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href="#Reasons_for_theodicy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Reasons for theodicy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reasons_for_theodicy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ancient_religions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancient_religions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Ancient religions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ancient_religions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biblical_theodicy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biblical_theodicy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Biblical theodicy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biblical_theodicy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Augustinian_theodicy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Augustinian_theodicy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Augustinian theodicy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Augustinian_theodicy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Irenaean_theodicy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Irenaean_theodicy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Irenaean theodicy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Irenaean_theodicy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Compensation_theodicy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Compensation_theodicy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Compensation theodicy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Compensation_theodicy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Origenian_theodicy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Origenian_theodicy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Origenian theodicy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Origenian_theodicy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Relatively_minor_theodicies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relatively_minor_theodicies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7</span> <span>Relatively minor theodicies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relatively_minor_theodicies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Islam" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Islam"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Islam</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Islam-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Islam subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Islam-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ashʿarī_theology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ashʿarī_theology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Ashʿarī theology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ashʿarī_theology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Māturīdism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Māturīdism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Māturīdism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Māturīdism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mu'tazilism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mu'tazilism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Mu'tazilism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mu'tazilism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Atharī" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Atharī"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Atharī</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Atharī-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Alternatives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alternatives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Alternatives</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Alternatives-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Alternatives subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Alternatives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Jewish_anti-theodicy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jewish_anti-theodicy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Jewish anti-theodicy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jewish_anti-theodicy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Christian_alternatives_to_theodicy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Christian_alternatives_to_theodicy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Christian alternatives to theodicy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Christian_alternatives_to_theodicy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Free-will_defense" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Free-will_defense"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Free-will defense</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Free-will_defense-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cosmodicy_and_anthropodicy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cosmodicy_and_anthropodicy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Cosmodicy and anthropodicy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cosmodicy_and_anthropodicy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Essential_kenosis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Essential_kenosis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4.1</span> <span>Essential kenosis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Essential_kenosis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-General_and_cited_references" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General_and_cited_references"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>General and cited references</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General_and_cited_references-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Theodicy</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 44 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-44" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">44 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AB%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%A7" title="ثيوديسيا – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="ثيوديسيا" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teodiseya" title="Teodiseya – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Teodiseya" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B6%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%AD_%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A6" title="শুভ দেববাদ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="শুভ দেববাদ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B5%D1%8F" title="Теодицея – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Теодицея" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teodicea" title="Teodicea – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Teodicea" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teodicea" title="Teodicea – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Teodicea" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodiciaeth" title="Theodiciaeth – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Theodiciaeth" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teodic%C3%A9" title="Teodicé – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Teodicé" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodizee" title="Theodizee – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Theodizee" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teodiike" title="Teodiike – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Teodiike" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%98%CE%B5%CE%BF%CE%B4%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Θεοδικία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Θεοδικία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teodicea" title="Teodicea – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Teodicea" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teodiceo" title="Teodiceo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Teodiceo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teodizea" title="Teodizea – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Teodizea" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A6%D9%88%D8%AF%DB%8C%D8%B3%D9%87" title="تئودیسه – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تئودیسه" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C3%A9odic%C3%A9e" title="Théodicée – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Théodicée" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%8B%A0%EC%A0%95%EB%A1%A0" title="신정론 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="신정론" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B9%D5%A5%D5%B8%D5%A4%D5%AB%D6%81%D5%AB%D5%A1" title="Թեոդիցիա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Թեոդիցիա" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teodiceja" title="Teodiceja – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Teodiceja" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teodiceo" title="Teodiceo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Teodiceo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teodisi" title="Teodisi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Teodisi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodicea" title="Theodicea – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Theodicea" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teodicea" title="Teodicea – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Teodicea" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%AA%D7%90%D7%95%D7%93%D7%99%D7%A6%D7%99%D7%94" title="תאודיציה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="תאודיציה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%97%E1%83%94%E1%83%9D%E1%83%93%E1%83%98%E1%83%AA%E1%83%94%E1%83%90" title="თეოდიცეა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="თეოდიცეა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B5%D1%8F" title="Теодицея – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Теодицея" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B5%D0%B9" title="Теодицей – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Теодицей" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodicaea" title="Theodicaea – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Theodicaea" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodizee" title="Theodizee – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Theodizee" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teodicea" title="Teodicea – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Teodicea" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodicee" title="Theodicee – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Theodicee" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a 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The specific problem is: <b>idiosyncratic tone and presentation, especially in the "biblical" section.</b><span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Theodicy" title="Special:EditPage/Theodicy">improve this article</a> if you can.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">December 2023</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Copy_edit plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-Copy_edit" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Acap.svg/36px-Acap.svg.png" decoding="async" width="36" 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class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz,_Bernhard_Christoph_Francke.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz%2C_Bernhard_Christoph_Francke.jpg/220px-Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz%2C_Bernhard_Christoph_Francke.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="272" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz%2C_Bernhard_Christoph_Francke.jpg/330px-Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz%2C_Bernhard_Christoph_Francke.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz%2C_Bernhard_Christoph_Francke.jpg/440px-Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz%2C_Bernhard_Christoph_Francke.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4486" data-file-height="5538" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" class="mw-redirect" title="Gottfried Leibniz">Gottfried Leibniz</a> coined the term "theodicy" to justify God's existence in light of the apparent imperfections of the world.</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Theodicy" title="Category:Theodicy"><i>a series</i></a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Theodicy</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Key concepts</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absence_of_good" title="Absence of good">Absence of good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustinian_theodicy" title="Augustinian theodicy">Augustinian theodicy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Best_of_all_possible_worlds" title="Best of all possible worlds">Best of all possible worlds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_retribution" title="Divine retribution">Divine retribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dystheism" title="Dystheism">Dystheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicurean_paradox" title="Epicurean paradox">Epicurean paradox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inconsistent_triad" title="Inconsistent triad">Inconsistent triad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irenaean_theodicy" title="Irenaean theodicy">Irenaean theodicy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misotheism" title="Misotheism">Misotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_evil" title="Moral evil">Moral evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_evil" title="Natural evil">Natural evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Problem of evil</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Notable figures</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Saint Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bart_D._Ehrman" title="Bart D. Ehrman">Ehrman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicurus" title="Epicurus">Epicurus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hick" title="John Hick">Hick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irenaeus" title="Irenaeus">Saint Irenaeus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_de_Maistre" title="Joseph de Maistre">Maistre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Plantinga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_L._Rowe" title="William L. Rowe">Rowe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Swinburne" title="Richard Swinburne">Swinburne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elie_Wiesel" title="Elie Wiesel">Wiesel</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini 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mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Types of faith</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agnosticism" title="Agnosticism">Agnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apatheism" title="Apatheism">Apatheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">Atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_theism" title="Classical theism">Classical theism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deism" title="Deism">Deism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henotheism" title="Henotheism">Henotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ietsism" title="Ietsism">Ietsism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theological_noncognitivism" title="Theological noncognitivism">Ignosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monotheism" title="Monotheism">Monotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dualism_in_cosmology" title="Dualism in cosmology">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monolatry" title="Monolatry">Monolatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kathenotheism" title="Kathenotheism">Kathenotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omnism" title="Omnism">Omnism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandeism" title="Pandeism">Pandeism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panentheism" title="Panentheism">Panentheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pantheism" title="Pantheism">Pantheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polytheism" title="Polytheism">Polytheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transtheism" title="Transtheism">Transtheism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Specific conceptions</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brahman" title="Brahman">Brahman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creator_deity" title="Creator deity">Creator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demiurge" title="Demiurge">Demiurge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deus" title="Deus">Deus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_the_Father" title="God the Father">Father</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Form_of_the_Good" title="Form of the Good">Form of the Good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conceptions_of_God" title="Conceptions of God">God</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Architect_of_the_Universe" title="Great Architect of the Universe">Great Architect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monad_(philosophy)" title="Monad (philosophy)">Monad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mother_goddess" title="Mother goddess">Mother</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Summum_bonum" title="Summum bonum">Summum bonum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God" title="God">Supreme Being</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_the_Sustainer" title="God the Sustainer">Sustainer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lord#Religion" title="Lord">The Lord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trinity" title="Trinity">Trinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tawhid" title="Tawhid">Tawhid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dualism_in_cosmology#Duotheism,_bitheism,_ditheism" title="Dualism in cosmology">Ditheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_god" title="Personal god">Personal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unitarianism" title="Unitarianism">Unitarianism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">In particular religions</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-bottom:0;"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/God_in_Abrahamic_religions" title="God in Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Judaism" title="God in Judaism">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Christianity" title="God in Christianity">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Islam" title="God in Islam">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_the_Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith" title="God in the Baháʼí Faith">Baháʼí Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Mormonism" title="God in Mormonism">Mormonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hayyi_Rabbi" title="Hayyi Rabbi">Mandaeism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaritanism#Beliefs" title="Samaritanism">Samaritanism</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Indian_religions" title="Indian religions">Indo-Iranian</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Hinduism" title="God in Hinduism">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creator_in_Buddhism" title="Creator in Buddhism">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Jainism" title="God in Jainism">Jainism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Sikhism" title="God in Sikhism">Sikhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bon" title="Bon">Yungdrung Bon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahura_Mazda" title="Ahura Mazda">Zoroastrianism</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Chinese_theology" title="Chinese theology">Chinese</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tian" title="Tian">Tian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shangdi" title="Shangdi">Shangdi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hongjun_Laozu" title="Hongjun Laozu">Hongjun Laozu</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Attributes</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eternity#God_and_eternity" title="Eternity">Eternalness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existence_of_God" title="Existence of God">Existence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_of_God" title="Gender of God">Gender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Names_of_God" title="Names of God">Names</a> (<a href="/wiki/God_(word)" title="God (word)">"God"</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omnibenevolence" title="Omnibenevolence">Omnibenevolence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omnipotence" title="Omnipotence">Omnipotence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omnipresence" title="Omnipresence">Omnipresence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omniscience" title="Omniscience">Omniscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aseity" title="Aseity">Aseity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendence_(religion)" title="Transcendence (religion)">Transcendence</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Experiences</li><li>Practices</li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religious_belief" class="mw-redirect" title="Religious belief">Belief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_esotericism" title="Western esotericism">Esotericism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith" title="Faith">Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnosis" title="Gnosis">Gnosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeticism" title="Hermeticism">Hermeticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mysticism" title="Mysticism">Mysticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prayer" title="Prayer">Prayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revelation" title="Revelation">Revelation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Worship" title="Worship">Worship</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Euthyphro_dilemma" title="Euthyphro dilemma">Euthyphro dilemma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_complex" title="God complex">God complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_gene" title="God gene">God gene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">Theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Problem of evil</a> (<a class="mw-selflink selflink">theodicy</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_text" title="Religious text">texts</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portrayals_of_God_in_popular_media" title="Portrayals of God in popular media">Portrayals of God in popular media</a></li> <li><i><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:P_religion_world.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/P_religion_world.svg/16px-P_religion_world.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/P_religion_world.svg/24px-P_religion_world.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/P_religion_world.svg/32px-P_religion_world.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Religion" title="Portal:Religion">Religion portal</a></i></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:God_sidebar" title="Template:God sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:God_sidebar" title="Template talk:God sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:God_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:God sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_of_religion" title="Category:Philosophy of religion">a series</a> on the</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="display:block;margin-bottom:0.4em;"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Philosophy of religion</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddf;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">Religious</a> concepts</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-left:0.35em;padding-right:0.35em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afterlife" title="Afterlife">Afterlife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apophatic_theology" title="Apophatic theology">Apophatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cataphatic_theology" title="Cataphatic theology">Cataphatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eschatology" title="Eschatology">Eschatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Buddhism" title="Enlightenment in Buddhism">Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligent_design" title="Intelligent design">Intelligent design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moksha" title="Moksha">Liberation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miracle" title="Miracle">Miracle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mysticism" title="Mysticism">Mysticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belief#Religion" title="Belief"><span class="wrap">Religious belief</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reincarnation" title="Reincarnation">Reincarnation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith" title="Faith">Religious faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_text" title="Religious text"><span class="wrap">Scripture (religious text)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">Soul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitalism" title="Vitalism">Spirit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theological_veto" title="Theological veto">Theological veto</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddf;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Challenges</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-left:0.35em;padding-right:0.35em;;padding-bottom:0;"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.15em 0.3em 0.6em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_egoism" title="Ethical egoism">Ethical egoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthyphro_dilemma" title="Euthyphro dilemma">Euthyphro dilemma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_religious_language" title="Problem of religious language">Religious language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verificationism" title="Verificationism">Verificationism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eschatological_verification" title="Eschatological verification">eschatological</a></li></ul></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#e6e6ff; font-weight:normal;"> <a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Problem of evil</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.15em 0.3em 0.6em;"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Theodicy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Augustinian_theodicy" title="Augustinian theodicy">Augustinian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irenaean_theodicy" title="Irenaean theodicy">Irenaean</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Best_of_all_possible_worlds" title="Best of all possible worlds"><span class="wrap">Best of all possible worlds</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inconsistent_triad" title="Inconsistent triad">Inconsistent triad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_evil" title="Natural evil">Natural evil</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddf;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/God" title="God">God</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-left:0.35em;padding-right:0.35em;;padding-bottom:0;"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#e6e6ff;font-weight:normal;"> <a href="/wiki/Conceptions_of_God" title="Conceptions of God">Conceptions</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.15em 0.5em 0.6em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropopathism" title="Anthropopathism">Anthropopathism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahman" title="Brahman">Brahman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demiurge" title="Demiurge">Demiurge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_simplicity" title="Divine simplicity">Divinely simple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Form_of_the_Good" title="Form of the Good">Form of the Good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit" title="Holy Spirit">Holy Spirit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misotheism" title="Misotheism">Maltheist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occasionalism" title="Occasionalism">Occasionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandeism" title="Pandeism">Pandeist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_god" title="Personal god">Personal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_theology" title="Process theology">Process-theological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Summum_bonum" title="Summum bonum">Summum bonum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creator_deity" title="Creator deity">Supreme Being</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unmoved_mover" title="Unmoved mover">Unmoved mover</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#e6e6ff;font-weight:normal;"> <a href="/wiki/Existence_of_God" title="Existence of God">Existence</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.15em 0.5em 0.6em;"> <table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-weight:normal;"> Arguments for</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-left:0.4em;padding-right:0.4em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_beauty" title="Argument from beauty">Beauty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christological_argument" title="Christological argument">Christological</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lewis%27s_trilemma" title="Lewis's trilemma">Trilemma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resurrection_of_Jesus" title="Resurrection of Jesus">Resurrection</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_consciousness" title="Argument from consciousness">Consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmological_argument" title="Cosmological argument">Cosmological</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Kalam_cosmological_argument" title="Kalam cosmological argument">kalām</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmological_argument#Argument_from_contingency" title="Cosmological argument">contingency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmological_argument#Metaphysical_argument_for_the_existence_of_God" title="Cosmological argument">metaphysical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_degree" title="Argument from degree">Degree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_desire" title="Argument from desire">Desire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_religious_experience" title="Argument from religious experience">Experience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leap_of_faith" title="Leap of faith">Existential choice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fine-tuned_universe" title="Fine-tuned universe">Fine-tuned universe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_love" title="Argument from love">Love</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematics_and_God" title="Mathematics and God">Mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_miracles" title="Argument from miracles">Miracles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_morality" title="Argument from morality">Morality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley#Theology" title="George Berkeley">Mystical idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural-law_argument" title="Natural-law argument">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proof_of_the_Truthful" title="Proof of the Truthful">Necessary existent</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seddiqin_argument" title="Seddiqin argument">Seddiqin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyayakusumanjali" title="Nyayakusumanjali">Nyayakusumanjali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occam%27s_razor#Religion" title="Occam's razor">Occam's Razor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontological_argument" title="Ontological argument">Ontological</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6del%27s_ontological_proof" title="Gödel's ontological proof">Gödel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontological_argument#Modal_versions_of_the_ontological_argument" title="Ontological argument">Modal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proslogion" title="Proslogion">Anselm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meinongian_argument" title="Meinongian argument">Meinongian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendent_theosophy" title="Transcendent theosophy">Mulla Sadra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza#Ontological_argument" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pascal%27s_wager" title="Pascal's wager">Pascal's wager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Proper basis / Reformed epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_reason" title="Argument from reason">Reason</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_responses_to_the_problem_of_evil" title="Religious responses to the problem of evil">Responses to evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teleological_argument" title="Teleological argument">Teleological</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intelligent_design" title="Intelligent design">Intelligent design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watchmaker_analogy" title="Watchmaker analogy">Watchmaker</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Junkyard_tornado" title="Junkyard tornado">Junkyard</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trademark_argument" title="Trademark argument">Trademark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_argument_for_the_existence_of_God" title="Transcendental argument for the existence of God">Transcendental</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-weight:normal;"> Arguments against</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-left:0.4em;padding-right:0.4em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ultimate_Boeing_747_gambit" title="Ultimate Boeing 747 gambit">747 gambit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheist%27s_wager" title="Atheist's wager">Atheist's wager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_the_creator_of_God" title="Problem of the creator of God">Creator of God</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evil_God_challenge" title="Evil God challenge">Evil God</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fate_of_the_unlearned" title="Fate of the unlearned">Fate of the unlearned</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_free_will" title="Argument from free will">Free will</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_of_the_gaps" title="God of the gaps">God of the gaps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_Hell" title="Problem of Hell">Hell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hitchens%27s_razor" title="Hitchens's razor">Hitchens's razor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incompatible-properties_argument" title="Incompatible-properties argument">Incompatible properties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_inconsistent_revelations" class="mw-redirect" title="Argument from inconsistent revelations"><span class="wrap">Inconsistency</span></a></li> <li>No limits fallacy</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_nonbelief" title="Argument from nonbelief">Nonbelief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theological_noncognitivism" title="Theological noncognitivism">Noncognitivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omnipotence_paradox" title="Omnipotence paradox"><span class="wrap">Omnipotence paradox</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_poor_design" title="Argument from poor design">Poor design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell%27s_teapot" title="Russell's teapot">Russell's teapot</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#e6e6ff;font-weight:normal;"> By religion</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.15em 0.5em 0.6em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Abrahamic_religions" title="God in Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/God_in_the_Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith" title="God in the Baháʼí Faith">Baháʼí</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Christianity" title="God in Christianity">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Islam" title="God in Islam">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Judaism" title="God in Judaism">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Mormonism" title="God in Mormonism">Mormonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hayyi_Rabbi" title="Hayyi Rabbi">Mandaeism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creator_in_Buddhism" title="Creator in Buddhism">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Hinduism" title="God in Hinduism">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Jainism" title="God in Jainism">Jainism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Sikhism" title="God in Sikhism">Sikhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wiccan_views_of_divinity" title="Wiccan views of divinity">Wicca</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddf;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Theories_about_religion" title="Theories about religion">Theories of religion</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-left:0.35em;padding-right:0.35em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acosmism" title="Acosmism">Acosmism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agnosticism" title="Agnosticism">Agnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animism" title="Animism">Animism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antireligion" title="Antireligion">Antireligion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">Atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creationism" title="Creationism">Creationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharmism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deism" title="Deism">Deism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_command_theory" title="Divine command theory">Divine command theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dualism_in_cosmology" title="Dualism in cosmology">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_esotericism" title="Western esotericism">Esotericism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exclusivism" title="Exclusivism">Exclusivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atheistic_existentialism" title="Atheistic existentialism">atheist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_existentialism" title="Christian existentialism">Christian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_theology" title="Feminist theology">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundamentalism" title="Fundamentalism">Fundamentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnosticism" title="Gnosticism">Gnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henotheism" title="Henotheism">Henotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_humanism" title="Christian humanism">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_humanism" title="Religious humanism">religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_humanism" title="Secular humanism">secular</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inclusivism" title="Inclusivism">Inclusivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monotheism" title="Monotheism">Monotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mysticism" title="Mysticism">Mysticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_naturalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Humanistic naturalism">humanistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_naturalism" title="Metaphysical naturalism">metaphysical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_naturalism" title="Religious naturalism">religious</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Age" title="New Age">New Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonduality_(spirituality)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nonduality (spirituality)">Nondualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nontheism" title="Nontheism">Nontheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandeism" title="Pandeism">Pandeism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panentheism" title="Panentheism">Panentheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pantheism" title="Pantheism">Pantheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perennial_philosophy" title="Perennial philosophy">Perennialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polytheism" title="Polytheism">Polytheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_theology" title="Process theology">Process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_Shrine_Theory" title="Secular Shrine Theory">Secular Shrine Theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shendao_shejiao" title="Shendao shejiao">Shendao shejiao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritualism_(beliefs)" title="Spiritualism (beliefs)">Spiritualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shamanism" title="Shamanism">Shamanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_religions" title="East Asian religions">Taoic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theism" title="Theism">Theism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddf;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophers_of_religion" title="Category:Philosophers of religion">Philosophers of religion</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-left:0.35em;padding-right:0.35em;;padding-bottom:0;"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#e6e6ff;font-weight:normal;"> <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Ancient</a> and <a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">medieval</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.1em 1.25em 0.6em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anselm_of_Canterbury" title="Anselm of Canterbury">Anselm of Canterbury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boethius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaudapada" title="Gaudapada">Gaudapada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">Al-Ghazali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaunilo_of_Marmoutiers" title="Gaunilo of Marmoutiers">Gaunilo of Marmoutiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Pico_della_Mirandola" title="Giovanni Pico della Mirandola">Pico della Mirandola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heraclitus" title="Heraclitus">Heraclitus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_VI_and_I" title="James VI and I">King James VI and I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcion_of_Sinope" title="Marcion of Sinope">Marcion of Sinope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adi_Shankara" title="Adi Shankara">Adi Shankara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">William of Ockham</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#e6e6ff;font-weight:normal;"> <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_philosophy" title="Early modern philosophy">Early modern</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.1em 1.25em 0.6em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Augustin_Calmet" title="Antoine Augustin Calmet">Augustin Calmet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaise_Pascal" title="Blaise Pascal">Blaise Pascal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desiderius_Erasmus" class="mw-redirect" title="Desiderius Erasmus">Desiderius Erasmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Malebranche" title="Nicolas Malebranche">Nicolas Malebranche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Gottfried W Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Wollaston" title="William Wollaston">William Wollaston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Chubb" title="Thomas Chubb">Thomas Chubb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baron_d%27Holbach" title="Baron d'Holbach">Baron d'Holbach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Johann G Herder</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#e6e6ff;font-weight:normal;"> <a href="/wiki/19th-century_philosophy" title="19th-century philosophy">19th-century</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.1em 1.25em 0.6em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schleiermacher" title="Friedrich Schleiermacher">Friedrich Schleiermacher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Christian_Friedrich_Krause" title="Karl Christian Friedrich Krause">Karl C F Krause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Georg W F Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Thomas Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Whewell" title="William Whewell">William Whewell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Feuerbach" title="Ludwig Feuerbach">Ludwig Feuerbach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Søren Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albrecht_Ritschl" title="Albrecht Ritschl">Albrecht Ritschl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afrikan_Spir" title="Afrikan Spir">Afrikan Spir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Usman_dan_Fodio" title="Usman dan Fodio">Usman dan Fodio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Haeckel" title="Ernst Haeckel">Ernst Haeckel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Kingdon_Clifford" title="William Kingdon Clifford">W K Clifford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harald_H%C3%B8ffding" title="Harald Høffding">Harald Høffding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">William James</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Solovyov_(philosopher)" title="Vladimir Solovyov (philosopher)">Vladimir Solovyov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Troeltsch" title="Ernst Troeltsch">Ernst Troeltsch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Otto" title="Rudolf Otto">Rudolf Otto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lev_Shestov" title="Lev Shestov">Lev Shestov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Cassirer" title="Ernst Cassirer">Ernst Cassirer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Mar%C3%A9chal" title="Joseph Maréchal">Joseph Maréchal</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#e6e6ff;font-weight:normal;"> <a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.1em 1.25em 0.6em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Santayana" title="George Santayana">George Santayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Buber" title="Martin Buber">Martin Buber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sergei_Bulgakov" title="Sergei Bulgakov">Sergei Bulgakov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">René Guénon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Tillich" title="Paul Tillich">Paul Tillich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Barth" title="Karl Barth">Karl Barth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pavel_Florensky" title="Pavel Florensky">Pavel Florensky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emil_Brunner" title="Emil Brunner">Emil Brunner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Bultmann" title="Rudolf Bultmann">Rudolf Bultmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Marcel" title="Gabriel Marcel">Gabriel Marcel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinhold_Niebuhr" title="Reinhold Niebuhr">Reinhold Niebuhr</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Hartshorne" title="Charles Hartshorne">Charles Hartshorne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mircea_Eliade" title="Mircea Eliade">Mircea Eliade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frithjof_Schuon" title="Frithjof Schuon">Frithjof Schuon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Mackie" title="J. L. Mackie">J. L. Mackie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Kaufmann_(philosopher)" title="Walter Kaufmann (philosopher)">Walter Kaufmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Lings" title="Martin Lings">Martin Lings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Geach" title="Peter Geach">Peter Geach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_I._Mavrodes" title="George I. Mavrodes">George I Mavrodes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Alston" title="William Alston">William Alston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antony_Flew" title="Antony Flew">Antony Flew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurt_Godel" class="mw-redirect" title="Kurt Godel">Kurt Godel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graham_Oppy" title="Graham Oppy">Graham Oppy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Schellenberg" title="J. L. Schellenberg">J. L. Schellenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Draper_(philosopher)" title="Paul Draper (philosopher)">Paul Draper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_L._Rowe" title="William L. Rowe">William L Rowe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dewi_Zephaniah_Phillips" title="Dewi Zephaniah Phillips">Dewi Z Phillips</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Alvin Plantinga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Kenny" title="Anthony Kenny">Anthony Kenny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Wolterstorff" title="Nicholas Wolterstorff">Nicholas Wolterstorff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Swinburne" title="Richard Swinburne">Richard Swinburne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Merrihew_Adams" title="Robert Merrihew Adams">Robert Merrihew Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ravi_Zacharias" title="Ravi Zacharias">Ravi Zacharias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_van_Inwagen" title="Peter van Inwagen">Peter van Inwagen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornel_West" title="Cornel West">Cornel West</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loyal_Rue" title="Loyal Rue">Loyal Rue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herman_Philipse" title="Herman Philipse">Herman Philipse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kai_Nielsen_(philosopher)" title="Kai Nielsen (philosopher)">Kai Nielsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Luc_Marion" title="Jean-Luc Marion">Jean-Luc Marion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Lane_Craig" title="William Lane Craig">William Lane Craig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Akbar_Rashad" title="Ali Akbar Rashad">Ali Akbar Rashad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yujin_Nagasawa" title="Yujin Nagasawa">Yujin Nagasawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Pruss" title="Alexander Pruss">Alexander Pruss</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed wraplinks"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddf;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-left:0.35em;padding-right:0.35em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_religion" title="Criticism of religion">Criticism of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_in_religion" title="Ethics in religion">Ethics in religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exegesis" title="Exegesis">Exegesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_and_rationality" title="Faith and rationality">Faith and rationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion" title="History of religion">History of religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_theology" title="Natural theology">Natural theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Religion and science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_philosophy" title="Religious philosophy">Religious philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">Theology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy_of_religion_articles" title="Index of philosophy of religion articles">Philosophy of religion article index</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_of_religion_sidebar" title="Template:Philosophy of religion sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_of_religion_sidebar" title="Template talk:Philosophy of religion sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy_of_religion_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy of religion sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">philosophy of religion</a>, a <b>theodicy</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/θ/: 'th' in 'thigh'">θ</span><span title="/iː/: 'ee' in 'fleece'">iː</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="/ɒ/: 'o' in 'body'">ɒ</span><span title="'d' in 'dye'">d</span><span title="/ɪ/: 'i' in 'kit'">ɪ</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span><span title="/i/: 'y' in 'happy'">i</span></span>/</a></span></span>; meaning 'vindication of God', from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Ancient Greek</a> θεός <i>theos</i>, "god" and δίκη <i>dikē</i>, "justice") is an argument that attempts to resolve the <a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">problem of evil</a> that arises when <a href="/wiki/Omnipotence" title="Omnipotence">all power</a> and <a href="/wiki/Omnibenevolence" title="Omnibenevolence">all goodness</a> are simultaneously ascribed to <a href="/wiki/God" title="God">God</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Unlike a <i>defence</i>, which merely tries to demonstrate that the coexistence of <a href="/wiki/The_existence_of_God" class="mw-redirect" title="The existence of God">God</a> and evil is logically possible, a theodicy additionally provides a framework wherein God and evil's existence is considered plausible.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The German philosopher and mathematician <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" class="mw-redirect" title="Gottfried Leibniz">Gottfried Leibniz</a> coined the term "theodicy" in 1710 in his work <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A9odic%C3%A9e" title="Théodicée">Théodicée</a></i></span>, though numerous attempts to resolve the problem of evil had previously been proposed. </p><p>Similar to a theodicy, a <a href="/wiki/Cosmodicy" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmodicy">cosmodicy</a> attempts to justify the fundamental goodness of the universe, and an <a href="/wiki/Anthropodicy" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthropodicy">anthropodicy</a> attempts to justify the goodness of humanity. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definition_and_etymology">Definition and etymology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Theodicy&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Definition and etymology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As defined by <a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Alvin Plantinga</a>, a theodicy is "an answer to the question of why God permits evil".<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Theodicy is defined as a theological construct that attempts to vindicate God in response to the <a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">problem of evil</a> that appears inconsistent with the existence of an <a href="/wiki/Omnipotent" class="mw-redirect" title="Omnipotent">omnipotent</a> and <a href="/wiki/Omnibenevolent" class="mw-redirect" title="Omnibenevolent">omnibenevolent</a> God.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another definition of theodicy is the vindication of divine goodness and providence in view of the existence of evil. The word <i>theodicy</i> derives from the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Greek</a> words <span title="Ancient Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">Θεός</span></span>, <span title="Ancient Greek-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">Τheos</i></span> and <span title="Ancient Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">δίκη</span></span>, <span title="Ancient Greek-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">dikē</i></span>. <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">Theos</i></span> is translated "God" and <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">dikē</i></span> can be translated as either "trial" or "judgement".<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, 'theodicy' literally means "justifying God".<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the <i><a href="/wiki/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Nick_Trakakis" title="Nick Trakakis">Nick Trakakis</a> proposed an additional three requirements which must be contained within a theodicy: </p> <ul><li>Common sense views of the world</li> <li>Widely held historical and scientific opinion</li> <li>Plausible moral principles<sup id="cite_ref-IEP_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IEP-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>As a response to the problem of evil, a theodicy is distinct from a defence. A defence attempts to demonstrate that the occurrence of evil does not contradict God's existence, but it does not propose that rational beings are able to understand why God permits evil. A theodicy shows that it is reasonable to believe in God despite evidence of evil in the world and offers a framework which can account for why evil exists.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A theodicy is often based on a prior <a href="/wiki/Natural_theology" title="Natural theology">natural theology</a>, which exist to prove the existence of God,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (August 2023)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> and seeks to demonstrate that God's existence remains probable after the problem of evil is posed by giving a justification for God's permitting evil to happen.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Defenses propose solutions to the <a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">problem of evil</a>, while theodicies attempt to answer the problem.<sup id="cite_ref-IEP_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IEP-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Pseudo-Dionysius" class="mw-redirect" title="Pseudo-Dionysius">Pseudo-Dionysius</a> defines evil by those aspects that show an absence of good.<sup id="cite_ref-N.T.Wright_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-N.T.Wright-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 37">: 37 </span></sup> Writers in this tradition saw things as reflecting 'forms' and evil as a failure to reflect the appropriate form adequately: as a deficit of goodness where goodness ought to have been present. In the same line of thinking, <a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">St. Augustine</a> also defined evil as an absence of good, as did the theologian and monk <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a>, who stated "a man is called <i>bad</i> insofar as he lacks a virtue, and an eye is called <i>bad</i> insofar as it lacks the power of sight."<sup id="cite_ref-Richard_Swinburne_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Richard_Swinburne-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 37">: 37 </span></sup> <i>Bad</i> as an absence of <i>good</i> resurfaces in <a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Heidegger</a> and <a href="/wiki/Karl_Barth" title="Karl Barth">Barth</a>. Very similar are the <a href="/wiki/Neoplatonists" class="mw-redirect" title="Neoplatonists">Neoplatonists</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Plotinus" title="Plotinus">Plotinus</a> and the contemporary philosopher Denis O'Brien, who say that evil is a privation.<sup id="cite_ref-O'Brien_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-O'Brien-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Plotinus_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Plotinus-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>It is important to note that there are at least two concepts of evil: a broad concept and a narrow concept. The broad concept picks out any bad state of affairs ... [and] has been divided into two categories: natural evil and moral evil. Natural evils are bad states of affairs which do not result from the intentions or negligence of moral agents. Hurricanes and toothaches are examples of natural evils. By contrast, moral evils do result from the intentions or negligence of moral agents. Murder and lying are examples of moral evils. Evil in the broad sense, which includes all natural and moral evils, tends to be the sort of evil referenced in theological contexts ... [T]he narrow concept of evil picks out only the most morally despicable ... [it] involves moral condemnation, [and] is appropriately ascribed only to moral agents and their actions.<sup id="cite_ref-Todd_Calder_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Todd_Calder-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p><a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a>, "selectively elaborating Hegel", defines evil in terms of its effect.<sup id="cite_ref-N.T.Wright_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-N.T.Wright-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 44">: 44 </span></sup> Philosopher John Kekes says the effect of evil must include actual harm that "interferes with the functioning of a person as a full-fledged agent".<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Todd_Calder_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Todd_Calder-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Christian philosophers and theologians such as <a href="/wiki/Richard_Swinburne" title="Richard Swinburne">Richard Swinburne</a> and <a href="/wiki/N._T._Wright" title="N. T. Wright">N. T. Wright</a> also define evil in terms of effect, stating that an "act is objectively good (or bad) if it is good (or bad) in its consequences".<sup id="cite_ref-Richard_Swinburne_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Richard_Swinburne-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 12">: 12 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-N.T.Wright_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-N.T.Wright-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a> defines evil in terms of its effect, saying "the evils that afflict people (and indeed animals) in the present life are the effects of wrongs committed in a previous life."<sup id="cite_ref-N.T.Wright_10-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-N.T.Wright-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 34">: 34 </span></sup> Some contemporary philosophers argue a focus on the effects of evil is inadequate as a definition since evil can observe without actively causing the harm, and it is still evil.<sup id="cite_ref-Todd_Calder_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Todd_Calder-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Philosopher <a href="/wiki/Susan_Neiman" title="Susan Neiman">Susan Neiman</a> says "a <a href="/wiki/Crimes_against_humanity" title="Crimes against humanity"><i>crime against humanity</i></a> is something for which we have procedures, ... [and it] can be ... fit into the rest of our experience. To call an action <i>evil</i> is to suggest that it cannot [be fitted in]".<sup id="cite_ref-Susan_Nieman_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Susan_Nieman-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 8">: 8 </span></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a> was the first to offer a purely secular theory of evil, giving an evaluative definition of evil based on its cause as having a will that is not fully good. Kant has been an important influence on philosophers like <a href="/wiki/Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Hannah Arendt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Claudia_Card" title="Claudia Card">Claudia Card</a>, and Richard Bernstein.<sup id="cite_ref-Immanuel_Kant_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Immanuel_Kant-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "Hannah Arendt ... uses the term ['radical evil'] to denote a new form of wrongdoing which cannot be captured by other moral concepts."<sup id="cite_ref-Todd_Calder_14-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Todd_Calder-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Claudia Card says evil is excessive wrongdoing; others like <a href="/wiki/Hillel_Steiner" title="Hillel Steiner">Hillel Steiner</a> say evil is qualitatively, not quantitatively, distinct from mere wrongdoing.<sup id="cite_ref-Todd_Calder_14-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Todd_Calder-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Thomas Hobbes</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz</a> define good and evil in terms of pleasure and pain.<sup id="cite_ref-John_Locke_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-John_Locke-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hobbes_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hobbes-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Others such as Swinburne find that definition inadequate, saying, "the good of individual humans ... consists ... in their having free will ... the ability to develop ... character ..., to show courage and loyalty, to love, to be of use, to contemplate beauty and discover truth ... All that [good] ... cannot be achieved without ... suffering along the way."<sup id="cite_ref-Richard_Swinburne_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Richard_Swinburne-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 4">: 4 </span></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Most theorists writing about evil believe that evil action requires a certain sort of motivation ... the desire to cause harm, or to do wrong, ... pleasure (Steiner 2002), the desire to annihilate all being (Eagleton 2010), or the destruction of others for its own sake (Cole 2006). When evil is restricted to actions that follow from these sorts of motivations, theorists sometimes say that their subject is pure, radical, diabolical, or monstrous evil. This suggests that their discussion is restricted to a type, or form, of evil and not to evil per se.<sup id="cite_ref-Todd_Calder_14-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Todd_Calder-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Some theorists define evil by what emotions are connected to it. "For example, Laurence Thomas believes that evildoers take delight in causing harm or feel hatred toward their victims (Thomas 1993, 76–77)."<sup id="cite_ref-Todd_Calder_14-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Todd_Calder-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="Better to paraphrase and cite Thomas directly (May 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Buddhism defines various types of evil, one type defines as behavior resulting from a failure to emotionally detach from the world.<sup id="cite_ref-Nyanaponika_Thera_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nyanaponika_Thera-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Christian theologians generally define evil in terms of both human responsibility and the nature of God: "If we take the essentialist view of Christian ethics ... evil is anything contrary to God's good nature ... (character or attributes)."<sup id="cite_ref-Joseph_B._Onyango_Okello_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Joseph_B._Onyango_Okello-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Judaic view, while acknowledging the difference between the human and divine perspective of evil, is rooted in the nature of creation itself and the limitation inherent in matter's capacity to be perfected; the action of free will includes the potential for perfection from individual effort and leaves the responsibility for evil in human hands.<sup id="cite_ref-Oliver_Leaman_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oliver_Leaman-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 70">: 70 </span></sup> </p><p>As Swinburne notes: "[It is] deeply central to the whole tradition of Christian (and other western) religion that God is loving toward his creation and that involves him behaving in morally good ways toward it."<sup id="cite_ref-Richard_Swinburne_11-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Richard_Swinburne-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 3">: 3 </span></sup> Within Christianity, "God is supposed to be in some way personal ... a being who is essentially eternal, omnipotent, omniscient, Creator and sustainer of the universe, and perfectly good. An omnipotent being is one who can do anything logically possible ... such a being could not make me exist and not exist at the same time but he could eliminate the stars ... An omniscient being is one who knows everything logically possible for him to know".<sup id="cite_ref-Richard_Swinburne_11-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Richard_Swinburne-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 3–15">: 3–15 </span></sup> "God's perfect goodness is moral goodness."<sup id="cite_ref-Richard_Swinburne_11-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Richard_Swinburne-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 15">: 15 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reasons_for_theodicy">Reasons for theodicy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Theodicy&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Reasons for theodicy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Theodicies are developed to answer the question of why a good <a href="/wiki/God" title="God">God</a> permits the manifestation of <a href="/wiki/Evil" title="Evil">evil</a>, thus resolving the issue of the <a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">problem of evil</a>. Some theodicies also address the <a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">problem of evil</a> "to make the existence of an <a href="/wiki/Omniscience" title="Omniscience">all-knowing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Omnipotence" title="Omnipotence">all-powerful</a> and <a href="/wiki/Omnibenevolence" title="Omnibenevolence">all-good or omnibenevolent</a> God consistent with the existence of evil or suffering in the world".<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The philosopher Richard Swinburne says "most theists need a theodicy, [they need] an account of reasons why God might allow evil to occur."<sup id="cite_ref-Richard_Swinburne_11-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Richard_Swinburne-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 2">: 2 </span></sup> </p><p>According to <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Loke" title="Andrew Loke">Loke</a>, theodicies might have a therapeutical use for some people, though their main purpose is to provide a sound theistic argument rather than to succeed as a therapy.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, theodicies do "seek to provide hope to the sufferers that... evils can be defeated just as minor tribulations can be defeated.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Theodicy&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The term <i>theodicy</i> was coined by the German philosopher <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" class="mw-redirect" title="Gottfried Leibniz">Gottfried Leibniz</a> in his 1710 work, written in French, <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Essais_de_Th%C3%A9odic%C3%A9e_sur_la_bont%C3%A9_de_Dieu,_la_libert%C3%A9_de_l%27homme_et_l%27origine_du_mal" class="mw-redirect" title="Essais de Théodicée sur la bonté de Dieu, la liberté de l'homme et l'origine du mal">Essais de Théodicée sur la bonté de Dieu, la liberté de l'homme et l'origine du mal</a></i></span> (<i>Theodicy: Essays on the Goodness of God, the Freedom of Man and the Origin of Evil</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Leibniz's <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Théodicée</i></span> was a response to <a href="/wiki/Skepticism" title="Skepticism">skeptical</a> <a href="/wiki/Protestant" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant">Protestant</a> philosopher <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Bayle" title="Pierre Bayle">Pierre Bayle</a>, who wrote in his work <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Dictionnaire_Historique_et_Critique" title="Dictionnaire Historique et Critique">Dictionnaire Historique et Critique</a></i></span> that, after rejecting three attempts to solve it, he saw no rational solution to the problem of evil. Bayle argued that, because the <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a> asserts the coexistence of God and evil, this state of affairs must simply be accepted.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <i><a href="/wiki/The_Catholic_Encyclopedia" class="mw-redirect" title="The Catholic Encyclopedia">The Catholic Encyclopedia</a></i> (1914), Constantine Kempf argued that, following Leibniz's work, philosophers called their works on the problem of evil "theodicies", and philosophy about God was brought under the discipline of theodicy. He argued that theodicy began to include all of <a href="/wiki/Natural_theology" title="Natural theology">natural theology</a>, meaning that theodicy came to consist of the human knowledge of God through the systematic use of reason.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1966, British philosopher <a href="/wiki/John_Hick" title="John Hick">John Hick</a> published <i>Evil and the God of Love</i>, in which he surveyed various Christian responses to the problem of evil, before developing his own.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his work, Hick identified and distinguished between three types of theodicy: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Plotinian_theodicy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Plotinian theodicy (page does not exist)">Plotinian</a>, which was named after <a href="/wiki/Plotinus" title="Plotinus">Plotinus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Augustinian_theodicy" title="Augustinian theodicy">Augustinian</a>, which had dominated <a href="/wiki/Western_Christianity" title="Western Christianity">Western Christianity</a> for many centuries, and <a href="/wiki/Irenaean_theodicy" title="Irenaean theodicy">Irenaean</a>, which was developed by the Eastern <a href="/wiki/Church_Father" class="mw-redirect" title="Church Father">Church Father</a> <a href="/wiki/Irenaeus" title="Irenaeus">Irenaeus</a>, a version of which Hick subscribed to himself.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In his dialogue "Is God a Taoist?",<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> published in 1977 in his book <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Tao_Is_Silent&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="The Tao Is Silent (page does not exist)">The Tao Is Silent</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Raymond_Smullyan" title="Raymond Smullyan">Raymond Smullyan</a> claims to prove that it is logically impossible to have sentient beings without allowing "evil", even for God, just as it is impossible for him to create a triangle in the Euclidean plane having an angular sum other than 180 degrees. Therefore, the capability of feeling implies free will, which in turn may produce "evil", understood here as hurting other sentient beings. The problem of evil happening to good or innocent people is not addressed directly here, but both reincarnation and karma are hinted at.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient_religions">Ancient religions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Theodicy&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Ancient religions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>"Writings and discourses on theodicy by Jews, Greeks, Christians, and Eastern religions have graced our planet for thousands of years."<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Middle Kingdom of Egypt">Middle Kingdom of Egypt</a> (2000 BC to 1700 BC) as "in Ancient Mesopotamian and Israelite literature", theodicy was an important issue.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Philip Irving Mitchell of the <a href="/wiki/Dallas_Baptist_University" title="Dallas Baptist University">Dallas Baptist University</a> notes that some philosophers have cast the pursuit of theodicy as a modern one, as earlier scholars used the problem of evil to support the existence of one particular god over another, explain wisdom, or explain a conversion, rather than to justify God's goodness.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Sarah_Iles_Johnston" title="Sarah Iles Johnston">Sarah Iles Johnston</a> argues that ancient civilizations, such as the ancient <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Mesopotamia" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Mesopotamia">Mesopotamians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greeks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Romans</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Egyptians</a> held <a href="/wiki/Polytheistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Polytheistic">polytheistic</a> beliefs that may have enabled them to deal with the concept of theodicy differently. These religions taught the existence of many <a href="/wiki/Deity" title="Deity">gods</a> and <a href="/wiki/Goddess" title="Goddess">goddesses</a> who controlled various aspects of daily life. These early religions may have avoided the question of theodicy by endowing their deities with the same flaws and jealousies that plagued <a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">humanity</a>. No one god or goddess was fundamentally good or evil; this explained that bad things could happen to good people if they angered a deity because the gods could exercise the same free will that humankind possesses. Such religions taught that some gods were more inclined to be helpful and benevolent, while others were more likely to be spiteful and aggressive. In this sense, the evil gods could be blamed for misfortune, while the good gods could be petitioned with prayer and sacrifices to make things right. There was still a sense of justice in that individuals who were right with the gods could avoid punishment.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The "<a href="/wiki/Epicurean_trilemma" class="mw-redirect" title="Epicurean trilemma">Epicurean trilemma</a>", however, was already raised <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 300 BC</span> by <a href="/wiki/Epicurus" title="Epicurus">Epicurus</a>, according to <a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a> in 1779. According to Hume, the trilemma describes the problem of reconciling an omnipotent deity with their benevolence and the existence of evil. However, if Epicurus did write a discussion on the specific problems that Hume attributes to him, it would not have been tied with the question of an omnibenevolent and omniscient God, as Hume assumes (for Hume does not cite, nor make any implication that he had knowledge of Epicurus's writings on this matter that held any greater weight than academic hearsay or legend).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research" title="Wikipedia:No original research"><span title="The material near this tag possibly contains original research. (May 2024)">original research?</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biblical_theodicy">Biblical theodicy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Theodicy&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Biblical theodicy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Theodicy_and_the_Bible" title="Theodicy and the Bible">Theodicy and the Bible</a></div> <p>The biblical account of the justification of evil and suffering in the presence of God has both similarities and contrasts in the Hebrew Bible and the New Testament. For the Hebrew Bible, the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Job" title="Book of Job">Book of Job</a> is often quoted as the authoritative source of discussion.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (May 2024)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-Grace_Ko_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grace_Ko-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: Chapter 3: Job">: Chapter 3: Job </span></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The author of Job seeks to expand the understanding of divine justice ... beyond mere retribution, to include a system of divine sovereignty [showing] the King has the right to test His subject's loyalty ... The book of Job corrects the rigid and overly simplistic doctrine of retribution in attributing suffering to sin and punishment. It closes with a focus on the bond between creator and creation, on placing one in that, and on hope rooted in belief that God is in ultimate control.</p></blockquote> <p>It is generally accepted that God's responsive speeches in Job do not directly answer Job's complaints; God does not attempt to justify himself or reveal the reason for Job's suffering to him; instead, God's speeches focus on increasing Job's overall understanding of his relationship with God. This exemplifies Biblical theodicy.<sup id="cite_ref-Mark_S._M._Scott_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mark_S._M._Scott-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 21, 28">: 21, 28 </span></sup> There is general agreement among Bible scholars that the Bible "does not admit of a singular perspective on evil ... Instead we encounter a variety of perspectives ... Consequently [the Bible focuses on] moral and spiritual remedies, not rational or logical [justifications] ... It is simply that the Bible operates within a cosmic, moral and spiritual landscape rather than within a rationalist, abstract, ontological landscape."<sup id="cite_ref-Mark_S._M._Scott_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mark_S._M._Scott-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 27">: 27 </span></sup> </p><p>This is in evidence in God's first and second speech in Job. God's first speech concerns human ignorance and God's authority. Job had seen himself at the center of events, lamenting that God has singled him out to oppress; God responds that Job is not the center, God is; his kingdom is complex, he governs on a large scale. Since God is in dominion over all the earth, Job cannot conceivably condemn him, unless Job were to prove that he can do all the things God can.<sup id="cite_ref-Grace_Ko_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grace_Ko-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: Chapter 3:Job">: Chapter 3:Job </span></sup> God's second speech is against human self-righteousness. Job has vehemently accused God of thwarting justice as "the omnipotent tyrant, the cosmic thug". Some scholars interpret God's response as an admission of failure on his part, but he goes on to say he has the power and in his own timing will bring justice in the end.<sup id="cite_ref-Grace_Ko_40-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grace_Ko-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: Chapter 3:Job">: Chapter 3:Job </span></sup> </p><p>"Isaiah is generally recognized as one of the most progressive books of the prophetic corpus."<sup id="cite_ref-Tod_Linafelt_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tod_Linafelt-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 208">: 208 </span></sup> Christian theologians state that in the Bible "suffering is understood as having transcendent meaning ... human agency can give particular instances of suffering a mystical significance that transforms it into something productive."<sup id="cite_ref-Sarah_K._Pinnock_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sarah_K._Pinnock-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Theodicy in the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Ezekiel" title="Book of Ezekiel">Book of Ezekiel</a> (and also in Jeremiah 31:29–30) confronts the concept of personal moral responsibility. The book exemplifies the power of sin in that "The main point is stated at the beginning and at the end—'the soul that sins shall die.<span style="padding-right:.15em;">'</span>" This 'power of sin' was abolished in the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ which renders all believers in Christ and his resurrection, forgiven and therefore righteous. The aforementioned main point "is explicated by a case history of a family traced through three generations". It is not about heredity but is about understanding divine justice in a world under divine governance.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 82">: 82 </span></sup> </p><p>"Theodicy in the Minor Prophets differs little from that in Isaiah, Jeremiah and Ezekiel."<sup id="cite_ref-Paul_L._Redditt_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Paul_L._Redditt-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, the first chapter of <a href="/wiki/Habakkuk" title="Habakkuk">Habakkuk</a> raises questions about God's justice, laments God's inaction in punishing injustice, and looks for God's action in response—then objects to what God chooses.<sup id="cite_ref-Grace_Ko_40-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grace_Ko-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: Chapter 1">: Chapter 1 </span></sup> Instead of engaging in debate, God gives Habakkuk a vision of the future which includes five oracles that form a theodicy: </p> <ol><li>God has a plan and has appointed a time for judgment. It may be slow in coming as humans see things, but it will come;</li> <li>The woe oracles confront the prevalence of evil in the world and the justice those acts have earned;</li> <li>The vision of the manifestation of God is a recognition of God's power to address these issues;</li> <li>God as a warrior will fight for his people;</li> <li>The song of triumph says the faithful will prevail by holding to trust and hope.<sup id="cite_ref-Grace_Ko_40-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grace_Ko-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: Intro, Chapter 3">: Intro, Chapter 3 </span></sup></li></ol> <p>Joel and the other minor prophets demonstrate that theodicy and eschatology are connected in the Bible.<sup id="cite_ref-Paul_L._Redditt_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Paul_L._Redditt-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 201">: 201 </span></sup> </p><p>Psalm 73 presents the internal struggle created by personal suffering and the prosperity of the wicked. The writer gains perspective when he "enters the sanctuary of God (16-17)" seeing that God's justice will eventually prevail. He reaffirms his relationship with God, is ashamed of his resentment, and chooses trust.<sup id="cite_ref-Grace_Ko_40-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grace_Ko-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: Chapter 3:Psalm 73">: Chapter 3:Psalm 73 </span></sup> Psalm 77 contains real outspokenness to God as well as determination to hold onto faith and trust.<sup id="cite_ref-Grace_Ko_40-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grace_Ko-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: Chapter 3:Psalm 77">: Chapter 3:Psalm 77 </span></sup> </p><p>For Christians, the Scriptures assure them that the allowance of evil is for a good purpose based on relationship with God.<sup id="cite_ref-Frame_&_Torres_2015_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Frame_&_Torres_2015-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 184">: 184 </span></sup> "Some of the good ... cannot be achieved without delay and suffering, and the evil of this world is indeed necessary for the achievement of those good purposes. ... God has the right to allow such evils to occur, so long as the 'goods' are facilitated and the 'evils' are limited and compensated in the way that various other Christian doctrines (of human free will, life after death, the end of the world, etc.) affirm ... the 'good states' which (according to Christian doctrine) God seeks are so good that they outweigh the accompanying evils."<sup id="cite_ref-Richard_Swinburne_11-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Richard_Swinburne-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: Intro., 51">: Intro., 51 </span></sup> </p><p>This is somewhat illustrated in the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Exodus" title="Book of Exodus">Book of Exodus</a> when Pharaoh is described as being raised up that God's name be known in all the earth (Exodus 9:16). This is mirrored in <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Romans" class="mw-redirect" title="Book of Romans">Romans</a> 9, where Paul appeals to God's sovereignty as sufficient explanation, with God's goodness experientially known to the Christian.<sup id="cite_ref-Frame_&_Torres_2015_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Frame_&_Torres_2015-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 178–79">: 178–79 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Augustinian_theodicy">Augustinian theodicy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Theodicy&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Augustinian theodicy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Augustinian_theodicy" title="Augustinian theodicy">Augustinian theodicy</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestant</a> and <a href="/wiki/Calvinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvinism">Calvinist</a> reading of <a href="/wiki/Augustinian_theodicy" title="Augustinian theodicy">Augustinian theodicy</a>, as promoted primarily by <a href="/wiki/John_Hick" title="John Hick">John Hick</a>, is based on the writings of <a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian philosopher</a> and theologian who lived from AD 354 to 430.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Catholic (pre-Reformation) formulation of the same issue is substantially different and is outlined below. In Hick's approach, this form of theodicy argues that evil does not exist except as a <a href="/wiki/Privation" title="Privation">privation</a>—or corruption—of goodness, and therefore God did not create evil.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Augustinian scholars have argued that God created the world perfectly, with no evil or human suffering. Evil entered the world through the disobedience of <a href="/wiki/Adam_and_Eve" title="Adam and Eve">Adam and Eve</a> and the theodicy casts the existence of evil as a just punishment for this <a href="/wiki/Original_sin" title="Original sin">original sin</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The theodicy argues that humans have an evil nature in as much as it is deprived of its original goodness, form, order, and measure due to the inherited original sin of <a href="/wiki/Adam" title="Adam">Adam</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eve" title="Eve">Eve</a>, but still ultimately remains good due to existence coming from God, for if a nature was completely evil (deprived of the good), it would cease to exist.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It maintains that God remains blameless and good.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_theology" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic theology">Roman Catholic</a> reading of Augustine, the issue of <a href="/wiki/Just_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Just war">just war</a> as developed in his book <a href="/wiki/City_of_God_(book)" class="mw-redirect" title="City of God (book)"><i>The City of God</i></a> substantially established his position concerning the positive justification of killing, suffering and pain as inflicted upon an enemy when encountered in war for a just cause.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Augustine asserted that peacefulness in the face of a grave wrong that could only be stopped by violence would be a sin. Defense of one's self or others could be a necessity, especially when authorized by a legitimate authority. While not elaborating the conditions necessary for war to be just, Augustine nonetheless originated the very phrase, itself, in his work <i>The City of God</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Crusades_Encyclopedia_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Crusades_Encyclopedia-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In essence, the pursuit of peace must include the option of fighting with all of its eventualities in order to preserve peace in the long-term.<sup id="cite_ref-Crusades_Encyclopedia_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Crusades_Encyclopedia-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such a war could not be pre-emptive, but defensive, to restore peace.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a>, centuries later, used the authority of Augustine's arguments in an attempt to define the conditions under which a war could be just.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Irenaean_theodicy">Irenaean theodicy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Theodicy&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Irenaean theodicy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Irenaean_theodicy" title="Irenaean theodicy">Irenaean theodicy</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Irenaeus" title="Irenaeus">Irenaeus</a> (died <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 202</span>), born in the early 2nd century, expressed ideas which explained the existence of evil as necessary for human development. Irenaeus argued that human creation comprised two parts: humans were made first in the image, then in the likeness, of God. The image of God consists of having the potential to achieve moral perfection, whereas the likeness of God is the achievement of that perfection. To achieve moral perfection, Irenaeus suggested that humans must have free will. To achieve such free will, humans must experience suffering and God must be at an <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemic distance</a> (a distance of knowledge) from humanity. Therefore, evil exists to allow humans to develop as moral agents.<sup id="cite_ref-Encountering_evil_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Encountering_evil-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 20th century, <a href="/wiki/John_Hick" title="John Hick">John Hick</a> collated the ideas of Irenaeus into a distinct theodicy. He argued that the world exists as a "vale of soul-making" (a phrase that he drew from <a href="/wiki/John_Keats" title="John Keats">John Keats</a>), and that suffering and evil must therefore occur. He argued that human goodness develops through the experience of evil and suffering.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Compensation_theodicy">Compensation theodicy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Theodicy&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Compensation theodicy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to the strong version of Compensation Theodicy advanced by Seyyed Jaaber Mousavirad, there are two elements that, when considered together, can solve the problem of evil: </p> <div><ol style="list-style-type:upper-alpha"><li>The primary good within evil, even though it may not be greater than the evil itself or even return to the same inflicted individual. This element resolves the problem of the futility of evils.</li><li>Compensation in the afterlife. This element, as a complementary factor, can explain how the justice of God is compatible with evils.</li></ol></div> <p>Given the strong version of this theodicy, if evils will be compensated, the existence of some good is enough to justify them, even though there will be no resulting greater good in this world. </p><p>Likewise, if evils will be compensated, it is not necessary for them to be distributed equally. Even if an evil has no good for an individual, while it has some good for others, it is reasonable for it to occur. <sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Origenian_theodicy">Origenian theodicy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Theodicy&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Origenian theodicy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In direct response to John Hick's description of theodicy, Mark Scott has indicated that neither <a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a> nor <a href="/wiki/Irenaeus" title="Irenaeus">Irenaeus of Lyons</a> provide an appropriate context for the discussion of Hick's theistic version of theodicy. As a theologian among the <a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a> who articulated a theory of <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Apokatastasis" title="Apokatastasis">apokatastasis</a></i></span> (or <a href="/wiki/Universal_reconciliation" class="mw-redirect" title="Universal reconciliation">universal reconciliation</a>), <a href="/wiki/Origen" title="Origen">Origen of Alexandria</a> provides a more direct theological comparison for the discussion of Hick's presentation of universal salvation and theodicy. Neither Irenaeus nor Augustine endorsed a theology of universal salvation in any form comparable to that of John Hick.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Relatively_minor_theodicies">Relatively minor theodicies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Theodicy&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Relatively minor theodicies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Michael_Martin_(philosopher)" class="mw-redirect" title="Michael Martin (philosopher)">Michael Martin</a> summarizes what he calls "relatively minor" theodicies:<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Finite_God" class="mw-redirect" title="Finite God">finite God</a> theodicy maintains that God is all-good (<a href="/wiki/Omnibenevolent" class="mw-redirect" title="Omnibenevolent">omnibenevolent</a>) but not all-powerful (<a href="/wiki/Omnipotent" class="mw-redirect" title="Omnipotent">omnipotent</a>).</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Best_of_all_possible_worlds" title="Best of all possible worlds">best of all possible worlds</a> theodicy, a traditional theology and defended by Leibniz, argues that the creation is the best of all possible worlds.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Original_sin" title="Original sin">original sin</a> theodicy holds that evil came into the world because of humanity's original sin.</li> <li>The ultimate harmony theodicy justifies evil as leading to "good long-range consequences".</li> <li>The "degree of desirability of a conscious state" theodicy has been reckoned a "complex theodicy".<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag may use weasel words or too-vague attribution. (May 2024)">by whom?</span></a></i>]</sup> It argues that a person's state is deemed evil only when it is undesirable to the person. However, because God is unable to make a person's state desirable to the person, the theodic problem does not exist.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Reincarnation" title="Reincarnation">reincarnation</a> theodicy believes that people suffer evil because of their wrongdoing in a previous life.</li> <li>The contrast theodicy holds that evil is needed to enable people to appreciate or understand good.</li> <li>The warning theodicy rationalizes evil as God's warning to people to mend their ways.</li></ul> <p>A defence has been proposed by the American philosopher <a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Alvin Plantinga</a>, which is focused on showing the logical possibility of God's existence. Plantinga's <a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga%27s_free-will_defense" title="Alvin Plantinga's free-will defense">version of the free-will defence</a> argued that the coexistence of God and evil is not logically impossible, and that free will further explains the existence of evil without contradicting the existence of God.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Islam">Islam</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Theodicy&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Islam"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ashʿarī_theology"><span id="Ash.CA.BFar.C4.AB_theology"></span>Ashʿarī theology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Theodicy&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Ashʿarī theology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Most Sunni theologians analyzed theodicy from an anti-realist <a href="/wiki/Meta-ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Meta-ethics">metaethical</a> standpoint.<sup id="cite_ref-shihadeh_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-shihadeh-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ash%27ari" class="mw-redirect" title="Ash'ari">Ash'ari</a> theologians argued that ordinary moral judgments stem from emotion and <a href="/wiki/Social_convention" class="mw-redirect" title="Social convention">social convention</a>, which are inadequate to either condemn or justify divine actions.<sup id="cite_ref-shihadeh_64-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-shihadeh-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ash'arites hold that God creates everything, including human actions, but distinguish creation (<span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">khalq</i></span>) from acquisition (<span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">kasb</i></span>) of actions.<sup id="cite_ref-roy_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-roy-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They allow individuals the latter ability, though they do not posit existence of free will in a fuller sense of the term. In the words of <a href="/wiki/Al-Shahrastani" title="Al-Shahrastani">Al-Shahrastani</a> (1086–1153):<sup id="cite_ref-roy_65-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-roy-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>God creates, in man, the power, ability, choice, and will to perform an act, and man, endowed with this derived power, chooses freely one of the alternatives and intends or wills to do the action, and, corresponding to this intention, God creates and completes the action.</p></blockquote> <p><a href="/wiki/Ash%27ari" class="mw-redirect" title="Ash'ari">Ash'ari</a> theology insists on ultimate divine transcendence and teaches that human knowledge regarding it is limited to what has been revealed through the prophets, so that on the question of God's creation of evil, revelation has to be accepted <span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">bila kayfa</i></span> (without asking how).<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-roy_65-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-roy-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Māturīdism"><span id="M.C4.81tur.C4.ABdism"></span>Māturīdism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Theodicy&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Māturīdism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In contrast to Ash'arites, <a href="/wiki/Maturidi" class="mw-redirect" title="Maturidi">Maturidi</a> adheres to <a href="/wiki/Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">moral realism</a> (human mind is able to grasp good and evil independent from revelation),<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> yet disagrees with the Mu'tazilite assertion that God's wisdom entails creating only what is good. Good and evil, though real, are considered to be created by God, thus God is not subject to good and evil, human merely learn whatever God created. Blaming God for a violation of right and wrong is thus considered undue, since God created <i>right</i> and <i>wrong</i> in the first place.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Whatever is considered evil by humans, would be ultimately good. A distinction exists among those who follow <span title="Arabic-language text"><i lang="ar-Latn">tawhid</i></span> and those who reject it. Maturidi cites Surah <a href="/wiki/Al_Imran" title="Al Imran">Al Imran</a> verse 178, to point out that God does not regard believers and unbelievers as equal; God would increase the sin of the sinners (and guide the believers).<sup id="cite_ref-auto_68-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to the Maturidite school of thought, ontological evil serves a greater purpose and is a in essence a hidden good.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Since God's wisdom is not considered to focus on choosing between good and evil, it is concerned with putting things in their proper place. The existence of evil as separate from good (or opposing good) is rejected throughout sources of Maturidite thinkers. Maturidi himself criticizes believing in the opposition of good and evil as a remnant of <a href="/wiki/Persian_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian religion">Persian</a> <a href="/wiki/Dualism_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dualism (philosophy)">dualistic religions</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Rumi" title="Rumi">Rumi</a> likewise said in his refutation of <i><a href="/wiki/Ahriman" title="Ahriman">Ahriman</a></i> (principle of evil) that "good cannot exist without evil" and "there is no separation between them".<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mu'tazilism"><span id="Mu.27tazilism"></span>Mu'tazilism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Theodicy&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Mu'tazilism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Mu%27tazila" class="mw-redirect" title="Mu'tazila">Mu'tazila</a> theologians approached the problem of theodicy within a framework of <a href="/wiki/Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">moral realism</a>, according to which the moral value of acts is accessible to unaided reason, so that humans can make moral judgments about divine acts.<sup id="cite_ref-shihadeh_64-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-shihadeh-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They argued that the divine act of creation is good despite existence of suffering, because it allows humans a compensation of greater reward in the afterlife.<sup id="cite_ref-shihadeh_64-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-shihadeh-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They posited that individuals have free will to commit evil and absolved God of responsibility for such acts.<sup id="cite_ref-shihadeh_64-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-shihadeh-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> God's justice thus consists of punishing wrongdoers.<sup id="cite_ref-shihadeh_64-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-shihadeh-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following the demise of Mu'tazila as a school, their theodicy was adopted in the <a href="/wiki/Zaydi" class="mw-redirect" title="Zaydi">Zaydi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Twelver" class="mw-redirect" title="Twelver">Twelver</a> branches of <a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam">Shia Islam</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-shihadeh_64-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-shihadeh-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Sina" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Sina">Ibn Sina</a>, the most influential Muslim philosopher, analyzed theodicy from a purely ontological, <a href="/wiki/Neoplatonic" class="mw-redirect" title="Neoplatonic">neoplatonic</a> standpoint, aiming to prove that God, as the absolutely good First Cause, created a good world.<sup id="cite_ref-shihadeh_64-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-shihadeh-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ibn Sina argued that evil refers either to a cause of an entity (such as burning in a fire), being a quality of another entity, or to its imperfection (such as blindness), in which case it does not exist as an entity. According to Ibn Sina, such qualities are necessary attributes of the best possible order of things, so that the good they serve is greater than the harm they cause.<sup id="cite_ref-shihadeh_64-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-shihadeh-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Philosophical Sufi theologians such as <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Arabi" title="Ibn Arabi">Ibn Arabi</a> were influenced by the neoplatonic theodicy of <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Sina" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Sina">Ibn Sina</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-shihadeh_64-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-shihadeh-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">Al-Ghazali</a> anticipated the optimistic theodicy of Leibniz in his dictum "There is nothing in possibility more wonderful than what is."<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Fakhr_al-Din_al-Razi" title="Fakhr al-Din al-Razi">Fakhr al-Din al-Razi</a>, who represented the mainstream Sunni view, challenged Ibn Sina's analysis and argued that it merely sidesteps the real problem of evil, which is rooted in the human experience of suffering in a world that contains more pain than pleasure.<sup id="cite_ref-shihadeh_64-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-shihadeh-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Atharī"><span id="Athar.C4.AB"></span>Atharī</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Theodicy&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Atharī"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Hanbali" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanbali">Hanbali</a> scholar <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Taymiyya" title="Ibn Taymiyya">Ibn Taymiyya</a>, whose writings became influential in <a href="/wiki/Wahhabism" title="Wahhabism">Wahhabism</a>, argued that, while God creates human acts, humans are responsible for their deeds as the agents of their acts.<sup id="cite_ref-hoover_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hoover-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He held that divine creation is good from a causal standpoint, as God creates all things for wise purposes.<sup id="cite_ref-hoover_72-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hoover-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus apparent evil is in actuality good in view of its purpose, and pure evil does not exist.<sup id="cite_ref-hoover_72-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hoover-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This analysis was developed further with practical illustrations by <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Qayyim" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn al-Qayyim">Ibn al-Qayyim</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-hoover_72-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hoover-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Alternatives">Alternatives</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Theodicy&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Alternatives"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jewish_anti-theodicy">Jewish anti-theodicy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Theodicy&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Jewish anti-theodicy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Holocaust_theology" title="Holocaust theology">Holocaust theology</a></div> <p>In 1998, Jewish theologian <a href="/wiki/Zachary_Braiterman" title="Zachary Braiterman">Zachary Braiterman</a> coined the term anti-theodicy in his book <i>(God) After Auschwitz</i> to describe Jews, both in a biblical and post-Holocaust context, whose response to the problem of evil is protest and refusal to investigate the relationship between God and suffering. An anti-theodicy acts in opposition to a theodicy and places full blame for all experience of evil onto God, but must rise from an individual's belief in and love of God. Anti-theodicy has been likened to <a href="/wiki/Job_(religious_figure)" class="mw-redirect" title="Job (religious figure)">Job's</a> protests in the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Job" title="Book of Job">Book of Job</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Braiterman wrote that an anti-theodicy rejects the idea that there is a meaningful relationship between God and evil or that God could be justified for the experience of evil.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Emmanuel_Levinas.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Emmanuel_Levinas.jpg/220px-Emmanuel_Levinas.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="316" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Emmanuel_Levinas.jpg/330px-Emmanuel_Levinas.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Emmanuel_Levinas.jpg/440px-Emmanuel_Levinas.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1171" data-file-height="1680" /></a><figcaption>Levinas</figcaption></figure><p> The <a href="/wiki/Holocaust" class="mw-redirect" title="Holocaust">Holocaust</a> prompted a reconsideration of theodicy in some <a href="/wiki/Jewish_theology" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish theology">Jewish</a> circles.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> French Jewish philosopher <a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Levinas" title="Emmanuel Levinas">Emmanuel Levinas</a>, who had himself been a <a href="/wiki/Prisoner_of_war" title="Prisoner of war">prisoner of war</a> in Nazi Germany, declared theodicy to be "blasphemous", arguing that it is the "source of all immorality", and demanded that the project of theodicy be ended. Levinas asked whether the idea of <a href="/wiki/Moral_absolutism" title="Moral absolutism">absolutism</a> survived after the Holocaust; he proposed it did. He argued that humans are not called to justify God in the face of evil, but to attempt to live godly lives; rather than considering whether God was present during the Holocaust, the duty of humans is to build a world where goodness will prevail.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Professor of theology David R. Blumenthal, in his book <i>Facing the Abusing God</i>, supports the "theology of protest", which he saw as presented in the 1979 play, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Trial_of_God" title="The Trial of God">The Trial of God</a></i>. He supports the view that survivors of the Holocaust cannot forgive God and so must protest about it. Blumenthal believes that a similar theology is presented in the Book of Job, in which Job does not question God's existence or power, but his morality and justice.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other prominent voices in the Jewish tradition include the Nobel prize winning author Elie Wiesel and Richard L. Rubinstein in his book <i>The Cunning of History</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rabbi_Menachem_Mendel_Schneerson2_crop.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Rabbi_Menachem_Mendel_Schneerson2_crop.jpg/220px-Rabbi_Menachem_Mendel_Schneerson2_crop.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Rabbi_Menachem_Mendel_Schneerson2_crop.jpg/330px-Rabbi_Menachem_Mendel_Schneerson2_crop.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Rabbi_Menachem_Mendel_Schneerson2_crop.jpg/440px-Rabbi_Menachem_Mendel_Schneerson2_crop.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1579" data-file-height="2105" /></a><figcaption>Menachem Mendel Schneerson</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Menachem_Mendel_Schneerson" title="Menachem Mendel Schneerson">Menachem Mendel Schneerson</a>, the seventh Rebbe of <a href="/wiki/Chabad" title="Chabad">Chabad Lubavitch</a>, sought to elucidate how faith (or trust, <span title="Hebrew-language romanization"><i lang="he-Latn">emunah</i></span>) in God defines the full, transcendental preconditions of anti-theodicy. Endorsing the attitude of "holy protest" found in the stories of Job and Jeremiah, but also in those of Abraham (<a href="/wiki/Vayeira" title="Vayeira">Genesis 18</a>) and Moses (<a href="/wiki/Ki_Tissa" title="Ki Tissa">Exodus 33</a>), Rabbi Schneerson argued that a phenomenology of protest, when carried through to its logical limits, reveals a profound conviction in cosmic justice such as is first found in Abraham's question: "Will the Judge of the whole earth not do justice?" (Genesis 18:25).<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Recalling Kant's 1791 essay on the failure of all theoretical attempts in theodicy,<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a viable practical theodicy is identified with <a href="/wiki/Chabad_messianism" title="Chabad messianism">messianism</a>. This faithful anti-theodicy is worked out in a long letter of 26 April 1965 to <a href="/wiki/Elie_Wiesel" title="Elie Wiesel">Elie Wiesel</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Christian_alternatives_to_theodicy">Christian alternatives to theodicy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Theodicy&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Christian alternatives to theodicy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A number of Christian writers oppose theodicies. Todd Billings deems constructing theodicies to be a "destructive practice".<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the same vein, <a href="/wiki/Nick_Trakakis" title="Nick Trakakis">Nick Trakakis</a> observes that "theodical discourse can only add to the world's evils, not remove or illuminate them."<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As an alternative to theodicy, some theologians have advocated "reflection on tragedy" as a more befitting reply to evil.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, Wendy Farley believes that "a desire for justice" and "anger and pity at suffering" should replace "theodicy's cool justifications of evil".<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sarah K. Pinnock opposes abstract theodicies that would legitimize evil and suffering. However, she endorses theodicy discussions in which people ponder God, evil, and suffering from a practical faith perspective.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:David_Bentley_Hart_3_Nov_2022_Interview_cropped.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/David_Bentley_Hart_3_Nov_2022_Interview_cropped.png/220px-David_Bentley_Hart_3_Nov_2022_Interview_cropped.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="292" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/David_Bentley_Hart_3_Nov_2022_Interview_cropped.png/330px-David_Bentley_Hart_3_Nov_2022_Interview_cropped.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/David_Bentley_Hart_3_Nov_2022_Interview_cropped.png/440px-David_Bentley_Hart_3_Nov_2022_Interview_cropped.png 2x" data-file-width="897" data-file-height="1190" /></a><figcaption>David Bentley Hart</figcaption></figure><p> In an essay for <a href="/wiki/The_Hedgehog_Review" title="The Hedgehog Review">The Hedgehog Review</a>, Eugene McCarraher called <a href="/wiki/David_Bentley_Hart" title="David Bentley Hart">David Bentley Hart</a>'s 2005 book <i><a href="/wiki/The_Doors_of_the_Sea" title="The Doors of the Sea">The Doors of the Sea</a></i> "a ferocious attack on theodicy in the wake of the previous year's tsunami" (referring to the <a href="/wiki/2004_Indian_Ocean_earthquake_and_tsunami" title="2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami">2004 tsunami in the Indian Ocean</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As Hart says on page 58 of the book: "The principal task of theodicy is to explain why paradise is not a logical possibility." Hart's refusal to concede that theodicy has any positive capacity to explain the purpose of evil is in line with many Greek church fathers. For example, see Eric D. Perl's <i>Theophany: The Neoplatonic Philosophy of Dionysius the Areopagite</i>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"></p><blockquote class="templatequote"><p><a href="/wiki/Dionysius_the_Areopagite" title="Dionysius the Areopagite">Dionysius</a>' ...refusal to assign a cause to evil, then, marks not the failure but the success of his treatment of the problem. To explain evil, to attribute a cause to it, would necessarily be to explain it away, to deny that evil is genuinely evil at all. For to explain something is to show how it is in some way good. ...Only by not explaining evil, by insisting rather on its radical causelessness, its unintelligibility, can we take evil seriously as evil. This is why most "theodicies" fail precisely insofar as they succeed. To the extent that they satisfactorily account for or make sense of evil, they tacitly or expressly deny that it is evil and show that it is in fact good. Dionysius' treatment of evil, on the other hand, succeeds by failing, recognizing that the sheer negativity that is evil must be uncaused and hence inexplicable, for otherwise it would not be negativity and would not be evil. It has been wisely remarked that any satisfactory account of evil must enable us to retain our outrage at it. Most theodicies fail this test, for in supposedly allowing us to understand evil they justify it and thus take away our outrage. For Dionysius, however, evil remains outrageous precisely because it is irrational, because there is no reason, no justification for it. The privation theory of evil, expressed in a radical form by Dionysius, is not a shallow disregard or denial of the evident evils in the world. It means rather that, confronted with the evils in the world, we can only say that for no reason, and therefore outrageously, the world as we find it does not perfectly love God, the Good, the sole end of all love. And since the Good is the principle of intelligibility and hence of being, to the extent that anything fails to partake of that principle it is deficient in being. The recognition of evils in the world and in ourselves is the recognition that the world and ourselves, as we find them, are less than fully existent because we do not perfectly love God, the Good.</p></blockquote> <p><a href="/wiki/Karl_Barth" title="Karl Barth">Karl Barth</a> viewed the evil of human suffering as ultimately in the "control of <a href="/wiki/Divine_providence" title="Divine providence">divine providence</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Given this view, Barth deemed it impossible for humans to devise a theodicy that establishes "the idea of the goodness of God".<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For Barth, only the <a href="/wiki/Crucifixion_of_Jesus" title="Crucifixion of Jesus">crucifixion</a> could establish the goodness of God. In the crucifixion, God bears and suffers what humanity suffers.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This suffering by God Himself makes human theodicies anticlimactic.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Barth found a "twofold justification" in the crucifixion:<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/Justification_(theology)" title="Justification (theology)">justification of sinful humanity</a> and "the justification in which God justifies Himself".<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Christian_Science" title="Christian Science">Christian Science</a> offers a solution to the problem by denying that evil ultimately exists.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Mary_Baker_Eddy" title="Mary Baker Eddy">Mary Baker Eddy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mark_Twain" title="Mark Twain">Mark Twain</a> had some contrasting views on theodicy and suffering, which are well-described by <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Gottschalk" title="Stephen Gottschalk">Stephen Gottschalk</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Redemptive_suffering" title="Redemptive suffering">Redemptive suffering</a>, based in <a href="/wiki/Pope_John_Paul_II" title="Pope John Paul II">Pope John Paul II</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Theology_of_the_body" title="Theology of the body">theology of the body</a>, embraces suffering as having value in and of itself.<sup id="cite_ref-Adrian_J._Reimers_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Adrian_J._Reimers-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Eleonore_Stump" title="Eleonore Stump">Eleonore Stump</a> in <i>Wandering in Darkness</i> uses psychology, narrative and exegesis to demonstrate that redemptive suffering, as found in Thomistic theodicy, can constitute a consistent and cogent defence for the problem of suffering.<sup id="cite_ref-Eleonore_Stump_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eleonore_Stump-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Free-will_defense">Free-will defense</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Theodicy&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Free-will defense"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Theodicy_and_the_Bible#Bible_and_free-will_theodicy" title="Theodicy and the Bible">Theodicy and the Bible § Bible and free-will theodicy</a></div> <p>As an alternative to a theodicy, a defense may be offered as a response to the problem of evil. A defense attempts to show that God's existence is not made logically impossible by the existence of evil; it does not need to be true or plausible, merely logically possible. American philosopher <a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Alvin Plantinga</a> offers <a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga%27s_free-will_defense" title="Alvin Plantinga's free-will defense">a free-will defense</a> which argues that human <a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">free will</a> sufficiently explains the existence of evil while maintaining that God's existence remains logically possible.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He argues that, if God's existence and the existence of evil are to be logically inconsistent, a premise must be provided which, if true, would make them inconsistent; as none has been provided, the existence of God and evil must be consistent. Free will furthers this argument by providing a premise which, in conjunction with the existence of evil, entails that God's existence remains consistent.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Opponents have argued this defense is discredited by the existence of non-human related evil such as droughts, tsunamis and malaria.<sup id="cite_ref-Ehrman2009_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ehrman2009-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In his recent book, <i>Evil, Sin and Christian Theism</i> (2022), <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Loke" title="Andrew Loke">Andrew Loke</a> develops a Big Picture free-will defense argument arguing that God's justification for allowing suffering is not mainly based on an argument from future benefits but on the very nature of love which involves "allowing humans to exercise their free will in morally significant ways."<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He employs the Big Picture approach in which "Christian theism provides the big picture and uses a combination of theodicies" in defense of a moderate version of skeptical theism.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Big Picture approach, according to him, helps to put the problem of evil and suffering in perspective of the bigger picture that answers the Big Questions of a worldview such as "What is the greatest good? What is the meaning of life? Where do I come from? Where am I going?" He argues that Christian theism provides the best overall consistent answers to these questions: "the greatest good is to have a right relationship with God, the source of all good. The meaning of life...is to live our lives for the greatest good;...to glorify God and enjoy him..."<sup id="cite_ref-loke_13_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-loke_13-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The bigger picture of a just, all-powerful, and loving God who will ultimately defeat evil serves as the backdrop against which all temporal suffering can obtain a meaningful understanding.<sup id="cite_ref-loke_13_106-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-loke_13-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cosmodicy_and_anthropodicy">Cosmodicy and anthropodicy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Theodicy&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Cosmodicy and anthropodicy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A <b>cosmodicy</b> attempts to justify the fundamental goodness of the <a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">universe</a> in the face of <a href="/wiki/Evil" title="Evil">evil</a>, and an <b>anthropodicy</b> attempts to justify the fundamental goodness of <a href="/wiki/Human_nature" title="Human nature">human nature</a> in the face of the evils produced by humans.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Considering the relationship between theodicy and cosmodicy, Johannes van der Ven argued that the choice between theodicy and cosmodicy is a false dilemma.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Philip E. Devenish proposed what he described as "a nuanced view in which theodicy and cosmodicy are rendered complementary, rather than alternative concepts".<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Theologian J. Matthew Ashley described the relationship between theodicy, cosmodicy and anthropodicy: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>In classical terms, this is to broach the problem of theodicy: how to think about God in the face of the presence of suffering in God's creation. After God's dethronement as the subject of history, the question rebounds to the new subject of history: the human being. As a consequence, theodicy becomes anthropodicy – justifications of our faith in humanity as the subject of history, in the face of the suffering that is so inextricably woven into the history that humanity makes.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Essential_kenosis">Essential kenosis</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Theodicy&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Essential kenosis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Essential <a href="/wiki/Kenosis" title="Kenosis">kenosis</a> is a form of <a href="/wiki/Process_theology" title="Process theology">process theology</a> (related to "<a href="/wiki/Open_theism" title="Open theism">open theism</a>") that allows one to affirm that God is almighty, while simultaneously affirming that God cannot prevent genuine evil. Because out of love God necessarily gives <a href="/wiki/Freedom" title="Freedom">freedom</a>, <a href="/wiki/Agency_(philosophy)" title="Agency (philosophy)">agency</a>, <a href="/wiki/Self-organization" title="Self-organization">self-organization</a>, natural processes, and law-like regularities to creation, God cannot override, withdraw, or fail to provide such capacities. Consequently, God is not culpable for failing to prevent genuine evil. The work of <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jay_Oord" title="Thomas Jay Oord">Thomas Jay Oord</a> explains this view most fully.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Gijsbert van den Brink effectively refutes any view which says God has restricted his power because of his love saying it creates a "metaphysical dualism", and it would not alleviate God's responsibility for evil because God could have prevented evil by not restricting himself. Van den Brink goes on to elaborate an explanation of power and love within the Trinitarian view which equates power and love, and what he calls "the power of love" as representative of God's involvement in the struggle against evil.<sup id="cite_ref-Gijsbert_van_den_Brink_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gijsbert_van_den_Brink-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Theodicy&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid 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<li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_hell" class="mw-redirect" title="Problem of hell">Problem of hell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodicy_and_the_Bible" title="Theodicy and the Bible">Theodicy and the Bible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil_in_Hinduism" title="Problem of evil in Hinduism">Theodicy in Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Citations">Citations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Theodicy&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFPecorino2000" class="citation book cs1">Pecorino, Philip A. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.qcc.cuny.edu/socialsciences/ppecorino/intro_text/Chapter%203%20Religion/Problem_of_Evil.htm">"Chapter 3: 'Philosophy of Religion', Section 11: Problem of Evil"</a>. <i>An Introduction to Philosophy: An Online Textbook</i>. Queensborough Community College. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230906120055/https://www.qcc.cuny.edu/socialsciences/ppecorino/intro_text/Chapter%203%20Religion/Problem_of_Evil.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 6 September 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+3%3A+%27Philosophy+of+Religion%27%2C+Section+11%3A+Problem+of+Evil&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Philosophy%3A+An+Online+Textbook&rft.pub=Queensborough+Community+College&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Pecorino&rft.aufirst=Philip+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.qcc.cuny.edu%2Fsocialsciences%2Fppecorino%2Fintro_text%2FChapter%25203%2520Religion%2FProblem_of_Evil.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheodicy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A defence is "an effort to show that there is no formal contradiction between the existence of God... and the existence of evil." Michael Rea and Louis B. Pojman, eds., <i>Philosophy of Religion: An Anthology</i> (Cengage Learning, 2015, 7th ed.), 229.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPlantinga1974" class="citation book cs1">Plantinga, Alvin (1974). <i>God, Freedom, and Evil</i>. William B. Eerdmans. p. 10.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=God%2C+Freedom%2C+and+Evil&rft.pages=10&rft.pub=William+B.+Eerdmans&rft.date=1974&rft.aulast=Plantinga&rft.aufirst=Alvin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheodicy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTambasco2002" class="citation book cs1">Tambasco, Anthony J., ed. (2002). <i>The Bible on Suffering</i>. New York: Paulist Press. p. 1. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0809140489" title="Special:BookSources/0809140489"><bdi>0809140489</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Bible+on+Suffering&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=Paulist+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0809140489&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheodicy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:entry=di/kh">"δίκη"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/A_Greek%E2%80%93English_Lexicon" title="A Greek–English Lexicon">A Greek–English Lexicon</a></i>. Tufts University – via The Perseus Project.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%CE%B4%CE%AF%CE%BA%CE%B7&rft.btitle=A+Greek%E2%80%93English+Lexicon&rft.pub=Tufts+University&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.perseus.tufts.edu%2Fhopper%2Ftext%3Fdoc%3DPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Ddi%2Fkh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheodicy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210811090541/https://librarycatalog.vts.edu/wamvalidate?url=http://0-www.britannica.com.librarycatalog.vts.edu:80/EBchecked/topic/590596/theodicy">"Theodicy"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://0-www.britannica.com.librarycatalog.vts.edu/EBchecked/topic/590596/theodicy">the original</a> on 11 August 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 October</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Theodicy&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2F0-www.britannica.com.librarycatalog.vts.edu%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F590596%2Ftheodicy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheodicy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-IEP-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-IEP_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-IEP_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrakakis2005" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Trakakis, Nick (31 March 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/evil-evi/#H4">"The Evidential Problem of Evil"</a>. <i>Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 January</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Evidential+Problem+of+Evil&rft.btitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.date=2005-03-31&rft.aulast=Trakakis&rft.aufirst=Nick&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Fevil-evi%2F%23H4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheodicy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bunnin & Tsui-James 2002, p. 481</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Geivett 1995, pp. 60–61</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-N.T.Wright-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-N.T.Wright_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-N.T.Wright_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-N.T.Wright_10-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-N.T.Wright_10-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWright2006" class="citation book cs1">Wright, N. T. (2006). <i>Evil and the Justice of God</i>. Downer's Grove, Illinois: Intervarsity Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8308-3415-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8308-3415-0"><bdi>978-0-8308-3415-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Evil+and+the+Justice+of+God&rft.place=Downer%27s+Grove%2C+Illinois&rft.pub=Intervarsity+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-8308-3415-0&rft.aulast=Wright&rft.aufirst=N.+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheodicy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Richard_Swinburne-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Richard_Swinburne_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Richard_Swinburne_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Richard_Swinburne_11-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Richard_Swinburne_11-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Richard_Swinburne_11-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Richard_Swinburne_11-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Richard_Swinburne_11-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Richard_Swinburne_11-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSwinburne1998" class="citation book cs1">Swinburne, Richard (1998). <i>Providence and the Problem of Evil</i>. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-823799-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-823799-5"><bdi>0-19-823799-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Providence+and+the+Problem+of+Evil&rft.place=Oxford%2C+England&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-19-823799-5&rft.aulast=Swinburne&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheodicy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-O'Brien-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-O'Brien_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'Brien1996" class="citation book cs1">O'Brien, D. (1996). "Plotinus on matter and evil". In Gerson, L. P. (ed.). <i>The Cambridge Companion to Plotinus</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 171–195.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Plotinus+on+matter+and+evil&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Companion+to+Plotinus&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=171-195&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=O%27Brien&rft.aufirst=D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheodicy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Plotinus-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Plotinus_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPlotinus1969" class="citation book cs1">Plotinus (1969). <i>The Enneads</i>. Translated by Mackenna, S. Revised by B. S. Page (4th ed.). London: Faber.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Enneads&rft.place=London&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Faber&rft.date=1969&rft.au=Plotinus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheodicy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Todd_Calder-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Todd_Calder_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Todd_Calder_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Todd_Calder_14-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Todd_Calder_14-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Todd_Calder_14-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Todd_Calder_14-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Todd_Calder_14-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCalder2016" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Calder, Todd (Winter 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2016/entries/concept-evil/">"The Concept of Evil"</a>. In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Concept+of+Evil&rft.btitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.date=2016&rft.aulast=Calder&rft.aufirst=Todd&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Farchives%2Fwin2016%2Fentries%2Fconcept-evil%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheodicy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kekes 1998, 217</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Susan_Nieman-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Susan_Nieman_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNieman2015" class="citation book cs1">Nieman, Susan (25 August 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3LpKCAAAQBAJ&q=Evil%20in%20Modern%20Thought%20by%20Susan%20Nieman&pg=PR4"><i>Evil in Modern Thought: An Alternative History of Philosophy</i></a>. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-16850-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-16850-0"><bdi>978-0-691-16850-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Evil+in+Modern+Thought%3A+An+Alternative+History+of+Philosophy&rft.place=Princeton%2C+New+Jersey&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2015-08-25&rft.isbn=978-0-691-16850-0&rft.aulast=Nieman&rft.aufirst=Susan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3LpKCAAAQBAJ%26q%3DEvil%2520in%2520Modern%2520Thought%2520by%2520Susan%2520Nieman%26pg%3DPR4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheodicy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Immanuel_Kant-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Immanuel_Kant_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKant2003" class="citation book cs1">Kant, Immanuel (2003). <i>Kant: Religion Within the Boundaries of Mere Reason: And Other Writings</i>. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-59049-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-59049-3"><bdi>0-521-59049-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kant%3A+Religion+Within+the+Boundaries+of+Mere+Reason%3A+And+Other+Writings&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+England&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-521-59049-3&rft.aulast=Kant&rft.aufirst=Immanuel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheodicy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-John_Locke-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-John_Locke_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLocke1836" class="citation book cs1">Locke, John (1836). <i>An Essay Concerning Human Understanding</i>. 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Minneapolis, Minnesota: Lerner Publishing Group. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-151-248609-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-151-248609-4"><bdi>978-151-248609-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Leviathan&rft.place=Minneapolis%2C+Minnesota&rft.pub=Lerner+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-151-248609-4&rft.aulast=Hobbes&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheodicy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeibniz2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm</a> (2009). <i>Theodicy</i>. Cosimo. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61640-295-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-61640-295-2"><bdi>978-1-61640-295-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Theodicy&rft.pub=Cosimo&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-61640-295-2&rft.aulast=Leibniz&rft.aufirst=Gottfried+Wilhelm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheodicy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nyanaponika_Thera-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Nyanaponika_Thera_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThera2008" class="citation book cs1">Thera, Nyanaponika (2008). <i>The Roots of Good and Evil: Buddhist Texts translated from the Pali</i>. Buddhist Publication Society. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-955-24-0316-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-955-24-0316-3"><bdi>978-955-24-0316-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Roots+of+Good+and+Evil%3A+Buddhist+Texts+translated+from+the+Pali&rft.pub=Buddhist+Publication+Society&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-955-24-0316-3&rft.aulast=Thera&rft.aufirst=Nyanaponika&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheodicy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Joseph_B._Onyango_Okello-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Joseph_B._Onyango_Okello_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOnyango_Okello2017" class="citation book cs1">Onyango Okello, Joseph B. 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Some Thoughts from Viśiṣṭādvaita Vedānta"</a>. <i>Religions</i>. <b>12</b> (10): 862. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Frel12100862">10.3390/rel12100862</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/1807%2F107705">1807/107705</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2077-1444">2077-1444</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Religions&rft.atitle=Is+the+Theory+of+Karman+the+Solution+to+the+Problem+of+Evil%3F+Some+Thoughts+from+Vi%C5%9Bi%E1%B9%A3%E1%B9%AD%C4%81dvaita+Ved%C4%81nta&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=862&rft.date=2021-10-12&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F1807%2F107705&rft.issn=2077-1444&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3390%2Frel12100862&rft.aulast=Freschi&rft.aufirst=Elisa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3390%252Frel12100862&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheodicy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBirnbaum1989" class="citation book cs1">Birnbaum, David (1989). <i>God and Evil</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 July</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Theodicy%3A+An+Overview&rft.pub=Dallas+Baptist+University&rft.aulast=Mitchell&rft.aufirst=Philip+Irving&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww3.dbu.edu%2Fmitchell%2Ftheodicy.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheodicy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Johnston 2004, pp. 531–547</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSteiner" class="citation book cs1">Steiner, George. 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Louisville: John Knox Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8042-3118-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-8042-3118-4"><bdi>0-8042-3118-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ezekiel&rft.place=Louisville&rft.pub=John+Knox+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=0-8042-3118-4&rft.aulast=Blenkinsopp&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheodicy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Paul_L._Redditt-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Paul_L._Redditt_45-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Paul_L._Redditt_45-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRedditt2003" class="citation book cs1">Redditt, Paul L. 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New York: Walter De Gruyter. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-11-017594-0" title="Special:BookSources/3-11-017594-0"><bdi>3-11-017594-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Thematic+Threads+in+the+Book+of+the+Twelve&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Walter+De+Gruyter&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=3-11-017594-0&rft.aulast=Redditt&rft.aufirst=Paul+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheodicy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Frame_&_Torres_2015-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Frame_&_Torres_2015_46-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Frame_&_Torres_2015_46-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrameTorres2015" class="citation book cs1">Frame, John M. and Torres, Joseph E. (2015). <i>Apologetics: A Justification of Christian Belief</i>. Phillipsburg, New Jersey: P&R.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Apologetics%3A+A+Justification+of+Christian+Belief&rft.place=Phillipsburg%2C+New+Jersey&rft.pub=P%26R&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Frame&rft.aufirst=John+M.&rft.au=Torres%2C+Joseph+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheodicy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMendelson2010" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Mendelson, Michael (12 November 2010) [24 March 2000]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/augustine/#OntEud">"Saint Augustine"</a>. <i>Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 October</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Saint+Augustine&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.date=2010-11-12&rft.aulast=Mendelson&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Faugustine%2F%23OntEud&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheodicy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Menn 2002, p. 170</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Corey 2000, pp. 177–78</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Green 2011, p. 779</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Geivett 1995, p. 19</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolmes2001" class="citation web cs1">Holmes, Robert L. (1 September 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2001/septemberweb-only/9-17-55.0.html">"A Time For War?"</a>. <i>Christianity Today</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 April</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Christianity+Today&rft.atitle=A+Time+For+War%3F&rft.date=2001-09-01&rft.aulast=Holmes&rft.aufirst=Robert+L.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.christianitytoday.com%2Fct%2F2001%2Fseptemberweb-only%2F9-17-55.0.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheodicy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Crusades_Encyclopedia-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Crusades_Encyclopedia_53-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Crusades_Encyclopedia_53-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolt2005" class="citation web cs1">Holt, Andrew (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20120728203512/http://www.crusades-encyclopedia.com/augustineofhippo.html">"Augustine of Hippo"</a>. <i>Crusades-Encyclopedia</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.crusades-encyclopedia.com/augustineofhippo.html">the original</a> on 28 July 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 April</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Crusades-Encyclopedia&rft.atitle=Augustine+of+Hippo&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Holt&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.crusades-encyclopedia.com%2Faugustineofhippo.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheodicy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131103033459/http://www.jknirp.com/mattox.htm">"Saint Augustine and the Theory of Just War"</a>. National Institute for the Renewal of the Priesthood. 23 January 2007. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jknirp.com/mattox.htm">the original</a> on 3 November 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 April</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Saint+Augustine+and+the+Theory+of+Just+War&rft.pub=National+Institute+for+the+Renewal+of+the+Priesthood&rft.date=2007-01-23&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jknirp.com%2Fmattox.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheodicy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130523033051/http://www.catholiceducation.org/articles/politics/pg0029.html">"The Just War"</a>. <i>Catholic Education Resource Center</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.catholiceducation.org/articles/politics/pg0029.html">the original</a> on 23 May 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 April</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Catholic+Education+Resource+Center&rft.atitle=The+Just+War&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.catholiceducation.org%2Farticles%2Fpolitics%2Fpg0029.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheodicy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGonzalez1984" class="citation book cs1">Gonzalez, Justo L. (1984). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/storyofchristian01gonz"><i>The Story of Christianity</i></a></span>. San Francisco: Harper. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/006185588X" title="Special:BookSources/006185588X"><bdi>006185588X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Story+of+Christianity&rft.place=San+Francisco&rft.pub=Harper&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=006185588X&rft.aulast=Gonzalez&rft.aufirst=Justo+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fstoryofchristian01gonz&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheodicy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Encountering_evil-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Encountering_evil_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> Davis 2001, pp. 40–42</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stump 1999, pp. 222–227</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMousavirad2022" class="citation journal cs1">Mousavirad, Seyyed Jaaber (2 July 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.philosophy-of-religion.eu/index.php/ejpr/article/view/3357">"Theory of Compensation and Problem of Evil; a New Defense"</a>. <i>European Journal for Philosophy of Religion</i>. <b>14</b> (2). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.24204%2Fejpr.2022.3357">10.24204/ejpr.2022.3357</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1689-8311">1689-8311</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=European+Journal+for+Philosophy+of+Religion&rft.atitle=Theory+of+Compensation+and+Problem+of+Evil%3B+a+New+Defense&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=2&rft.date=2022-07-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.24204%2Fejpr.2022.3357&rft.issn=1689-8311&rft.aulast=Mousavirad&rft.aufirst=Seyyed+Jaaber&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.philosophy-of-religion.eu%2Findex.php%2Fejpr%2Farticle%2Fview%2F3357&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheodicy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScott2012" class="citation book cs1">Scott, Mark (2012). <i>Origen and the Problem of Evil</i>. Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Origen+and+the+Problem+of+Evil&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Scott&rft.aufirst=Mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheodicy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartin1992" class="citation book cs1">Martin, Michael (1992). <i>Atheism: A Philosophical Justification</i>. Temple University Press. pp. 436–454.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Atheism%3A+A+Philosophical+Justification&rft.pages=436-454&rft.pub=Temple+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.aulast=Martin&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheodicy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartin1992" class="citation book cs1">Martin, Michael (1992). <i>Atheism: A Philosophical Justification</i>. Temple University Press. pp. 444–45.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Atheism%3A+A+Philosophical+Justification&rft.pages=444-45&rft.pub=Temple+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.aulast=Martin&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheodicy" class="Z3988"></span> Martin finds this theodicy in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchlesinger2012" class="citation book cs2">Schlesinger, George (2012), <i>Religion and Scientific Method</i>, Springer</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Religion+and+Scientific+Method&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Schlesinger&rft.aufirst=George&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheodicy" class="Z3988"></span>, and judges it unsatisfactory.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thearchitect.global/theodicy-natural-evil-and-simulation-theory/">"Theodicy, Natural Evil and Simulation Theory"</a>. <i>The Global Architect Institute</i>. 7 February 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 June</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Global+Architect+Institute&rft.atitle=Theodicy%2C+Natural+Evil+and+Simulation+Theory&rft.date=2022-02-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thearchitect.global%2Ftheodicy-natural-evil-and-simulation-theory%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheodicy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-shihadeh-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-shihadeh_64-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-shihadeh_64-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-shihadeh_64-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-shihadeh_64-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-shihadeh_64-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-shihadeh_64-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-shihadeh_64-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-shihadeh_64-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-shihadeh_64-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-shihadeh_64-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-shihadeh_64-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShihadeh2005" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Shihadeh, Ayman (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LaV-IGZ8VKIC&pg=PA772">"Suffering"</a>. In Meri, Josef W. (ed.). <i>Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia</i>. Routledge. p. 772. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415966924" title="Special:BookSources/9780415966924"><bdi>9780415966924</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Suffering&rft.btitle=Medieval+Islamic+Civilization%3A+An+Encyclopedia&rft.pages=772&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9780415966924&rft.aulast=Shihadeh&rft.aufirst=Ayman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLaV-IGZ8VKIC%26pg%3DPA772&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheodicy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-roy-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-roy_65-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-roy_65-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-roy_65-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJackson2014" class="citation book cs1">Jackson, Roy (5 February 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5XPMAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA32"><i>What is Islamic Philosophy?</i></a>. Routledge. pp. 32–33. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781317814047" title="Special:BookSources/9781317814047"><bdi>9781317814047</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=What+is+Islamic+Philosophy%3F&rft.pages=32-33&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2014-02-05&rft.isbn=9781317814047&rft.aulast=Jackson&rft.aufirst=Roy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5XPMAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA32&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheodicy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSonn2009" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Sonn, Tamara (2009). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195305135.001.0001/acref-9780195305135-e-0788?rskey=y8ZWqZ">"Tawḥīd"</a></span>. 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The University of Western Ontario.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=The+Notion+of+Evil+in+the+Qur%27an+and+Islamic+Mystical+Thought&rft.inst=The+University+of+Western+Ontario&rft.date=2021&rft.aulast=Asghar&rft.aufirst=Irfan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fir.lib.uwo.ca%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D10585%26context%3Detd&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheodicy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeterson2011" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Peterson, Michael L. (2011). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195340136.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780195340136-e-12">"Religious Diversity, Evil, and a Variety of Theodicies"</a></span>. In Meister, Chad (ed.). <i>The Oxford Handbook of Religious Diversity</i>. p. 162.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Religious+Diversity%2C+Evil%2C+and+a+Variety+of+Theodicies&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Religious+Diversity&rft.pages=162&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Peterson&rft.aufirst=Michael+L.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordhandbooks.com%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780195340136.001.0001%2Foxfordhb-9780195340136-e-12&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheodicy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-hoover-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-hoover_72-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-hoover_72-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-hoover_72-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-hoover_72-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoover2014" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Hoover, Jon (2014). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199696703.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199696703-e-014">"Ḥanbalī Theology"</a></span>. In Schmidtke, Sabine (ed.). <i>The Oxford Handbook of Islamic Theology</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 642. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199696703.013.014">10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199696703.013.014</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-969670-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-969670-3"><bdi>978-0-19-969670-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%E1%B8%A4anbal%C4%AB+Theology&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Islamic+Theology&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=642&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199696703.013.014&rft.isbn=978-0-19-969670-3&rft.aulast=Hoover&rft.aufirst=Jon&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordhandbooks.com%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199696703.001.0001%2Foxfordhb-9780199696703-e-014&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheodicy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Marty & Taliaferro 2010, p. 17</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gibbs & Wolfson 2002, p. 38</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pinnock 2002, p. 8</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Patterson & Roth 2005, pp. 189–90</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Blumenthal 1993, pp. 250–51</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rubinstein, Richard L. <i>The Cunning of History</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mechon-mamre.org/e/et/et0118.htm#25">Genesis 18:25</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Über das Misslingen aller philosophischen Versuche in der Theodizee</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://cas.uchicago.edu/workshops/germanphilosophy/files/2013/02/Kant-On-the-Miscarriage-of-all-Philosophical-Trials-at-Theodicy.pdf">http://cas.uchicago.edu/workshops/germanphilosophy/files/2013/02/Kant-On-the-Miscarriage-of-all-Philosophical-Trials-at-Theodicy.pdf</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.chighel.com/opening-statement-7a/">http://www.chighel.com/opening-statement-7a/</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150801100919/http://www.chighel.com/opening-statement-7a/">Archived</a> 2015-08-01 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> The original letter in Yiddish is found in R. Menachem Mendel Schneerson, <i>Likutei Siḥot</i>, Vol. 33 (New York: Kehot, 1962–2001), pp. 255–60.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Todd Billings, "Theodicy as a 'Lived Question': Moving Beyond a Theoretical Approach to Theodicy", <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.luthersem.edu/ctrf/JCTR/Vol05/billings.htm">http://www.luthersem.edu/ctrf/JCTR/Vol05/billings.htm</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110213041622/http://www2.luthersem.edu/ctrf/JCTR/Vol05/billings.htm">Archived</a> 2011-02-13 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Accessed September 25, 2013. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 June</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sophia&rft.atitle=Antitheodicy+and+the+grading+of+theodicies+by+moral+offensiveness&rft.volume=59&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=563-576&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs11841-020-00765-w&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A225461563%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Franklin&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frdcu.be%2Fb6cLu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheodicy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Donald W. Musser and <a href="/wiki/Joseph_L._Price" title="Joseph L. Price">Joseph L. Price</a>, eds., <i>A New Handbook of Christian Theology</i> (Abingdon Press, 1992), s.v. "Tragedy."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wendy Farley, <i>Tragic Vision and Divine Compassion: a Contemporary Theodicy</i> (Westminster John Knox Press, 1990) 12, 23.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sarah Katherine Pinnock, <i>Beyond Theodicy</i> (SUNY Press, 2002), 135, 141.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hedgehogreview.com/issues/america-on-the-brink/articles/a-divine-comedy"><i>A Divine Comedy</i></a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Hedgehog_Review" title="The Hedgehog Review">The Hedgehog Review</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Divine+Comedy&rft.pub=The+Hedgehog+Review&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhedgehogreview.com%2Fissues%2Famerica-on-the-brink%2Farticles%2Fa-divine-comedy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheodicy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Karl Barth, <i>Church Dogmatics</i> (T & T Clark, 1957), IV-1, 246.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Barth, <i>Church Dogmatics</i>, III-1, 368.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Barth, <i>Church Dogmatics</i>, II-2, 165.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Barth, <i>Church Dogmatics</i>, IV-1, 246.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Barth, <i>Church Dogmatics</i>, II-2, 223.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Barth, <i>Church Dogmatics</i>, IV-1, 564.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ben Dupre, "The Problem of Evil", 50 Philosophy Ideas You Really Need to Know, London, Quercus, 2007, p. 166: "Denying that there is ultimately any such thing as evil, as advocated by Christian Scientists, solves the problem at a stroke, but such a remedy is too hard for most to swallow."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Whale, J. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 August</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Human+Suffering+and+Jon+Paul+II%27s+Theology+of+the+Body&rft.aulast=Reimers&rft.aufirst=Adrian+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww3.nd.edu%2F~areimers%2FSuffering-JPII-expanded.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheodicy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170808141833/http://catholicprimer.org/papal/theology_of_the_body.pdf">"Catholicprimer.org"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>www.catholicprimer.org</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.catholicprimer.org/papal/theology_of_the_body.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 8 August 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 August</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.catholicprimer.org&rft.atitle=Catholicprimer.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.catholicprimer.org%2Fpapal%2Ftheology_of_the_body.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheodicy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Eleonore_Stump-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Eleonore_Stump_100-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStump2010" class="citation book cs1">Stump, Eleonore (2010). <i>Wandering in Darkness: Narrative and the Problem of Suffering</i>. N.Y. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-927742-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-927742-1"><bdi>978-0-19-927742-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Wandering+in+Darkness%3A+Narrative+and+the+Problem+of+Suffering&rft.place=N.Y.+New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-19-927742-1&rft.aulast=Stump&rft.aufirst=Eleonore&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheodicy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McGrath 1995, p. 193</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Plantinga & Sennett 1998, pp. 22–24</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ehrman2009-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ehrman2009_103-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBart_D._Ehrman2009" class="citation book cs1">Bart D. Ehrman (13 October 2009). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/godsproblemhowbi00ehrm"><i>God's Problem: How the Bible Fails to Answer Our Most Important Question – Why We Suffer</i></a></span>. HarperCollins. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/godsproblemhowbi00ehrm/page/12">12</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-174440-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-06-174440-2"><bdi>978-0-06-174440-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=God%27s+Problem%3A+How+the+Bible+Fails+to+Answer+Our+Most+Important+Question+%E2%80%93+Why+We+Suffer&rft.pages=12&rft.pub=HarperCollins&rft.date=2009-10-13&rft.isbn=978-0-06-174440-2&rft.au=Bart+D.+Ehrman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgodsproblemhowbi00ehrm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheodicy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLoke2022" class="citation book cs1">Loke, Andrew Ter Ern (2022). <i>Evil, Sin and Christian Theism</i>. Routledge. p. 203.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Evil%2C+Sin+and+Christian+Theism&rft.pages=203&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2022&rft.aulast=Loke&rft.aufirst=Andrew+Ter+Ern&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheodicy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLoke2022" class="citation book cs1">Loke, Andrew Ter Ern (2022). <i>Evil, Sin and Christian Theism</i>. Routledge. p. 5.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Evil%2C+Sin+and+Christian+Theism&rft.pages=5&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2022&rft.aulast=Loke&rft.aufirst=Andrew+Ter+Ern&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheodicy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-loke_13-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-loke_13_106-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-loke_13_106-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLoke2022" class="citation book cs1">Loke, Andrew Ter Ern (2022). <i>Evil, Sin and Christian Theism</i>. Routledge. p. 13.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Evil%2C+Sin+and+Christian+Theism&rft.pages=13&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2022&rft.aulast=Loke&rft.aufirst=Andrew+Ter+Ern&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheodicy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Carsten Meiner, Kristin Veel, eds., <i>The Cultural Life of Catastrophes and Crises</i> (Walter de Gruyter, 2012), 243.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Van der Ven 1989, p. 205</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Devenish 1992, pp. 5–23</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ashley 2010, pp. 870–902</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOord2015" class="citation book cs1">Oord, Thomas Jay (6 December 2015). <i>The Uncontrolling Love of God: An Open and Relational Account of Providence</i>. IVP Academic. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780830840847" title="Special:BookSources/9780830840847"><bdi>9780830840847</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Uncontrolling+Love+of+God%3A+An+Open+and+Relational+Account+of+Providence&rft.pub=IVP+Academic&rft.date=2015-12-06&rft.isbn=9780830840847&rft.aulast=Oord&rft.aufirst=Thomas+Jay&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheodicy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOord2010" class="citation book cs1">Oord, Thomas (10 April 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Nature-Love-Dr-Thomas-Oord-ebook/dp/B003UD7QQ0/ref=sr_1_1?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1447257773&sr=1-1&keywords=nature+of+love+oord"><i>The Nature of Love: A Theology</i></a>. Chalice Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Nature+of+Love%3A+A+Theology&rft.pub=Chalice+Press&rft.date=2010-04-10&rft.aulast=Oord&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.amazon.com%2FNature-Love-Dr-Thomas-Oord-ebook%2Fdp%2FB003UD7QQ0%2Fref%3Dsr_1_1%3Fs%3Dbooks%26ie%3DUTF8%26qid%3D1447257773%26sr%3D1-1%26keywords%3Dnature%2Bof%2Blove%2Boord&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheodicy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gijsbert_van_den_Brink-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gijsbert_van_den_Brink_113-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvan_den_Brink1993" class="citation book cs1">van den Brink, Gijsbert (1993). <i>Almighty God: A Study on the Doctrine of Divine Omnipotence</i>. Kampen, the Netherlands: Kok Pharos publishing House. pp. 263–73.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Almighty+God%3A+A+Study+on+the+Doctrine+of+Divine+Omnipotence&rft.place=Kampen%2C+the+Netherlands&rft.pages=263-73&rft.pub=Kok+Pharos+publishing+House&rft.date=1993&rft.aulast=van+den+Brink&rft.aufirst=Gijsbert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheodicy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="General_and_cited_references">General and cited references</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Theodicy&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: General and cited references"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdams,_Marilyn_McCord1999" class="citation book cs1">Adams, Marilyn McCord (1999). <i>Horrendous Evils and the Goodness of God</i>. Cornell University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-80148-686-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-80148-686-9"><bdi>978-0-80148-686-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Horrendous+Evils+and+the+Goodness+of+God&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-80148-686-9&rft.au=Adams%2C+Marilyn+McCord&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheodicy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAshley,_J._Matthew2010" class="citation journal cs1">Ashley, J. Matthew (2010). "Reading the universe story theologically: the contribution of a biblical narrative imagination". <i>Theological Studies</i>. <b>71</b> (4): 870–902. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F004056391007100405">10.1177/004056391007100405</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:55990053">55990053</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Theological+Studies&rft.atitle=Reading+the+universe+story+theologically%3A+the+contribution+of+a+biblical+narrative+imagination&rft.volume=71&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=870-902&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F004056391007100405&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A55990053%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.au=Ashley%2C+J.+Matthew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheodicy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Assman, Jan (2001). <i>The Search for God in Ancient Egypt</i> trans. David Lorton. Cornell University Press</li> <li>Birnbaum, David (1989). <i>God and Evil</i>. Ktav Publishing House</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlumenthal,_David_R.1993" class="citation book cs1">Blumenthal, David R. (1993). <i>Facing the Abusing God: A Theology of Protest</i>. Westminster John Knox Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-66425-464-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-66425-464-3"><bdi>978-0-66425-464-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Facing+the+Abusing+God%3A+A+Theology+of+Protest&rft.pub=Westminster+John+Knox+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-66425-464-3&rft.au=Blumenthal%2C+David+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheodicy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBunninTsui_James2002" class="citation book cs1">Bunnin, Nicholas; Tsui James, E. P. (2002). <i>The Blackwell Companion to Philosophy</i>. John Wiley & Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780631219088" title="Special:BookSources/9780631219088"><bdi>9780631219088</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Blackwell+Companion+to+Philosophy&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=9780631219088&rft.aulast=Bunnin&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rft.au=Tsui+James%2C+E.+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheodicy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCheetham,_David2003" class="citation book cs1">Cheetham, David (2003). <i>John Hick: a critical introduction and reflection</i>. Ashgate Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-1599-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-1599-6"><bdi>978-0-7546-1599-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=John+Hick%3A+a+critical+introduction+and+reflection&rft.pub=Ashgate+Publishing&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-7546-1599-6&rft.au=Cheetham%2C+David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheodicy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavis,_Stephen_T.2001" class="citation book cs1">Davis, Stephen T. (2001). <i>Encountering evil: live options in theodicy</i>. Westminster John Knox Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-664-22251-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-664-22251-2"><bdi>978-0-664-22251-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encountering+evil%3A+live+options+in+theodicy&rft.pub=Westminster+John+Knox+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-664-22251-2&rft.au=Davis%2C+Stephen+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheodicy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDevenish,_Philip_E.1992" class="citation journal cs1">Devenish, Philip E. (1992). "Theodicy and Cosmodicy: The Contribution of Neoclassical Theism". <i>Journal of Empirical Theology</i>. <b>4</b>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Empirical+Theology&rft.atitle=Theodicy+and+Cosmodicy%3A+The+Contribution+of+Neoclassical+Theism&rft.volume=4&rft.date=1992&rft.au=Devenish%2C+Philip+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheodicy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEhrman,_Bart_D.2008" class="citation book cs1">Ehrman, Bart D. (2008). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/godsproblemhowbi00ehrm"><i>God's Problem:How the Bible Fails to Answer Our Most Important Question – Why We Suffer</i></a></span>. HarperCollins Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-117397-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-06-117397-4"><bdi>978-0-06-117397-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=God%27s+Problem%3AHow+the+Bible+Fails+to+Answer+Our+Most+Important+Question+%E2%80%93+Why+We+Suffer&rft.pub=HarperCollins+Publishers&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-06-117397-4&rft.au=Ehrman%2C+Bart+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgodsproblemhowbi00ehrm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheodicy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGeiviett,_R._Douglas1995" class="citation book cs1">Geiviett, R. Douglas (1995). <i>Evil & the Evidence For God: The Challenge of John Hick's Theodicy</i>. Temple University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56639-397-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56639-397-3"><bdi>978-1-56639-397-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Evil+%26+the+Evidence+For+God%3A+The+Challenge+of+John+Hick%27s+Theodicy&rft.pub=Temple+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-1-56639-397-3&rft.au=Geiviett%2C+R.+Douglas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheodicy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Inati, Shams C. (2000). <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2EfMiwC6SCsC">The Problem of Evil: Ibn Sînâ's Theodicy</a></i>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1586840061" title="Special:BookSources/1586840061">1586840061</a>. Global Academic Publishing, Binghamton University, New York.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGibbsWolfson2002" class="citation book cs1">Gibbs, Robert; Wolfson, Elliot (2002). <i>Suffering religion</i>. Psychology Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-26612-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-26612-3"><bdi>978-0-415-26612-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Suffering+religion&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-415-26612-3&rft.aulast=Gibbs&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft.au=Wolfson%2C+Elliot&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheodicy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHall,_Lindsey2003" class="citation book cs1">Hall, Lindsey (2003). <i>Swinburne's hell and Hick's universalism: are we free to reject God?</i>. Ashgate Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-3400-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-3400-3"><bdi>978-0-7546-3400-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Swinburne%27s+hell+and+Hick%27s+universalism%3A+are+we+free+to+reject+God%3F&rft.pub=Ashgate+Publishing&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-7546-3400-3&rft.au=Hall%2C+Lindsey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheodicy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnston,_Sarah_Iles2004" class="citation book cs1">Johnston, Sarah Iles (2004). <i>Religions of the Ancient World: A Guide</i>. Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-01517-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-01517-3"><bdi>978-0-674-01517-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Religions+of+the+Ancient+World%3A+A+Guide&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-674-01517-3&rft.au=Johnston%2C+Sarah+Iles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheodicy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeibniz,_Gottfried1710" class="citation book cs1">Leibniz, Gottfried (1710). <i>Theodicy</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Theodicy&rft.date=1710&rft.au=Leibniz%2C+Gottfried&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheodicy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLoke,_Andrew_Ter_Ern2022" class="citation book cs1">Loke, Andrew Ter Ern (2022). <i>Evil, Sin and Christian Theism</i>. Routledge.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Evil%2C+Sin+and+Christian+Theism&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2022&rft.au=Loke%2C+Andrew+Ter+Ern&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheodicy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartyTaliaferro2010" class="citation book cs1">Marty, Marty; Taliaferro, Charles (2010). <i>Dictionary of Philosophy of Religion</i>. Continuum International Publishing Group. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4411-1197-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4411-1197-5"><bdi>978-1-4411-1197-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Philosophy+of+Religion&rft.pub=Continuum+International+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-4411-1197-5&rft.aulast=Marty&rft.aufirst=Marty&rft.au=Taliaferro%2C+Charles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheodicy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcGrath,_Alister1995" class="citation book cs1">McGrath, Alister (1995). <i>The Blackwell encyclopedia of modern Christian thought</i>. Wiley-Blackwell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-19896-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-631-19896-3"><bdi>978-0-631-19896-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Blackwell+encyclopedia+of+modern+Christian+thought&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-631-19896-3&rft.au=McGrath%2C+Alister&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheodicy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Neiman, Susan. <i>Evil in Modern Thought: An Alternative History of Philosophy</i>, 2002, Princeton: Princeton University Press. Revised edition, 2015.</li> <li>Oord, Thomas Jay (2015), <i>The Uncontrolling Love of God</i>. Intervarsity Academic. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0830840847" title="Special:BookSources/978-0830840847">978-0830840847</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPattersonRoth2005" class="citation book cs1">Patterson, David; Roth, John (2005). <i>Fire in the ashes: God, evil, and the Holocaust</i>. University of Washington Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-295-98547-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-295-98547-3"><bdi>978-0-295-98547-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fire+in+the+ashes%3A+God%2C+evil%2C+and+the+Holocaust&rft.pub=University+of+Washington+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-295-98547-3&rft.aulast=Patterson&rft.aufirst=David&rft.au=Roth%2C+John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheodicy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPinnock,_Sarah_Katherine2002" class="citation book cs1">Pinnock, Sarah Katherine (2002). <i>Beyond theodicy: Jewish and Christian continental thinkers respond to the Holocaust</i>. SUNY Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-5523-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-5523-4"><bdi>978-0-7914-5523-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Beyond+theodicy%3A+Jewish+and+Christian+continental+thinkers+respond+to+the+Holocaust&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-7914-5523-4&rft.au=Pinnock%2C+Sarah+Katherine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheodicy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPlantingaSennett1998" class="citation book cs1">Plantinga, Alvin; Sennett, James (1998). <i>The analytic theist: an Alvin Plantinga reader</i>. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-4229-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-4229-9"><bdi>978-0-8028-4229-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+analytic+theist%3A+an+Alvin+Plantinga+reader&rft.pub=Wm.+B.+Eerdmans+Publishing&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-8028-4229-9&rft.aulast=Plantinga&rft.aufirst=Alvin&rft.au=Sennett%2C+James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheodicy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScott,_Mark_S._M.2009" class="citation web cs1">Scott, Mark S. M. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150912004231/http://divinity.uchicago.edu/sites/default/files/imce/pdfs/webforum/112009/Theorizing%20Theodicy%20final.pdf">"Theorising Theodicy in the Study of Religion"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. University of Chicago Divinity School. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://divinity.uchicago.edu/sites/default/files/imce/pdfs/webforum/112009/Theorizing%20Theodicy%20final.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 12 September 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 November</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Theorising+Theodicy+in+the+Study+of+Religion&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Divinity+School&rft.date=2009&rft.au=Scott%2C+Mark+S.+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdivinity.uchicago.edu%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fimce%2Fpdfs%2Fwebforum%2F112009%2FTheorizing%2520Theodicy%2520final.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheodicy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSharma,_Arvind2006" class="citation book cs1">Sharma, Arvind (2006). <i>A primal perspective on the philosophy of religion</i>. Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-5013-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-5013-8"><bdi>978-1-4020-5013-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+primal+perspective+on+the+philosophy+of+religion&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-4020-5013-8&rft.au=Sharma%2C+Arvind&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheodicy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmullyan,_Raymond1977" class="citation book cs1">Smullyan, Raymond (1977). <i>The Tao is Silent</i>. Harper. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-067469-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-06-067469-4"><bdi>978-0-06-067469-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Tao+is+Silent&rft.pub=Harper&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=978-0-06-067469-4&rft.au=Smullyan%2C+Raymond&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheodicy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStump,_Eleonore1999" class="citation book cs1">Stump, Eleonore (1999). <i>Philosophy of religion: the big questions</i>. Wiley-Blackwell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-20604-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-631-20604-0"><bdi>978-0-631-20604-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Philosophy+of+religion%3A+the+big+questions&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-631-20604-0&rft.au=Stump%2C+Eleonore&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheodicy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSvendsenPierce2010" class="citation book cs1">Svendsen, Lars Fr. H.; Pierce, Kerri A. (2010). <i>A philosophy of evil</i>. Dalkey Archive Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56478-571-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56478-571-8"><bdi>978-1-56478-571-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+philosophy+of+evil&rft.pub=Dalkey+Archive+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-56478-571-8&rft.aulast=Svendsen&rft.aufirst=Lars+Fr.+H.&rft.au=Pierce%2C+Kerri+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheodicy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSwedberg,_Richard2005" class="citation book cs1">Swedberg, Richard (2005). <i>The Max Weber Dictionary: Key Words and Central Concepts</i>. 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"God in Creation: A Consideration of Natural Selection as the Sacrificial Means of a Free Creation". <i>Studies in Religion/Sciences Religieuses</i>. <b>48</b> (2): 216–236. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0008429819830356">10.1177/0008429819830356</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:202271434">202271434</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Studies+in+Religion%2FSciences+Religieuses&rft.atitle=God+in+Creation%3A+A+Consideration+of+Natural+Selection+as+the+Sacrificial+Means+of+a+Free+Creation&rft.volume=48&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=216-236&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0008429819830356&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A202271434%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Watson&rft.aufirst=Simon+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheodicy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoo2014" class="citation journal cs1">Woo, B. Hoon (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/5972518">"Is God the Author of Sin? – Jonathan Edwards's Theodicy"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Puritan_Reformed_Journal" class="mw-redirect" title="Puritan Reformed Journal">Puritan Reformed Journal</a></i>. <b>6</b> (1): 98–123.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Puritan+Reformed+Journal&rft.atitle=Is+God+the+Author+of+Sin%3F+%E2%80%93+Jonathan+Edwards%27s+Theodicy&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=98-123&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Woo&rft.aufirst=B.+Hoon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F5972518&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheodicy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoodhead,_Linda2001" class="citation book cs1">Woodhead, Linda (2001). <i>Peter Berger and the Study of Religion</i>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-41521-532-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-41521-532-9"><bdi>978-0-41521-532-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Peter+Berger+and+the+Study+of+Religion&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-41521-532-9&rft.au=Woodhead%2C+Linda&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheodicy" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Theodicy&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Theodicy" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Theodicy">Theodicy</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Theodicy" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Theodicy">Theodicy</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/theodicies/">"Theodicies"</a> entry by Laura W. Ekstrom in the <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/evil/">"The Problem of Evil"</a> entry by Michael Tooley in the <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i></li> <li>Brown, Paterson. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101227173500/http://metalog.org/files/tpb/rel.m.html">"Religious Morality"</a>, <i>Mind</i>, 1963.</li> <li>Brown, Paterson. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101227180203/http://metalog.org/files/tpb/reply.html">"Religious Morality: A Reply to Flew and Campbell"</a>, <i>Mind</i>, 1964.</li> <li>Brown, Paterson. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101125212955/http://metalog.org/files/tpb/god.g.html">"God and the Good"</a>, <i>Religious Studies</i>, 1967.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHerbermann1913" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "<a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia_(1913)/Theodicy" class="extiw" title="s:Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Theodicy">Theodicy</a>". <i><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia" title="Catholic Encyclopedia">Catholic Encyclopedia</a></i>. New York: Robert Appleton Company.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Theodicy&rft.btitle=Catholic+Encyclopedia&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Robert+Appleton+Company&rft.date=1913&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheodicy" class="Z3988"></span> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/14569a.htm">Theodicy</a> at New Advent</li></ul></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.christians.eu/why-does-god-allow-it/">Why Does God Allow It?</a> Article discussing men's responsibility on the one hand and his powerlessness regarding natural disasters on the other hand.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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title="Leibniz's notation">Leibniz's notation</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lingua_generalis" title="Lingua generalis">Lingua generalis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mathesis_universalis" title="Mathesis universalis">Mathesis universalis</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-established_harmony" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-established harmony">Pre-established harmony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principle_of_plenitude" title="Principle of plenitude">Plenitude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principle_of_sufficient_reason" title="Principle of sufficient reason">Sufficient reason</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Salva_veritate" title="Salva veritate">Salva veritate</a></i></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Theodicy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_law_of_homogeneity" title="Transcendental law of homogeneity">Transcendental law of homogeneity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_science" title="Universal science">Universal science</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vis_viva" title="Vis viva">Vis viva</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Well-founded_phenomenon" class="mw-redirect" title="Well-founded phenomenon">Well-founded phenomenon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/De_Arte_Combinatoria" title="De Arte Combinatoria">De Arte Combinatoria</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1666)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Discourse_on_Metaphysics" title="Discourse on Metaphysics">Discourse on Metaphysics</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1686)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/New_Essays_on_Human_Understanding" title="New Essays on Human Understanding">New Essays on Human Understanding</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1704)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A9odic%C3%A9e" title="Théodicée">Théodicée</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1710)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Monadology" title="Monadology">Monadology</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1714)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leibniz%E2%80%93Clarke_correspondence" title="Leibniz–Clarke correspondence">Leibniz–Clarke correspondence</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1715–1716)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" 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on sin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imputation_of_sin" title="Imputation of sin">Imputation of sin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sin" title="Sin">Sin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_order_of_God%27s_decrees" title="Logical order of God's decrees">Logical order of God's decrees</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Theodicy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Total_depravity" title="Total depravity">Total depravity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peccatism" title="Peccatism">Peccatism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2" style="background:#ddd;"><div> <ul><li>See also <a href="/wiki/Christian_apologetics" title="Christian apologetics">Apologetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salvation_in_Christianity" title="Salvation in Christianity">Soteriology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_demonology" title="Christian demonology">Demonology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Philosophy_of_religion" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_of_religion" title="Template:Philosophy of religion"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_of_religion" title="Template talk:Philosophy of religion"><abbr title="Discuss this 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design">Intelligent design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miracle" title="Miracle">Miracle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Problem of evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">Soul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitalism" title="Vitalism">Spirit</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Theodicy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theological_veto" title="Theological veto">Theological veto</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Conceptions_of_God" title="Conceptions of God">Conceptions of God</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brahman" title="Brahman">Brahman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demiurge" title="Demiurge">Demiurge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_simplicity" title="Divine simplicity">Divine simplicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_egoism" title="Ethical egoism">Egoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit" title="Holy Spirit">Holy Spirit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misotheism" title="Misotheism">Misotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandeism" title="Pandeism">Pandeism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_god" title="Personal god">Personal god</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_theology" title="Process theology">Process theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God" title="God">Supreme Being</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unmoved_mover" title="Unmoved mover">Unmoved mover</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal; text-align:center;">God in</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Abrahamic_religions" title="God in Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creator_in_Buddhism" title="Creator in Buddhism">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Christianity" title="God in Christianity">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Hinduism" title="God in Hinduism">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Islam" title="God in Islam">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Jainism" title="God in Jainism">Jainism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Judaism" title="God in Judaism">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Mormonism" title="God in Mormonism">Mormonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Sikhism" title="God in Sikhism">Sikhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_the_Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith" title="God in the Baháʼí Faith">Baháʼí Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wiccan_views_of_divinity" title="Wiccan views of divinity">Wicca</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Existence_of_God" title="Existence of God">Existence of God</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal; text-align:center;">For</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_beauty" title="Argument from beauty">Beauty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christological_argument" title="Christological argument">Christological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_consciousness" title="Argument from consciousness">Consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmological_argument" title="Cosmological argument">Cosmological</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kalam_cosmological_argument" title="Kalam cosmological argument">Kalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmological_argument#Argument_from_contingency" title="Cosmological argument">Contingency</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_degree" title="Argument from degree">Degree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_desire" title="Argument from desire">Desire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_religious_experience" title="Argument from religious experience">Experience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fine-tuned_universe" title="Fine-tuned universe">Fine-tuning of the universe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_love" title="Argument from love">Love</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_miracles" title="Argument from miracles">Miracles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_morality" title="Argument from morality">Morality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proof_of_the_Truthful" title="Proof of the Truthful">Necessary existent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontological_argument" title="Ontological argument">Ontological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pascal%27s_wager" title="Pascal's wager">Pascal's wager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Proper basis and Reformed epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_reason" title="Argument from reason">Reason</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teleological_argument" title="Teleological argument">Teleological</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural-law_argument" title="Natural-law argument">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watchmaker_analogy" title="Watchmaker analogy">Watchmaker analogy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_argument_for_the_existence_of_God" title="Transcendental argument for the existence of God">Transcendental</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal; text-align:center;">Against</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ultimate_Boeing_747_gambit" title="Ultimate Boeing 747 gambit">747 gambit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheist%27s_Wager" class="mw-redirect" title="Atheist's Wager">Atheist's Wager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_free_will" title="Argument from free will">Free will</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_Hell" title="Problem of Hell">Hell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_inconsistent_revelations" class="mw-redirect" title="Argument from inconsistent revelations">Inconsistent revelations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_nonbelief" title="Argument from nonbelief">Nonbelief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theological_noncognitivism" title="Theological noncognitivism">Noncognitivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occam%27s_razor" title="Occam's razor">Occam's razor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omnipotence_paradox" title="Omnipotence paradox">Omnipotence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_poor_design" title="Argument from poor design">Poor design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell%27s_teapot" title="Russell's teapot">Russell's teapot</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">Theology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acosmism" title="Acosmism">Acosmism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agnosticism" title="Agnosticism">Agnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animism" title="Animism">Animism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antireligion" title="Antireligion">Antireligion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">Atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creationism" title="Creationism">Creationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharmism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deism" title="Deism">Deism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demonology" title="Demonology">Demonology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_command_theory" title="Divine command theory">Divine command theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dualism_in_cosmology" title="Dualism in cosmology">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_esotericism" title="Western esotericism">Esotericism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exclusivism" title="Exclusivism">Exclusivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_existentialism" title="Christian existentialism">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheistic_existentialism" title="Atheistic existentialism">Atheistic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_theology" title="Feminist theology">Feminist theology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thealogy" title="Thealogy">Thealogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Womanist_theology" title="Womanist theology">Womanist theology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundamentalism" title="Fundamentalism">Fundamentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnosticism" title="Gnosticism">Gnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henotheism" title="Henotheism">Henotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religious_humanism" title="Religious humanism">Religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_humanism" title="Secular humanism">Secular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_humanism" title="Christian humanism">Christian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inclusivism" title="Inclusivism">Inclusivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theories_about_religions" class="mw-redirect" title="Theories about religions">Theories about religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monotheism" title="Monotheism">Monotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mysticism" title="Mysticism">Mysticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_naturalism" title="Metaphysical naturalism">Metaphysical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_naturalism" title="Religious naturalism">Religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_naturalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Humanistic naturalism">Humanistic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Age" title="New Age">New Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nondualism" title="Nondualism">Nondualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nontheism" title="Nontheism">Nontheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandeism" title="Pandeism">Pandeism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panentheism" title="Panentheism">Panentheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pantheism" title="Pantheism">Pantheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perennial_philosophy" title="Perennial philosophy">Perennialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polytheism" title="Polytheism">Polytheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Possibilianism" title="Possibilianism">Possibilianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_theology" title="Process theology">Process theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_skepticism" title="Religious skepticism">Religious skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritualism_(beliefs)" title="Spiritualism (beliefs)">Spiritualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shamanism" title="Shamanism">Shamanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_religions" title="East Asian religions">Taoic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theism" title="Theism">Theism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_religious_language" title="Problem of religious language">Religious language</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eschatological_verification" title="Eschatological verification">Eschatological verification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_game_(philosophy)" title="Language game (philosophy)">Language game</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apophatic_theology" title="Apophatic theology">Apophatic theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verificationism" title="Verificationism">Verificationism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Problem of evil</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Augustinian_theodicy" title="Augustinian theodicy">Augustinian theodicy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Best_of_all_possible_worlds" title="Best of all possible worlds">Best of all possible worlds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthyphro_dilemma" title="Euthyphro dilemma">Euthyphro dilemma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inconsistent_triad" title="Inconsistent triad">Inconsistent triad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irenaean_theodicy" title="Irenaean theodicy">Irenaean theodicy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_evil" title="Natural evil">Natural evil</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Theodicy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophers_of_religion" title="Category:Philosophers of religion">Philosophers<br />of religion</a></div><br />(by date active)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Ancient</a> and<br /><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">medieval</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anselm_of_Canterbury" title="Anselm of Canterbury">Anselm of Canterbury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boethius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaudapada" title="Gaudapada">Gaudapada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaunilo_of_Marmoutiers" title="Gaunilo of Marmoutiers">Gaunilo of Marmoutiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Pico_della_Mirandola" title="Giovanni Pico della Mirandola">Pico della Mirandola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heraclitus" title="Heraclitus">Heraclitus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_VI_and_I" title="James VI and I">King James VI and I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcion_of_Sinope" title="Marcion of Sinope">Marcion of Sinope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adi_Shankara" title="Adi Shankara">Adi Shankara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">William of Ockham</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_philosophy" title="Early modern philosophy">Early modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Augustin_Calmet" title="Antoine Augustin Calmet">Augustin Calmet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaise_Pascal" title="Blaise Pascal">Blaise Pascal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desiderius_Erasmus" class="mw-redirect" title="Desiderius Erasmus">Desiderius Erasmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Malebranche" title="Nicolas Malebranche">Nicolas Malebranche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Gottfried W Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Wollaston" title="William Wollaston">William Wollaston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Chubb" title="Thomas Chubb">Thomas Chubb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baron_d%27Holbach" title="Baron d'Holbach">Baron d'Holbach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Johann G Herder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">1800<br />1850</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schleiermacher" title="Friedrich Schleiermacher">Friedrich Schleiermacher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Christian_Friedrich_Krause" title="Karl Christian Friedrich Krause">Karl C F Krause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Georg W F Hegel</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Thomas Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Whewell" title="William Whewell">William Whewell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Feuerbach" title="Ludwig Feuerbach">Ludwig Feuerbach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Søren Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albrecht_Ritschl" title="Albrecht Ritschl">Albrecht Ritschl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afrikan_Spir" title="Afrikan Spir">Afrikan Spir</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">1880<br />1900</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Haeckel" title="Ernst Haeckel">Ernst Haeckel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Kingdon_Clifford" title="William Kingdon Clifford">W K Clifford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harald_H%C3%B8ffding" title="Harald Høffding">Harald Høffding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">William James</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Solovyov_(philosopher)" title="Vladimir Solovyov (philosopher)">Vladimir Solovyov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Troeltsch" title="Ernst Troeltsch">Ernst Troeltsch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Otto" title="Rudolf Otto">Rudolf Otto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lev_Shestov" title="Lev Shestov">Lev Shestov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sergei_Bulgakov" title="Sergei Bulgakov">Sergei Bulgakov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pavel_Florensky" title="Pavel Florensky">Pavel Florensky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Cassirer" title="Ernst Cassirer">Ernst Cassirer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Mar%C3%A9chal" title="Joseph Maréchal">Joseph Maréchal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">1920<br />postwar</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Santayana" title="George Santayana">George Santayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Buber" title="Martin Buber">Martin Buber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">René Guénon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Tillich" title="Paul Tillich">Paul Tillich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Barth" title="Karl Barth">Karl Barth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emil_Brunner" title="Emil Brunner">Emil Brunner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Bultmann" title="Rudolf Bultmann">Rudolf Bultmann</a></li> <li><a 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