft.pub=Gray+%26+Company&rft.date=1970&rft.isbn=9781938441639&rft.aulast=Eszterhas&rft.aufirst=Joe&rft.au=Roberts%2C+Michael+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKent+State+shootings" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeans2016">Means 2016</a>, p. 38 </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeans2016">Means 2016</a>, p. 135 </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.may4.org/?q=node/5">"Kent State 1970:Description of Events May 1 through May 4"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090302142539/http://www.may4.org/?q=node%2F5">Archived</a> from the original on March 2, 2009. Retrieved April 3, 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Kent+State+1970%3ADescription+of+Events+May+1+through+May+4&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.may4.org%2F%3Fq%3Dnode%2F5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKent+State+shootings" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> The Report of the President's Commission on Campus Unrest, 1970. Special Report, Kent State, p. 251. </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070705101435/http://speccoll.library.kent.edu/4may70/box107/107f24p6.html">"ROTC building arson May 2, 1970: Witness statements taken August 6, 1970, p. 6"</a>. Kent State University Libraries and Media Services, Department of Special Collections and Archives. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://speccoll.library.kent.edu/4may70/box107/107f24p6.html">the original</a> on July 5, 2007. Retrieved April 16, 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=ROTC+building+arson+May+2%2C+1970%3A+Witness+statements+taken+August+6%2C+1970%2C+p.+6&rft.pub=Kent+State+University+Libraries+and+Media+Services%2C+Department+of+Special+Collections+and+Archives&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fspeccoll.library.kent.edu%2F4may70%2Fbox107%2F107f24p6.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKent+State+shootings" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100619050618/http://speccoll.library.kent.edu/4may70/box107/107f24p4.html">"ROTC building arson May 2, 1970: Witness statements taken August 6, 1970"</a>. Kent State University Libraries and Media Services, Department of Special Collections and Archives. p. 4. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://speccoll.library.kent.edu/4may70/box107/107f24p4.html">the original</a> on June 19, 2010. Retrieved April 16, 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=ROTC+building+arson+May+2%2C+1970%3A+Witness+statements+taken+August+6%2C+1970&rft.pages=4&rft.pub=Kent+State+University+Libraries+and+Media+Services%2C+Department+of+Special+Collections+and+Archives&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fspeccoll.library.kent.edu%2F4may70%2Fbox107%2F107f24p4.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKent+State+shootings" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100619054728/http://speccoll.library.kent.edu/4may70/box107/107f24p5.html">"ROTC building arson May 2, 1970: Witness statements taken August 6, 1970"</a>. Kent State University Libraries and Media Services, Department of Special Collections and Archives. p. 5. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://speccoll.library.kent.edu/4may70/box107/107f24p5.html">the original</a> on June 19, 2010. Retrieved April 16, 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=ROTC+building+arson+May+2%2C+1970%3A+Witness+statements+taken+August+6%2C+1970&rft.pages=5&rft.pub=Kent+State+University+Libraries+and+Media+Services%2C+Department+of+Special+Collections+and+Archives&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fspeccoll.library.kent.edu%2F4may70%2Fbox107%2F107f24p5.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKent+State+shootings" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-payne-33"><a href="#cite_ref-payne_33-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPayne1997" class="citation web cs1">Payne, J. Gregory (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20030518120127/http://www.may4archive.org/chronology.shtml">"Chronology"</a>. May4.org. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.may4archive.org/chronology.shtml">the original</a> on May 18, 2003. Retrieved April 16, 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Chronology&rft.pub=May4.org&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Payne&rft.aufirst=J.+Gregory&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.may4archive.org%2Fchronology.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKent+State+shootings" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-SharkeyLamis1994-34"><a href="#cite_ref-SharkeyLamis1994_34-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSharkeyLamis1994" class="citation book cs1">Sharkey, Mary Anne; Lamis, Alexander P. (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=v7hkbUXIQdwC&pg=PA81">Ohio politics</a>. Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press. p. 81. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87338-509-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-87338-509-8"><bdi>0-87338-509-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161212041404/https://books.google.com/books?id=v7hkbUXIQdwC&pg=PA81">Archived</a> from the original on December 12, 2016. Retrieved September 21, 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ohio+politics&rft.place=Kent%2C+Ohio&rft.pages=81&rft.pub=Kent+State+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=0-87338-509-8&rft.aulast=Sharkey&rft.aufirst=Mary+Anne&rft.au=Lamis%2C+Alexander+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dv7hkbUXIQdwC%26pg%3DPA81&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKent+State+shootings" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Caputo-35"><a href="#cite_ref-Caputo_35-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCaputo2005" class="citation book cs1">Caputo, Philip (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/13secondslookbac00capu">13 Seconds: A Look Back at the Kent State Shootings/with DVD</a>. Chamberlain Bros. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-59609-080-4" title="Special:BookSources/1-59609-080-4"><bdi>1-59609-080-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=13+Seconds%3A+A+Look+Back+at+the+Kent+State+Shootings%2Fwith+DVD&rft.pub=Chamberlain+Bros&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=1-59609-080-4&rft.aulast=Caputo&rft.aufirst=Philip&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2F13secondslookbac00capu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKent+State+shootings" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED083899.pdf">"President's Commission on Campus Unrest"</a> (PDF). pp. 253–254. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141218122350/http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED083899.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on December 18, 2014. Retrieved May 12, 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=President%27s+Commission+on+Campus+Unrest&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E253-%3C%2Fspan%3E254&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffiles.eric.ed.gov%2Ffulltext%2FED083899.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKent+State+shootings" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-13_seconds-37"><a href="#cite_ref-13_seconds_37-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFEszterhasMichael_D._Roberts1970" class="citation book cs1">Eszterhas, Joe; Michael D. Roberts (1970). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/thirteensecondsc0000eszt/page/121">Thirteen seconds; confrontation at Kent State</a>. New York: Dodd, Mead. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/thirteensecondsc0000eszt/page/121">121</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-396-06272-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-396-06272-5"><bdi>0-396-06272-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/108956">108956</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Thirteen+seconds%3B+confrontation+at+Kent+State&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=121&rft.pub=Dodd%2C+Mead&rft.date=1970&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F108956&rft.isbn=0-396-06272-5&rft.aulast=Eszterhas&rft.aufirst=Joe&rft.au=Michael+D.+Roberts&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fthirteensecondsc0000eszt%2Fpage%2F121&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKent+State+shootings" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ksu_chron-38"><a href="#cite_ref-ksu_chron_38-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://speccoll.library.kent.edu/4may70/exhibit/chronology/index.html">"Chronology, May 1–4, 1970"</a>. Kent State University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080511182420/http://speccoll.library.kent.edu/4may70/exhibit/chronology/index.html">Archived</a> from the original on May 11, 2008. Retrieved April 27, 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Chronology%2C+May+1%E2%80%934%2C+1970&rft.pub=Kent+State+University&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fspeccoll.library.kent.edu%2F4may70%2Fexhibit%2Fchronology%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKent+State+shootings" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.kent.edu/may-4-historical-accuracy">"The May 4 Shootings at Kent State University: The Search for Historical Accuracy"</a>. Kent State University. 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Report on Kent State U. Disorders Last May"</a>. The New York Times. October 31, 1970. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331">0362-4331</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211020024044/https://www.nytimes.com/1970/10/31/archives/excerpts-from-summary-of-fbi-report-on-kent-state-u-disorders-last.html">Archived</a> from the original on October 20, 2021. Retrieved October 20, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Excerpts+From+Summary+of+F.B.I.+Report+on+Kent+State+U.+Disorders+Last+May&rft.date=1970-10-31&rft.issn=0362-4331&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1970%2F10%2F31%2Farchives%2Fexcerpts-from-summary-of-fbi-report-on-kent-state-u-disorders-last.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKent+State+shootings" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Kent-State-shootings/May-4">Kent State Shootings: May 4</a> at britannica.com, page found 2021-12-31. </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> Editorial, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thenation.com/article/archive/kent-state-politics-manslaughter/">Kent State: The Politics of Manslaughter</a>." The Nation, April 30, 2009. Page found 2021-12-31. </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> <cite>Krause v. Rhodes</cite>, 471 F.2d 430 (United States Court of Appeals, 6th Cir. 1974). </li> <li id="cite_note-rice-44"><a href="#cite_ref-rice_44-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBills1988" class="citation book cs1">Bills, Scott (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Xic2lMXkyakC&pg=PA16">Kent State/May 4: Echoes Through a Decade</a>. 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Retrieved December 6, 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Kent+State+shootings+remembered&rft.date=2000-05-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cnn.com%2F2000%2FUS%2F05%2F04%2Fkent.state.revisit%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKent+State+shootings" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-60">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_60-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_60-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_60-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_60-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_60-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_60-5">f</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAndrew_Glass2018" class="citation web cs1">Andrew Glass (May 4, 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://politi.co/2rjdSsR">"4 students shot to death at Kent State protest, May 4, 1970"</a>. 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Cleveland Plain Dealer. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201228140314/https://www.cleveland.com/metro/2020/12/alan-canfora-may-4-kent-state-university-shooter-survivor-and-expert-dies-at-71.html">Archived</a> from the original on December 28, 2020. 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May 4, 2010. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211020002121/https://www.wsws.org/en/articles/2010/05/kent-m04.html">Archived</a> from the original on October 20, 2021. Retrieved October 19, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=World+Socialist+Web+Site&rft.atitle=Forty+years+since+the+Kent+State+massacre&rft.date=2010-05-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wsws.org%2Fen%2Farticles%2F2010%2F05%2Fkent-m04.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKent+State+shootings" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-PCCU-65">^ <a href="#cite_ref-PCCU_65-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-PCCU_65-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED083899.pdf">"The Report of the President's Commission on Campus Unrest, William W. Scranton, Chairman"</a> (PDF). US Government Printing Office. 1970. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130224053331/http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED083899.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on February 24, 2013. 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May4.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130228124634/http://www.may4.org/1970fbiinvestigation.html">Archived</a> from the original on February 28, 2013. Retrieved April 16, 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=U.S.+Justice+Department+1970+Summary+Of+FBI+Reports+%28truthful+excerpts%29&rft.pub=May4.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.may4.org%2F1970fbiinvestigation.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKent+State+shootings" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> These words are directly from the original microfilm of the FBI document, not available online. The seven reel set is titled "FBI File on Kent State Fire Bomb and Shooting." It was produced by Scholarly Resources, Inc. </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C0CEFDE113AF935A35756C0A966958260&n=Top/Reference/Times%20Topics/Subjects/V/Vietnam%20War">"Kneeling With Death Haunted a Life"</a>. The New York Times. Associated Press. May 6, 1990. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211026045705/https://www.nytimes.com/1990/05/06/us/kneeling-with-death-haunted-a-life.html">Archived</a> from the original on October 26, 2021. Retrieved December 8, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Kneeling+With+Death+Haunted+a+Life&rft.date=1990-05-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fquery.nytimes.com%2Fgst%2Ffullpage.html%3Fres%3D9C0CEFDE113AF935A35756C0A966958260%26n%3DTop%2FReference%2FTimes%2520Topics%2FSubjects%2FV%2FVietnam%2520War&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKent+State+shootings" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-filophoto-69"><a href="#cite_ref-filophoto_69-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLovelave2010" class="citation web cs1">Lovelave, Angie (August 26, 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://vietnamiconicphotos.wordpress.com/tag/john-filo/">"John Filo: Iconic Photos of the Vietnam War and Their Influence on Collective Memory"</a>. 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The Rocky Mountain Collegian. 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The New York Times. p. 1. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180723070400/https://www.nytimes.com/1970/05/02/archives/nixon-puts-bums-label-on-some-college-radicals-nixon-denounces-bums.html">Archived</a> from the original on July 23, 2018. Retrieved May 4, 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Nixon+puts+%27bums%27+label+on+some+college+radicals&rft.pages=1&rft.date=1970-05-01&rft.aulast=de+Onis&rft.aufirst=Juan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1970%2F05%2F02%2Farchives%2Fnixon-puts-bums-label-on-some-college-radicals-nixon-denounces-bums.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKent+State+shootings" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lehigh.edu/~ineng/mac6/mac6-histcontext.html">"histcontext"</a>. Lehigh.edu. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190503072252/https://www.lehigh.edu/~ineng/mac6/mac6-histcontext.html">Archived</a> from the original on May 3, 2019. Retrieved February 1, 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=histcontext&rft.pub=Lehigh.edu&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lehigh.edu%2F~ineng%2Fmac6%2Fmac6-histcontext.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKent+State+shootings" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newspapers.com/clip/13598112/campus-unrest-linked-to-drugs/">"Campus Unrest Linked to Drugs Palm Beach Post May 28, 1970"</a>. The Palm Beach Post. May 28, 1970. p. 14. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200605194805/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/13598112/campus-unrest-linked-to-drugs/">Archived</a> from the original on June 5, 2020. Retrieved June 5, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Palm+Beach+Post&rft.atitle=Campus+Unrest+Linked+to+Drugs+Palm+Beach+Post+May+28%2C+1970&rft.pages=14&rft.date=1970-05-28&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newspapers.com%2Fclip%2F13598112%2Fcampus-unrest-linked-to-drugs%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKent+State+shootings" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wksu.org/government-politics/2019-05-04/bob-woodward-shares-chilling-words-from-former-president-richard-nixon-about-may-4-shootings">"Bob Woodward Shares 'Chilling' Words from Former President Richard Nixon About May 4 Shootings"</a>. <a href="/wiki/WKSU" title="WKSU">WKSU</a>. May 5, 2019. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201129074216/https://www.wksu.org/government-politics/2019-05-04/bob-woodward-shares-chilling-words-from-former-president-richard-nixon-about-may-4-shootings">Archived</a> from the original on November 29, 2020. Retrieved February 17, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=WKSU&rft.atitle=Bob+Woodward+Shares+%27Chilling%27+Words+from+Former+President+Richard+Nixon+About+May+4+Shootings&rft.date=2019-05-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wksu.org%2Fgovernment-politics%2F2019-05-04%2Fbob-woodward-shares-chilling-words-from-former-president-richard-nixon-about-may-4-shootings&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKent+State+shootings" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://millercenter.org/the-presidency/educational-resources/kill-few">"'Kill A Few': Nixon's cold-blooded take on Kent State showed little regard for those opposed to him"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Miller_Center_of_Public_Affairs" title="Miller Center of Public Affairs">Miller Center of Public Affairs</a>. July 9, 2019. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210228034146/https://millercenter.org/the-presidency/educational-resources/kill-few">Archived</a> from the original on February 28, 2021. Retrieved February 17, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Miller+Center+of+Public+Affairs&rft.atitle=%27Kill+A+Few%27%3A+Nixon%27s+cold-blooded+take+on+Kent+State+showed+little+regard+for+those+opposed+to+him&rft.date=2019-07-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmillercenter.org%2Fthe-presidency%2Feducational-resources%2Fkill-few&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKent+State+shootings" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://eu.cincinnati.com/in-depth/news/history/2020/05/01/kent-state-shooting-photos-mary-ann-vecchio-impacts-nation-jeffrey-miller-john-filo/3055009001/">"Iconic image from Kent State shootings stokes the fires of anti-Vietnam War sentiment"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Cincinnati_Enquirer" title="The Cincinnati Enquirer">The Cincinnati Enquirer</a>. May 2, 2020. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211026045809/https://www.cincinnati.com/in-depth/news/history/2020/05/01/kent-state-shooting-photos-mary-ann-vecchio-impacts-nation-jeffrey-miller-john-filo/3055009001/">Archived</a> from the original on October 26, 2021. Retrieved February 17, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Cincinnati+Enquirer&rft.atitle=Iconic+image+from+Kent+State+shootings+stokes+the+fires+of+anti-Vietnam+War+sentiment&rft.date=2020-05-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Feu.cincinnati.com%2Fin-depth%2Fnews%2Fhistory%2F2020%2F05%2F01%2Fkent-state-shooting-photos-mary-ann-vecchio-impacts-nation-jeffrey-miller-john-filo%2F3055009001%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKent+State+shootings" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeans2016">Means 2016</a>, pp. 171–186 </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061201034204/http://www.aaregistry.com/african_american_history/1660/Killings_at_Jackson_State_University">"Killings at Jackson State University!"</a>. The African American Registry. 2005. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aaregistry.com/african_american_history/1660/Killings_at_Jackson_State_University">the original</a> on December 1, 2006. Retrieved April 16, 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+African+American+Registry&rft.atitle=Killings+at+Jackson+State+University%21&rft.date=2005&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aaregistry.com%2Fafrican_american_history%2F1660%2FKillings_at_Jackson_State_University&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKent+State+shootings" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/reportofpresiden0000unit">The Report of the President's Commission on Campus Unrest</a>. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. 1970. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-405-01712-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-405-01712-X"><bdi>0-405-01712-X</bdi></a>. Retrieved April 30, 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Report+of+the+President%27s+Commission+on+Campus+Unrest&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.pub=U.S.+Government+Printing+Office&rft.date=1970&rft.isbn=0-405-01712-X&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Freportofpresiden0000unit&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKent+State+shootings" class="Z3988"> This book is also known as The Scranton Commission Report. </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dks.library.kent.edu/cgi-bin/kentstate?a=d&d=dks19701117-01.2.21">"Daily Kent Stater"</a>. Vol. LVI, no. 31. November 17, 1970. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200502204638/https://dks.library.kent.edu/cgi-bin/kentstate?a=d&d=dks19701117-01.2.21">Archived</a> from the original on May 2, 2020. Retrieved May 4, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Daily+Kent+Stater&rft.volume=LVI&rft.issue=31&rft.date=1970-11-17&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdks.library.kent.edu%2Fcgi-bin%2Fkentstate%3Fa%3Dd%26d%3Ddks19701117-01.2.21&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKent+State+shootings" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20020918131557/http://www.burr.kent.edu/archives/may4/twentyfive/twentyfive1.html">"Kent Twenty Five"</a>. Burr.kent.edu. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.burr.kent.edu/archives/may4/twentyfive/twentyfive1.html">the original</a> on September 18, 2002. Retrieved May 12, 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Kent+Twenty+Five&rft.pub=Burr.kent.edu&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.burr.kent.edu%2Farchives%2Fmay4%2Ftwentyfive%2Ftwentyfive1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKent+State+shootings" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-may41970.org_chronology-88"><a href="#cite_ref-may41970.org_chronology_88-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPacificoKendra_Lee_Hicks_Pacifico" class="citation web cs1">Pacifico, Michael; Kendra Lee Hicks Pacifico. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.may41970.com/trials.htm">"Chronological summary of events"</a>. Mike and Kendra's May 4, 1970, Web Site. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071004201107/http://www.may41970.com/trials.htm">Archived</a> from the original on October 4, 2007. Retrieved April 16, 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Mike+and+Kendra%27s+May+4%2C+1970%2C+Web+Site&rft.atitle=Chronological+summary+of+events&rft.aulast=Pacifico&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft.au=Kendra+Lee+Hicks+Pacifico&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.may41970.com%2Ftrials.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKent+State+shootings" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKelnerMunves2016" class="citation book cs1">Kelner, Joseph; Munves, James (2016). The Kent State Coverup (1st ed.). New York, NY: Open Lane Distribution. p. 28. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5040-3683-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5040-3683-2"><bdi>978-1-5040-3683-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Kent+State+Coverup&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pages=28&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Open+Lane+Distribution&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-5040-3683-2&rft.aulast=Kelner&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rft.au=Munves%2C+James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKent+State+shootings" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> Tim Phillips, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://activistdefense.wordpress.com/2013/03/08/attorney-for-students-who-were-shot-at-kent-state-dies-in-new-york/">"Attorney for Students who were Shot at Kent State Dies in New York"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160120124016/https://activistdefense.wordpress.com/2013/03/08/attorney-for-students-who-were-shot-at-kent-state-dies-in-new-york/">Archived</a> January 20, 2016, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Activist Defense, March 8, 2013. </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> Neil, Martha, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.abajournal.com/news/article/joseph_kelner_attorney_who_sued_sitting_ohio_governor_over_kent_state_slayi/">"Joseph Kelner, attorney who sued sitting Ohio governor over Kent State slayings, is dead at 98"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180823141922/http://www.abajournal.com/news/article/joseph_kelner_attorney_who_sued_sitting_ohio_governor_over_kent_state_slayi/">Archived</a> August 23, 2018, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a href="/wiki/American_Bar_Association" title="American Bar Association">ABA</a>Journal, March 8, 2013. Retrieved 2013-03-09. </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFStone1970" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/I._F._Stone" title="I. F. Stone">Stone, I.F.</a> (December 3, 1970). "Fabricated Evidence in the Kent State Killings". <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Review_of_Books" title="The New York Review of Books">The New York Review of Books</a>. 15 (10). <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0028-7504">0028-7504</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1760105">1760105</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Review+of+Books&rft.atitle=Fabricated+Evidence+in+the+Kent+State+Killings&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=10&rft.date=1970-12-03&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1760105&rft.issn=0028-7504&rft.aulast=Stone&rft.aufirst=I.F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKent+State+shootings" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070303135344/http://www.kent.edu/cacm/">"Center for Applied Conflict Management"</a>. CACM Homepage. January 29, 2007. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.kent.edu/cacm/">the original</a> on March 3, 2007. Retrieved April 16, 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=CACM+Homepage&rft.atitle=Center+for+Applied+Conflict+Management&rft.date=2007-01-29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.kent.edu%2Fcacm%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKent+State+shootings" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRenner2006" class="citation news cs1">Renner, James (May 3, 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071022061127/http://www.freetimes.com/story/152">"The Kent State Conspiracies: What Really Happened On May 4, 1970?"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Cleveland_Free_Times" title="Cleveland Free Times">Cleveland Free Times</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.freetimes.com/story/152">the original</a> on October 22, 2007. Retrieved May 1, 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cleveland+Free+Times&rft.atitle=The+Kent+State+Conspiracies%3A+What+Really+Happened+On+May+4%2C+1970%3F&rft.date=2006-05-03&rft.aulast=Renner&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.freetimes.com%2Fstory%2F152&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKent+State+shootings" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCanfora2006" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alan_Canfora" class="mw-redirect" title="Alan Canfora">Canfora, Alan</a> (March 16, 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://alancanfora.com/?q=node/10">"US Government Conspiracy at Kent State – May 4, 1970"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070306150904/http://alancanfora.com/?q=node%2F10">Archived</a> from the original on March 6, 2007. Retrieved April 16, 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=US+Government+Conspiracy+at+Kent+State+%E2%80%93+May+4%2C+1970&rft.date=2006-03-16&rft.aulast=Canfora&rft.aufirst=Alan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Falancanfora.com%2F%3Fq%3Dnode%2F10&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKent+State+shootings" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> Verifying documents are in the Special Collections archive at the Kent State University library. </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCorcoran2006" class="citation news cs1">Corcoran, Michael (May 4, 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.boston.com/news/globe/editorial_opinion/oped/articles/2006/05/04/why_kent_state_is_important_today/">"Why Kent State is Important Today"</a>. The Boston Globe. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071016060116/http://boston.com/news/globe/editorial_opinion/oped/articles/2006/05/04/why_kent_state_is_important_today/">Archived</a> from the original on October 16, 2007. Retrieved May 1, 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Boston+Globe&rft.atitle=Why+Kent+State+is+Important+Today&rft.date=2006-05-04&rft.aulast=Corcoran&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.boston.com%2Fnews%2Fglobe%2Feditorial_opinion%2Foped%2Farticles%2F2006%2F05%2F04%2Fwhy_kent_state_is_important_today%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKent+State+shootings" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFStang1974" class="citation journal cs1">Stang, Alan (1974). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://25thaviation.org/id960.htm">"Kent State:Proof to Save the Guardsmen"</a> (Reprint). American Opinion. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0003-0236">0003-0236</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1480501">1480501</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070929013919/http://25thaviation.org/id960.htm">Archived</a> from the original on September 29, 2007. Retrieved May 1, 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Opinion&rft.atitle=Kent+State%3AProof+to+Save+the+Guardsmen&rft.date=1974&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1480501&rft.issn=0003-0236&rft.aulast=Stang&rft.aufirst=Alan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2F25thaviation.org%2Fid960.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKent+State+shootings" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dept.kent.edu/may4/people/russelljim.html">People: James Dennis Russell</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304053126/http://dept.kent.edu/may4/people/russelljim.html">Archived</a> March 4, 2016, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Department of Kent Education. Retrieved January 22, 2014. </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090107115652/http://www.recordpub.com/news/article/3937591">Victim of KSU May 4 shootings dies</a> Recordpub.com. Retrieved from Internet Archive January 2014. </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.beaconjournal.com/story/news/2020/12/27/activist-alan-canfora-wounded-may-4-1970-kent-state-shootings-dead-71/4054772001/">"Alan Canfora, survivor of May 4, 1970, Kent State shootings dies"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201228112037/https://www.beaconjournal.com/story/news/2020/12/27/activist-alan-canfora-wounded-may-4-1970-kent-state-shootings-dead-71/4054772001/">Archived</a> from the original on December 28, 2020. 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(May 2, 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/05/02/AR2007050200322.html">"Kent State Audio Tape Released"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170202054001/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/05/02/AR2007050200322.html">Archived</a> from the original on February 2, 2017. 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New York, NY: Open Lane Distribution. p. 187. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5040-3683-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5040-3683-2"><bdi>978-1-5040-3683-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Kent+State+Coverup&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pages=187&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Open+Lane+Distribution&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-5040-3683-2&rft.aulast=Kelner&rft.aufirst=James&rft.au=Munves%2C+James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKent+State+shootings" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKelnerMunves2016" class="citation book cs1">Kelner, James; Munves (2016). The Kent State Coverup (1st ed.). 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The New York Times. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100524021630/http://www.nytimes.com//2010//05//12//us//12brfs-ANALYSISREOP_BRF.html">Archived</a> from the original on May 24, 2010. Retrieved February 1, 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Ohio%3A+Analysis+Reopens+Kent+State+Controversy&rft.date=2010-05-11&rft.aulast=Maag&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2010%2F05%2F12%2Fus%2F12brfs-ANALYSISREOP_BRF.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKent+State+shootings" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNortheast_Ohio2012" class="citation web cs1">Northeast Ohio (May 4, 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cleveland.com/metro/index.ssf/2012/05/may_4th_wounded_from_kent_stat.html">"May 4th wounded from Kent State shootings want independent review of new evidence Cleveland Plain Dealer May 3, 2012"</a>. 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Cleveland Plain Dealer. Blog.cleveland.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110605205036/http://blog.cleveland.com/metro/2010/05/new_analysis_of_40-year-old_re.html">Archived</a> from the original on June 5, 2011. 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Retrieved April 17, 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Abraham+and+Isaac&rft.pub=Kent+State+University+Libraries+and+Media+Services%2C+Department+of+Special+Collections+and+Archives&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fspeccoll.library.kent.edu%2F4may70%2Fexhibit%2Fmemorials%2Fsegal.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKent+State+shootings" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSheppard1995" class="citation web cs1">Sheppard, Jennifer (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.princetonol.com/patron/sculpt/">"Strolling Among Sculpture on Campus"</a>. The Princeton Patron. Princeton Online. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070927024204/http://www.princetonol.com/patron/sculpt/">Archived</a> from the original on September 27, 2007. Retrieved April 16, 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Princeton+Patron&rft.atitle=Strolling+Among+Sculpture+on+Campus&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Sheppard&rft.aufirst=Jennifer&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.princetonol.com%2Fpatron%2Fsculpt%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKent+State+shootings" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://artmuseum.princeton.edu/campus-art/objects/31772">"Abraham and Isaac: In Memory of May 4, 1970, Kent State University"</a>. Browse the Collection. Princeton Campus Art Collection. 2017. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170425082418/http://artmuseum.princeton.edu/campus-art/objects/31772">Archived</a> from the original on April 25, 2017. Retrieved October 29, 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Browse+the+Collection&rft.atitle=Abraham+and+Isaac%3A+In+Memory+of+May+4%2C+1970%2C+Kent+State+University&rft.date=2017&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fartmuseum.princeton.edu%2Fcampus-art%2Fobjects%2F31772&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKent+State+shootings" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://speccoll.library.kent.edu/4may70/exhibit/memorials/m4mem.html">"May 4 Memorial (Kent State University)"</a>. Kent State University Libraries and Media Services, Department of Special Collections and Archives. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070221165537/http://speccoll.library.kent.edu/4may70/exhibit/memorials/m4mem.html">Archived</a> from the original on February 21, 2007. Retrieved April 16, 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=May+4+Memorial+%28Kent+State+University%29&rft.pub=Kent+State+University+Libraries+and+Media+Services%2C+Department+of+Special+Collections+and+Archives&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fspeccoll.library.kent.edu%2F4may70%2Fexhibit%2Fmemorials%2Fm4mem.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKent+State+shootings" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.may41970.com/Backgrounds,%20Titles,%20Lines/Various%20Backgrounds/memorial.htm">"May 4 Memorial Controversy"</a>. May41970.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130601040036/http://www.may41970.com/Backgrounds,%20Titles,%20Lines/Various%20Backgrounds/memorial.htm">Archived</a> from the original on June 1, 2013. Retrieved May 12, 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=May+4+Memorial+Controversy&rft.pub=May41970.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.may41970.com%2FBackgrounds%2C%2520Titles%2C%2520Lines%2FVarious%2520Backgrounds%2Fmemorial.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKent+State+shootings" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080304055202/http://www.jmc.kent.edu/asne/2003/stories/memorial/may4th.html">May 4 Memorials: Eyewitnesses react</a> Retrieved from Internet Archive January 18, 2014. </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.may41970.com/PrenticeLotMay1999-2.htm">"Prentice Lot May 1999"</a>. January 27, 2001. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110212210243/http://www.may41970.com/PrenticeLotMay1999-2.htm">Archived</a> from the original on February 12, 2011. Retrieved September 14, 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Prentice+Lot+May+1999&rft.date=2001-01-27&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.may41970.com%2FPrenticeLotMay1999-2.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKent+State+shootings" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPacificoKendra_Lee_Hicks_Pacifico2000" class="citation web cs1">Pacifico, Michael; Kendra Lee Hicks Pacifico (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.may41970.com/Prentice%20Update%20May%201999/Prentice%20Dedication%20Sept%20,%201999/PreticeLotDedication.htm">"Prentice Lot Memorial Dedication, September 8, 1999"</a>. Mike and Kendra's May 4, 1970, Web Site. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071015225605/http://may41970.com/Prentice%20Update%20May%201999/Prentice%20Dedication%20Sept%20,%201999/PreticeLotDedication.htm">Archived</a> from the original on October 15, 2007. Retrieved April 16, 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Mike+and+Kendra%27s+May+4%2C+1970%2C+Web+Site&rft.atitle=Prentice+Lot+Memorial+Dedication%2C+September+8%2C+1999&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Pacifico&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft.au=Kendra+Lee+Hicks+Pacifico&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.may41970.com%2FPrentice%2520Update%2520May%25201999%2FPrentice%2520Dedication%2520Sept%2520%2C%25201999%2FPreticeLotDedication.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKent+State+shootings" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFO'Brien2007" class="citation news cs1 cs1-prop-location-test">O'Brien, Dave (May 3, 2007). Written at <a href="/wiki/Kent,_Ohio" title="Kent, Ohio">Kent, Ohio</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080506113047/http://www.recordpub.com/news/article/1946371">"State honors historic KSU site with plaque near Taylor Hall"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Record-Courier_(Ohio)" title="Record-Courier (Ohio)">Record-Courier</a>. <a href="/wiki/Kent,_Ohio" title="Kent, Ohio">Kent</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ravenna,_Ohio" title="Ravenna, Ohio">Ravenna, Ohio</a>. pp. A1, A10. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.recordpub.com/news/article/1946371">the original</a> on May 6, 2008. Retrieved March 27, 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Record-Courier&rft.atitle=State+honors+historic+KSU+site+with+plaque+near+Taylor+Hall&rft.pages=A1%2C+A10&rft.date=2007-05-03&rft.aulast=O%27Brien&rft.aufirst=Dave&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.recordpub.com%2Fnews%2Farticle%2F1946371&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKent+State+shootings" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSteve_Duin2007" class="citation web cs1">Steve Duin (July 1, 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080503214325/http://fairuse.100webcustomers.com/fairenough/oregon01.html">"The long road back from Kent State"</a>. The Oregonian. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://fairuse.100webcustomers.com/fairenough/oregon01.html">the original</a> on May 3, 2008. Retrieved April 11, 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Oregonian&rft.atitle=The+long+road+back+from+Kent+State&rft.date=2007-07-01&rft.au=Steve+Duin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffairuse.100webcustomers.com%2Ffairenough%2Foregon01.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKent+State+shootings" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWill_Bunch2016" class="citation web cs1">Will Bunch [@Will_Bunch] (July 22, 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://x.com/Will_Bunch/status/756513980009644032">"1. On morning after Trump's embrace of Nixon '68, "law and order," I went out to see the true meaning at Kent State"</a> (<a href="/wiki/Tweet_(social_media)" title="Tweet (social media)">Tweet</a>) – via <a href="/wiki/Twitter" title="Twitter">Twitter</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=1.+On+morning+after+Trump%27s+embrace+of+Nixon+%2768%2C+%22law+and+order%2C%22+I+went+out+to+see+the+true+meaning+at+Kent+State&rft.date=2016-07-22&rft.au=Will+Bunch&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fx.com%2FWill_Bunch%2Fstatus%2F756513980009644032&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKent+State+shootings" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWill_Bunch2016" class="citation web cs1">Will Bunch [@Will_Bunch] (July 22, 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://x.com/Will_Bunch/status/756527077499801600">"@SethSTannenbaum Sure!"</a> (<a href="/wiki/Tweet_(social_media)" title="Tweet (social media)">Tweet</a>) – via <a href="/wiki/Twitter" title="Twitter">Twitter</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%40SethSTannenbaum+Sure%21&rft.date=2016-07-22&rft.au=Will+Bunch&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fx.com%2FWill_Bunch%2Fstatus%2F756527077499801600&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKent+State+shootings" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://einside.kent.edu/?type=art&id=88108">"Associate Provost's Perspective"</a>. Einside.kent.edu. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140201234916/http://einside.kent.edu/?type=art&id=88108">Archived</a> from the original on February 1, 2014. Retrieved May 12, 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Associate+Provost%27s+Perspective&rft.pub=Einside.kent.edu&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Feinside.kent.edu%2F%3Ftype%3Dart%26id%3D88108&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKent+State+shootings" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thenation.com/article/174348/closure-kent-state#">Closure at Kent State?</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131220213947/http://www.thenation.com/article/174348/closure-kent-state">Archived</a> December 20, 2013, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> The Nation. Retrieved January 20, 2014. </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nps.gov/history/nr/publications/bulletins/nrb15/nrb15_2.htm">National Register Criteria for Evaluation</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121106141350/http://www.nps.gov/history/nr/publications/bulletins/nrb15/nrb15_2.htm">Archived</a> November 6, 2012, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a href="/wiki/National_Park_Service" title="National Park Service">National Park Service</a>. Accessed 2013-02-28. </li> <li id="cite_note-featured-130"><a href="#cite_ref-featured_130-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nps.gov/history/nr/nrlist.htm">"Weekly List Actions"</a>. National Park Service. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090830044918/http://www.nps.gov/history/nr/nrlist.htm">Archived</a> from the original on August 30, 2009. Retrieved March 5, 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Weekly+List+Actions&rft.pub=National+Park+Service&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nps.gov%2Fhistory%2Fnr%2Fnrlist.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKent+State+shootings" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLopresti2010" class="citation news cs1">Lopresti, Mike (May 3, 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.usatoday.com/sports/columnist/lopresti/2010-05-03-kent-state-shooting-anniversary_N.htm">"May 4 shootings still follow former Kent State football players"</a>. USA Today. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100507090655/http://www.usatoday.com/sports/columnist/lopresti/2010-05-03-kent-state-shooting-anniversary_N.htm">Archived</a> from the original on May 7, 2010. Retrieved December 6, 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=USA+Today&rft.atitle=May+4+shootings+still+follow+former+Kent+State+football+players&rft.date=2010-05-03&rft.aulast=Lopresti&rft.aufirst=Mike&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.usatoday.com%2Fsports%2Fcolumnist%2Flopresti%2F2010-05-03-kent-state-shooting-anniversary_N.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKent+State+shootings" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKirst2010" class="citation news cs1">Kirst, Sean (May 4, 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.syracuse.com/kirst/index.ssf/2010/05/post_46.html">"Kent State: 'One or two cracks of rifle fire ... Oh my God!'"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Post-Standard" title="The Post-Standard">The Post-Standard</a>. Syracuse, New York. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100805070214/http://www.syracuse.com/kirst/index.ssf/2010/05/post_46.html">Archived</a> from the original on August 5, 2010. Retrieved December 6, 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Post-Standard&rft.atitle=Kent+State%3A+%27One+or+two+cracks+of+rifle+fire+...+Oh+my+God%21%27&rft.date=2010-05-04&rft.aulast=Kirst&rft.aufirst=Sean&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.syracuse.com%2Fkirst%2Findex.ssf%2F2010%2F05%2Fpost_46.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKent+State+shootings" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-npr50310-133"><a href="#cite_ref-npr50310_133-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAdams2010" class="citation news cs1">Adams, Noah (May 3, 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=126423778">"Shots Still Reverberate For Survivors Of Kent State"</a>. NPR. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101201023140/http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=126423778">Archived</a> from the original on December 1, 2010. Retrieved December 6, 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Shots+Still+Reverberate+For+Survivors+Of+Kent+State&rft.date=2010-05-03&rft.aulast=Adams&rft.aufirst=Noah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.npr.org%2Ftemplates%2Fstory%2Fstory.php%3FstoryId%3D126423778&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKent+State+shootings" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-npsweekly-134"><a href="#cite_ref-npsweekly_134-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nps.gov/nr/listings/20170303.htm">"Weekly list of actions 2/16/2017 through 3/2/2017"</a>. 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November 12, 2012. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140201173340/http://www.conncoll.edu/news/event-releases/4-dead-in-ohio-explores-modern-event-through-ancient-story.htm">Archived</a> from the original on February 1, 2014. Retrieved January 20, 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Event+Releases%3A+%274+Dead+in+Ohio%27+explores+modern+event+through+ancient+story&rft.pub=Connecticut+College&rft.date=2012-11-12&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.conncoll.edu%2Fnews%2Fevent-releases%2F4-dead-in-ohio-explores-modern-event-through-ancient-story.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKent+State+shootings" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a> Ginsberg, Allan. 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April 5, 2015. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201021000420/https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/kent-state-shooting-victim-sandra-lee-scheuer-inspired-b-c-poet-1.3021440">Archived</a> from the original on October 21, 2020. Retrieved September 25, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=CBC&rft.atitle=Kent+State+shooting+victim+Sandra+Lee+Scheuer+inspired+B.C.+poet&rft.date=2015-04-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cbc.ca%2Fnews%2Fcanada%2Fbritish-columbia%2Fkent-state-shooting-victim-sandra-lee-scheuer-inspired-b-c-poet-1.3021440&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKent+State+shootings" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWiles2020" class="citation book cs1">Wiles, Deborah (2020). Kent State (First ed.). 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Retrieved January 21, 2014. </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAdlington2018" class="citation journal cs1">Adlington, Robert (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://eprints.hud.ac.uk/id/eprint/33967/1/Politics%20and%20the%20popular%20in%20British%20music%20theatre%20of%20the%20Vietnam%20era.pdf">"Politics and the popular in British music theatre of the Vietnam era"</a> (PDF). 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Music Theatre in Britain, 1960–1975. Boydell & Brewer Ltd. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-7832-7012-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-7832-7012-5"><bdi>978-1-7832-7012-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Music+Theatre+in+Britain%2C+1960%E2%80%931975&rft.pub=Boydell+%26+Brewer+Ltd.&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-7832-7012-5&rft.aulast=Hall&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKent+State+shootings" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JPOiGJgwGHQ">Ruth Warrick – 41,000 Plus 4 (Ballad of the Kent State Massacre)</a>, April 19, 2013, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210902200121/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JPOiGJgwGHQ">archived</a> from the original on September 2, 2021, retrieved September 2, 2021</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ruth+Warrick+%E2%80%93+41%2C000+Plus+4+%28Ballad+of+the+Kent+State+Massacre%29&rft.date=2013-04-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DJPOiGJgwGHQ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKent+State+shootings" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060613202147/http://composersdatebook.publicradio.org/listings/datebook_20020501.php">"May 1–4, 2002"</a>. 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Retrieved May 4, 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=YouTube&rft.atitle=Holly+Near+%E2%80%93+It+Could+Have+Been+Me+%28Live%29&rft.date=2011-08-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DCadP4dRemYk&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKent+State+shootings" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation book cs1">The Kent State May 4 CD Project. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/664554120">664554120</a> – via WorldCat.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Kent+State+May+4+CD+Project&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F664554120&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKent+State+shootings" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-176"><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wirz.de/music/danefrm.htm">"Barbara Dane Discography"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090709233038/http://www.wirz.de/music/danefrm.htm">Archived</a> from the original on July 9, 2009. Retrieved October 12, 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Barbara+Dane+Discography&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wirz.de%2Fmusic%2Fdanefrm.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKent+State+shootings" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-177"><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gCb0v6TlRAo">Barbara Dane – The Kent State Massacre</a>, April 19, 2013, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210902200120/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gCb0v6TlRAo">archived</a> from the original on September 2, 2021, retrieved September 2, 2021</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Barbara+Dane+%E2%80%93+The+Kent+State+Massacre&rft.date=2013-04-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DgCb0v6TlRAo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKent+State+shootings" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-178"><a href="#cite_ref-178">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJacobs" class="citation web cs1">Jacobs, Peter. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/lsu-fraternity-apologizes-offensive-kent-state-shootings-2013-9">"LSU Fraternity Apologizes For Offensive Sign Referencing Kent State Shootings"</a>. Business Insider. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210607184901/https://www.businessinsider.com/lsu-fraternity-apologizes-offensive-kent-state-shootings-2013-9">Archived</a> from the original on June 7, 2021. Retrieved June 7, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Business+Insider&rft.atitle=LSU+Fraternity+Apologizes+For+Offensive+Sign+Referencing+Kent+State+Shootings&rft.aulast=Jacobs&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.businessinsider.com%2Flsu-fraternity-apologizes-offensive-kent-state-shootings-2013-9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKent+State+shootings" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-179"><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://people.com/celebrity/urban-outfitters-kent-state-sweatshirt-stirs-anger/">"Urban Outfitters Kent State Sweatshirt Stirs Anger"</a>. People. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201111191550/https://people.com/celebrity/urban-outfitters-kent-state-sweatshirt-stirs-anger/">Archived</a> from the original on November 11, 2020. Retrieved June 7, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=People&rft.atitle=Urban+Outfitters+Kent+State+Sweatshirt+Stirs+Anger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpeople.com%2Fcelebrity%2Furban-outfitters-kent-state-sweatshirt-stirs-anger%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKent+State+shootings" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-180"><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHogan2023" class="citation web cs1">Hogan, Brandon (September 1, 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.clickorlando.com/sports/2023/09/01/ucf-athletics-apologizes-for-call-the-national-guard-post-after-routing-kent-state/">"UCF Athletics apologizes for 'CALL THE NATIONAL GUARD' post after routing Kent State"</a>. WKMG. Retrieved September 20, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=WKMG&rft.atitle=UCF+Athletics+apologizes+for+%27CALL+THE+NATIONAL+GUARD%27+post+after+routing+Kent+State&rft.date=2023-09-01&rft.aulast=Hogan&rft.aufirst=Brandon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.clickorlando.com%2Fsports%2F2023%2F09%2F01%2Fucf-athletics-apologizes-for-call-the-national-guard-post-after-routing-kent-state%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKent+State+shootings" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kent_State_shootings&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Bibliography">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMeans2016" class="citation book cs1">Means, Howard B. (2016). 67 shots : Kent State and the end of American innocence. Boston, MA. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-306-82379-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-306-82379-4"><bdi>978-0-306-82379-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/914195431">914195431</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=67+shots+%3A+Kent+State+and+the+end+of+American+innocence&rft.place=Boston%2C+MA&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F914195431&rft.isbn=978-0-306-82379-4&rft.aulast=Means&rft.aufirst=Howard+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKent+State+shootings" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kent_State_shootings&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_the_Kent_State_shootings" title="Bibliography of the Kent State shootings">Bibliography of the Kent State shootings</a></div> <ul><li>Agte, Barbara Becker (2012). Kent Letters: Students' Responses to the May 1970 Massacre. Deming, New Mexico: Bluewaters Press <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9823766-6-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9823766-6-9">978-0-9823766-6-9</a></li> <li>Davies, Peter and the Board of Church and Society of the United Methodist Church (1973). The Truth About Kent State: A Challenge to the American Conscience.New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-374-27938-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-374-27938-1">0-374-27938-1</a>.</li> <li>Giles, Robert H (2020). When Truth Mattered: The Kent State Shootings 50 Years Later. Mission Point Press <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-950659-39-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-950659-39-5">978-1-950659-39-5</a></li> <li>Gordon, William A. (1990). The Fourth of May: Killings and Coverups at Kent State. Buffalo, New York: Prometheus Books. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87975-582-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-87975-582-2">0-87975-582-2</a>. Updated and reprinted in 1995 as Four Dead in Ohio: Was There a Conspiracy at Kent State? Laguna Hills, California: North Ridge Books. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-937813-05-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-937813-05-2">0-937813-05-2</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGrace" class="citation interview cs1">Grace, Tom. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060424052722/http://web.mala.bc.ca/davies/H323Vietnam/Grace_Kent_State.1970.htm">"The Shooting at Kent State: An Eyewitness Account"</a> (Interview). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web.mala.bc.ca/davies/H323Vietnam/Grace_Kent_State.1970.htm">the original</a> on April 24, 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Shooting+at+Kent+State%3A+An+Eyewitness+Account&rft.aulast=Grace&rft.aufirst=Tom&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fweb.mala.bc.ca%2Fdavies%2FH323Vietnam%2FGrace_Kent_State.1970.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKent+State+shootings" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Grace, Thomas (2016). Kent State: Death and Dissent in the Long Sixties. Amherst, Massachusetts: University of Massachusetts Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-62534-111-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-62534-111-2">978-1-62534-111-2</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLewisHensley1998" class="citation journal cs1">Lewis, Jerry M.; Hensley, Thomas R. (Summer 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080509131525/http://dept.kent.edu/sociology/lewis/LEWIHEN.htm">"The May 4 Shootings at Kent State University: The Search for Historical Accuracy"</a>. The Ohio Council for the Social Studies Review. 34 (1): 9–21. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dept.kent.edu/sociology/lewis/lewihen.htm">the original</a> on May 9, 2008. Retrieved August 28, 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Ohio+Council+for+the+Social+Studies+Review&rft.atitle=The+May+4+Shootings+at+Kent+State+University%3A+The+Search+for+Historical+Accuracy&rft.ssn=summer&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E9-%3C%2Fspan%3E21&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=Jerry+M.&rft.au=Hensley%2C+Thomas+R.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdept.kent.edu%2Fsociology%2Flewis%2Flewihen.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKent+State+shootings" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Listman, John W. Jr. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071109064932/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3731/is_200005/ai_n8897826">Kent's Other Casualties</a>", National Guard magazine, May 2000.</li> <li>Michener, James (1971). Kent State: What Happened and Why. New York: Random House and Reader's Digest Books. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-394-47199-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-394-47199-7">0-394-47199-7</a>.</li> <li>Payne, J. Gregory (1981). Mayday: Kent State. Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Hunt Pub. Co. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8403-2393-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-8403-2393-X">0-8403-2393-X</a>.</li> <li>Stone, I. F. (1970). The Killings at Kent State: How Murder Went Unpunished, in series, New York Review Book[s]. New York: distributed by Vintage Books. N.B.: The second printing also includes copyrighted material dated 1971. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-394-70953-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-394-70953-5">0-394-70953-5</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kent_State_shootings&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/60px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Kent_State_shootings" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Kent State shootings">Kent State shootings</a>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735" /><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikiquote-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></a></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Kent_State_shootings" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Kent State shootings">Kent State shootings</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.library.kent.edu/special-collections-and-archives/kent-state-shootings-may-4-collection">May 4 Collection</a> – Kent State University, Special Collections and Archives</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mappingmay4.kent.edu/">Mapping May 4</a> – map of stories from the oral history collection</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://vault.fbi.gov/Kent%20State">FBI files related to the Kent State shootings</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/TerryNorman">FBI Files online</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.may4archive.org/">May4Archive.org</a> – maintained by author J. Gregory Payne</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.truthtribunal.org/">Kent State Truth Tribunal website</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kentstateterrynorman.com/">Kent State</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://omeka.binghamton.edu/omeka/items/show/894/">Interview with Alan Canfora and Dr. Roseann Chic Canfora, survivors of the Kent State shootings</a> – Binghamton University Libraries Center for the Study of the 1960s</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl 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.navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Kent_State_University501" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="background-color:#002664;color:white;box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #EFAB00, inset -2px -2px 0 #EFAB00;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Kent_State_University" title="Template:Kent State University"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:white">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Kent_State_University" title="Template talk:Kent State University"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:white">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Kent_State_University" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Kent State University"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:white">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Kent_State_University501" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Kent_State_University" title="Kent State University">Kent State University</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="background-color:#002664;color:white;box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #EFAB00, inset -2px -2px 0 #EFAB00;"><div>Founded: 1910</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#002664;color:white;box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #EFAB00, inset -2px -2px 0 #EFAB00;;width:1%">Campuses</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kent_State_University" title="Kent State University">Kent (Main)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kent_State_University_at_Ashtabula" title="Kent State University at Ashtabula">Ashtabula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kent_State_University_at_East_Liverpool" title="Kent State University at East Liverpool">East Liverpool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kent_State_University_at_Geauga" class="mw-redirect" title="Kent State University at Geauga">Geauga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kent_State_University_at_Salem" title="Kent State University at Salem">Salem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kent_State_University_at_Stark" title="Kent State University at Stark">Stark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kent_State_University_at_Trumbull" class="mw-redirect" title="Kent State University at Trumbull">Trumbull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kent_State_University_at_Tuscarawas" class="mw-redirect" title="Kent State University at Tuscarawas">Tuscarawas</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="8" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Kent_State_University_logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Kent_State_University_logo.svg/150px-Kent_State_University_logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="46" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Kent_State_University_logo.svg/225px-Kent_State_University_logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Kent_State_University_logo.svg/300px-Kent_State_University_logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="439" data-file-height="135" /></a> <a href="/wiki/File:Merrill_Hall_3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Merrill_Hall_3.jpg/150px-Merrill_Hall_3.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Merrill_Hall_3.jpg/225px-Merrill_Hall_3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Merrill_Hall_3.jpg/300px-Merrill_Hall_3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2576" data-file-height="1932" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#002664;color:white;box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #EFAB00, inset -2px -2px 0 #EFAB00;;width:1%">Academics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kent_State_University#Academic_divisions" title="Kent State University">College of Architecture and Environmental Design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kent_State_University#Academic_divisions" title="Kent State University">College of the Arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kent_State_University#Academic_divisions" title="Kent State University">College of Arts and Sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kent_State_University#Academic_divisions" title="Kent State University">College of Business Administration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kent_State_University#Academic_divisions" title="Kent State University">College of Communication and Information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kent_State_University#Academic_divisions" title="Kent State University">College of Education, Health, and Human Services</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kent_State_University#Academic_divisions" title="Kent State University">College of Nursing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kent_State_University#Academic_divisions" title="Kent State University">College of Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kent_State_University#Academic_divisions" title="Kent State University">Honors College</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kent_State_University_College_of_Podiatric_Medicine" title="Kent State University College of Podiatric Medicine">College of Podiatric Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kent_State_University#Notable_programs" title="Kent State University">School of Fashion Design and Merchandising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kent_State_University#Notable_programs" title="Kent State University">Wick Poetry Center</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#002664;color:white;box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #EFAB00, inset -2px -2px 0 #EFAB00;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Kent_State_Golden_Flashes" title="Kent State Golden Flashes">Athletics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#002664;color:white;box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #EFAB00, inset -2px -2px 0 #EFAB00;;width:1%">Teams</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kent_State_Golden_Flashes_baseball" title="Kent State Golden Flashes baseball">Baseball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kent_State_Golden_Flashes_men%27s_basketball" title="Kent State Golden Flashes men's basketball">Men's Basketball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kent_State_Golden_Flashes_women%27s_basketball" title="Kent State Golden Flashes women's basketball">Women's Basketball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kent_State_Golden_Flashes_football" title="Kent State Golden Flashes football">Football</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kent_State_Golden_Flashes_men%27s_golf" title="Kent State Golden Flashes men's golf">Men's Golf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kent_State_Golden_Flashes_women%27s_golf" title="Kent State Golden Flashes women's golf">Women's Golf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kent_State_Golden_Flashes_softball" title="Kent State Golden Flashes softball">Softball</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#002664;color:white;box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #EFAB00, inset -2px -2px 0 #EFAB00;;width:1%">Venues</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dix_Stadium" title="Dix Stadium">Dix Stadium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kent_State_University_Ice_Arena" title="Kent State University Ice Arena">Ice Arena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memorial_Athletic_and_Convocation_Center" title="Memorial Athletic and Convocation Center">Memorial Athletic and Convocation Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memorial_Stadium_(Kent_State)" title="Memorial Stadium (Kent State)">Memorial Stadium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schoonover_Stadium" title="Schoonover Stadium">Schoonover Stadium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wills_Gymnasium" title="Wills Gymnasium">Wills Gymnasium</a> (former)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#002664;color:white;box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #EFAB00, inset -2px -2px 0 #EFAB00;;width:1%">Rivalries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anniversary_Award" title="Anniversary Award">Bowling Green State (football)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wagon_Wheel_(trophy)" title="Wagon Wheel (trophy)">Akron (football)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#002664;color:white;box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #EFAB00, inset -2px -2px 0 #EFAB00;;width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kent_State_University_Airport" title="Kent State University Airport">Airport</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Kent State shootings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lowry_Bill" title="Lowry Bill">Lowry Bill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partially_Buried_Woodshed" title="Partially Buried Woodshed">Partially Buried Woodshed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kent_State_University#History" title="Kent State University">Campus Bus Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ohio_State_Normal_College_at_Kent" title="Ohio State Normal College at Kent">Ohio State Normal College at Kent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rockwell_Field_(Kent_State)" title="Rockwell Field (Kent State)">Rockwell Field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kent_State_University_School" title="Kent State University School">University School</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#002664;color:white;box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #EFAB00, inset -2px -2px 0 #EFAB00;;width:1%">Media</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Squirrel_Radio" title="Black Squirrel Radio">Black Squirrel Radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/WKSU" title="WKSU">WKSU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fusion_(Kent_State_University)" title="Fusion (Kent State University)">Fusion magazine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#002664;color:white;box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #EFAB00, inset -2px -2px 0 #EFAB00;;width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Kent_State_University_alumni" title="List of Kent State University alumni">Notable alumni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_Kent_State_University" title="List of presidents of Kent State University">Presidents</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#002664;color:white;box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #EFAB00, inset -2px -2px 0 #EFAB00;;width:1%">Research</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liquid_Crystal_Institute" title="Liquid Crystal Institute">Liquid Crystal Institute</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#002664;color:white;box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #EFAB00, inset -2px -2px 0 #EFAB00;;width:1%">Student life</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kent_State_University#Greek_life" title="Kent State University">Fraternities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kent_State_University#Greek_life" title="Kent State University">Sororities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kent_State_University#Performing_arts" title="Kent State University">Performing Arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kent_State_University#Student_government" title="Kent State University">Student Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kent_State_University#Campus_living" title="Kent State University">Residence Halls</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="background-color:#002664;color:white;box-shadow: inset 2px 2px 0 #EFAB00, inset -2px -2px 0 #EFAB00;"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Kent_State_University" title="Category:Kent State University">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="U.S._National_Register_of_Historic_Places516" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#A8EDEF;color:black"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:National_Register_of_Historic_Places" title="Template:National Register of Historic Places"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:black">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:National_Register_of_Historic_Places" title="Template talk:National Register of Historic Places"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:black">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:National_Register_of_Historic_Places" title="Special:EditPage/Template:National Register of Historic Places"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:black">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="U.S._National_Register_of_Historic_Places516" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places" title="National Register of Historic Places">U.S. National Register of Historic Places</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#A8EDEF;color:black">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_architectural_style_categories" title="National Register of Historic Places architectural style categories">Architectural style categories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contributing_property" title="Contributing property">Contributing property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historic_districts_in_the_United_States" title="Historic districts in the United States">Historic district</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_National_Register_of_Historic_Places" title="History of the National Register of Historic Places">History of the National Register of Historic Places</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keeper_of_the_Register" title="Keeper of the Register">Keeper of the Register</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Park_Service" title="National Park Service">National Park Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_property_types" title="National Register of Historic Places property types">Property types</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#A8EDEF;color:black">Lists by state</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._National_Historic_Landmarks_by_state" title="List of U.S. National Historic Landmarks by state">List of U.S. National Historic Landmarks by state</a>:</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Alabama" title="National Register of Historic Places listings in Alabama">Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Alaska" title="National Register of Historic Places listings in Alaska">Alaska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Arizona" title="National Register of Historic Places listings in Arizona">Arizona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Arkansas" title="National Register of Historic Places listings in Arkansas">Arkansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_California" title="National Register of Historic Places listings in California">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Colorado" title="National Register of Historic Places listings in Colorado">Colorado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Connecticut" title="National Register of Historic Places listings in Connecticut">Connecticut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Delaware" title="National Register of Historic Places listings in Delaware">Delaware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Florida" title="National Register of Historic Places listings in Florida">Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Georgia" title="National Register of Historic Places listings in Georgia">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Hawaii" title="National Register of Historic Places listings in Hawaii">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Idaho" title="National Register of Historic Places listings in Idaho">Idaho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Illinois" title="National Register of Historic Places listings in Illinois">Illinois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Indiana" title="National Register of Historic Places listings in Indiana">Indiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Iowa" title="National Register of Historic Places listings in Iowa">Iowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Kansas" title="National Register of Historic Places listings in Kansas">Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Kentucky" title="National Register of Historic Places listings in Kentucky">Kentucky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Louisiana" title="National Register of Historic Places listings in Louisiana">Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Maine" title="National Register of Historic Places listings in Maine">Maine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Maryland" title="National Register of Historic Places listings in Maryland">Maryland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Massachusetts" title="National Register of Historic Places listings in Massachusetts">Massachusetts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Michigan" title="National Register of Historic Places listings in Michigan">Michigan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Minnesota" title="National Register of Historic Places listings in Minnesota">Minnesota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Mississippi" title="National Register of Historic Places listings in Mississippi">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Missouri" title="National Register of Historic Places listings in Missouri">Missouri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Montana" title="National Register of Historic Places listings in Montana">Montana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Nebraska" title="National Register of Historic Places listings in Nebraska">Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Nevada" title="National Register of Historic Places listings in Nevada">Nevada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_New_Hampshire" title="National Register of Historic Places listings in New Hampshire">New Hampshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_New_Jersey" title="National Register of Historic Places listings in New Jersey">New Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_New_Mexico" title="National Register of Historic Places listings in New Mexico">New Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_New_York" title="National Register of Historic Places listings in New York">New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_North_Carolina" title="National Register of Historic Places listings in North Carolina">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_North_Dakota" title="National Register of Historic Places listings in North Dakota">North Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Ohio" title="National Register of Historic Places listings in Ohio">Ohio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Oklahoma" title="National Register of Historic Places listings in Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Oregon" title="National Register of Historic Places listings in Oregon">Oregon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Pennsylvania" title="National Register of Historic Places listings in Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Rhode_Island" title="National Register of Historic Places listings in Rhode Island">Rhode Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_South_Carolina" title="National Register of Historic Places listings in South Carolina">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_South_Dakota" title="National Register of Historic Places listings in South Dakota">South Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Tennessee" title="National Register of Historic Places listings in Tennessee">Tennessee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Texas" title="National Register of Historic Places listings in Texas">Texas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Utah" title="National Register of Historic Places listings in Utah">Utah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Vermont" title="National Register of Historic Places listings in Vermont">Vermont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Virginia" title="National Register of Historic Places listings in Virginia">Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Washington_state" title="National Register of Historic Places listings in Washington state">Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_West_Virginia" title="National Register of Historic Places listings in West Virginia">West Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Wisconsin" title="National Register of Historic Places listings in Wisconsin">Wisconsin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Wyoming" title="National Register of Historic Places listings in Wyoming">Wyoming</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#A8EDEF;color:black">Lists by insular areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_American_Samoa" title="National Register of Historic Places listings in American Samoa">American Samoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Guam" title="National Register of Historic Places listings in Guam">Guam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_the_United_States_Minor_Outlying_Islands" title="National Register of Historic Places listings in the United States Minor Outlying Islands">Minor Outlying Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_the_Northern_Mariana_Islands" title="National Register of Historic Places listings in the Northern Mariana Islands">Northern Mariana Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Puerto_Rico" title="National Register of Historic Places listings in Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_the_United_States_Virgin_Islands" title="National Register of Historic Places listings in the United States Virgin Islands">Virgin Islands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#A8EDEF;color:black">Lists by associated state</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_the_Federated_States_of_Micronesia" title="National Register of Historic Places listings in the Federated States of Micronesia">Federated States of Micronesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_the_Marshall_Islands" title="National Register of Historic Places listings in the Marshall Islands">Marshall Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Palau" title="National Register of Historic Places listings in Palau">Palau</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#A8EDEF;color:black">Other areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Washington,_D.C." title="National Register of Historic Places listings in Washington, D.C.">District of Columbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Legation,_Tangier" title="American Legation, Tangier">American Legation, Morocco</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#A8EDEF;color:black">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Historic_Preservation_Act" title="National Historic Preservation Act">National Historic Preservation Act</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historic_Preservation_Fund" title="Historic Preservation Fund">Historic Preservation Fund</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_jails_and_prisons_on_the_National_Register_of_Historic_Places" title="List of jails and prisons on the National Register of Historic Places">List of jails and prisons on the National Register of Historic Places</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_and_college_buildings_listed_on_the_National_Register_of_Historic_Places" title="University and college buildings listed on the National Register of Historic Places">University and college buildings listed on the National Register of Historic Places</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#A8EDEF;color:black"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/HistoricPlacesNationalRegisterPlaque.JPG/21px-HistoricPlacesNationalRegisterPlaque.JPG" decoding="async" width="21" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/HistoricPlacesNationalRegisterPlaque.JPG/32px-HistoricPlacesNationalRegisterPlaque.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/HistoricPlacesNationalRegisterPlaque.JPG/42px-HistoricPlacesNationalRegisterPlaque.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2498" data-file-height="1969" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:National_Register_of_Historic_Places" title="Portal:National Register of Historic Places">National Register of Historic Places portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:National_Register_of_Historic_Places" title="Category:National Register of Historic Places">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Armed_conflicts_involving_the_Armed_Forces_of_the_United_States4131" style=";wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Armed_conflicts_involving_the_United_States_Armed_Forces" title="Template:Armed conflicts involving the United States Armed Forces"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Armed_conflicts_involving_the_United_States_Armed_Forces" title="Template talk:Armed conflicts involving the United States Armed Forces"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Armed_conflicts_involving_the_United_States_Armed_Forces" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Armed conflicts involving the United States Armed Forces"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Armed_conflicts_involving_the_Armed_Forces_of_the_United_States4131" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Armed conflicts involving the Armed Forces of the United States</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div>Listed chronologically</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Domestic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shays%27_Rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Shays' Rebellion">Shays' Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whiskey_Rebellion" title="Whiskey Rebellion">Whiskey Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fries%27s_Rebellion" title="Fries's Rebellion">Fries's Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1811_German_Coast_uprising" title="1811 German Coast uprising">1811 German Coast uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nat_Turner%27s_slave_rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Nat Turner's slave rebellion">Turner's Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorr_Rebellion" title="Dorr Rebellion">Dorr Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bleeding_Kansas" title="Bleeding Kansas">Bleeding Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utah_War" title="Utah War">Utah War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Brown%27s_raid_on_Harpers_Ferry" title="John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry">Harpers Ferry raid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_York_City_draft_riots" title="New York City draft riots">New York City draft riots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_Wars" title="American Indian Wars">American Indian Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colfax_Riot" class="mw-redirect" title="Colfax Riot">Colfax Riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brooks%E2%80%93Baxter_War" title="Brooks–Baxter War">Brooks–Baxter War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Liberty_Place" title="Battle of Liberty Place">Battle of Liberty Place</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vicksburg_riot" class="mw-redirect" title="Vicksburg riot">Vicksburg riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Range_war" title="Range war">Range War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamburg_massacre" title="Hamburg massacre">Hamburg riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Railroad_Strike_of_1877" title="Great Railroad Strike of 1877">Great Railroad Strike of 1877</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lincoln_County_War" title="Lincoln County War">Lincoln County War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rock_Springs_Riot" class="mw-redirect" title="Rock Springs Riot">Rock Springs Riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johnson_County_War" title="Johnson County War">Johnson County War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coal_Creek_War" title="Coal Creek War">Coal Creek War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homestead_strike" title="Homestead strike">Homestead strike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pullman_Strike" title="Pullman Strike">Pullman Strike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colorado_Coalfield_War" title="Colorado Coalfield War">Colorado Coalfield War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Summer" title="Red Summer">Red Summer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Blair_Mountain" title="Battle of Blair Mountain">Battle of Blair Mountain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulsa_race_massacre" title="Tulsa race massacre">Tulsa riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bonus_Army" title="Bonus Army">Bonus Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puerto_Rican_Nationalist_Party_revolts_of_the_1950s" class="mw-redirect" title="Puerto Rican Nationalist Party revolts of the 1950s">Puerto Rican revolts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ole_Miss_riot_of_1962" title="Ole Miss riot of 1962">Ole Miss riot of 1962</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghetto_riots_(1964%E2%80%931969)" title="Ghetto riots (1964–1969)">1960s ghetto rebellions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1969_Greensboro_uprising" title="1969 Greensboro uprising">1969 Greensboro uprising</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Kent State shootings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wounded_Knee_Occupation" title="Wounded Knee Occupation">Wounded Knee Occupation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1992_Los_Angeles_riots" title="1992 Los Angeles riots">1992 Los Angeles riots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020%E2%80%932023_United_States_racial_unrest" class="mw-redirect" title="2020–2023 United States racial unrest">2020 racial unrest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/January_6_United_States_Capitol_attack" title="January 6 United States Capitol attack">2021 U.S. Capitol attack</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Foreign</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">American Revolutionary War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American%E2%80%93Algerian_War_(1785%E2%80%931795)" title="American–Algerian War (1785–1795)">American–Algerian War (1785–1795)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quasi-War" title="Quasi-War">Quasi-War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Barbary_War" title="First Barbary War">First Barbary War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Barbary_War" title="Second Barbary War">Second Barbary War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Sumatran_expedition" title="First Sumatran expedition">First Sumatran expedition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sumatran_expedition" title="Second Sumatran expedition">Second Sumatran expedition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivory_Coast_expedition" title="Ivory Coast expedition">Ivory Coast expedition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican%E2%80%93American_War" title="Mexican–American War">Mexican–American War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Fiji_expedition" title="First Fiji expedition">First Fiji expedition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Opium_War" title="Second Opium War">Second Opium War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Fiji_expedition" title="Second Fiji expedition">Second Fiji expedition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formosa_Expedition" title="Formosa Expedition">Formosa Expedition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_expedition_to_Korea" title="United States expedition to Korea">Korean Expedition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War" title="Spanish–American War">Spanish–American War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippine%E2%80%93American_War" title="Philippine–American War">Philippine–American War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boxer_Rebellion" title="Boxer Rebellion">Boxer Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banana_Wars" title="Banana Wars">Banana Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican_Border_War_(1910%E2%80%931919)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mexican Border War (1910–1919)">Border War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allied_intervention_in_the_Russian_Civil_War" title="Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War">Russian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bay_of_Pigs_Invasion" title="Bay of Pigs Invasion">Bay of Pigs Invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominican_Civil_War" title="Dominican Civil War">Dominican Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_invasion_of_Grenada" title="United States invasion of Grenada">Invasion of Grenada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multinational_Force_in_Lebanon" title="Multinational Force in Lebanon">Lebanese Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_invasion_of_Panama" title="United States invasion of Panama">Invasion of Panama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Gulf War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_Civil_War" title="Somali Civil War">Somali Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Uphold_Democracy" title="Operation Uphold Democracy">Intervention in Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Deliberate_Force" title="Operation Deliberate Force">Bosnian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NATO_bombing_of_Yugoslavia" title="NATO bombing of Yugoslavia">Kosovo War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Afghanistan_(2001%E2%80%932021)" title="War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)">War in Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq_War" title="Iraq War">Iraq War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurgency_in_Khyber_Pakhtunkhwa" title="Insurgency in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa">War in North-West Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2011_military_intervention_in_Libya" title="2011 military intervention in Libya">First Libyan Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_against_the_Islamic_State" title="War against the Islamic State">War against the Islamic State</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American-led_intervention_in_Iraq_(2014%E2%80%932021)" class="mw-redirect" title="American-led intervention in Iraq (2014–2021)">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/US_intervention_in_the_Syrian_civil_war" title="US intervention in the Syrian civil war">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boko_Haram_insurgency#American_military_support" title="Boko Haram insurgency">Cameroon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_intervention_in_Libya_(2015%E2%80%932019)" class="mw-redirect" title="American intervention in Libya (2015–2019)">Libya</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemeni_civil_war_(2014%E2%80%93present)" title="Yemeni civil war (2014–present)">Yemeni civil war</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_conflicts_in_the_United_States" title="List of conflicts in the United States">Conflicts in the U.S.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wars_involving_the_United_States" title="List of wars involving the United States">Wars involving the U.S.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_United_States_military_operations" title="Timeline of United States military operations">Timeline of U.S. military operations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_the_lengths_of_United_States_participation_in_wars" title="List of the lengths of United States participation in wars">Length of U.S. participation in major wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Territorial_evolution_of_the_United_States" title="Territorial evolution of the United States">Territorial evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States" title="Military history of the United States">Military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="History of the Central Intelligence Agency">History of the Central Intelligence Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_military_casualties_of_war" title="United States military casualties of war">Casualties of war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_movement#United_States" title="Peace movement">Peace movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_anti-war_organizations#United_States" title="List of anti-war organizations">List of anti-war organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscientious_objector#United_States" title="Conscientious objector">Conscientious objector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_terror" title="War on terror">War on terror</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_war_crimes" title="United States war crimes">War crimes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Opposition_to_United_States_involvement_in_the_Vietnam_War165" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Anti-Vietnam" title="Template:Anti-Vietnam"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Anti-Vietnam" title="Template talk:Anti-Vietnam"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Anti-Vietnam" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Anti-Vietnam"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Opposition_to_United_States_involvement_in_the_Vietnam_War165" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Opposition_to_United_States_involvement_in_the_Vietnam_War" title="Opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War">Opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_protests_against_the_Vietnam_War" title="List of protests against the Vietnam War">Protests and events</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1960s_Berkeley_protests" title="1960s Berkeley protests">1960s Berkeley protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Park_be-ins" title="Central Park be-ins">Central Park be-ins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Draft_evasion_in_the_Vietnam_War" title="Draft evasion in the Vietnam War">Draft evasion in the Vietnam War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Draft-card_burning" title="Draft-card burning">Draft-card burning</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Before 1967</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Edmonton_aircraft_bombing" title="Edmonton aircraft bombing">Edmonton aircraft bombing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1965_March_against_the_Vietnam_War" title="1965 March against the Vietnam War">1965 March against the Vietnam War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alice_Herz" title="Alice Herz">Alice Herz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Donald_W._Duncan" title="Donald W. Duncan">Donald W. Duncan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Norman_Morrison" title="Norman Morrison">Norman Morrison</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roger_Allen_LaPorte" title="Roger Allen LaPorte">Roger Allen LaPorte</a> 1965 <a href="/wiki/List_of_political_self-immolations" title="List of political self-immolations">political self-immolations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fort_Hood_Three" title="Fort Hood Three">Fort Hood Three</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_Be-In" title="Human Be-In">Human Be-In</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1967</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angry_Arts_week" class="mw-redirect" title="Angry Arts week">Angry Arts week</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Beyond_Vietnam:_A_Time_to_Break_Silence" title="Beyond Vietnam: A Time to Break Silence">Beyond Vietnam: A Time to Break Silence</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Court-martial_of_Howard_Levy" title="Court-martial of Howard Levy">Court-martial of Howard Levy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Mobilization_Committee_to_End_the_War_in_Vietnam" title="National Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam">April 15, 1967 Anti-Vietnam war demonstrations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_on_the_Pentagon" class="mw-redirect" title="March on the Pentagon">March on the Pentagon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flower_Power_(photograph)" title="Flower Power (photograph)">Flower Power photo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Ultimate_Confrontation" title="The Ultimate Confrontation">The Ultimate Confrontation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nhat_Chi_Mai" class="mw-redirect" title="Nhat Chi Mai">Nhat Chi Mai</a> <a href="/wiki/List_of_political_self-immolations" title="List of political self-immolations">self-immolation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1968</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1968_Democratic_National_Convention_protests" title="1968 Democratic National Convention protests">1968 Democratic National Convention protests</a> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/The_whole_world_is_watching" title="The whole world is watching">The whole world is watching</a>"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columbia_University_protests_of_1968" class="mw-redirect" title="Columbia University protests of 1968">Columbia University protests of 1968</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Court-martial_of_Susan_Schnall" title="Court-martial of Susan Schnall">Court-martial of Susan Schnall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidio_mutiny" title="Presidio mutiny">Presidio mutiny</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1969</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tinker_v._Des_Moines_Independent_Community_School_District" title="Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community School District">Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community School District</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bed-in" title="Bed-in">Bed-in</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Seven" title="Chicago Seven">Chicago Seven</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weather_High_School_Jailbreaks" title="Weather High School Jailbreaks">Weather High School Jailbreaks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Days_of_Rage" title="Days of Rage">Days of Rage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moratorium_to_End_the_War_in_Vietnam" title="Moratorium to End the War in Vietnam">Moratorium to End the War in Vietnam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1970</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greenwich_Village_townhouse_explosion" title="Greenwich Village townhouse explosion">Greenwich Village townhouse explosion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FTA_Show" title="FTA Show">Free The Army tour</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Kent State shootings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fort_Lewis_Six" title="Fort Lewis Six">Fort Lewis Six</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Student_strike_of_1970" class="mw-redirect" title="Student strike of 1970">Student strike of 1970</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hard_Hat_Riot" title="Hard Hat Riot">Hard Hat Riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sterling_Hall_bombing" title="Sterling Hall bombing">Sterling Hall bombing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1971</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Winter_Soldier_Investigation" title="Winter Soldier Investigation">Winter Soldier Investigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1971_May_Day_protests" class="mw-redirect" title="1971 May Day protests">1971 May Day protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clay_v._United_States" title="Clay v. United States">Clay v. United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FTA_Show" title="FTA Show">FTA Show</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pentagon_Papers" title="Pentagon Papers">Pentagon Papers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People and organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Seven" title="Chicago Seven">Chicago Seven</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicano_Moratorium" title="Chicano Moratorium">Chicano Moratorium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concerned_Officers_Movement" title="Concerned Officers Movement">Concerned Officers Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_W._Duncan" title="Donald W. Duncan">Donald W. Duncan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Avenue_Vietnam_Peace_Parade_Committee" title="Fifth Avenue Vietnam Peace Parade Committee">Fifth Avenue Vietnam Peace Parade Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fort_Hood_Three" title="Fort Hood Three">Fort Hood Three</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GI%27s_Against_Fascism" title="GI's Against Fascism">GI's Against Fascism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G.I._coffeehouses" title="G.I. coffeehouses">G.I. coffeehouses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intrepid_Four" title="Intrepid Four">Intrepid Four</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Movement_for_a_Democratic_Military" title="Movement for a Democratic Military">Movement for a Democratic Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Mobilization_Committee_to_End_the_War_in_Vietnam" title="National Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam">National Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Counseling_Service" title="Pacific Counseling Service">Pacific Counseling Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stop_Our_Ship_(SOS)" class="mw-redirect" title="Stop Our Ship (SOS)">Stop Our Ship (SOS)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Students_for_a_Democratic_Society" title="Students for a Democratic Society">Students for a Democratic Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terry_Whitmore" title="Terry Whitmore">Terry Whitmore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Newsreel" title="The Newsreel">The Newsreel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Servicemen%27s_Fund" title="United States Servicemen's Fund">United States Servicemen's Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnam_Veterans_Against_the_War" title="Vietnam Veterans Against the War">Vietnam Veterans Against the War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weather_Underground" title="Weather Underground">Weather Underground</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Youth_International_Party" title="Youth International Party">Yippies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Counterculture_of_the_1960s" title="Counterculture of the 1960s">Counterculture of the 1960s</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-war_movement" title="Anti-war movement">Anti-war movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protests_of_1968" title="Protests of 1968">Protests of 1968</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnam_stab-in-the-back_myth" title="Vietnam stab-in-the-back myth">Vietnam stab-in-the-back myth</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Mass_shootings_in_the_United_States_in_the_1980s_and_before533" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Mass_shootings_in_the_United_States_in_the_1980s_and_before" title="Template:Mass shootings in the United States in the 1980s and before"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Mass_shootings_in_the_United_States_in_the_1980s_and_before" title="Template talk:Mass shootings in the United States in the 1980s and before"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Mass_shootings_in_the_United_States_in_the_1980s_and_before" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Mass shootings in the United States in the 1980s and before"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Mass_shootings_in_the_United_States_in_the_1980s_and_before533" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Mass_shootings_in_the_United_States" title="Mass shootings in the United States">Mass shootings in the United States</a> in the 1980s and before</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1760s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enoch_Brown_school_massacre" title="Enoch Brown school massacre">Greencastle, PA</a> (1764)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1920s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Valentine%27s_Day_Massacre" title="Saint Valentine's Day Massacre">Chicago, IL</a> (1929)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1930s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Young_Brothers_massacre" title="Young Brothers massacre">Brookline, MO</a> (1932)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1933_Cleveland_shootings" title="1933 Cleveland shootings">Cleveland, OH</a> (1933)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1933_Belfast,_Maine_shooting" title="1933 Belfast, Maine shooting">Belfast, ME</a> (1933)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kansas_City_massacre" title="Kansas City massacre">Kansas City, MO</a> (1933)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chiquola_Mill_Massacre" title="Chiquola Mill Massacre">Honea Path, SC</a> (1934)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelayres_massacre" title="Kelayres massacre">Kelayres, PA</a> (1934)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1940s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Utah_prisoner_of_war_massacre" title="Utah prisoner of war massacre">Salina, UT</a> (1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moore%27s_Ford_lynchings" title="Moore's Ford lynchings">Georgia</a> (1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melvin_Collins" title="Melvin Collins">Chester, PA</a> (1948)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howard_Unruh" title="Howard Unruh">Camden, NJ</a> (1949)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1950s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Billy_Cook_(criminal)" title="Billy Cook (criminal)">Wichita Falls, TX</a> (1950–51)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1954_United_States_Capitol_shooting" title="1954 United States Capitol shooting">Washington, D.C.</a> (1954)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1960s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1965_Highway_101_sniper_attack" title="1965 Highway 101 sniper attack">Orcutt, CA</a> (1965)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Texas_tower_shooting" title="University of Texas tower shooting">Austin, TX</a> (1966)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1966_Rose-Mar_College_of_Beauty_shooting" title="1966 Rose-Mar College of Beauty shooting">Mesa, AZ</a> (1966)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1967_Clinton_County,_Pennsylvania_shootings" title="1967 Clinton County, Pennsylvania shootings">Clinton County, PA</a> (1967)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orangeburg_Massacre" title="Orangeburg Massacre">Orangeburg, SC</a> (1968)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robison_family_murders" title="Robison family murders">Readmond Township, MI</a> (1968)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glenville_shootout" title="Glenville shootout">Cleveland, OH</a> (1968)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westernville_New_Year%27s_Day_shooting" title="Westernville New Year's Day shooting">Westernville, NY</a> (1969)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1969_Pennsylvania_Turnpike_shootings" title="1969 Pennsylvania Turnpike shootings">Pennsylvania Turnpike, PA</a> (1969)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1969_Greensboro_uprising" title="1969 Greensboro uprising">Greensboro, NC</a> (1969)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1970s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Newhall_incident" title="Newhall incident">Valencia, CA</a> (1970)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Kent, OH</a> (1970)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jackson_State_killings" title="Jackson State killings">Jackson, MS</a> (1970)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marin_County_Civic_Center_attacks" title="Marin County Civic Center attacks">San Rafael, CA</a> (1970)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1971_shooting_of_Dallas_police_officers" title="1971 shooting of Dallas police officers">Dallas, TX</a> (1971)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazelwood_massacre" title="Hazelwood massacre">Detroit, MI</a> (1971)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_List_(murderer)" title="John List (murderer)">Westfield, NJ</a> (1971)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fountain_Valley_massacre" title="Fountain Valley massacre">St. Croix, USVI</a> (1972)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Essex" title="Mark Essex">New Orleans, LA</a> (1973)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1973_Hanafi_Muslim_massacre" title="1973 Hanafi Muslim massacre">Washington, D.C.</a> (1973)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_DeFeo_Jr." title="Ronald DeFeo Jr.">Amityville, NY</a> (1974)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1974_Olean_High_School_shooting" title="1974 Olean High School shooting">Olean, NY</a> (1974)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Easter_Sunday_Massacre" title="Easter Sunday Massacre">Hamilton, OH</a> (1975)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1976_Computer_Learning_Center_shooting" title="1976 Computer Learning Center shooting">Los Angeles, CA</a> (1976)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1976_California_State_University,_Fullerton_massacre" title="1976 California State University, Fullerton massacre">Fullerton, CA</a> (1976)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1977_Klamath_Falls_nightclub_shooting" title="1977 Klamath Falls nightclub shooting">Klamath Falls, OR</a> (1977)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carol_City_murders" title="Carol City murders">Carol City, FL</a> (1977)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Dragon_massacre" title="Golden Dragon massacre">San Francisco, CA</a> (1977)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackfriars_Massacre" title="Blackfriars Massacre">Boston, MA</a> (1978)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleveland_Elementary_School_shooting_(San_Diego)" title="Cleveland Elementary School shooting (San Diego)">San Diego, CA</a> (1979)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greensboro_massacre" title="Greensboro massacre">Greensboro, NC</a> (1979)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1980s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Norco_shootout" title="Norco shootout">Norco, CA</a> (1980)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daingerfield_church_shooting" title="Daingerfield church shooting">Daingerfield, TX</a> (1980)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_K._Crumpley" title="Ronald K. Crumpley">Manhattan, NY</a> (1980)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attempted_assassination_of_Ronald_Reagan" title="Attempted assassination of Ronald Reagan">Washington, D.C.</a> (1981)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oregon_Museum_Tavern_shooting" title="Oregon Museum Tavern shooting">Salem, OR</a> (1981)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Felton_Parish" class="mw-redirect" title="John Felton Parish">Grand Prairie, TX</a> (1982)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Robert_Brown" title="Carl Robert Brown">Miami, FL</a> (1982)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1982_Wilkes-Barre_shootings" title="1982 Wilkes-Barre shootings">Wilkes-Barre & Jenkins Township, PA</a> (1982)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wah_Mee_massacre" title="Wah Mee massacre">Seattle, WA</a> (1983)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lester_Bower" title="Lester Bower">Grayson County, TX</a> (1983)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyrone_Mitchell" title="Tyrone Mitchell">Los Angeles, CA</a> (1984)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palm_Sunday_massacre_(homicide)" title="Palm Sunday massacre (homicide)">Brooklyn, NY</a> (1984)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1984_Dallas_nightclub_shooting" title="1984 Dallas nightclub shooting">Dallas, TX</a> (1984)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/San_Ysidro_McDonald%27s_massacre" title="San Ysidro McDonald's massacre">San Diego, CA</a> (1984)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1984_New_York_City_Subway_shooting" title="1984 New York City Subway shooting">Manhattan, NY</a> (1984)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sylvia_Seegrist" title="Sylvia Seegrist">Springfield Township, PA</a> (1985)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1986_FBI_Miami_shootout" title="1986 FBI Miami shootout">Miami-Dade County, FL</a> (1986)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmond_post_office_shooting" title="Edmond post office shooting">Edmond, OK</a> (1986)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Esco_Welch" title="David Esco Welch">Oakland, CA</a> (1986)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shelby_bookstore_murders" title="Shelby bookstore murders">Shelby, NC</a> (1987)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1987_Palm_Bay_shooting" title="1987 Palm Bay shooting">Palm Bay, FL</a> (1987)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Southwest_Airlines_Flight_1771" title="Pacific Southwest Airlines Flight 1771">Cayucos, CA</a> (1987)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunnyvale_ESL_shooting" title="Sunnyvale ESL shooting">Sunnyvale, CA</a> (1988)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Nick_Corwin" title="Murder of Nick Corwin">Winnetka, IL</a> (1988)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Salisbury_Road_shooting" title="Old Salisbury Road shooting">Winston-Salem, NC</a> (1988)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1988_Oakland_Elementary_School_shooting" title="1988 Oakland Elementary School shooting">Greenwood, SC</a> (1988)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1989_Stockton_schoolyard_shooting" class="mw-redirect" title="1989 Stockton schoolyard shooting">Stockton, CA</a> (1989)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Gravure_shooting" title="Standard Gravure shooting">Louisville, KY</a> (1989)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>Part of <a href="/wiki/Mass_shootings_in_the_United_States" title="Mass shootings in the United States">mass shootings in the United States</a> by time period (<a href="/wiki/Template:Mass_shootings_in_the_United_States_in_the_1980s_and_before" title="Template:Mass shootings in the United States in the 1980s and before">1980s and before</a>, <a href="/wiki/Template:Mass_shootings_in_the_United_States_in_the_1990s" title="Template:Mass shootings in the United States in the 1990s">1990s</a>, <a href="/wiki/Template:Mass_shootings_in_the_United_States_in_the_2000s" title="Template:Mass shootings in the United States in the 2000s">2000s</a>, <a href="/wiki/Template:Mass_shootings_in_the_United_States_in_the_2010s" title="Template:Mass shootings in the United States in the 2010s">2010s</a>, <a href="/wiki/Template:Mass_shootings_in_the_United_States_in_the_2020s" title="Template:Mass shootings in the United States in the 2020s">2020s</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="School_shootings_in_the_United_States295" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:School_shootings_in_the_United_States" title="Template:School shootings in the United States"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:School_shootings_in_the_United_States" title="Template talk:School shootings in the United States"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:School_shootings_in_the_United_States" title="Special:EditPage/Template:School shootings in the United States"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="School_shootings_in_the_United_States295" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/School_shooting#United_States" title="School shooting">School shootings in the United States</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Prior to 2000 (<a href="/wiki/List_of_school_shootings_in_the_United_States_(before_2000)" title="List of school shootings in the United States (before 2000)">full list</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1760s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enoch_Brown_school_massacre" title="Enoch Brown school massacre">Enoch Brown school massacre</a> (1764)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1960s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Texas_tower_shooting" title="University of Texas tower shooting">University of Texas</a> (1966)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1966_Rose-Mar_College_of_Beauty_shooting" title="1966 Rose-Mar College of Beauty shooting">Rose-Mar College of Beauty</a> (1966)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1970s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Kent State University</a> (1970)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jackson_State_killings" title="Jackson State killings">Jackson State University</a> (1970)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1974_Olean_High_School_shooting" title="1974 Olean High School shooting">Olean High School</a> (1974)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1976_Computer_Learning_Center_shooting" title="1976 Computer Learning Center shooting">Computer Learning Center</a> (1976)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1976_California_State_University,_Fullerton_massacre" title="1976 California State University, Fullerton massacre">California State University, Fullerton</a> (1976)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1979_Cleveland_Elementary_School_shooting_(San_Diego)" class="mw-redirect" title="1979 Cleveland Elementary School shooting (San Diego)">Cleveland Elementary School</a> (1979)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1980s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/49th_Street_Elementary_School_shooting" class="mw-redirect" title="49th Street Elementary School shooting">49th Street Elementary School</a> (1984)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1986_Cokeville_Elementary_School_hostage_crisis" title="1986 Cokeville Elementary School hostage crisis">Cokeville Elementary School</a> (1986)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Nick_Corwin" title="Murder of Nick Corwin">Hubbard Woods Elementary School</a> (1988)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1988_Oakland_Elementary_School_shooting" title="1988 Oakland Elementary School shooting">Oakland Elementary School</a> (1988)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1989_Stockton_schoolyard_shooting" class="mw-redirect" title="1989 Stockton schoolyard shooting">Cleveland Elementary School</a> (1989)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1990s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1991_University_of_Iowa_shooting" title="1991 University of Iowa shooting">University of Iowa</a> (1991)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1992_Lindhurst_High_School_shooting" title="1992 Lindhurst High School shooting">Lindhurst High School</a> (1992)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1992_Bard_College_at_Simon%27s_Rock_shooting" title="1992 Bard College at Simon's Rock shooting">Bard College at Simon's Rock</a> (1992)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1993_East_Carter_High_School_shooting" title="1993 East Carter High School shooting">East Carter High School</a> (1993)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1994_Wickliffe_Middle_School_shooting" title="1994 Wickliffe Middle School shooting">Wickliffe Middle School</a> (1994)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1995_Blackville%E2%80%93Hilda_High_School_shooting" title="1995 Blackville–Hilda High School shooting">Blackville–Hilda High School</a> (1995)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1995_Richland_High_School_shooting" title="1995 Richland High School shooting">Richland High School</a> (1995)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1996_Frontier_Middle_School_shooting" title="1996 Frontier Middle School shooting">Frontier Middle School</a> (1996)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1996_San_Diego_State_University_shooting" title="1996 San Diego State University shooting">San Diego State University</a> (1996)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1997_Bethel_Regional_High_School_shooting" title="1997 Bethel Regional High School shooting">Bethel Regional High School</a> (1997)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1997_Pearl_High_School_shooting" title="1997 Pearl High School shooting">Pearl High School</a> (1997)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1997_Heath_High_School_shooting" title="1997 Heath High School shooting">Heath High School</a> (1997)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1998_Westside_Middle_School_shooting" title="1998 Westside Middle School shooting">Westside Middle School</a> (1998)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1998_Parker_Middle_School_dance_shooting" title="1998 Parker Middle School dance shooting">Parker Middle School</a> (1998)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1998_Thurston_High_School_shooting" title="1998 Thurston High School shooting">Thurston High School</a> (1998)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columbine_High_School_massacre" title="Columbine High School massacre">Columbine High School</a> (1999)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2000 to present (<a href="/wiki/List_of_school_shootings_in_the_United_States_(2000%E2%80%93present)" title="List of school shootings in the United States (2000–present)">full list</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2000s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Kayla_Rolland" title="Killing of Kayla Rolland">Buell Elementary School</a> (2000)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_Brazill" title="Nathaniel Brazill">Lake Worth Middle School</a> (2000)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2000_University_of_Arkansas_shooting" title="2000 University of Arkansas shooting">University of Arkansas</a> (2000)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2001_Santana_High_School_shooting" title="2001 Santana High School shooting">Santana High School</a> (2001)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2002_Appalachian_School_of_Law_shooting" title="2002 Appalachian School of Law shooting">Appalachian School of Law</a> (2002)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2003_John_McDonogh_High_School_shooting" title="2003 John McDonogh High School shooting">John McDonogh High School</a> (2003)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2003_Case_Western_Reserve_University_shooting" title="2003 Case Western Reserve University shooting">Case Western Reserve University</a> (2003)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2003_Rocori_High_School_shooting" title="2003 Rocori High School shooting">Rocori High School</a> (2003)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Lake_shootings" title="Red Lake shootings">Red Lake Senior High School</a> (2005)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2005_Campbell_County_High_School_shooting" title="2005 Campbell County High School shooting">Campbell County High School</a> (2005)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2006_Pine_Middle_School_shooting" title="2006 Pine Middle School shooting">Pine Middle School</a> (2006)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2006_Platte_Canyon_High_School_hostage_crisis" title="2006 Platte Canyon High School hostage crisis">Platte Canyon High School</a> (2006)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2006_Weston_High_School_shooting" title="2006 Weston High School shooting">Weston High School</a> (2006)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2006_West_Nickel_Mines_School_shooting" class="mw-redirect" title="2006 West Nickel Mines School shooting">West Nickel Mines School</a> (2006)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_Tech_shooting" title="Virginia Tech shooting">Virginia Tech</a> (2007)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2007_Delaware_State_University_shooting" title="2007 Delaware State University shooting">Delaware State University</a> (2007)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2007_SuccessTech_Academy_shooting" title="2007 SuccessTech Academy shooting">SuccessTech Academy</a> (2007)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2008_Northern_Illinois_University_shooting" title="2008 Northern Illinois University shooting">Northern Illinois University</a> (2008)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Larry_King" title="Murder of Larry King">E.O. Junior High School</a> (2008)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2008_University_of_Central_Arkansas_shooting" title="2008 University of Central Arkansas shooting">University of Central Arkansas</a> (2008)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2010s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2010_University_of_Alabama_in_Huntsville_shooting" title="2010 University of Alabama in Huntsville shooting">University of Alabama in Huntsville</a> (2010)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2012_Chardon_High_School_shooting" title="2012 Chardon High School shooting">Chardon High School</a> (2012)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2012_Oikos_University_shooting" title="2012 Oikos University shooting">Oikos University</a> (2012)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandy_Hook_Elementary_School_shooting" title="Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting">Sandy Hook Elementary School</a> (2012)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2013_Santa_Monica_shootings" title="2013 Santa Monica shootings">Santa Monica College</a> (2013)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2013_Sparks_Middle_School_shooting" title="2013 Sparks Middle School shooting">Sparks Middle School</a> (2013)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2014_Marysville_Pilchuck_High_School_shooting" title="2014 Marysville Pilchuck High School shooting">Marysville Pilchuck High School</a> (2014)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2015_Umpqua_Community_College_shooting" title="2015 Umpqua Community College shooting">Umpqua Community College</a> (2015)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2015_Northern_Arizona_University_shooting" title="2015 Northern Arizona University shooting">Northern Arizona University</a> (2015)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2016_UCLA_shooting" title="2016 UCLA shooting">University of California, Los Angeles</a> (2016)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2016_shooting_of_Dallas_police_officers" title="2016 shooting of Dallas police officers">El Centro College</a> (2016)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2016_Townville_Elementary_School_shooting" title="2016 Townville Elementary School shooting">Townville Elementary School</a> (2016)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2017_North_Park_Elementary_School_shooting" title="2017 North Park Elementary School shooting">North Park Elementary School</a> (2017)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rancho_Tehama_shootings" title="Rancho Tehama shootings">Rancho Tehama Elementary School</a> (2017)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2017_Aztec_High_School_shooting" title="2017 Aztec High School shooting">Aztec High School</a> (2017)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2018_Marshall_County_High_School_shooting" title="2018 Marshall County High School shooting">Marshall County High School</a> (2018)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parkland_high_school_shooting" title="Parkland high school shooting">Stoneman Douglas High School</a> (2018)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2018_Santa_Fe_High_School_shooting" class="mw-redirect" title="2018 Santa Fe High School shooting">Santa Fe High School</a> (2018)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2018_Noblesville_West_Middle_School_shooting" title="2018 Noblesville West Middle School shooting">Noblesville West Middle School</a> (2018)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2019_University_of_North_Carolina_at_Charlotte_shooting" title="2019 University of North Carolina at Charlotte shooting">University of North Carolina at Charlotte</a> (2019)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2019_STEM_School_Highlands_Ranch_shooting" class="mw-redirect" title="2019 STEM School Highlands Ranch shooting">STEM School Highlands Ranch</a> (2019)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2019_Saugus_High_School_shooting" class="mw-redirect" title="2019 Saugus High School shooting">Saugus High School</a> (2019)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2020s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oxford_High_School_shooting" title="Oxford High School shooting">Oxford High School</a> (2021)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Richard_Ward" title="Killing of Richard Ward">Liberty Point International Middle School</a> (2022)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2022_East_High_School_shooting" title="2022 East High School shooting">East High School</a> (2022)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke_School_shooting" class="mw-redirect" title="Edmund Burke School shooting">Edmund Burke School</a> (2022)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uvalde_school_shooting" title="Uvalde school shooting">Robb Elementary School</a> (2022)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2022_Oakland_school_shooting" title="2022 Oakland school shooting">Rusdale High School</a> (2022)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2022_Central_Visual_and_Performing_Arts_High_School_shooting" title="2022 Central Visual and Performing Arts High School shooting">Central Visual and Performing Arts High School</a> (2022)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2022_University_of_Virginia_shooting" title="2022 University of Virginia shooting">University of Virginia</a> (2022)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shooting_of_Abby_Zwerner" title="Shooting of Abby Zwerner">Richneck Elementary School</a> (2023)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2023_Michigan_State_University_shooting" title="2023 Michigan State University shooting">Michigan State University</a> (2023)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2023_Nashville_school_shooting" title="2023 Nashville school shooting">Covenant School</a> (2023)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2023_Richmond_shooting" title="2023 Richmond shooting">Virginia Commonwealth University</a> (2023)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Zijie_Yan" title="Killing of Zijie Yan">University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill</a> (2023)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2023_University_of_Nevada,_Las_Vegas_shooting" title="2023 University of Nevada, Las Vegas shooting">University of Nevada, Las Vegas</a> (2023)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perry_High_School_shooting" title="Perry High School shooting">Perry High School</a> (2024)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2024_Apalachee_High_School_shooting" title="2024 Apalachee High School shooting">Apalachee High School</a> (2024)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuskegee_University_shooting" title="Tuskegee University shooting">Tuskegee University</a> (2024)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feather_River_School_shooting" title="Feather River School shooting">Feather River School</a> (2024)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abundant_Life_Christian_School_shooting" title="Abundant Life Christian School shooting">Abundant Life Christian School</a> (2024)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antioch_High_School_shooting" title="Antioch High School shooting">Antioch High School</a> (2025)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">In media</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Film and television</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Deadly_Tower" title="The Deadly Tower">The Deadly Tower</a> (1975)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detention:_The_Siege_at_Johnson_High" title="Detention: The Siege at Johnson High">Detention: The Siege at Johnson High</a> (1997)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duck!_The_Carbine_High_Massacre" title="Duck! The Carbine High Massacre">Duck! The Carbine High Massacre</a> (1999)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bang_Bang_You%27re_Dead_(film)" title="Bang Bang You're Dead (film)">Bang Bang You're Dead</a> (2002)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bowling_for_Columbine" title="Bowling for Columbine">Bowling for Columbine</a> (2002)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heart_of_America_(film)" title="Heart of America (film)">Heart of America</a> (2002)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Home_Room_(2002_film)" title="Home Room (2002 film)">Home Room</a> (2002)</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/List_of_Static_Shock_episodes#Season_2_(2002)#ep24" title="List of Static Shock episodes">Jimmy</a>" (2002)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elephant_(2003_film)" title="Elephant (2003 film)">Elephant</a> (2003)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zero_Day_(2003_film)" title="Zero Day (2003 film)">Zero Day</a> (2003)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Yearbook" title="American Yearbook">American Yearbook</a> (2004)</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Time_Stands_Still_(Degrassi:_The_Next_Generation)" title="Time Stands Still (Degrassi: The Next Generation)">Time Stands Still</a>" (2004)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Only_Way_(2004_film)" title="The Only Way (2004 film)">The Only Way</a> (2004)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dawn_Anna" title="Dawn Anna">Dawn Anna</a> (2005)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/All_the_Boys_Love_Mandy_Lane" title="All the Boys Love Mandy Lane">All the Boys Love Mandy Lane</a> (2006)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Gun_(2005_film)" title="American Gun (2005 film)">American Gun</a> (2006)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/State%27s_Evidence" title="State's Evidence">State's Evidence</a> (2006)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Life_Before_Her_Eyes" title="The Life Before Her Eyes">The Life Before Her Eyes</a> (2007)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/April_Showers_(2009_film)" title="April Showers (2009 film)">April Showers</a> (2009)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beautiful_Boy_(2010_film)" title="Beautiful Boy (2010 film)">Beautiful Boy</a> (2010)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/We_Need_to_Talk_About_Kevin_(film)" title="We Need to Talk About Kevin (film)">We Need to Talk About Kevin</a> (2011)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hello_Herman" title="Hello Herman">Hello Herman</a> (2012)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_Rabbit_(2013_film)" title="White Rabbit (2013 film)">White Rabbit</a> (2013)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudderless" title="Rudderless">Rudderless</a> (2014)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sins_of_Our_Youth" title="Sins of Our Youth">Sins of Our Youth</a> (2014)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Cokeville_Miracle" title="The Cokeville Miracle">The Cokeville Miracle</a> (2015)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/I%27m_Not_Ashamed" title="I'm Not Ashamed">I'm Not Ashamed</a> (2016)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tower_(2016_film)" title="Tower (2016 film)">Tower</a> (2016)</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Dead_Kids_(South_Park)" title="Dead Kids (South Park)">Dead Kids</a>" (2018)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vox_Lux" title="Vox Lux">Vox Lux</a> (2018)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safety_(2019_film)" title="Safety (2019 film)">Safety</a> (2019)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/If_Anything_Happens_I_Love_You" title="If Anything Happens I Love You">If Anything Happens I Love You</a> (2020)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Run_Hide_Fight" title="Run Hide Fight">Run Hide Fight</a> (2020)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Fallout_(film)" title="The Fallout (film)">The Fallout</a> (2021)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_(2021_film)" title="Mass (2021 film)">Mass</a> (2021)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Larue" title="Eric Larue">Eric Larue</a> (2023)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Graduates_(2023_film)" title="The Graduates (2023 film)">The Graduates</a> (2023)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Truth_vs._Alex_Jones" title="The Truth vs. Alex Jones">The Truth vs. Alex Jones</a> (2024)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Literature</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Give_a_Boy_a_Gun" title="Give a Boy a Gun">Give a Boy a Gun</a> (2000)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nobody_Left_to_Hate" title="Nobody Left to Hate">Nobody Left to Hate</a> (2001)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/No_Easy_Answers" title="No Easy Answers">No Easy Answers</a> (2002)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/After_(Prose_novel)" title="After (Prose novel)">After</a> (2003)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columbine_(book)" title="Columbine (book)">Columbine</a> (2009)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_List" title="Hate List">Hate List</a> (2009)</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/%27No_Way_to_Prevent_This,%27_Says_Only_Nation_Where_This_Regularly_Happens" title="'No Way to Prevent This,' Says Only Nation Where This Regularly Happens">'No Way to Prevent This,' Says Only Nation Where This Regularly Happens</a>" (2014–)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Mother%27s_Reckoning" title="A Mother's Reckoning">A Mother's Reckoning</a> (2016)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bang_Bang_You%27re_Dead_(play)" title="Bang Bang You're Dead (play)">Bang Bang You're Dead</a> (1999)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pico%27s_School" title="Pico's School">Pico's School</a> (1999)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lullaby_for_Columbine" title="Lullaby for Columbine">Lullaby for Columbine</a> (1999)</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Shoot_(Hellblazer)" title="Shoot (Hellblazer)">Shoot</a>" (1999/2010)</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/The_Nobodies_(song)" title="The Nobodies (song)">The Nobodies</a>" (2000)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columbinus" title="Columbinus">Columbinus</a> (2005)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Super_Columbine_Massacre_RPG!" title="Super Columbine Massacre RPG!">Super Columbine Massacre RPG!</a> (2005)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/V-Tech_Rampage" title="V-Tech Rampage">V-Tech Rampage</a> (2007)</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Valentine%27s_Day_(song)" title="Valentine's Day (song)">Valentine's Day</a>" (2013)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Library_(play)" title="The Library (play)">The Library</a> (2014)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related terms and topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Active_shooter" title="Active shooter">Active shooter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columbine_effect" title="Columbine effect">Columbine effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gun_violence_in_the_United_States" title="Gun violence in the United States">Gun violence in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_school_shootings_in_the_United_States_by_death_toll" title="List of school shootings in the United States by death toll">List of school shootings in the United States by death toll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_shootings_in_the_United_States" title="Mass shootings in the United States">Mass shootings in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thoughts_and_prayers" title="Thoughts and prayers">Thoughts and prayers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_shooting" title="School shooting">School shooting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_violence" title="School violence">School violence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kent_State_shootings&oldid=1280263279">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kent_State_shootings&oldid=1280263279</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" 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