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Roosevelt</h1> <div class="tagline"></div> </div> <ul id="p-associated-pages" class="minerva__tab-container"> <li class="minerva__tab selected"> <a class="minerva__tab-text" href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" rel="" data-event-name="tabs.subject">Article</a> </li> <li class="minerva__tab "> <a class="minerva__tab-text" href="/wiki/Talk:Franklin_D._Roosevelt" rel="discussion" data-event-name="tabs.talk">Talk</a> </li> </ul> <nav class="page-actions-menu"> <ul id="p-views" class="page-actions-menu__list"> <li id="language-selector" class="page-actions-menu__list-item"> <a role="button" href="#p-lang" data-mw="interface" data-event-name="menu.languages" title="Language" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet language-selector"> Language </a> </li> <li id="page-actions-watch" class="page-actions-menu__list-item"> <a role="button" id="ca-watch" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Franklin+D.+Roosevelt" data-event-name="menu.watch" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet menu__item--page-actions-watch"> Watch </a> </li> <li id="page-actions-viewsource" class="page-actions-menu__list-item"> <a role="button" id="ca-edit" href="/w/index.php?title=Franklin_D._Roosevelt&action=edit" data-event-name="menu.viewsource" data-mw="interface" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet edit-page menu__item--page-actions-viewsource"> View source </a> </li> </ul> </nav>  <div id="mw-content-subtitle">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Franklin_Delano_Roosevelt&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt">Franklin Delano Roosevelt</a>)</div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="content"> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><script>function mfTempOpenSection(id){var block=document.getElementById("mf-section-"+id);block.className+=" open-block";block.previousSibling.className+=" open-block";}</script><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><section class="mf-section-0" id="mf-section-0"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"FDR" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/FDR_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="FDR (disambiguation)">FDR (disambiguation)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt (disambiguation)">Franklin D. Roosevelt (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style>Franklin Delano Roosevelt<a href="#cite_note-2">[a]</a> (January 30, 1882 – April 12, 1945), also known as FDR, was the 32nd <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">president of the United States</a>, serving from 1933 until his death in 1945. The longest-serving U.S. president, he is the only president to have served more than two terms. His <a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt,_first_and_second_terms" title="Presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt, first and second terms">initial two terms</a> were centered on combating the <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a>, while his <a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt,_third_and_fourth_terms" title="Presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt, third and fourth terms">third and fourth</a> saw him shift his focus to America's involvement in <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>. <table class="infobox vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%;"><div class="fn" style="font-size:125%;">Franklin D. Roosevelt</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:FDR_1944_Color_Portrait_(cropped)(b).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Franklin Roosevelt, 62, has graying hair and faces the camera." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/FDR_1944_Color_Portrait_%28cropped%29%28b%29.jpg/220px-FDR_1944_Color_Portrait_%28cropped%29%28b%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="304" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/FDR_1944_Color_Portrait_%28cropped%29%28b%29.jpg/330px-FDR_1944_Color_Portrait_%28cropped%29%28b%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/FDR_1944_Color_Portrait_%28cropped%29%28b%29.jpg/440px-FDR_1944_Color_Portrait_%28cropped%29%28b%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2754" data-file-height="3806"></a><div class="infobox-caption" style="line-height:normal;padding-top:0.2em;">Official campaign portrait, 1944</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;">32nd <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President of the United States</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none">In office March 4, 1933 – April 12, 1945</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_United_States" title="Vice President of the United States">Vice President</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/John_Nance_Garner" title="John Nance Garner">John Nance Garner</a> (1933–1941)</div></li> <li><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Henry_A._Wallace" title="Henry A. Wallace">Henry A. Wallace</a> (1941–1945)</div></li> <li><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Harry S. Truman (Jan–Apr. 1945)</div></li></ul> </div></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Preceded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Hoover" title="Herbert Hoover">Herbert Hoover</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Succeeded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman" title="Harry S. Truman">Harry S. Truman</a></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;">44th <a href="/wiki/Governor_of_New_York" title="Governor of New York">Governor of New York</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none">In office January 1, 1929 – December 31, 1932</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><a href="/wiki/Lieutenant_Governor_of_New_York" title="Lieutenant Governor of New York">Lieutenant</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Herbert H. Lehman</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Preceded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Al_Smith" title="Al Smith">Al Smith</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Succeeded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Herbert_H._Lehman" title="Herbert H. Lehman">Herbert H. Lehman</a></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Assistant_Secretary_of_the_Navy" class="mw-redirect" title="Assistant Secretary of the Navy">Assistant Secretary of the Navy</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none">In office March 17, 1913 – August 26, 1920</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">President</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson" title="Woodrow Wilson">Woodrow Wilson</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Preceded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Beekman_Winthrop" title="Beekman Winthrop">Beekman Winthrop</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Succeeded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Gordon_Woodbury" title="Gordon Woodbury">Gordon Woodbury</a></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;">Member of the <a href="/wiki/New_York_State_Senate" title="New York State Senate">New York State Senate</a> from the <a href="/wiki/New_York%27s_26th_State_Senate_district" title="New York's 26th State Senate district">26th</a> district</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none">In office January 1, 1911 – March 17, 1913</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Preceded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/John_F._Schlosser" title="John F. Schlosser">John F. Schlosser</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Succeeded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/James_E._Towner" title="James E. Towner">James E. Towner</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender">Personal details</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="display:inline" class="nickname">Franklin Delano Roosevelt</div> (1882-01-30)January 30, 1882 <a href="/wiki/Hyde_Park,_New_York" title="Hyde Park, New York">Hyde Park, New York</a>, U.S.</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">April 12, 1945(1945-04-12) (aged 63) <a href="/wiki/Warm_Springs,_Georgia" title="Warm Springs, Georgia">Warm Springs, Georgia</a>, U.S.</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Resting place</th><td class="infobox-data label"><a href="/wiki/Home_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt_National_Historic_Site" title="Home of Franklin D. Roosevelt National Historic Site">Springwood Estate</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Political party</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Democratic Party (United States)">Democratic</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Spouse</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1151524712">.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin2px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-2px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin3px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-3px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-display-ws{display:inline;white-space:nowrap}</style> <div class="marriage-display-ws"><div style="display:inline-block;line-height:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Eleanor_Roosevelt" title="Eleanor Roosevelt">Eleanor Roosevelt</a></div> <div style="display:inline-block;"></div>(<abbr title="married">m.</abbr> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style>1905)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Children</th><td class="infobox-data">6, including <a href="/wiki/Anna_Roosevelt_Halsted" title="Anna Roosevelt Halsted">Anna</a>, <a href="/wiki/James_Roosevelt" title="James Roosevelt">James</a>, <a href="/wiki/Elliott_Roosevelt_(general)" title="Elliott Roosevelt (general)">Elliott</a>, <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt_Jr." title="Franklin D. Roosevelt Jr.">Franklin Jr.</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Aspinwall_Roosevelt" title="John Aspinwall Roosevelt">John</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Parents</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/James_Roosevelt_I" title="James Roosevelt I">James Roosevelt I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sara_Roosevelt" title="Sara Roosevelt">Sara Delano</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Relatives</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roosevelt_family" title="Roosevelt family">Roosevelt family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delano_family" title="Delano family">Delano family</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Education</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Arts" title="Bachelor of Arts">AB</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columbia_University" title="Columbia University">Columbia University</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Signature</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/File:Franklin_Roosevelt_Signature.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt's signature"><img alt="Cursive signature in ink" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Franklin_Roosevelt_Signature.svg/128px-Franklin_Roosevelt_Signature.svg.png" decoding="async" width="128" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Franklin_Roosevelt_Signature.svg/192px-Franklin_Roosevelt_Signature.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Franklin_Roosevelt_Signature.svg/256px-Franklin_Roosevelt_Signature.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="492" data-file-height="109"></a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1096940132">.mw-parser-output .listen .side-box-text{line-height:1.1em}.mw-parser-output .listen-plain{border:none;background:transparent}.mw-parser-output .listen-embedded{width:100%;margin:0;border-width:1px 0 0 0;background:transparent}.mw-parser-output .listen-header{padding:2px}.mw-parser-output .listen-embedded .listen-header{padding:2px 0}.mw-parser-output .listen-file-header{padding:4px 0}.mw-parser-output .listen .description{padding-top:2px}.mw-parser-output .listen .mw-tmh-player{max-width:100%}@media(max-width:719px){.mw-parser-output .listen{clear:both}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .listen:not(.listen-noimage){width:320px}.mw-parser-output .listen-left{overflow:visible;float:left}.mw-parser-output .listen-center{float:none;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-left listen noprint listen-embedded listen-noimage listen-center"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><div class="haudio"> <div class="listen-file-header"><a href="/wiki/File:FDR%27s_Speech_to_the_Congress_regarding_the_naval_attack_on_Pearl_Harbor.ogg" title="File:FDR's Speech to the Congress regarding the naval attack on Pearl Harbor.ogg">Franklin D. Roosevelt's voice</a></div> <div><audio id="mwe_player_0" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="215" style="width:215px;" data-durationhint="259" data-mwtitle="FDR's_Speech_to_the_Congress_regarding_the_naval_attack_on_Pearl_Harbor.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f4/FDR%27s_Speech_to_the_Congress_regarding_the_naval_attack_on_Pearl_Harbor.ogg" type='audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"' data-width="0" data-height="0"></source><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/f/f4/FDR%27s_Speech_to_the_Congress_regarding_the_naval_attack_on_Pearl_Harbor.ogg/FDR%27s_Speech_to_the_Congress_regarding_the_naval_attack_on_Pearl_Harbor.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0"></source><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AFDR%27s_Speech_to_the_Congress_regarding_the_naval_attack_on_Pearl_Harbor.ogg&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr"></track></audio></div> <div class="description">On the <a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor" title="Attack on Pearl Harbor">attack on Pearl Harbor</a> and <a href="/wiki/United_States_declaration_of_war_on_Japan" title="United States declaration of war on Japan">declaring war on Japan</a> Recorded December 8, 1941</div></div></div></div> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below" style="border-top: 1px solid right;"><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table> A member of the prominent <a href="/wiki/Delano_family" title="Delano family">Delano</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roosevelt_family" title="Roosevelt family">Roosevelt</a> families, Roosevelt was elected to the <a href="/wiki/New_York_State_Senate" title="New York State Senate">New York State Senate</a> from 1911 to 1913 and was then the <a href="/wiki/Assistant_Secretary_of_the_Navy" class="mw-redirect" title="Assistant Secretary of the Navy">assistant Secretary of the Navy</a> under President <a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson" title="Woodrow Wilson">Woodrow Wilson</a> during <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>. Roosevelt was <a href="/wiki/James_M._Cox" title="James M. Cox">James M. Cox</a>'s running mate on the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Democratic Party (United States)">Democratic Party</a>'s ticket in the <a href="/wiki/1920_U.S._presidential_election" class="mw-redirect" title="1920 U.S. presidential election">1920 U.S. presidential election</a>, but Cox lost to <a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">Republican</a> nominee <a href="/wiki/Warren_G._Harding" title="Warren G. Harding">Warren G. Harding</a>. In 1921, Roosevelt <a href="/wiki/Paralytic_illness_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Paralytic illness of Franklin D. Roosevelt">contracted a paralytic illness</a> that permanently paralyzed his legs. Partly through the encouragement of his wife, <a href="/wiki/Eleanor_Roosevelt" title="Eleanor Roosevelt">Eleanor Roosevelt</a>, he returned to public office as <a href="/wiki/Governor_of_New_York" title="Governor of New York">governor of New York</a> from 1929 to 1933, during which he promoted programs to combat the Great Depression. In the <a href="/wiki/1932_United_States_presidential_election" title="1932 United States presidential election">1932 presidential election</a>, Roosevelt defeated president <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Hoover" title="Herbert Hoover">Herbert Hoover</a> in a <a href="/wiki/Landslide_victory" title="Landslide victory">landslide victory</a>. During <a href="/wiki/First_100_days_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt%27s_presidency" class="mw-redirect" title="First 100 days of Franklin D. Roosevelt's presidency">his first 100 days as president</a>, Roosevelt spearheaded unprecedented federal legislation and directed the federal government during most of the Great Depression, implementing the <a href="/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal">New Deal</a>, building the <a href="/wiki/New_Deal_coalition" title="New Deal coalition">New Deal coalition</a>, and realigning American politics into the <a href="/wiki/Fifth_Party_System" title="Fifth Party System">Fifth Party System</a>. He created numerous programs to provide relief to the unemployed and farmers while seeking economic recovery with the <a href="/wiki/National_Recovery_Administration" title="National Recovery Administration">National Recovery Administration</a> and other programs. He also instituted major regulatory reforms related to finance, communications, and labor, and presided over the end of <a href="/wiki/Prohibition_in_the_United_States" title="Prohibition in the United States">Prohibition</a>. In 1936, Roosevelt <a href="/wiki/1936_United_States_presidential_election" title="1936 United States presidential election">won a landslide reelection</a>. He was unable to <a href="/wiki/Judicial_Procedures_Reform_Bill_of_1937" title="Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937">expand the Supreme Court in 1937</a>, the same year the <a href="/wiki/Conservative_coalition" title="Conservative coalition">conservative coalition</a> was formed to block the implementation of further New Deal programs and reforms. Major surviving programs and legislation implemented under Roosevelt include the <a href="/wiki/Securities_and_Exchange_Commission" class="mw-redirect" title="Securities and Exchange Commission">Securities and Exchange Commission</a>, the <a href="/wiki/National_Labor_Relations_Act_of_1935" title="National Labor Relations Act of 1935">National Labor Relations Act</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Deposit_Insurance_Corporation" title="Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation">Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Social_Security_(United_States)" title="Social Security (United States)">Social Security</a>. In <a href="/wiki/1940_United_States_presidential_election" title="1940 United States presidential election">1940</a>, he <a href="/wiki/1940_United_States_presidential_election" title="1940 United States presidential election">ran successfully for reelection</a>, before the <a href="/wiki/Twenty-second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution">official implementation of term limits</a>. Following the Japanese <a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor" title="Attack on Pearl Harbor">attack on Pearl Harbor</a> on December 7, 1941, Roosevelt obtained a declaration of war on Japan. After Germany and <a href="/wiki/Fascist_Italy_(1922%E2%80%931943)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fascist Italy (1922–1943)">Italy</a> declared war on the U.S. on December 11, 1941, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">United States Congress</a> approved additional declarations of war in return. He worked closely with other national leaders in leading <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">the Allies</a> against the <a href="/wiki/Axis_powers" title="Axis powers">Axis powers</a>. Roosevelt supervised the mobilization of the American economy to support the war effort and implemented a <a href="/wiki/Europe_first" title="Europe first">Europe first</a> strategy. He also initiated the development of the first atomic bomb and worked with the other Allied leaders to lay the groundwork for the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_Nations" title="History of the United Nations">United Nations</a> and other post-war institutions, even coining the term "United Nations".<a href="#cite_note-3">[2]</a> Roosevelt <a href="/wiki/1944_United_States_presidential_election" title="1944 United States presidential election">won reelection in 1944</a> but died in 1945 after his physical health seriously and steadily declined during the war years. Since then, several of his actions have come under <a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Criticism of Franklin D. Roosevelt">criticism</a>, such as his ordering of the <a href="/wiki/Internment_of_Japanese_Americans" title="Internment of Japanese Americans">internment of Japanese Americans</a>. Nonetheless, <a href="/wiki/Historical_rankings_of_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="Historical rankings of presidents of the United States">historical rankings</a> consistently place him among the three greatest American presidents. <div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none"><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Early_life_and_marriage">1 Early life and marriage</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="#Childhood">1.1 Childhood</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Education_and_early_career">1.2 Education and early career</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Marriage,_family,_and_extramarital_affairs">1.3 Marriage, family, and extramarital affairs</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-5"><a href="#Early_political_career_(1910%E2%80%931920)">2 Early political career (1910–1920)</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#New_York_state_senator_(1910%E2%80%931913)">2.1 New York state senator (1910–1913)</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Assistant_Secretary_of_the_Navy_(1913%E2%80%931919)">2.2 Assistant Secretary of the Navy (1913–1919)</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#Campaign_for_vice_president_(1920)">2.3 Campaign for vice president (1920)</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-9"><a href="#Paralytic_illness_and_political_comeback_(1921%E2%80%931928)">3 Paralytic illness and political comeback (1921–1928)</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-10"><a href="#Governor_of_New_York_(1929%E2%80%931932)">4 Governor of New York (1929–1932)</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-11"><a href="#1932_presidential_election">5 1932 presidential election</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="#Transition_and_assassination_attempt">5.1 Transition and assassination attempt</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-13"><a href="#Presidency_(1933%E2%80%931945)">6 Presidency (1933–1945)</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><a href="#First_and_second_terms_(1933%E2%80%931941)">6.1 First and second terms (1933–1941)</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-15"><a href="#First_New_Deal_(1933%E2%80%931934)">6.1.1 First New Deal (1933–1934)</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-16"><a href="#Second_New_Deal_(1935%E2%80%931936)">6.1.2 Second New Deal (1935–1936)</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-17"><a href="#Election_of_1936">6.1.3 Election of 1936</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-18"><a href="#Supreme_Court_fight_and_second_term_legislation">6.1.4 Supreme Court fight and second term legislation</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-19"><a href="#Conservation_and_the_environment">6.1.5 Conservation and the environment</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-20"><a href="#GNP_and_unemployment_rates">6.1.6 GNP and unemployment rates</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-21"><a href="#Foreign_policy_(1933%E2%80%931941)">6.1.7 Foreign policy (1933–1941)</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-22"><a href="#Election_of_1940">6.1.8 Election of 1940</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-23"><a href="#Third_and_fourth_terms_(1941%E2%80%931945)">6.2 Third and fourth terms (1941–1945)</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-24"><a href="#Lead-up_to_the_war">6.2.1 Lead-up to the war</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-25"><a href="#Pearl_Harbor_and_declarations_of_war">6.2.2 Pearl Harbor and declarations of war</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-26"><a href="#War_plans">6.2.3 War plans</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-27"><a href="#Nuclear_program">6.2.4 Nuclear program</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-28"><a href="#Wartime_conferences">6.2.5 Wartime conferences</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-29"><a href="#Course_of_the_war">6.2.6 Course of the war</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-30"><a href="#Home_front">6.2.7 Home front</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-31"><a href="#Declining_health">6.2.8 Declining health</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-32"><a href="#Election_of_1944">6.2.9 Election of 1944</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-33"><a href="#Final_months_and_death">6.2.10 Final months and death</a></li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-34"><a href="#Civil_rights,_repatriation,_internment,_and_the_Holocaust">7 Civil rights, repatriation, internment, and the Holocaust</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-35"><a href="#Lynching_and_civil_rights">7.1 Lynching and civil rights</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-36"><a href="#Japanese_Americans">7.2 Japanese Americans</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-37"><a href="#The_Holocaust">7.3 The Holocaust</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-38"><a href="#Legacy">8 Legacy</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-39"><a href="#Historical_reputation">8.1 Historical reputation</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-40"><a href="#Memorials">8.2 Memorials</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-41"><a href="#See_also">9 See also</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-42"><a href="#Notes">10 Notes</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-43"><a href="#Citations">11 Citations</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-44"><a href="#Works_cited">12 Works cited</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-45"><a href="#External_links">13 External links</a></li> </ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(1)"><h2 id="Early_life_and_marriage">Early life and marriage</h2></div><section class="mf-section-1 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-1"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Childhood">Childhood</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Franklin-Roosevelt-1884.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Franklin-Roosevelt-1884.jpg/210px-Franklin-Roosevelt-1884.jpg" decoding="async" width="210" height="269" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="768"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 210px;height: 269px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Franklin-Roosevelt-1884.jpg/210px-Franklin-Roosevelt-1884.jpg" data-width="210" data-height="269" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Franklin-Roosevelt-1884.jpg/315px-Franklin-Roosevelt-1884.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Franklin-Roosevelt-1884.jpg/420px-Franklin-Roosevelt-1884.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>A young, <a href="/wiki/Breeching_(boys)" title="Breeching (boys)">unbreeched</a> Roosevelt in 1884, 2 years old</figcaption></figure> Franklin Delano Roosevelt was born on January 30, 1882, in <a href="/wiki/Hyde_Park,_New_York" title="Hyde Park, New York">Hyde Park, New York</a>, to businessman <a href="/wiki/James_Roosevelt_I" title="James Roosevelt I">James Roosevelt I</a> and his second wife, <a href="/wiki/Sara_Ann_Delano" class="mw-redirect" title="Sara Ann Delano">Sara Ann Delano</a>. His parents, who were sixth cousins,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns19567-4">[3]</a> came from wealthy, established New York families—the <a href="/wiki/Roosevelt_family" title="Roosevelt family">Roosevelts</a>, the <a href="/wiki/William_Henry_Aspinwall" title="William Henry Aspinwall">Aspinwalls</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Delano_family" title="Delano family">Delanos</a>, respectively—and resided at <a href="/wiki/Home_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt_National_Historic_Site" title="Home of Franklin D. Roosevelt National Historic Site">Springwood</a>, a large estate south of Hyde Park's historic center. Roosevelt's father, James, graduated from <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Law_School" title="Harvard Law School">Harvard Law School</a> but chose not to practice law after receiving an inheritance from <a href="/wiki/James_Roosevelt_(1760%E2%80%931847)" title="James Roosevelt (1760–1847)">his grandfather</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith20075%E2%80%936-5">[4]</a> James, a prominent <a href="/wiki/Bourbon_Democrat" title="Bourbon Democrat">Bourbon Democrat</a>, once took Franklin to meet President <a href="/wiki/Grover_Cleveland" title="Grover Cleveland">Grover Cleveland</a>, who said to him: "My little man, I am making a strange wish for you. It is that you may never be President of the United States."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeuchtenburg201516-6">[5]</a> Franklin's mother, the dominant influence in his early years, once declared, "My son Franklin is a Delano, not a Roosevelt at all."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns19567-4">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELash1971111-7">[6]</a> James, who was 54 when Franklin was born, was considered by some as a remote father, though biographer <a href="/wiki/James_MacGregor_Burns" title="James MacGregor Burns">James MacGregor Burns</a> indicates James interacted with his son more than was typical at the time.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns19564-8">[7]</a> Franklin had a half-brother, <a href="/wiki/James_Roosevelt_Roosevelt" title="James Roosevelt Roosevelt">James Roosevelt "Rosy" Roosevelt</a>, from his father's previous marriage.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith20075%E2%80%936-5">[4]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Education_and_early_career">Education and early career</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:292px;max-width:292px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:150px;max-width:150px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:210px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Franklin_D._Roosevelt_Portrait_in_New_York_City,_New_York_-_NARA_-_196675.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Franklin_D._Roosevelt_Portrait_in_New_York_City%2C_New_York_-_NARA_-_196675.jpg/148px-Franklin_D._Roosevelt_Portrait_in_New_York_City%2C_New_York_-_NARA_-_196675.jpg" decoding="async" width="148" height="210" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2112" data-file-height="3000"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 148px;height: 210px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Franklin_D._Roosevelt_Portrait_in_New_York_City%2C_New_York_-_NARA_-_196675.jpg/148px-Franklin_D._Roosevelt_Portrait_in_New_York_City%2C_New_York_-_NARA_-_196675.jpg" data-alt="" data-width="148" data-height="210" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Franklin_D._Roosevelt_Portrait_in_New_York_City%2C_New_York_-_NARA_-_196675.jpg/222px-Franklin_D._Roosevelt_Portrait_in_New_York_City%2C_New_York_-_NARA_-_196675.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Franklin_D._Roosevelt_Portrait_in_New_York_City%2C_New_York_-_NARA_-_196675.jpg/296px-Franklin_D._Roosevelt_Portrait_in_New_York_City%2C_New_York_-_NARA_-_196675.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Roosevelt in 1893, at the age of 11</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:134px;max-width:134px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:210px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:FDR_at_Groton_April_1900.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/FDR_at_Groton_April_1900.JPG/132px-FDR_at_Groton_April_1900.JPG" decoding="async" width="132" height="211" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1744" data-file-height="2784"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 132px;height: 211px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/FDR_at_Groton_April_1900.JPG/132px-FDR_at_Groton_April_1900.JPG" data-alt="" data-width="132" data-height="211" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/FDR_at_Groton_April_1900.JPG/198px-FDR_at_Groton_April_1900.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/FDR_at_Groton_April_1900.JPG/264px-FDR_at_Groton_April_1900.JPG 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Roosevelt in 1900, at the age of 18</div></div></div></div></div> As a child, Roosevelt learned to ride, shoot, sail, and play polo, tennis, and golf.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007110-9">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlack200521-10">[9]</a> Frequent trips to Europe—beginning at age two and from age seven to fifteen—helped Roosevelt become <a href="/wiki/List_of_multilingual_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="List of multilingual presidents of the United States">conversant</a> in German and French. Except for attending public school in Germany at age nine,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith200720%E2%80%9325-11">[10]</a> Roosevelt was <a href="/wiki/Homeschooling" title="Homeschooling">homeschooled</a> by tutors until age 14. He then attended <a href="/wiki/Groton_School" title="Groton School">Groton School</a>, an Episcopal boarding school in <a href="/wiki/Groton,_Massachusetts" title="Groton, Massachusetts">Groton, Massachusetts</a>.<a href="#cite_note-12">[11]</a> He was not among the more popular Groton students, who were better athletes and had rebellious streaks.<a href="#cite_note-Life_Before_Pres.-13">[12]</a> Its headmaster, <a href="/wiki/Endicott_Peabody_(educator)" title="Endicott Peabody (educator)">Endicott Peabody</a>, preached the duty of Christians to help the less fortunate and urged his students to enter public service. Peabody remained a strong influence throughout Roosevelt's life, officiating at his wedding and visiting him as president.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns195616-14">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGunther1950174-15">[14]</a> Like most of his Groton classmates, Roosevelt went to <a href="/wiki/Harvard_College" title="Harvard College">Harvard College</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Life_Before_Pres.-13">[12]</a> He was a member of the <a href="/wiki/Alpha_Delta_Phi" title="Alpha Delta Phi">Alpha Delta Phi</a> fraternity<a href="#cite_note-16">[15]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Fly_Club" title="Fly Club">Fly Club</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGunther1950176-17">[16]</a> and served as a school cheerleader.<a href="#cite_note-18">[17]</a> Roosevelt was relatively undistinguished as a student or athlete, but he became editor-in-chief of <a href="/wiki/The_Harvard_Crimson" title="The Harvard Crimson">The Harvard Crimson</a> daily newspaper, which required ambition, energy, and the ability to manage others.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGunther1950175-19">[18]</a> He later said, "I took economics courses in college for four years, and everything I was taught was wrong."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns195618,_20-20">[19]</a> Roosevelt's father died in 1900, distressing him greatly.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallek201728%E2%80%9329-21">[20]</a> The following year, Roosevelt's fifth cousin <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Theodore Roosevelt">Theodore Roosevelt</a> became U.S. president. Theodore's vigorous leadership style and reforming zeal made him Franklin's role model and hero.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns195624-22">[21]</a> He graduated from Harvard in three years in 1903 with an <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Arts" title="Bachelor of Arts">A.B.</a> in history.<a href="#cite_note-23">[22]</a> He remained there for a fourth year, taking graduate courses.<a href="#cite_note-24">[23]</a> Like his cousin Theodore, he was a member of <a href="/wiki/The_Explorers_Club" title="The Explorers Club">The Explorers Club</a>.<a href="#cite_note-25">[24]</a> Roosevelt entered <a href="/wiki/Columbia_Law_School" title="Columbia Law School">Columbia Law School</a> in 1904, but dropped out in 1907 after passing the <a href="/wiki/Bar_examination_in_the_United_States" title="Bar examination in the United States">New York bar examination</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns195628-26">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-28">[b]</a> In 1908, he took a job with the prestigious <a href="/wiki/Law_firm" title="Law firm">law firm</a> of <a href="/wiki/Carter_Ledyard_%26_Milburn" title="Carter Ledyard & Milburn">Carter Ledyard & Milburn</a>, working in the firm's <a href="/wiki/Admiralty_law" title="Admiralty law">admiralty law</a> division.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallek201738%E2%80%9339-29">[27]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Marriage,_family,_and_extramarital_affairs">Marriage, family, and extramarital affairs</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Franklin_D._Roosevelt_and_Eleanor_Roosevelt_with_Anna_and_baby_James,_formal_portrait_in_Hyde_Park,_New_York_1908.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Franklin_D._Roosevelt_and_Eleanor_Roosevelt_with_Anna_and_baby_James%2C_formal_portrait_in_Hyde_Park%2C_New_York_1908.jpg/220px-Franklin_D._Roosevelt_and_Eleanor_Roosevelt_with_Anna_and_baby_James%2C_formal_portrait_in_Hyde_Park%2C_New_York_1908.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="226" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2714" data-file-height="2790"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 226px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Franklin_D._Roosevelt_and_Eleanor_Roosevelt_with_Anna_and_baby_James%2C_formal_portrait_in_Hyde_Park%2C_New_York_1908.jpg/220px-Franklin_D._Roosevelt_and_Eleanor_Roosevelt_with_Anna_and_baby_James%2C_formal_portrait_in_Hyde_Park%2C_New_York_1908.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="226" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Franklin_D._Roosevelt_and_Eleanor_Roosevelt_with_Anna_and_baby_James%2C_formal_portrait_in_Hyde_Park%2C_New_York_1908.jpg/330px-Franklin_D._Roosevelt_and_Eleanor_Roosevelt_with_Anna_and_baby_James%2C_formal_portrait_in_Hyde_Park%2C_New_York_1908.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Franklin_D._Roosevelt_and_Eleanor_Roosevelt_with_Anna_and_baby_James%2C_formal_portrait_in_Hyde_Park%2C_New_York_1908.jpg/440px-Franklin_D._Roosevelt_and_Eleanor_Roosevelt_with_Anna_and_baby_James%2C_formal_portrait_in_Hyde_Park%2C_New_York_1908.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Eleanor and Franklin with their first two children, 1908</figcaption></figure> During his second year of college, Roosevelt met and proposed to Boston heiress Alice Sohier, who turned him down.<a href="#cite_note-Life_Before_Pres.-13">[12]</a> Franklin then began courting his childhood acquaintance and fifth cousin once removed, <a href="/wiki/Eleanor_Roosevelt" title="Eleanor Roosevelt">Eleanor Roosevelt</a>, a niece of Theodore Roosevelt.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERowley20103%E2%80%936-30">[28]</a> In 1903, Franklin proposed to Eleanor. Despite resistance from his mother, Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt were married on March 17, 1905.<a href="#cite_note-Life_Before_Pres.-13">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns195626-31">[29]</a> Eleanor's father, <a href="/wiki/Elliott_B._Roosevelt" class="mw-redirect" title="Elliott B. Roosevelt">Elliott</a>, was deceased; Theodore, who was then president, gave away the bride.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallek201735%E2%80%9336-32">[30]</a> The young couple moved into <a href="/wiki/Home_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt_National_Historic_Site" title="Home of Franklin D. Roosevelt National Historic Site">Springwood</a>. Franklin's mother, Sara Roosevelt, also provided a townhouse for the newlyweds in New York City, and had a house built for herself alongside that townhouse. Eleanor never felt at home in the houses at Hyde Park or New York; however, she loved the family's vacation home on <a href="/wiki/Campobello_Island" title="Campobello Island">Campobello Island</a>, which was also a gift from Sara.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith200754%E2%80%9355-33">[31]</a> Burns indicates that young Franklin Roosevelt was self-assured and at ease in the upper class. On the other hand, Eleanor was shy and disliked social life. Initially, Eleanor stayed home to raise their children.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns195677%E2%80%9379-34">[32]</a> As his father had done, Franklin left childcare to his wife, and Eleanor delegated the task to caregivers. She later said that she knew "absolutely nothing about handling or feeding a baby."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith200757%E2%80%9358-35">[33]</a> They had six children. <a href="/wiki/Anna_Roosevelt_Halsted" title="Anna Roosevelt Halsted">Anna</a>, <a href="/wiki/James_Roosevelt" title="James Roosevelt">James</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Elliott_Roosevelt_(general)" title="Elliott Roosevelt (general)">Elliott</a> were born in 1906, 1907, and 1910, respectively. The couple's second son, Franklin, died in infancy in 1909. Another son, also named <a href="/wiki/Franklin_Delano_Roosevelt_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt Jr.">Franklin</a>, was born in 1914, and the youngest, <a href="/wiki/John_Aspinwall_Roosevelt" title="John Aspinwall Roosevelt">John</a>, was born in 1916.<a href="#cite_note-36">[34]</a> Roosevelt had several extramarital affairs. He commenced an affair with Eleanor's social secretary, <a href="/wiki/Lucy_Mercer" class="mw-redirect" title="Lucy Mercer">Lucy Mercer</a>, soon after she was hired in 1914. That affair was discovered by Eleanor in 1918.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007153-37">[35]</a> Franklin contemplated divorcing Eleanor, but Sara objected, and Mercer would not marry a divorced man with five children.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007160-38">[36]</a> Franklin and Eleanor remained married, and Franklin promised never to see Mercer again. Eleanor never forgave him for the affair, and their marriage shifted to become a political partnership.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWinkler200628,_38,_48%E2%80%9349-39">[37]</a> Eleanor soon established a separate home in Hyde Park at <a href="/wiki/Val-Kill" class="mw-redirect" title="Val-Kill">Val-Kill</a> and devoted herself to social and political causes independent of her husband. The emotional break in their marriage was so severe that when Franklin asked Eleanor in 1942—in light of his failing health—to come live with him again, she refused.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWinkler2006202%E2%80%9303-40">[38]</a> Roosevelt was not always aware of Eleanor's visits to the White House. For some time, Eleanor could not easily reach Roosevelt on the telephone without his secretary's help; Franklin, in turn, did not visit Eleanor's New York City apartment until late 1944.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGunther1950195-41">[39]</a> Franklin broke his promise to Eleanor regarding Lucy Mercer. He and Mercer maintained a formal correspondence and began seeing each other again by 1941.<a href="#cite_note-42">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-43">[41]</a> Roosevelt's son Elliott claimed that his father had a 20-year affair with his private secretary, <a href="/wiki/Marguerite_LeHand" title="Marguerite LeHand">Marguerite LeHand</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETully2005340-44">[42]</a> Another son, James, stated that "there is a real possibility that a romantic relationship existed" between his father and <a href="/wiki/Crown_Princess_M%C3%A4rtha_of_Norway" class="mw-redirect" title="Crown Princess Märtha of Norway">Crown Princess Märtha of Norway</a>, who resided in the White House during part of World War II. Aides referred to her at the time as "the president's girlfriend",<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoodwin1995153-45">[43]</a> and gossip linking the two romantically appeared in newspapers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERowley2010254-46">[44]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(2)"><h2 id="Early_political_career_(1910–1920)">Early political career (1910–1920)</h2></div><section class="mf-section-2 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-2"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="New_York_state_senator_(1910–1913)">New York state senator (1910–1913)</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Franklin_D._Roosevelt_in_1912.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Franklin_D._Roosevelt_in_1912.png/220px-Franklin_D._Roosevelt_in_1912.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="171" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3100"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 171px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Franklin_D._Roosevelt_in_1912.png/220px-Franklin_D._Roosevelt_in_1912.png" data-width="220" data-height="171" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Franklin_D._Roosevelt_in_1912.png/330px-Franklin_D._Roosevelt_in_1912.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Franklin_D._Roosevelt_in_1912.png/440px-Franklin_D._Roosevelt_in_1912.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Roosevelt in 1912</figcaption></figure> Roosevelt cared little for the practice of law and told friends he planned to enter politics.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith200758%E2%80%9360-47">[45]</a> Despite his admiration for cousin Theodore, Franklin shared his father's bond with the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="History of the Democratic Party (United States)">Democratic Party</a>, and in preparation for the <a href="/wiki/1910_New_York_state_election" title="1910 New York state election">1910 elections</a>, the party recruited Roosevelt to run for a seat in the <a href="/wiki/New_York_State_Assembly" title="New York State Assembly">New York State Assembly</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallek201741-48">[46]</a> Roosevelt was a compelling recruit: he had the personality and energy for campaigning and the money to pay for his own campaign.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith200760%E2%80%9362-49">[47]</a> But Roosevelt's campaign for the state assembly ended after the Democratic incumbent, <a href="/wiki/Lewis_Stuyvesant_Chanler" title="Lewis Stuyvesant Chanler">Lewis Stuyvesant Chanler</a>, chose to seek re-election. Rather than putting his political hopes on hold, Roosevelt ran for a seat in the state senate.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith200760%E2%80%9364-50">[48]</a> The senate district, located in <a href="/wiki/Dutchess_County,_New_York" title="Dutchess County, New York">Dutchess</a>, <a href="/wiki/Columbia_County,_New_York" title="Columbia County, New York">Columbia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Putnam_County,_New_York" title="Putnam County, New York">Putnam</a>, was strongly Republican.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith200765-51">[49]</a> Roosevelt feared that opposition from Theodore could end his campaign, but Theodore encouraged his candidacy despite their party differences.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallek201741-48">[46]</a> Acting as his own campaign manager, Roosevelt traveled throughout the senate district via automobile at a time when few could afford a car.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith200765%E2%80%9366-52">[50]</a> Due to his aggressive campaign,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGunther1950202%E2%80%9303-53">[51]</a> his name gained recognition in the Hudson Valley, and in the Democratic landslide in the <a href="/wiki/1910_United_States_elections" title="1910 United States elections">1910 United States elections</a>, Roosevelt won a surprising victory.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns195634-54">[52]</a> Despite short legislative sessions, Roosevelt treated his new position as a full-time career.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith200768%E2%80%9369-55">[53]</a> Taking his seat on January 1, 1911, Roosevelt soon became the leader of a group of "Insurgents" in opposition to the <a href="/wiki/Tammany_Hall" title="Tammany Hall">Tammany Hall</a> machine that dominated the state Democratic Party. In the <a href="/wiki/1911_United_States_Senate_election_in_New_York" title="1911 United States Senate election in New York">1911 U.S. Senate election</a>, which was determined in a joint session of the New York state legislature,<a href="#cite_note-56">[c]</a> Roosevelt and nineteen other Democrats caused a prolonged deadlock by opposing a series of Tammany-backed candidates. Tammany threw its backing behind <a href="/wiki/James_A._O%27Gorman" title="James A. O'Gorman">James A. O'Gorman</a>, a highly regarded judge whom Roosevelt found acceptable, and O'Gorman won the election in late March.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrands200957%E2%80%9360-57">[54]</a> Roosevelt in the process became a popular figure among New York Democrats.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns195634-54">[52]</a> News articles and cartoons depicted "the second coming of a Roosevelt", sending "cold shivers down the spine of Tammany".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGunther1950205%E2%80%9306-58">[55]</a> Roosevelt also opposed Tammany Hall by supporting New Jersey Governor <a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson" title="Woodrow Wilson">Woodrow Wilson</a>'s successful bid for the <a href="/wiki/1912_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1912 Democratic National Convention">1912 Democratic nomination</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns195649-59">[56]</a> The election became a three-way contest when Theodore Roosevelt left the Republican Party to launch a third-party campaign against Wilson and sitting Republican president <a href="/wiki/William_Howard_Taft" title="William Howard Taft">William Howard Taft</a>. Franklin's decision to back Wilson over his cousin in the <a href="/wiki/1912_United_States_presidential_election" title="1912 United States presidential election">general election</a> alienated some of his family, except Theodore.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlack200562%E2%80%9363-60">[57]</a> Roosevelt overcame a bout of <a href="/wiki/Typhoid_fever" title="Typhoid fever">typhoid fever</a> that year and, with help from journalist <a href="/wiki/Louis_McHenry_Howe" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis McHenry Howe">Louis McHenry Howe</a>, he was re-elected in the <a href="/wiki/1912_New_York_state_election" title="1912 New York state election">1912 elections</a>. After the election, he served as chairman of the Agriculture Committee; his success with farm and labor bills was a precursor to his later New Deal policies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns195644%E2%80%9346-61">[58]</a> He had then become more consistently <a href="/wiki/Progressive_Era" title="Progressive Era">progressive</a>, in support of labor and social welfare programs.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns195643-62">[59]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Assistant_Secretary_of_the_Navy_(1913–1919)">Assistant Secretary of the Navy (1913–1919)</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Franklin_Roosevelt_Secretary_of_the_Navy_1913.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Franklin_Roosevelt_Secretary_of_the_Navy_1913.jpg/220px-Franklin_Roosevelt_Secretary_of_the_Navy_1913.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="319" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="944" data-file-height="1370"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 319px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Franklin_Roosevelt_Secretary_of_the_Navy_1913.jpg/220px-Franklin_Roosevelt_Secretary_of_the_Navy_1913.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="319" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Franklin_Roosevelt_Secretary_of_the_Navy_1913.jpg/330px-Franklin_Roosevelt_Secretary_of_the_Navy_1913.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Franklin_Roosevelt_Secretary_of_the_Navy_1913.jpg/440px-Franklin_Roosevelt_Secretary_of_the_Navy_1913.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Roosevelt as Assistant Secretary of the Navy, 1913</figcaption></figure> Roosevelt's support of Wilson led to his appointment in March 1913 as <a href="/wiki/Assistant_Secretary_of_the_Navy" class="mw-redirect" title="Assistant Secretary of the Navy">Assistant Secretary of the Navy</a>, the second-ranking official in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Navy" title="United States Navy">Navy Department</a> after Secretary <a href="/wiki/Josephus_Daniels" title="Josephus Daniels">Josephus Daniels</a> who paid it little attention.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith200797%E2%80%93101-63">[60]</a> Roosevelt had an affection for the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Navy" title="United States Navy">Navy</a>, was well-read on the subject, and was an ardent supporter of a large, efficient force.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns195651-64">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-65">[62]</a> With Wilson's support, Daniels and Roosevelt instituted a merit-based promotion system and extended civilian control over the autonomous departments of the Navy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007102%E2%80%9306-66">[63]</a> Roosevelt oversaw the Navy's civilian employees and earned the respect of union leaders for his fairness in resolving disputes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007113%E2%80%9314-67">[64]</a> No strikes occurred during his seven-plus years in the office,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns195652-68">[65]</a> as he gained valuable experience in labor issues, wartime management, naval issues, and logistics.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGunther1950212-69">[66]</a> In 1914, Roosevelt ran for the seat of retiring Republican Senator <a href="/wiki/Elihu_Root" title="Elihu Root">Elihu Root</a> of New York. Though he had the backing of Treasury Secretary <a href="/wiki/William_Gibbs_McAdoo" title="William Gibbs McAdoo">William Gibbs McAdoo</a> and Governor <a href="/wiki/Martin_H._Glynn" title="Martin H. Glynn">Martin H. Glynn</a>, he faced a formidable opponent in Tammany Hall's <a href="/wiki/James_W._Gerard" title="James W. Gerard">James W. Gerard</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007122%E2%80%9323-70">[67]</a> He also was without Wilson's support, as the president needed Tammany's forces for his legislation and 1916 re-election.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns195656-71">[68]</a> Roosevelt was soundly defeated in the Democratic primary by Gerard, who in turn lost the general election to Republican <a href="/wiki/James_Wolcott_Wadsworth_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="James Wolcott Wadsworth Jr.">James Wolcott Wadsworth Jr.</a> He learned that federal patronage alone, without White House support, could not defeat a strong local organization.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns195657,_60-72">[69]</a> After the election, he and Tammany Hall boss <a href="/wiki/Charles_Francis_Murphy" title="Charles Francis Murphy">Charles Francis Murphy</a> sought accommodation and became allies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007125-73">[70]</a> Roosevelt refocused on the Navy Department as World War I broke out in Europe in August 1914.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007125%E2%80%9326-74">[71]</a> Though he remained publicly supportive of Wilson, Roosevelt sympathized with the <a href="/wiki/Preparedness_Movement" title="Preparedness Movement">Preparedness Movement</a>, whose leaders strongly favored the Allied Powers and called for a military build-up.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallek201759%E2%80%9361-75">[72]</a> The Wilson administration initiated an expansion of the Navy after the <a href="/wiki/Sinking_of_the_RMS_Lusitania" title="Sinking of the RMS Lusitania">sinking of the RMS Lusitania</a> by a German <a href="/wiki/Submarine" title="Submarine">submarine</a>, and Roosevelt helped establish the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Navy_Reserve" title="United States Navy Reserve">United States Navy Reserve</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_National_Defense" title="Council of National Defense">Council of National Defense</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007130%E2%80%9332-76">[73]</a> In April 1917, after Germany declared it would engage in <a href="/wiki/Unrestricted_submarine_warfare" title="Unrestricted submarine warfare">unrestricted submarine warfare</a> and attacked several U.S. ships, Congress approved Wilson's call for a <a href="/wiki/United_States_declaration_of_war_on_Germany_(1917)" title="United States declaration of war on Germany (1917)">declaration of war on Germany</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallek201762%E2%80%9363-77">[74]</a> Roosevelt requested that he be allowed to serve as a naval officer, but Wilson insisted that he continue as Assistant Secretary. For the next year, Roosevelt remained in Washington to coordinate the naval deployment, as the Navy expanded fourfold.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallek201765%E2%80%9366-78">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007139%E2%80%9340-79">[76]</a> In the summer of 1918, Roosevelt traveled to Europe to inspect naval installations and meet with French and British officials. On account of his relation to Theodore Roosevelt, he was received very prominently considering his relatively junior rank, obtaining long private audiences with King <a href="/wiki/George_V" title="George V">George V</a> and prime ministers <a href="/wiki/David_Lloyd_George" title="David Lloyd George">David Lloyd George</a> and <a href="/wiki/Georges_Clemenceau" title="Georges Clemenceau">Georges Clemenceau</a>, as well as a tour of the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Verdun" title="Battle of Verdun">battlefield at Verdun</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:1-80">[77]</a> In September, on the ship voyage back to the United States, he contracted <a href="/wiki/1918_flu_pandemic" class="mw-redirect" title="1918 flu pandemic">pandemic influenza</a> with complicating pneumonia,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldmanGoldman201715-81">[78]</a> which left him unable to work for a month.<a href="#cite_note-:1-80">[77]</a> After Germany signed an <a href="/wiki/Armistice_of_11_November_1918" title="Armistice of 11 November 1918">armistice</a> in November 1918, Daniels and Roosevelt supervised the demobilization of the Navy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007171%E2%80%9372-82">[79]</a> Against the advice of older officers such as Admiral <a href="/wiki/William_S._Benson" title="William S. Benson">William Benson</a>—who claimed he could not "conceive of any use the fleet will ever have for aviation"—Roosevelt personally ordered the preservation of the Navy's <a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Aeronautics#Origins:_1920s_and_1930s" title="Bureau of Aeronautics">Aviation Division</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUnderwood199111-83">[80]</a> With the Wilson administration near an end, Roosevelt planned his next run for office. He approached <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Hoover" title="Herbert Hoover">Herbert Hoover</a> about running for the 1920 Democratic presidential nomination, with Roosevelt as his running mate.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007176%E2%80%9377-84">[81]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Campaign_for_vice_president_(1920)">Campaign for vice president (1920)</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Franklin_D._Roosevelt_and_James_Cox_in_Dayton,_Ohio_-_NARA_-_197236.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Franklin_D._Roosevelt_and_James_Cox_in_Dayton%2C_Ohio_-_NARA_-_197236.jpg/220px-Franklin_D._Roosevelt_and_James_Cox_in_Dayton%2C_Ohio_-_NARA_-_197236.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2833" data-file-height="1845"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 143px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Franklin_D._Roosevelt_and_James_Cox_in_Dayton%2C_Ohio_-_NARA_-_197236.jpg/220px-Franklin_D._Roosevelt_and_James_Cox_in_Dayton%2C_Ohio_-_NARA_-_197236.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="143" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Franklin_D._Roosevelt_and_James_Cox_in_Dayton%2C_Ohio_-_NARA_-_197236.jpg/330px-Franklin_D._Roosevelt_and_James_Cox_in_Dayton%2C_Ohio_-_NARA_-_197236.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Franklin_D._Roosevelt_and_James_Cox_in_Dayton%2C_Ohio_-_NARA_-_197236.jpg/440px-Franklin_D._Roosevelt_and_James_Cox_in_Dayton%2C_Ohio_-_NARA_-_197236.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Cox and Roosevelt in Ohio, 1920</figcaption></figure> Roosevelt's plan for Hoover to run fell through after Hoover publicly declared himself to be a Republican, but Roosevelt decided to seek the 1920 <a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_United_States" title="Vice President of the United States">vice presidential</a> nomination. After Governor <a href="/wiki/James_M._Cox" title="James M. Cox">James M. Cox</a> of Ohio won the party's presidential nomination at the <a href="/wiki/1920_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1920 Democratic National Convention">1920 Democratic National Convention</a>, he chose Roosevelt as his running mate, and the convention nominated him by <a href="/wiki/Acclamation" title="Acclamation">acclamation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007177%E2%80%9381-85">[82]</a> Although his nomination surprised most people, he balanced the ticket as a moderate, a Wilsonian, and a <a href="/wiki/Prohibition_in_the_United_States" title="Prohibition in the United States">prohibitionist</a> with a famous name.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns195673-86">[83]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGunther1950215%E2%80%9316-87">[84]</a> Roosevelt, then 38, resigned as Assistant Secretary after the Democratic convention and campaigned across the nation for the party ticket.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007181-88">[85]</a> During the campaign, Cox and Roosevelt defended the Wilson administration and the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a>, both of which were unpopular in 1920.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007181%E2%80%9382-89">[86]</a> Roosevelt personally supported U.S. membership in the League, but, unlike Wilson, he favored compromising with Senator <a href="/wiki/Henry_Cabot_Lodge" title="Henry Cabot Lodge">Henry Cabot Lodge</a> and other "Reservationists".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007175%E2%80%9376-90">[87]</a> Republicans <a href="/wiki/Warren_G._Harding" title="Warren G. Harding">Warren G. Harding</a> and <a href="/wiki/Calvin_Coolidge" title="Calvin Coolidge">Calvin Coolidge</a> defeated the Cox–Roosevelt ticket in the <a href="/wiki/1920_United_States_presidential_election" title="1920 United States presidential election">presidential election</a> by a wide margin, carrying every state outside of the South.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns195674-91">[88]</a> Roosevelt accepted the loss and later reflected that the relationships and goodwill that he built in the 1920 campaign proved to be a major asset in his 1932 campaign. The 1920 election also saw the first public participation of Eleanor Roosevelt who, with the support of <a href="/wiki/Louis_Howe" title="Louis Howe">Louis Howe</a>, established herself as a valuable political player.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007182%E2%80%9383-92">[89]</a> After the election, Roosevelt returned to New York City, where he practiced law and served as a vice president of the <a href="/wiki/Fidelity_and_Deposit_Company" title="Fidelity and Deposit Company">Fidelity and Deposit Company</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007184%E2%80%9385-93">[90]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(3)"><h2 id="Paralytic_illness_and_political_comeback_(1921–1928)">Paralytic illness and political comeback (1921–1928)</h2></div><section class="mf-section-3 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-3"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Paralytic_illness_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Paralytic illness of Franklin D. Roosevelt">Paralytic illness of Franklin D. Roosevelt</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:FDR-Wheelchair-February-1941_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/FDR-Wheelchair-February-1941_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-FDR-Wheelchair-February-1941_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="260" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="4013" data-file-height="4735"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 260px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/FDR-Wheelchair-February-1941_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-FDR-Wheelchair-February-1941_%28cropped%29.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="260" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/FDR-Wheelchair-February-1941_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-FDR-Wheelchair-February-1941_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/FDR-Wheelchair-February-1941_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-FDR-Wheelchair-February-1941_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Rare photograph of Roosevelt in a wheelchair, with <a href="/wiki/Fala_(dog)" title="Fala (dog)">Fala</a> and Ruthie Bie, the daughter of caretakers at his Hyde Park estate, February 1941</figcaption></figure> Roosevelt sought to build support for a political comeback in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_elections,_1922" class="mw-redirect" title="United States elections, 1922">1922 elections</a>, but his career was derailed by an illness.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007184%E2%80%9385-93">[90]</a> It began while the Roosevelts were vacationing at <a href="/wiki/Campobello_Island" title="Campobello Island">Campobello Island</a> in August 1921. His main symptoms were fever; symmetric, ascending paralysis; facial paralysis; bowel and bladder dysfunction; numbness and <a href="/wiki/Hyperesthesia" title="Hyperesthesia">hyperesthesia</a>; and a descending pattern of recovery. Roosevelt was left permanently paralyzed from the waist down and was diagnosed with <a href="/wiki/Poliomyelitis" class="mw-redirect" title="Poliomyelitis">polio</a>. A 2003 study strongly favored a diagnosis of <a href="/wiki/Guillain%E2%80%93Barr%C3%A9_syndrome" title="Guillain–Barré syndrome">Guillain–Barré syndrome</a>,<a href="#cite_note-jmb-2003-94">[91]</a> but historians have continued to describe his paralysis according to the initial diagnosis.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlter2006355-95">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-96">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-97">[94]</a><a href="#cite_note-98">[95]</a> Though his mother favored his retirement from public life, Roosevelt, his wife, and Roosevelt's close friend and adviser, Louis Howe, were all determined that he continue his political career.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007195%E2%80%9396-99">[96]</a> He convinced many people that he was improving, which he believed to be essential prior to running for office.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERowley2010125-100">[97]</a> He laboriously taught himself to walk short distances while wearing iron braces on his hips and legs, by swiveling his torso while supporting himself with a cane.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERowley2010120-101">[98]</a> He was careful never to be seen using his wheelchair in public, and great care was taken to prevent any portrayal in the press that would highlight his disability.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWardBurns2014332-102">[99]</a> However, his disability was well known before and during his presidency and became a major part of his image. He usually appeared in public standing upright, supported on one side by an aide or one of his sons.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007220-103">[100]</a> Beginning in 1925, Roosevelt spent most of his time in the <a href="/wiki/Southern_United_States" title="Southern United States">Southern United States</a>, at first on his houseboat, the Larooco.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007213%E2%80%9314-104">[101]</a> Intrigued by the potential benefits of <a href="/wiki/Hydrotherapy" title="Hydrotherapy">hydrotherapy</a>, he established <a href="/wiki/Warm_Springs_Historic_District" title="Warm Springs Historic District">a rehabilitation center</a> at <a href="/wiki/Warm_Springs,_Georgia" title="Warm Springs, Georgia">Warm Springs, Georgia</a>, in 1926, assembling a staff of physical therapists and using most of his inheritance to purchase the Merriweather Inn. In 1938, he founded the <a href="/wiki/National_Foundation_for_Infantile_Paralysis" class="mw-redirect" title="National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis">National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis</a>, leading to the development of polio vaccines.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007215%E2%80%9319-105">[102]</a> Roosevelt remained active in New York politics while also establishing contacts in the South, particularly in Georgia, in the 1920s.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007255%E2%80%9356-106">[103]</a> He issued an open letter endorsing <a href="/wiki/Al_Smith" title="Al Smith">Al Smith</a>'s successful campaign in New York's 1922 gubernatorial election, which both aided Smith and showed Roosevelt's continuing relevance as a political figure.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallek201787%E2%80%9388-107">[104]</a> Roosevelt and Smith came from different backgrounds and never fully trusted one another, but Roosevelt supported Smith's progressive policies, while Smith was happy to have Roosevelt's backing.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallek201787%E2%80%9396-108">[105]</a> Roosevelt gave presidential nominating speeches for Smith at the 1924 and 1928 Democratic National Conventions; the speech at the 1924 convention marked a return to public life following his illness and convalescence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorgan1985267,_269%E2%80%9372,_286%E2%80%9387-109">[106]</a> That year, the Democrats were badly divided between an urban wing, led by Smith, and a conservative, rural wing, led by <a href="/wiki/William_Gibbs_McAdoo" title="William Gibbs McAdoo">William Gibbs McAdoo</a>. On the 101st ballot, the nomination went to <a href="/wiki/John_W._Davis" title="John W. Davis">John W. Davis</a>, a compromise candidate who suffered a landslide defeat in the <a href="/wiki/1924_United_States_presidential_election" title="1924 United States presidential election">1924 presidential election</a>. Like many, Roosevelt did not abstain from alcohol during Prohibition, but publicly he sought to find a compromise on the issue acceptable to both wings of the party.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlack2005160%E2%80%9367-110">[107]</a> In 1925, Smith appointed Roosevelt to the <a href="/wiki/Taconic_State_Park" title="Taconic State Park">Taconic State Park</a> Commission, and his fellow commissioners chose him as chairman.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECaro1974289%E2%80%9391-111">[108]</a> In this role, he came into conflict with <a href="/wiki/Robert_Moses" title="Robert Moses">Robert Moses</a>, a Smith protégé,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECaro1974289%E2%80%9391-111">[108]</a> who was the primary force behind the <a href="/wiki/Long_Island_State_Park_Commission" title="Long Island State Park Commission">Long Island State Park Commission</a> and the New York State Council of Parks.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECaro1974289%E2%80%9391-111">[108]</a> Roosevelt accused Moses of using the name recognition of prominent individuals including Roosevelt to win political support for state parks, but then diverting funds to the ones Moses favored on Long Island, while Moses worked to block the appointment of Howe to a salaried position as the Taconic commission's secretary.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECaro1974289%E2%80%9391-111">[108]</a> Roosevelt served on the commission until the end of 1928,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEF._Roosevelt,_E._Roosevelt21-112">[109]</a> and his contentious relationship with Moses continued as their careers progressed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007231-113">[110]</a> In 1923 <a href="/wiki/Edward_Bok" title="Edward Bok">Edward Bok</a> established the $100,000 <a href="/wiki/American_Peace_Award" title="American Peace Award">American Peace Award</a> for the best plan to deliver world peace. Roosevelt had leisure time and interest, and he drafted a plan for the contest. He never submitted it because Eleanor was selected as a judge for the prize. His plan called for a new world organization that would replace the League of Nations.<a href="#cite_note-114">[111]</a> Although Roosevelt had been the vice-presidential candidate on the Democratic ticket of 1920 that supported the League, by 1924 he was ready to scrap it. His draft of a "Society of Nations" accepted the reservations proposed by <a href="/wiki/Henry_Cabot_Lodge" title="Henry Cabot Lodge">Henry Cabot Lodge</a> in the 1919 Senate debate. The new Society would not become involved in the Western Hemisphere, where the Monroe doctrine held sway. It would not have any control over military forces. Although Roosevelt's plan was never made public, he thought about the problem a great deal and incorporated some of his 1924 ideas into the design for the United Nations in 1944–1945.<a href="#cite_note-115">[112]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(4)"><h2 id="Governor_of_New_York_(1929–1932)">Governor of New York (1929–1932)</h2></div><section class="mf-section-4 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-4"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Governorship_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Governorship of Franklin D. Roosevelt">Governorship of Franklin D. Roosevelt</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Governor_Roosevelt_and_Al_Smith.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Governor_Roosevelt_and_Al_Smith.jpg/180px-Governor_Roosevelt_and_Al_Smith.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="262" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="446" data-file-height="650"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 180px;height: 262px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Governor_Roosevelt_and_Al_Smith.jpg/180px-Governor_Roosevelt_and_Al_Smith.jpg" data-width="180" data-height="262" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Governor_Roosevelt_and_Al_Smith.jpg/270px-Governor_Roosevelt_and_Al_Smith.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Governor_Roosevelt_and_Al_Smith.jpg/360px-Governor_Roosevelt_and_Al_Smith.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Governor Roosevelt with his predecessor <a href="/wiki/Al_Smith" title="Al Smith">Al Smith</a>, 1930</figcaption></figure> Smith, the Democratic presidential nominee in the <a href="/wiki/1928_United_States_presidential_election" title="1928 United States presidential election">1928 presidential election</a>, asked Roosevelt to run for <a href="/wiki/Governor_of_New_York" title="Governor of New York">governor of New York</a> in the <a href="/wiki/1928_New_York_state_election" title="1928 New York state election">1928 state election</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns1956100-116">[113]</a> Roosevelt initially resisted, as he was reluctant to leave Warm Springs and feared a Republican landslide.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallek201796%E2%80%9398-117">[114]</a> Party leaders eventually convinced him only he could defeat the Republican gubernatorial nominee, New York Attorney General <a href="/wiki/Albert_Ottinger" title="Albert Ottinger">Albert Ottinger</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007223%E2%80%9325-118">[115]</a> He won the party's gubernatorial nomination by acclamation and again turned to Howe to lead his campaign. Roosevelt was joined on the campaign trail by associates <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Rosenman" title="Samuel Rosenman">Samuel Rosenman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Frances_Perkins" title="Frances Perkins">Frances Perkins</a>, and <a href="/wiki/James_Farley" title="James Farley">James Farley</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007225%E2%80%9328-119">[116]</a> While Smith lost the presidency in a landslide, and was defeated in his home state, Roosevelt was elected governor by a one-percent margin,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns1956101-120">[117]</a> and became a contender in the next presidential election.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007229-121">[118]</a> Roosevelt proposed the construction of <a href="/wiki/Hydroelectric" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydroelectric">hydroelectric</a> power plants and addressed the ongoing <a href="/wiki/Farm_crisis#Crisis_of_the_1920s_and_1930s" title="Farm crisis">farm crisis of the 1920s</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007237%E2%80%9338-122">[119]</a> Relations between Roosevelt and Smith suffered after he chose not to retain key Smith appointees like Moses.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007230%E2%80%9333-123">[120]</a> He and his wife Eleanor established an understanding for the rest of his career; she would dutifully serve as the governor's wife but would also be free to pursue her own agenda and interests.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007235%E2%80%9337-124">[121]</a> He also began holding "<a href="/wiki/Fireside_chat" class="mw-redirect" title="Fireside chat">fireside chats</a>", in which he directly addressed his constituents via radio, often pressuring the <a href="/wiki/New_York_State_Legislature" title="New York State Legislature">New York State Legislature</a> to advance his agenda.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007238%E2%80%9339-125">[122]</a> In October 1929, the <a href="/wiki/Wall_Street_Crash_of_1929" class="mw-redirect" title="Wall Street Crash of 1929">Wall Street Crash</a> occurred and the <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression_in_the_United_States" title="Great Depression in the United States">Great Depression in the United States</a> began.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007240%E2%80%9341-126">[123]</a> Roosevelt saw the seriousness of the situation and established a state employment commission. He also became the first governor to publicly endorse the idea of <a href="/wiki/Unemployment_insurance" class="mw-redirect" title="Unemployment insurance">unemployment insurance</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007242%E2%80%9343-127">[124]</a> When Roosevelt began his run for a second term in May 1930, he reiterated his doctrine from the campaign two years before: "that progressive government by its very terms must be a living and growing thing, that the battle for it is never-ending and that if we let up for one single moment or one single year, not merely do we stand still but we fall back in the march of civilization."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns1956119%E2%80%9320-128">[125]</a> His platform called for aid to farmers, <a href="/wiki/Full_employment" title="Full employment">full employment</a>, unemployment insurance, and old-age pensions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007243%E2%80%9344-129">[126]</a> He was elected to a second term by a 14% margin.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns1956121-130">[127]</a> Roosevelt proposed an economic relief package and the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Temporary_Emergency_Relief_Administration" class="mw-redirect" title="Temporary Emergency Relief Administration">Temporary Emergency Relief Administration</a> to distribute those funds. Led first by <a href="/wiki/Jesse_I._Straus" title="Jesse I. Straus">Jesse I. Straus</a> and then by <a href="/wiki/Harry_Hopkins" title="Harry Hopkins">Harry Hopkins</a>, the agency assisted over one-third of New York's population between 1932 and 1938.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007250%E2%80%9352-131">[128]</a> Roosevelt also began an investigation into corruption in New York City among the judiciary, the police force, and <a href="/wiki/Organized_crime" title="Organized crime">organized crime</a>, prompting the creation of the <a href="/wiki/Seabury_Commission" class="mw-redirect" title="Seabury Commission">Seabury Commission</a>. The Seabury investigations exposed an extortion ring, led many public officials to be removed from office, and made the decline of <a href="/wiki/Tammany_Hall" title="Tammany Hall">Tammany Hall</a> inevitable.<a href="#cite_note-132">[129]</a> Roosevelt supported reforestation with the Hewitt Amendment in 1931, which gave birth to <a href="/wiki/New_York_State_Forests" title="New York State Forests">New York's State Forest system</a>.<a href="#cite_note-133">[130]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(5)"><h2 id="1932_presidential_election">1932 presidential election</h2></div><section class="mf-section-5 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-5"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/1932_United_States_presidential_election" title="1932 United States presidential election">1932 United States presidential election</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vincenzo_Laviosa_-_Franklin_D._Roosevelt_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Vincenzo_Laviosa_-_Franklin_D._Roosevelt_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/220px-Vincenzo_Laviosa_-_Franklin_D._Roosevelt_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="275" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3351" data-file-height="4187"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 275px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Vincenzo_Laviosa_-_Franklin_D._Roosevelt_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/220px-Vincenzo_Laviosa_-_Franklin_D._Roosevelt_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="275" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Vincenzo_Laviosa_-_Franklin_D._Roosevelt_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/330px-Vincenzo_Laviosa_-_Franklin_D._Roosevelt_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Vincenzo_Laviosa_-_Franklin_D._Roosevelt_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/440px-Vincenzo_Laviosa_-_Franklin_D._Roosevelt_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Roosevelt in the early 1930s</figcaption></figure> As the <a href="/wiki/1932_United_States_presidential_election" title="1932 United States presidential election">1932 presidential election</a> approached, Roosevelt turned his attention to national politics, established a campaign team led by Howe and Farley, and a "<a href="/wiki/Brain_trust" title="Brain trust">brain trust</a>" of policy advisers, primarily composed of <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University" title="Columbia University">Columbia University</a> and <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a> professors.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007261%E2%80%9363-134">[131]</a> Some were not so sanguine about his chances, such as <a href="/wiki/Walter_Lippmann" title="Walter Lippmann">Walter Lippmann</a>, the dean of political commentators, who observed: "He is a pleasant man who, without any important qualifications for the office, would very much like to be president."<a href="#cite_note-FDR_Campaigns-135">[132]</a> However, Roosevelt's efforts as governor to address the effects of the depression in his own state established him as the front-runner for the 1932 Democratic presidential nomination.<a href="#cite_note-FDR_Campaigns-135">[132]</a> Roosevelt rallied the <a href="/wiki/Progressivism_in_the_United_States" title="Progressivism in the United States">progressive</a> supporters of the Wilson administration while also appealing to many conservatives, establishing himself as the leading candidate in the <a href="/wiki/Southern_United_States" title="Southern United States">South</a> and West. The chief opposition to Roosevelt's candidacy came from Northeastern conservatives, Speaker of the House <a href="/wiki/John_Nance_Garner" title="John Nance Garner">John Nance Garner</a> of Texas and Al Smith, the 1928 Democratic presidential nominee.<a href="#cite_note-FDR_Campaigns-135">[132]</a> Roosevelt entered the convention with a delegate lead due to his success in the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_presidential_primaries,_1932" class="mw-redirect" title="Democratic Party presidential primaries, 1932">1932 Democratic primaries</a>, but most delegates entered the convention unbound to any particular candidate. On the first presidential ballot, Roosevelt received the votes of more than half but less than two-thirds of the delegates, with Smith finishing in a distant second place. Roosevelt then promised the vice-presidential nomination to Garner, who controlled the votes of Texas and California; Garner threw his support behind Roosevelt after the third ballot, and Roosevelt clinched the nomination on the fourth ballot.<a href="#cite_note-FDR_Campaigns-135">[132]</a> Roosevelt flew in from New York to Chicago after learning that he had won the nomination, becoming the first major-party presidential nominee to accept the nomination in person.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrands2009232%E2%80%9336,_246%E2%80%9351-136">[133]</a> His appearance was essential, to show himself as vigorous, despite his physical disability.<a href="#cite_note-FDR_Campaigns-135">[132]</a> In his acceptance speech, Roosevelt declared, "I pledge you, I pledge myself to a <a href="/wiki/New_deal" class="mw-redirect" title="New deal">new deal</a> for the American people... This is more than a political campaign. It is a call to arms."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns1956139-137">[134]</a> Roosevelt promised securities regulation, <a href="/wiki/Tariffs_in_United_States_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Tariffs in United States history">tariff</a> reduction, farm relief, government-funded public works, and other government actions to address the Great Depression.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007276%E2%80%9377-138">[135]</a> Reflecting changing public opinion, the Democratic platform included a call for the repeal of Prohibition; Roosevelt himself had not taken a public stand on the issue prior to the convention but promised to uphold the party platform.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007266%E2%80%9367-139">[136]</a> Otherwise, Roosevelt's primary campaign strategy was one of caution, intent upon avoiding mistakes that would distract from Hoover's failings on the economy. His statements attacked the incumbent and included no other specific policies or programs.<a href="#cite_note-FDR_Campaigns-135">[132]</a> After the convention, Roosevelt won endorsements from several progressive Republicans, including <a href="/wiki/George_W._Norris" title="George W. Norris">George W. Norris</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hiram_Johnson" title="Hiram Johnson">Hiram Johnson</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Robert_M._La_Follette_Jr." title="Robert M. La Follette Jr.">Robert La Follette Jr.</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007278-140">[137]</a> He also reconciled with the party's conservative wing, and even Al Smith was persuaded to support the Democratic ticket.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007279-141">[138]</a> Hoover's handling of the <a href="/wiki/Bonus_Army" title="Bonus Army">Bonus Army</a> further damaged the incumbent's popularity, as newspapers across the country criticized the use of force to disperse assembled veterans.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007282%E2%80%9384-142">[139]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ElectoralCollege1932.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/ElectoralCollege1932.svg/290px-ElectoralCollege1932.svg.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="169" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1020" data-file-height="593"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 290px;height: 169px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/ElectoralCollege1932.svg/290px-ElectoralCollege1932.svg.png" data-width="290" data-height="169" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/ElectoralCollege1932.svg/435px-ElectoralCollege1932.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/ElectoralCollege1932.svg/580px-ElectoralCollege1932.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>1932 electoral vote results</figcaption></figure> Roosevelt won 57% of the popular vote and carried all but six states. Historians and political scientists consider the 1932–36 elections to be a <a href="/wiki/Political_realignment" title="Political realignment">political realignment</a>. Roosevelt's victory was enabled by the creation of the <a href="/wiki/New_Deal_coalition" title="New Deal coalition">New Deal coalition</a>, small farmers, the Southern whites, Catholics, big-city political machines, labor unions, northern black Americans (southern ones were still disfranchised), Jews, intellectuals, and political liberals.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeuchtenburg1963183%E2%80%9396-143">[140]</a> The creation of the New Deal coalition transformed American politics and started what political scientists call the "New Deal Party System" or the <a href="/wiki/Fifth_Party_System" title="Fifth Party System">Fifth Party System</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESternsher1975127%E2%80%9349-144">[141]</a> Between the Civil War and 1929, Democrats had <a href="/wiki/Party_divisions_of_United_States_Congresses" title="Party divisions of United States Congresses">rarely controlled both houses of Congress</a> and had won just four of seventeen presidential elections; from 1932 to 1979, Democrats won eight of twelve presidential elections and generally controlled both houses of Congress.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECampbell2006127%E2%80%9349-145">[142]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transition_and_assassination_attempt">Transition and assassination attempt</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Presidential_transition_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Presidential transition of Franklin D. Roosevelt">Presidential transition of Franklin D. Roosevelt</a></div> Roosevelt was elected in November 1932 but like his predecessors did not take office until the following March.<a href="#cite_note-146">[d]</a> After the election, President Hoover sought to convince Roosevelt to renounce much of his campaign platform and to endorse the Hoover administration's policies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007290%E2%80%9391-147">[143]</a> Roosevelt refused Hoover's request to develop a joint program to stop the economic decline, claiming that it would tie his hands and that Hoover had the power to act.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns1956146-148">[144]</a> During the transition, Roosevelt chose Howe as his chief of staff, and Farley as Postmaster General. Frances Perkins, as Secretary of Labor, became the first woman appointed to a cabinet position.<a href="#cite_note-FDR_Campaigns-135">[132]</a> <a href="/wiki/William_H._Woodin" title="William H. Woodin">William H. Woodin</a>, a Republican industrialist close to Roosevelt, was chosen for Secretary of the Treasury, while Roosevelt chose Senator <a href="/wiki/Cordell_Hull" title="Cordell Hull">Cordell Hull</a> of Tennessee as Secretary of State. <a href="/wiki/Harold_L._Ickes" title="Harold L. Ickes">Harold L. Ickes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Henry_A._Wallace" title="Henry A. Wallace">Henry A. Wallace</a>, two progressive Republicans, were selected for Secretary of the Interior and Secretary of Agriculture, respectively.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007292%E2%80%9395-149">[145]</a> In February 1933, Roosevelt escaped an assassination attempt by <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Zangara" title="Giuseppe Zangara">Giuseppe Zangara</a>, who expressed a "hate for all rulers". As he was attempting to shoot Roosevelt, Zangara was struck by a woman with her purse; he instead mortally wounded Chicago Mayor <a href="/wiki/Anton_Cermak" title="Anton Cermak">Anton Cermak</a>, who was sitting alongside Roosevelt.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns1956147-150">[146]</a><a href="#cite_note-151">[147]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(6)"><h2 id="Presidency_(1933–1945)">Presidency (1933–1945)</h2></div><section class="mf-section-6 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-6"> As president, Roosevelt appointed powerful men to top positions in government. However, he made all of his administration's major decisions himself, regardless of any delays, inefficiencies, or resentments doing so may have caused. Analyzing the president's administrative style, Burns concludes: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">The president stayed in charge of his administration...by drawing fully on his formal and informal powers as Chief Executive; by raising goals, creating momentum, inspiring a personal loyalty, getting the best out of people...by deliberately fostering among his aides a sense of competition and a clash of wills that led to disarray, heartbreak, and anger but also set off pulses of executive energy and sparks of creativity...by handing out one job to several men and several jobs to one man, thus strengthening his own position as a court of appeals, as a depository of information, and as a tool of co-ordination; by ignoring or bypassing collective decision-making agencies, such as the Cabinet...and always by persuading, flattering, juggling, improvising, reshuffling, harmonizing, conciliating, manipulating.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns1970347%E2%80%9348-152">[148]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="First_and_second_terms_(1933–1941)">First and second terms (1933–1941)</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt,_first_and_second_terms" title="Presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt, first and second terms">Presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt, first and second terms</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1096940132"><div class="side-box side-box-right listen noprint"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg/50px-Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 50px;height: 50px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg/50px-Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="50" data-height="50" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg/75px-Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg/100px-Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> <figcaption></figcaption></figure></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><div class="haudio"> <div class="listen-file-header"><a href="/wiki/File:FDR_speech.ogg" title="File:FDR speech.ogg">Nothing to Fear</a></div> <div><audio id="mwe_player_1" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="232" style="width:232px;" data-durationhint="46" data-mwtitle="FDR_speech.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7d/FDR_speech.ogg" type='audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"' data-width="0" data-height="0"></source><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/7d/FDR_speech.ogg/FDR_speech.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0"></source></audio></div> <div class="description">Sample of the Inaugural speech from FDR</div></div></div></div> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"><hr>Problems playing this file? See <a href="/wiki/Help:Media" title="Help:Media">media help</a>.</div> </div> When Roosevelt was <a href="/wiki/First_inauguration_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="First inauguration of Franklin D. Roosevelt">inaugurated</a> on March 4, 1933, the U.S. was at the nadir of the <a href="/wiki/The_Great_Depression" class="mw-redirect" title="The Great Depression">worst depression in its history</a>. A quarter of the workforce was unemployed, and farmers were in deep trouble as prices had fallen by 60%. Industrial production had fallen by more than half since 1929. Two million people were homeless. By the evening of March 4, 32 of the 48 states—as well as the District of Columbia—had closed their banks.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlter2006190-153">[149]</a> Historians categorized Roosevelt's program as "relief, recovery, and reform". Relief was urgently needed by the unemployed. Recovery meant boosting the economy back to normal, and reform was required of the financial and banking systems. Through Roosevelt's 30 "<a href="/wiki/Fireside_chat" class="mw-redirect" title="Fireside chat">fireside chats</a>", he presented his proposals directly to the American public as a series of radio addresses.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns1956157,_167%E2%80%9368-154">[150]</a> Energized by his own victory over paralytic illness, he used persistent optimism and activism to renew the national spirit.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETobin20134%E2%80%937-155">[151]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="First_New_Deal_(1933–1934)">First New Deal (1933–1934)</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal">New Deal</a></div> On his second day in office, Roosevelt declared a four-day national "bank holiday", to end the run by depositors seeking to withdraw funds.<a href="#cite_note-FDR_Domestic_Affairs-156">[152]</a> He called for a special session of Congress on March 9, when Congress passed, almost sight unseen, the <a href="/wiki/Emergency_Banking_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Emergency Banking Act">Emergency Banking Act</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FDR_Domestic_Affairs-156">[152]</a> The act, first developed by the Hoover administration and Wall Street bankers, gave the president the power to determine the opening and closing of banks and authorized the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Reserve_Bank" title="Federal Reserve Bank">Federal Reserve Banks</a> to issue banknotes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeuchtenburg2015147%E2%80%9348-157">[153]</a> The "<a href="/wiki/Hundred_Days_Congress" class="mw-redirect" title="Hundred Days Congress">first 100 Days</a>" of the <a href="/wiki/73rd_United_States_Congress" title="73rd United States Congress">73rd United States Congress</a> saw an unprecedented amount of legislation and set a benchmark against which future presidents have been compared.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007312-158">[154]</a><a href="#cite_note-kliptak1-159">[155]</a> When the banks reopened on Monday, March 15, stock prices rose by 15 percent and in the following weeks over $1 billion was returned to bank vaults, ending the bank panic.<a href="#cite_note-FDR_Domestic_Affairs-156">[152]</a> On March 22, Roosevelt signed the <a href="/wiki/Cullen%E2%80%93Harrison_Act" title="Cullen–Harrison Act">Cullen–Harrison Act</a>, which brought Prohibition to a close.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeuchtenburg2015151%E2%80%9352-160">[156]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><video id="mwe_player_2" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/FDR_video_montage.ogv/220px--FDR_video_montage.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="169" data-durationhint="48" data-mwtitle="FDR_video_montage.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:FDR_video_montage.ogv"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/b8/FDR_video_montage.ogv/FDR_video_montage.ogv.480p.vp9.webm" type='video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"' data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="626" data-height="480"></source><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b8/FDR_video_montage.ogv" type='video/ogg; codecs="theora, vorbis"' data-width="626" data-height="480"></source><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/b8/FDR_video_montage.ogv/FDR_video_montage.ogv.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="188" data-height="144"></source><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/b8/FDR_video_montage.ogv/FDR_video_montage.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type='video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"' data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="314" data-height="240"></source><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/b8/FDR_video_montage.ogv/FDR_video_montage.ogv.360p.vp9.webm" type='video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"' data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="470" data-height="360"></source><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/b8/FDR_video_montage.ogv/FDR_video_montage.ogv.360p.webm" type='video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"' data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="470" data-height="360"></source></video><figcaption>Collection of video clips of Roosevelt</figcaption></figure> Roosevelt saw the establishment of a number of agencies and measures designed to provide relief for the unemployed and others. The <a href="/wiki/Federal_Emergency_Relief_Administration" title="Federal Emergency Relief Administration">Federal Emergency Relief Administration</a>, under the leadership of Harry Hopkins, distributed relief to state governments.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007322-161">[157]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Public_Works_Administration" title="Public Works Administration">Public Works Administration</a> (PWA), under Secretary of the Interior Harold Ickes, oversaw the construction of large-scale public works such as dams, bridges, and schools.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007322-161">[157]</a> The Rural Electrification Administration (REA) brought electricity for the first time to millions of rural homes.<a href="#cite_note-FDR_Domestic_Affairs-156">[152]</a> The most popular of all New Deal agencies—and Roosevelt's favorite—was the <a href="/wiki/Civilian_Conservation_Corps" title="Civilian Conservation Corps">Civilian Conservation Corps</a> (CCC), which hired 250,000 unemployed men for rural projects. Roosevelt also expanded Hoover's <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Finance_Corporation" title="Reconstruction Finance Corporation">Reconstruction Finance Corporation</a>, which financed railroads and industry. Congress gave the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Trade_Commission" title="Federal Trade Commission">Federal Trade Commission</a> broad regulatory powers and provided mortgage relief to millions of farmers and homeowners. Roosevelt also set up the <a href="/wiki/Agricultural_Adjustment_Administration" class="mw-redirect" title="Agricultural Adjustment Administration">Agricultural Adjustment Administration</a> to increase commodity prices, by paying farmers to leave land uncultivated and cut herds.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007318%E2%80%9323-162">[158]</a> In many instances, crops were plowed under and livestock killed, while many Americans died of hunger and were ill-clothed; critics labeled such policies "utterly idiotic".<a href="#cite_note-FDR_Domestic_Affairs-156">[152]</a> Reform of the economy was the goal of the <a href="/wiki/National_Industrial_Recovery_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="National Industrial Recovery Act">National Industrial Recovery Act</a> (NIRA) of 1933. It sought to end cutthroat competition by forcing industries to establish rules such as minimum prices, agreements not to compete, and production restrictions. Industry leaders negotiated the rules with NIRA officials, who suspended <a href="/wiki/United_States_antitrust_law" title="United States antitrust law">antitrust</a> laws in return for better wages. The <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court</a> in May 1935 declared NIRA unconstitutional, to Roosevelt's chagrin.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHawley1995124-163">[159]</a> He reformed financial regulations with the <a href="/wiki/1933_Banking_Act" title="1933 Banking Act">Glass–Steagall Act</a>, creating the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Deposit_Insurance_Corporation" title="Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation">Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation</a> to underwrite savings deposits. The act also limited affiliations between commercial banks and securities firms.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007331%E2%80%9332-164">[160]</a> In 1934, the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Securities_and_Exchange_Commission" title="U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission">Securities and Exchange Commission</a> was created to regulate the trading of <a href="/wiki/Security_(finance)" title="Security (finance)">securities</a>, while the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Communications_Commission" title="Federal Communications Commission">Federal Communications Commission</a> was established to <a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Telecommunications policy of the United States">regulate telecommunications</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007346-165">[161]</a> The NIRA included $3.3 billion (equivalent to $77.67 billion in 2023) of spending through the Public Works Administration to support recovery.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESavage1991160-166">[162]</a> Roosevelt worked with Senator Norris to create the largest government-owned industrial enterprise in American history—the <a href="/wiki/Tennessee_Valley_Authority" title="Tennessee Valley Authority">Tennessee Valley Authority</a> (TVA)—which built dams and power stations, controlled floods, and modernized agriculture and home conditions in the poverty-stricken Tennessee Valley. However, locals criticized the TVA for displacing thousands of people for these projects.<a href="#cite_note-FDR_Domestic_Affairs-156">[152]</a> The Soil Conservation Service trained farmers in the proper methods of cultivation, and with the TVA, Roosevelt became the father of soil conservation.<a href="#cite_note-FDR_Domestic_Affairs-156">[152]</a> <a href="/wiki/Executive_Order_6102" title="Executive Order 6102">Executive Order 6102</a> declared that all privately held gold of American citizens was to be sold to the U.S. Treasury and the price raised from $20 to $35 per ounce. The goal was to counter the <a href="/wiki/Deflation" title="Deflation">deflation</a> which was paralyzing the economy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFreidel1952%E2%80%9319734,_320%E2%80%9339-167">[163]</a> Roosevelt tried to keep his campaign promise by cutting the federal budget. This included a reduction in military spending from $752 million in 1932 to $531 million in 1934 and a 40% cut in spending on veterans benefits. 500,000 veterans and widows were removed from the pension rolls, and benefits were reduced for the remainder. Federal salaries were cut and spending on research and education was reduced. The veterans were well organized and strongly protested, so most benefits were restored or increased by 1934.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFreidel1952%E2%80%9319734,_448%E2%80%9352-168">[164]</a> Veterans groups such as the <a href="/wiki/American_Legion" title="American Legion">American Legion</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Veterans_of_Foreign_Wars" title="Veterans of Foreign Wars">Veterans of Foreign Wars</a> won their campaign to transform their benefits from payments due in 1945 to immediate cash when Congress overrode the President's veto and passed the <a href="/wiki/Adjusted_Compensation_Payment_Act" title="Adjusted Compensation Payment Act">Bonus Act</a> in January 1936.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallek2017249-169">[165]</a> It pumped sums equal to 2% of the GDP into the consumer economy and had a major stimulus effect.<a href="#cite_note-170">[166]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Second_New_Deal_(1935–1936)">Second New Deal (1935–1936)</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Second_New_Deal" title="Second New Deal">Second New Deal</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Signing_Of_The_Social_Security_Act.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Signing_Of_The_Social_Security_Act.jpg/220px-Signing_Of_The_Social_Security_Act.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="173" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="4130" data-file-height="3240"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 173px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Signing_Of_The_Social_Security_Act.jpg/220px-Signing_Of_The_Social_Security_Act.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="173" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Signing_Of_The_Social_Security_Act.jpg/330px-Signing_Of_The_Social_Security_Act.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Signing_Of_The_Social_Security_Act.jpg/440px-Signing_Of_The_Social_Security_Act.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Roosevelt signs the Social Security Act into law, August 14, 1935.</figcaption></figure> Roosevelt expected that his party would lose seats in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_elections,_1934" class="mw-redirect" title="United States elections, 1934">1934 Congressional elections</a>, as the president's party had done in most previous <a href="/wiki/United_States_midterm_election" title="United States midterm election">midterm elections</a>; the Democrats gained seats instead. Empowered by the public's vote of confidence, the first item on Roosevelt's agenda in the <a href="/wiki/74th_United_States_Congress" title="74th United States Congress">74th Congress</a> was the creation of a <a href="/wiki/Social_insurance" title="Social insurance">social insurance</a> program.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007349%E2%80%9351-171">[167]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Social_Security_Act" title="Social Security Act">Social Security Act</a> established Social Security and promised economic security for the elderly, the poor, and the sick. Roosevelt insisted that it should be funded by payroll taxes rather than from the general fund, saying, "We put those payroll contributions there so as to give the contributors a legal, moral, and political right to collect their pensions and unemployment benefits. With those taxes in there, no damn politician can ever scrap my social security program."<a href="#cite_note-172">[168]</a> Compared with the social security systems in Western European countries, the Social Security Act of 1935 was rather conservative. But for the first time, the federal government took responsibility for the economic security of the aged, the temporarily unemployed, dependent children, and disabled people.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorton2009670-173">[169]</a> Against Roosevelt's original intention for universal coverage, the act excluded farmers, domestic workers, and other groups, which made up about forty percent of the labor force.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007353-174">[170]</a> Roosevelt consolidated the various relief organizations, though some, like the PWA, continued to exist. After winning Congressional authorization for further funding of relief efforts, he established the <a href="/wiki/Works_Progress_Administration" title="Works Progress Administration">Works Progress Administration</a> (WPA). Under the leadership of Harry Hopkins, the WPA employed over three million people in its first year of operations. It undertook numerous massive construction projects in cooperation with local governments. It also set up the <a href="/wiki/National_Youth_Administration" title="National Youth Administration">National Youth Administration</a> and arts organizations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007353%E2%80%9356-175">[171]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1936_FDR_%22Don%27t_Be_Fooled_by_Figures%22_Re-election_handbill.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/1936_FDR_%22Don%27t_Be_Fooled_by_Figures%22_Re-election_handbill.jpg/220px-1936_FDR_%22Don%27t_Be_Fooled_by_Figures%22_Re-election_handbill.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="347" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1433" data-file-height="2261"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 347px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/1936_FDR_%22Don%27t_Be_Fooled_by_Figures%22_Re-election_handbill.jpg/220px-1936_FDR_%22Don%27t_Be_Fooled_by_Figures%22_Re-election_handbill.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="347" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/1936_FDR_%22Don%27t_Be_Fooled_by_Figures%22_Re-election_handbill.jpg/330px-1936_FDR_%22Don%27t_Be_Fooled_by_Figures%22_Re-election_handbill.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/1936_FDR_%22Don%27t_Be_Fooled_by_Figures%22_Re-election_handbill.jpg/440px-1936_FDR_%22Don%27t_Be_Fooled_by_Figures%22_Re-election_handbill.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>1936 re-election handbill for Roosevelt promoting his economic policy</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/National_Labor_Relations_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="National Labor Relations Act">National Labor Relations Act</a> guaranteed workers the right to <a href="/wiki/Collective_bargaining" title="Collective bargaining">collective bargaining</a> through unions of their own choice. The act also established the <a href="/wiki/National_Labor_Relations_Board" title="National Labor Relations Board">National Labor Relations Board</a> (NLRB) to facilitate wage agreements and suppress repeated labor disturbances. The act did not compel employers to reach an agreement with their employees, but it opened possibilities for American labor.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1999291-176">[172]</a> The result was a tremendous growth of membership in the labor unions, especially in the mass-production sector.<a href="#cite_note-177">[173]</a> When the <a href="/wiki/Flint_sit-down_strike" title="Flint sit-down strike">Flint sit-down strike</a> threatened the production of <a href="/wiki/General_Motors" title="General Motors">General Motors</a>, Roosevelt broke with the precedent set by many former presidents and refused to intervene; the strike ultimately led to the unionization of both General Motors and its rivals in the American automobile industry.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrands2009463%E2%80%9367-178">[174]</a> While the First New Deal of 1933 had broad support from most sectors, the Second New Deal challenged the business community. Conservative Democrats, led by <a href="/wiki/Al_Smith" title="Al Smith">Al Smith</a>, fought back with the <a href="/wiki/American_Liberty_League" title="American Liberty League">American Liberty League</a>, savagely attacking Roosevelt and equating him with socialism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFried2001120%E2%80%9323-179">[175]</a> But Smith overplayed his hand, and his boisterous rhetoric let Roosevelt isolate his opponents and identify them with the wealthy vested interests that opposed the New Deal, strengthening Roosevelt for the 1936 landslide.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFried2001120%E2%80%9323-179">[175]</a> By contrast, labor unions, energized by labor legislation, signed up millions of new members and became a major backer of Roosevelt's re-elections in 1936, 1940, and 1944.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns1956350-180">[176]</a> Burns suggests that Roosevelt's policy decisions were guided more by pragmatism than ideology and that he "was like the general of a guerrilla army whose columns, fighting blindly in the mountains through dense ravines and thickets, suddenly converge, half by plan and half by coincidence, and <a href="/wiki/Debouch" title="Debouch">debouch</a> into the plain below."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns1956226-181">[177]</a> Roosevelt argued that such apparently haphazard methodology was necessary. "The country needs and, unless I mistake its temper, the country demands bold, persistent experimentation," he wrote. "It is common sense to take a method and try it; if it fails, admit it frankly and try another. But above all, try something."<a href="#cite_note-182">[178]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Election_of_1936">Election of 1936</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/1936_United_States_presidential_election" title="1936 United States presidential election">1936 United States presidential election</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ElectoralCollege1936.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/ElectoralCollege1936.svg/290px-ElectoralCollege1936.svg.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="169" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1020" data-file-height="593"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 290px;height: 169px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/ElectoralCollege1936.svg/290px-ElectoralCollege1936.svg.png" data-width="290" data-height="169" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/ElectoralCollege1936.svg/435px-ElectoralCollege1936.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/ElectoralCollege1936.svg/580px-ElectoralCollege1936.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>1936 electoral vote results</figcaption></figure> Eight million workers remained unemployed in 1936, and though economic conditions had improved since 1932, they remained sluggish. By 1936, Roosevelt had lost the backing he once held in the business community because of his support for the <a href="/wiki/National_Labor_Relations_Board" title="National Labor Relations Board">National Labor Relations Board</a> (NLRB) and the Social Security Act.<a href="#cite_note-FDR_Campaigns-135">[132]</a> The Republicans had few alternative candidates and nominated Kansas Governor <a href="/wiki/Alf_Landon" title="Alf Landon">Alf Landon</a>, a little-known bland candidate whose chances were damaged by the public re-emergence of the still-unpopular Herbert Hoover.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007364%E2%80%9366-183">[179]</a> While Roosevelt campaigned on his New Deal programs and continued to attack Hoover, Landon sought to win voters who approved of the goals of the New Deal but disagreed with its implementation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007371%E2%80%9372-184">[180]</a> An attempt by Louisiana Senator <a href="/wiki/Huey_Long" title="Huey Long">Huey Long</a> to organize a left-wing third party collapsed after <a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Huey_Long" title="Assassination of Huey Long">Long's assassination</a> in 1935. The remnants, helped by Father <a href="/wiki/Charles_Coughlin" title="Charles Coughlin">Charles Coughlin</a>, supported <a href="/wiki/William_Lemke" title="William Lemke">William Lemke</a> of the newly formed <a href="/wiki/Union_Party_(United_States)" title="Union Party (United States)">Union Party</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007360%E2%80%9361-185">[181]</a> Roosevelt won re-nomination with little opposition at the <a href="/wiki/1936_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1936 Democratic National Convention">1936 Democratic National Convention</a>, while his allies overcame Southern resistance to abolish the long-established rule that required Democratic presidential candidates to win the votes of two-thirds of the delegates rather than a simple majority.<a href="#cite_note-187">[e]</a> In the election against Landon and a third-party candidate, Roosevelt won 60.8% of the vote and carried every state except <a href="/wiki/Maine" title="Maine">Maine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vermont" title="Vermont">Vermont</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns1956284-188">[183]</a> The Democratic ticket won the highest proportion of the <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_presidential_elections_by_popular_vote_margin" title="List of United States presidential elections by popular vote margin">popular vote</a>.<a href="#cite_note-189">[f]</a> Democrats expanded their majorities in Congress, controlling over three-quarters of the seats in each house. The election also saw the consolidation of the New Deal coalition; while the Democrats lost some of their traditional allies in big business, they were replaced by groups such as organized labor and African Americans, the latter of whom voted Democratic for the first time since the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">Civil War</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007373%E2%80%9375-190">[184]</a> Roosevelt lost high-income voters, especially businessmen and professionals, but made major gains among the poor and minorities. He won 86 percent of the Jewish vote, 81 percent of Catholics, 80 percent of union members, 76 percent of Southerners, 76 percent of blacks in northern cities, and 75 percent of people on relief. Roosevelt carried 102 of the country's 106 cities with a population of 100,000 or more.<a href="#cite_note-191">[185]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Supreme_Court_fight_and_second_term_legislation">Supreme Court fight and second term legislation</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt_Supreme_Court_candidates" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt Supreme Court candidates">Franklin D. Roosevelt Supreme Court candidates</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hughes_Court" title="Hughes Court">Hughes Court</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Wiley_Rutledge_Supreme_Court_nomination" title="Wiley Rutledge Supreme Court nomination">Wiley Rutledge Supreme Court nomination</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court</a> became Roosevelt's primary domestic focus during his second term after the court overturned many of his programs, including NIRA. The more conservative members of the court upheld the principles of the <a href="/wiki/Lochner_era" title="Lochner era">Lochner era</a>, which saw numerous economic regulations struck down on the basis of <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_contract" title="Freedom of contract">freedom of contract</a>.<a href="#cite_note-192">[186]</a> Roosevelt proposed the <a href="/wiki/Judicial_Procedures_Reform_Bill_of_1937" title="Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937">Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937</a>, which would have allowed him to appoint an additional Justice for each incumbent Justice over the age of 70; in 1937, there were six Supreme Court Justices over the age of 70. The <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States#Size_of_the_court" title="Supreme Court of the United States">size of the Court</a> had been set at nine since the passage of the <a href="/wiki/Judiciary_Act_of_1869" title="Judiciary Act of 1869">Judiciary Act of 1869</a>, and Congress had altered the number of Justices six other times throughout U.S. history.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007379%E2%80%9382-193">[187]</a> Roosevelt's "<a href="/wiki/Judicial_Procedures_Reform_Bill_of_1937" title="Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937">court packing</a>" plan ran into intense political opposition from his own party, led by Vice President Garner since it upset the separation of powers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns1956312-194">[188]</a> A bipartisan coalition of liberals and conservatives of both parties opposed the bill, and Chief Justice <a href="/wiki/Charles_Evans_Hughes" title="Charles Evans Hughes">Charles Evans Hughes</a> broke with precedent by publicly advocating the defeat of the bill. Any chance of passing the bill ended with the death of Senate Majority Leader <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Taylor_Robinson" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph Taylor Robinson">Joseph Taylor Robinson</a> in July 1937.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007384%E2%80%9389-195">[189]</a> Starting with the 1937 case of <a href="/wiki/West_Coast_Hotel_Co._v._Parrish" title="West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish">West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish</a>, the court began to take a more favorable view of economic regulations. Historians have described this as, "the switch in time that saved nine".<a href="#cite_note-FDR_Domestic_Affairs-156">[152]</a> That same year, Roosevelt appointed a Supreme Court Justice for the first time, and by 1941, had appointed seven of the court's nine justices.<a href="#cite_note-196">[g]</a><a href="#cite_note-leuch-197">[190]</a> After Parrish, the Court shifted its focus from <a href="/wiki/Judicial_review_in_the_United_States" title="Judicial review in the United States">judicial review</a> of economic regulations to the protection of <a href="/wiki/Civil_liberties_in_the_United_States" title="Civil liberties in the United States">civil liberties</a>.<a href="#cite_note-198">[191]</a> Four of Roosevelt's Supreme Court appointees, <a href="/wiki/Felix_Frankfurter" title="Felix Frankfurter">Felix Frankfurter</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_H._Jackson" title="Robert H. Jackson">Robert H. Jackson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hugo_Black" title="Hugo Black">Hugo Black</a>, and <a href="/wiki/William_O._Douglas" title="William O. Douglas">William O. Douglas</a>, were particularly influential in reshaping the jurisprudence of the Court.<a href="#cite_note-jblake1-199">[192]</a><a href="#cite_note-belknap-200">[193]</a> With Roosevelt's influence on the wane following the failure of the Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937, conservative Democrats joined with Republicans to block the implementation of further New Deal programs.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007390%E2%80%9391-201">[194]</a> Roosevelt did manage to pass some legislation, including the <a href="/wiki/Housing_Act_of_1937" title="Housing Act of 1937">Housing Act of 1937</a>, a second Agricultural Adjustment Act, and the <a href="/wiki/Fair_Labor_Standards_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Fair Labor Standards Act">Fair Labor Standards Act</a> (FLSA) of 1938, which was the last major piece of New Deal legislation. The FLSA outlawed <a href="/wiki/Child_labor_laws_in_the_United_States" title="Child labor laws in the United States">child labor</a>, established a federal <a href="/wiki/Minimum_wage_in_the_United_States" title="Minimum wage in the United States">minimum wage</a>, and required <a href="/wiki/Overtime" title="Overtime">overtime</a> pay for certain employees who work in excess of <a href="/wiki/Eight-hour_day" class="mw-redirect" title="Eight-hour day">forty hours per week</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007408%E2%80%9309-202">[195]</a> He also passed the <a href="/wiki/Reorganization_Act_of_1939" title="Reorganization Act of 1939">Reorganization Act of 1939</a> and subsequently created the <a href="/wiki/Executive_Office_of_the_President_of_the_United_States" title="Executive Office of the President of the United States">Executive Office of the President</a>, making it "the nerve center of the federal administrative system".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeuchtenburg2015187%E2%80%9388-203">[196]</a> When the economy <a href="/wiki/Recession_of_1937%E2%80%931938" title="Recession of 1937–1938">began to deteriorate again in mid-1937</a>, Roosevelt launched a rhetorical campaign against big business and <a href="/wiki/Monopoly_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Monopoly power">monopoly power</a>, alleging that the recession was the result of a <a href="/wiki/Capital_strike" title="Capital strike">capital strike</a> and even ordering the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation" title="Federal Bureau of Investigation">Federal Bureau of Investigation</a> to look for a criminal conspiracy (they found none). He then asked Congress for $5 billion (equivalent to $105.97 billion in 2023) in relief and public works funding. This created as many as 3.3 million WPA jobs by 1938. Projects accomplished under the WPA ranged from new federal courthouses and post offices to facilities and infrastructure for national parks, bridges, and other infrastructure across the country, and architectural surveys and archaeological excavations—investments to construct facilities and preserve important resources. Beyond this, however, Roosevelt recommended to a special congressional session only a permanent national farm act, administrative reorganization, and regional planning measures, all of which were leftovers from a regular session. According to Burns, this attempt illustrated Roosevelt's inability to settle on a basic economic program.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns1956320-204">[197]</a> Determined to overcome the opposition of conservative Democrats in Congress, Roosevelt became involved in the 1938 Democratic primaries, actively campaigning for challengers who were more supportive of New Deal reform. Roosevelt failed badly, managing to defeat only one of the ten targeted.<a href="#cite_note-FDR_Domestic_Affairs-156">[152]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/United_States_elections,_1938" class="mw-redirect" title="United States elections, 1938">November 1938 elections</a>, Democrats lost six Senate seats and 71 House seats, with losses concentrated among pro-New Deal Democrats. When Congress reconvened in 1939, Republicans under Senator <a href="/wiki/Robert_A._Taft" title="Robert A. Taft">Robert Taft</a> formed a <a href="/wiki/Conservative_coalition" title="Conservative coalition">Conservative coalition</a> with Southern Democrats, virtually ending Roosevelt's ability to enact his domestic proposals.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeuchtenburg1963262%E2%80%9363,_271%E2%80%9373-205">[198]</a> Despite their opposition to Roosevelt's domestic policies, many of these conservative Congressmen would provide crucial support for his foreign policy before and during World War II.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007440%E2%80%9341-206">[199]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Conservation_and_the_environment">Conservation and the environment</h4></div> Roosevelt had a lifelong interest in the environment and conservation starting with his youthful interest in forestry on his family estate. Although he was never an outdoorsman or sportsman on Theodore Roosevelt's scale, his growth of the national systems was comparable.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallek201719-207">[200]</a><a href="#cite_note-208">[201]</a> When Franklin was Governor of New York, the Temporary Emergency Relief Administration was essentially a state-level predecessor of the federal Civilian Conservation Corps, with 10,000 or more men building <a href="/wiki/Fire_trail" title="Fire trail">fire trails</a>, combating <a href="/wiki/Soil_erosion" title="Soil erosion">soil erosion</a> and planting tree seedlings in marginal farmland in New York.<a href="#cite_note-209">[202]</a> As President, Roosevelt was active in expanding, funding, and promoting the <a href="/wiki/United_States_National_Park" class="mw-redirect" title="United States National Park">National Park</a> and <a href="/wiki/United_States_National_Forest" class="mw-redirect" title="United States National Forest">National Forest</a> systems.<a href="#cite_note-:0-210">[203]</a> Their popularity soared, from three million visitors a year at the start of the decade to 15.5 million in 1939.<a href="#cite_note-America's_Idea-211">[204]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Civilian_Conservation_Corps" title="Civilian Conservation Corps">Civilian Conservation Corps</a> enrolled 3.4 million young men and built 13,000 miles (21,000 kilometers) of trails, planted two billion trees, and upgraded 125,000 miles (201,000 kilometers) of dirt roads. Every state had its own state parks, and Roosevelt made sure that WPA and CCC projects were set up to upgrade them as well as the national systems.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrinkley2016170%E2%80%9386-212">[205]</a><a href="#cite_note-213">[206]</a><a href="#cite_note-214">[207]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="GNP_and_unemployment_rates">GNP and unemployment rates</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression_in_the_United_States#Roosevelt's_New_Deal" title="Great Depression in the United States">Great Depression in the United States § Roosevelt's New Deal</a></div> <table class="wikitable" style="margin-left:1em; float:right; clear:right;"> <caption>Unemployment rates<a href="#cite_note-216">[h]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Year</th> <th>Lebergott</th> <th>Darby </th></tr> <tr> <td>1929</td> <td>3.2</td> <td>3.2 </td></tr> <tr> <td>1932</td> <td>23.6</td> <td>22.9 </td></tr> <tr> <td>1933</td> <td>24.9</td> <td>20.6 </td></tr> <tr> <td>1934</td> <td>21.7</td> <td>16.0 </td></tr> <tr> <td>1935</td> <td>20.1</td> <td>14.2 </td></tr> <tr> <td>1936</td> <td>16.9</td> <td>9.9 </td></tr> <tr> <td>1937</td> <td>14.3</td> <td>9.1 </td></tr> <tr> <td>1938</td> <td>19.0</td> <td>12.5 </td></tr> <tr> <td>1939</td> <td>17.2</td> <td>11.3 </td></tr> <tr> <td>1940</td> <td>14.6</td> <td>9.5 </td></tr></tbody></table> Government spending increased from 8.0% of the gross national product (GNP) <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Hoover#Taxes,_revenues,_and_deficits" title="Herbert Hoover">under Hoover</a> in 1932 to 10.2% in 1936. The <a href="/wiki/National_debt" class="mw-redirect" title="National debt">national debt</a> as a percentage of the GNP had more than doubled under Hoover from 16% to 40% of the GNP in early 1933. It held steady at close to 40% as late as fall 1941, then grew rapidly during the war.<a href="#cite_note-Historical_Statistics_1976-217">[209]</a> The GNP was 34% higher in 1936 than in 1932 and 58% higher in 1940 on the eve of war. That is, the economy grew 58% from 1932 to 1940, and then grew 56% from 1940 to 1945 in five years of wartime.<a href="#cite_note-Historical_Statistics_1976-217">[209]</a> Unemployment fell dramatically during Roosevelt's first term. It increased in 1938 ("a depression within a depression") but continually declined after 1938.<a href="#cite_note-margo1-215">[208]</a> Total employment during Roosevelt's term expanded by 18.31 million jobs, with an average annual increase in jobs during his administration of 5.3%.<a href="#cite_note-218">[210]</a><a href="#cite_note-219">[211]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Foreign_policy_(1933–1941)">Foreign policy (1933–1941)</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_Franklin_D._Roosevelt_administration" title="Foreign policy of the Franklin D. Roosevelt administration">Foreign policy of the Franklin D. Roosevelt administration</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vargas_e_Roosevelt.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Vargas_e_Roosevelt.jpg/220px-Vargas_e_Roosevelt.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="632" data-file-height="447"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 156px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Vargas_e_Roosevelt.jpg/220px-Vargas_e_Roosevelt.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="156" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Vargas_e_Roosevelt.jpg/330px-Vargas_e_Roosevelt.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Vargas_e_Roosevelt.jpg/440px-Vargas_e_Roosevelt.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Roosevelt with Brazilian president <a href="/wiki/Get%C3%BAlio_Vargas" title="Getúlio Vargas">Getúlio Vargas</a> and other dignitaries in Brazil, 1936</figcaption></figure> The main foreign policy initiative of Roosevelt's first term was the <a href="/wiki/Good_Neighbor_Policy" class="mw-redirect" title="Good Neighbor Policy">Good Neighbor Policy</a>, which was a re-evaluation of U.S. policy toward <a href="/wiki/Latin_America" title="Latin America">Latin America</a>. The United States frequently intervened in Latin America following the promulgation of the <a href="/wiki/Monroe_Doctrine" title="Monroe Doctrine">Monroe Doctrine</a> in 1823, and occupied several Latin American nations during the <a href="/wiki/Banana_Wars" title="Banana Wars">Banana Wars</a> that occurred following the <a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War" title="Spanish–American War">Spanish–American War</a> of 1898. After Roosevelt took office, he <a href="/wiki/United_States_occupation_of_Haiti" title="United States occupation of Haiti">withdrew</a> U.S. forces from <a href="/wiki/Haiti" title="Haiti">Haiti</a> and reached new treaties with <a href="/wiki/Cuba" title="Cuba">Cuba</a> and <a href="/wiki/Panama" title="Panama">Panama</a>, ending their status as U.S. <a href="/wiki/Protectorate" title="Protectorate">protectorates</a>. In December 1933, Roosevelt signed the <a href="/wiki/Montevideo_Convention" title="Montevideo Convention">Montevideo Convention</a>, renouncing the right to intervene unilaterally in the affairs of Latin American countries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeuchtenburg1963203%E2%80%9310-220">[212]</a> Roosevelt also normalized relations with the Soviet Union, which the United States had refused to recognize since the 1920s.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007341%E2%80%9343-221">[213]</a> He hoped to renegotiate the Russian debt from World War I and open trade relations, but no progress was made on either issue and "both nations were soon disillusioned by the accord."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoeneckeStoler200518-222">[214]</a> The rejection of the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles" title="Treaty of Versailles">Treaty of Versailles</a> in 1919–1920 marked the dominance of <a href="/wiki/United_States_non-interventionism" title="United States non-interventionism">non-interventionism</a> in American foreign policy. Despite Roosevelt's Wilsonian background, he and Secretary of State Cordell Hull acted with great care not to provoke isolationist sentiment. The isolationist movement was bolstered in the early to mid-1930s by Senator <a href="/wiki/Gerald_Nye" title="Gerald Nye">Gerald Nye</a> and others who succeeded in their effort to stop the "merchants of death" in the U.S. from selling arms abroad.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns1956254-223">[215]</a> This effort took the form of the <a href="/wiki/Neutrality_Acts_of_1930s" class="mw-redirect" title="Neutrality Acts of 1930s">Neutrality Acts</a>; the president was refused a provision he requested giving him the discretion to allow the sale of arms to victims of aggression.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns1956255-224">[216]</a> He largely acquiesced to Congress's non-interventionist policies in the early-to-mid 1930s.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007417%E2%80%9318-225">[217]</a> In the interim, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy_under_Fascism_(1922%E2%80%931943)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Italy under Fascism (1922–1943)">Fascist Italy</a> under <a href="/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini">Benito Mussolini</a> proceeded to <a href="/wiki/Second_Italo-Abyssinian_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Italo-Abyssinian War">overcome Ethiopia</a>, and the Italians joined <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a> under <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a> in supporting General <a href="/wiki/Francisco_Franco" title="Francisco Franco">Francisco Franco</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Nationalist_faction_(Spanish_Civil_War)" title="Nationalist faction (Spanish Civil War)">Nationalists</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War" title="Spanish Civil War">Spanish Civil War</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns1956256-226">[218]</a> As that conflict drew to a close in early 1939, Roosevelt expressed regret in not aiding the <a href="/wiki/Republican_faction_(Spanish_Civil_War)" title="Republican faction (Spanish Civil War)">Spanish Republicans</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallek1995180-227">[219]</a> When <a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">Japan invaded China</a> in 1937, isolationism limited Roosevelt's ability to aid China,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallek1995146%E2%80%9347-228">[220]</a> despite atrocities like the <a href="/wiki/Nanking_Massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanking Massacre">Nanking Massacre</a> and the <a href="/wiki/USS_Panay_incident" title="USS Panay incident">USS Panay incident</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeuchtenburg2015188%E2%80%9390-229">[221]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:FDR-George-VI-Potomac-June-9-1939-2-detail-crop.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/FDR-George-VI-Potomac-June-9-1939-2-detail-crop.jpg/220px-FDR-George-VI-Potomac-June-9-1939-2-detail-crop.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="141" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3800" data-file-height="2440"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 141px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/FDR-George-VI-Potomac-June-9-1939-2-detail-crop.jpg/220px-FDR-George-VI-Potomac-June-9-1939-2-detail-crop.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="141" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/FDR-George-VI-Potomac-June-9-1939-2-detail-crop.jpg/330px-FDR-George-VI-Potomac-June-9-1939-2-detail-crop.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/FDR-George-VI-Potomac-June-9-1939-2-detail-crop.jpg/440px-FDR-George-VI-Potomac-June-9-1939-2-detail-crop.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The Roosevelts with <a href="/wiki/King_George_VI" class="mw-redirect" title="King George VI">King George VI</a> and <a href="/wiki/Queen_Elizabeth_The_Queen_Mother" title="Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother">Queen Elizabeth</a>, sailing from Washington, D.C., to <a href="/wiki/Mount_Vernon" title="Mount Vernon">Mount Vernon</a>, Virginia, on the <a href="/wiki/USS_Potomac_(AG-25)" title="USS Potomac (AG-25)">USS Potomac</a> during the first U.S. visit of a reigning British monarch (June 9, 1939)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:FDR_foreign_trips.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/FDR_foreign_trips.svg/220px-FDR_foreign_trips.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="112" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1002" data-file-height="509"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 112px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/FDR_foreign_trips.svg/220px-FDR_foreign_trips.svg.png" data-width="220" data-height="112" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/FDR_foreign_trips.svg/330px-FDR_foreign_trips.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/FDR_foreign_trips.svg/440px-FDR_foreign_trips.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Foreign trips of Roosevelt during his presidency<a href="#cite_note-230">[222]</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Anschluss" title="Anschluss">Germany annexed Austria</a> in 1938, and soon turned its attention to its eastern neighbors.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007423%E2%80%9324-231">[223]</a> Roosevelt made it clear that, in the event of German aggression against <a href="/wiki/Czechoslovakia" title="Czechoslovakia">Czechoslovakia</a>, the U.S. would remain neutral.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallek1995166%E2%80%9373-232">[224]</a> After completion of the <a href="/wiki/Munich_Agreement" title="Munich Agreement">Munich Agreement</a> and the execution of <a href="/wiki/Kristallnacht" title="Kristallnacht">Kristallnacht</a>, American public opinion turned against Germany, and Roosevelt began preparing for a possible war with Germany.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007425%E2%80%9326-233">[225]</a> Relying on an interventionist political coalition of Southern Democrats and business-oriented Republicans, Roosevelt oversaw the expansion of U.S. airpower and war production capacity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007426%E2%80%9329-234">[226]</a> When <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> began in September 1939 with Germany's invasion of Poland and Britain and France's declaration of war on Germany, Roosevelt sought ways to assist Britain and France militarily.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlack2005503%E2%80%9306-235">[227]</a> Isolationist leaders like <a href="/wiki/Charles_Lindbergh" title="Charles Lindbergh">Charles Lindbergh</a> and Senator <a href="/wiki/William_Borah" title="William Borah">William Borah</a> successfully mobilized opposition to Roosevelt's proposed repeal of the <a href="/wiki/Neutrality_Acts_of_the_1930s" title="Neutrality Acts of the 1930s">Neutrality Act</a>, but Roosevelt won Congressional approval of the sale of arms on a <a href="/wiki/Cash_and_carry_(World_War_II)" title="Cash and carry (World War II)">cash-and-carry</a> basis.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007436%E2%80%9341-236">[228]</a> He also began a regular secret correspondence with Britain's First Lord of the Admiralty, <a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a>, in September 1939—the first of 1,700 letters and telegrams between them.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGunther195015-237">[229]</a> Roosevelt forged a close personal relationship with Churchill, who became <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Prime Minister of the United Kingdom">Prime Minister of the United Kingdom</a> in May 1940.<a href="#cite_note-238">[230]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_France" title="Battle of France">Fall of France</a> in June 1940 shocked the American public, and isolationist sentiment declined.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeuchtenburg1963399%E2%80%93402-239">[231]</a> In July 1940, Roosevelt appointed two interventionist Republican leaders, <a href="/wiki/Henry_L._Stimson" title="Henry L. Stimson">Henry L. Stimson</a> and <a href="/wiki/Frank_Knox" title="Frank Knox">Frank Knox</a>, as Secretaries of War and the Navy, respectively. Both parties gave support to his plans for a rapid build-up of the American military, but the isolationists warned that Roosevelt would get the nation into an unnecessary war with Germany.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns1956420-240">[232]</a> In July 1940, a group of Congressmen introduced a bill that would authorize the nation's first peacetime draft, and with the support of the Roosevelt administration, the <a href="/wiki/Selective_Training_and_Service_Act_of_1940" title="Selective Training and Service Act of 1940">Selective Training and Service Act of 1940</a> passed in September. The size of the army increased from 189,000 men at the end of 1939 to 1.4 million in mid-1941.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007464%E2%80%9366-241">[233]</a> In September 1940, Roosevelt openly defied the Neutrality Acts by reaching the <a href="/wiki/Destroyers_for_Bases_Agreement" class="mw-redirect" title="Destroyers for Bases Agreement">Destroyers for Bases Agreement</a>, which, in exchange for military base rights in the British Caribbean Islands, gave 50 American <a href="/wiki/Destroyer" title="Destroyer">destroyers</a> to Britain.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns1956438-242">[234]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Election_of_1940">Election of 1940</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/1940_United_States_presidential_election" title="1940 United States presidential election">1940 United States presidential election</a></div> In the months prior to the July <a href="/wiki/1940_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1940 Democratic National Convention">1940 Democratic National Convention</a>, there was much speculation as to whether Roosevelt would run for an unprecedented third term. The two-term tradition, although not yet enshrined in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Constitution">Constitution</a>,<a href="#cite_note-243">[i]</a> had been established by <a href="/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</a> when he refused to run for a third term in 1796. Roosevelt refused to give a definitive statement, and he even indicated to some ambitious Democrats, such as James Farley, that he would not run for a third term and that they could seek the Democratic nomination. Farley and Vice President John Garner were not pleased with Roosevelt when he ultimately made the decision to break from Washington's precedent.<a href="#cite_note-FDR_Campaigns-135">[132]</a><a href="#cite_note-244">[235]</a> As Germany swept through <a href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">Western Europe</a> and menaced Britain in mid-1940, Roosevelt decided that only he had the necessary experience and skills to see the nation safely through the Nazi threat. He was aided by the party's political bosses, who feared that no Democrat except Roosevelt could defeat <a href="/wiki/Wendell_Willkie" title="Wendell Willkie">Wendell Willkie</a>, the popular Republican nominee.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns1956408%E2%80%9330-245">[236]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ElectoralCollege1940.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/ElectoralCollege1940.svg/290px-ElectoralCollege1940.svg.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="169" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1020" data-file-height="593"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 290px;height: 169px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/ElectoralCollege1940.svg/290px-ElectoralCollege1940.svg.png" data-width="290" data-height="169" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/ElectoralCollege1940.svg/435px-ElectoralCollege1940.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/ElectoralCollege1940.svg/580px-ElectoralCollege1940.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>1940 electoral vote results</figcaption></figure> At the <a href="/wiki/1940_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1940 Democratic National Convention">July 1940 Democratic Convention</a> in Chicago, Roosevelt easily swept aside challenges from Farley and Vice President Garner, who had turned against Roosevelt in his second term because of his liberal economic and social policies.<a href="#cite_note-moe1-246">[237]</a> To replace Garner on the ticket, Roosevelt turned to Secretary of Agriculture Henry Wallace of Iowa, a former Republican who strongly supported the New Deal and was popular in farm states.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallek2017389%E2%80%9390-247">[238]</a> The choice was strenuously opposed by many of the party's conservatives, who felt Wallace was too radical and "eccentric" in his private life. But Roosevelt insisted that without Wallace on the ticket he would decline re-nomination, and Wallace won the vice-presidential nomination, defeating Speaker of the House <a href="/wiki/William_B._Bankhead" title="William B. Bankhead">William B. Bankhead</a> and other candidates.<a href="#cite_note-moe1-246">[237]</a> A late August poll taken by <a href="/wiki/Gallup_(company)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gallup (company)">Gallup</a> found the race to be essentially tied, but Roosevelt's popularity surged in September following the announcement of the <a href="/wiki/Destroyers-for-bases_deal" title="Destroyers-for-bases deal">Destroyers for Bases Agreement</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007472-248">[239]</a> Willkie supported much of the New Deal as well as rearmament and aid to Britain but warned that Roosevelt would drag the country into another European war.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007474%E2%80%9375-249">[240]</a> Responding to Willkie's attacks, Roosevelt promised to keep the country out of the war.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007476%E2%80%9377-250">[241]</a> Over its last month, the campaign degenerated into a series of outrageous accusations and mud-slinging by the parties.<a href="#cite_note-FDR_Campaigns-135">[132]</a> Roosevelt won the 1940 election with 55% of the popular vote, 38 of the 48 states, and almost 85% of the electoral vote.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns1956454-251">[242]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Third_and_fourth_terms_(1941–1945)">Third and fourth terms (1941–1945)</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt,_third_and_fourth_terms" title="Presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt, third and fourth terms">Presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt, third and fourth terms</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_Franklin_D._Roosevelt_administration" title="Foreign policy of the Franklin D. Roosevelt administration">Foreign policy of the Franklin D. Roosevelt administration</a></div> <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> dominated Roosevelt's attention, with far more time devoted to world affairs than ever before. Domestic politics and relations with Congress were largely shaped by his efforts to achieve total mobilization of the nation's economic, financial, and institutional resources for the war effort. Even relationships with Latin America and Canada were structured by wartime demands. Roosevelt maintained close personal control of all major diplomatic and military decisions, working closely with his generals and admirals, the war and Navy departments, the British, and even the Soviet Union. His key advisors on diplomacy were <a href="/wiki/Harry_Hopkins" title="Harry Hopkins">Harry Hopkins</a> in the White House, <a href="/wiki/Sumner_Welles" title="Sumner Welles">Sumner Welles</a> in the State Department, and <a href="/wiki/Henry_Morgenthau_Jr." title="Henry Morgenthau Jr.">Henry Morgenthau Jr.</a> at Treasury. In military affairs, Roosevelt worked most closely with Secretary <a href="/wiki/Henry_L._Stimson" title="Henry L. Stimson">Henry L. Stimson</a> at the War Department, Army Chief of Staff <a href="/wiki/George_Marshall" class="mw-redirect" title="George Marshall">George Marshall</a>, and Admiral <a href="/wiki/William_D._Leahy" title="William D. Leahy">William D. Leahy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-252">[243]</a><a href="#cite_note-253">[244]</a><a href="#cite_note-254">[245]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Lead-up_to_the_war">Lead-up to the war</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1096940132"><div class="side-box side-box-right listen noprint"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg/50px-Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 50px;height: 50px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg/50px-Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="50" data-height="50" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg/75px-Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg/100px-Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> <figcaption></figcaption></figure></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><div class="haudio"> <div class="listen-file-header"><a href="/wiki/File:FDR%27s_1941_State_of_the_Union_(Four_Freedoms_speech)_Edit_1.ogg" title="File:FDR's 1941 State of the Union (Four Freedoms speech) Edit 1.ogg">State of the Union (Four Freedoms) (January 6, 1941)</a></div> <div><audio id="mwe_player_3" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="232" style="width:232px;" data-durationhint="2175" data-mwtitle="FDR's_1941_State_of_the_Union_(Four_Freedoms_speech)_Edit_1.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9e/FDR%27s_1941_State_of_the_Union_%28Four_Freedoms_speech%29_Edit_1.ogg" type='audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"' data-width="0" data-height="0"></source><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/9/9e/FDR%27s_1941_State_of_the_Union_%28Four_Freedoms_speech%29_Edit_1.ogg/FDR%27s_1941_State_of_the_Union_%28Four_Freedoms_speech%29_Edit_1.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0"></source></audio></div> <div class="description">Franklin Delano Roosevelt's January 6, 1941 <a href="/wiki/State_of_the_Union_Address" class="mw-redirect" title="State of the Union Address">State of the Union Address</a> introducing the theme of the <a href="/wiki/Four_Freedoms" title="Four Freedoms">Four Freedoms</a> (starting at 32:02)</div></div></div></div> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"><hr>Problems playing this file? See <a href="/wiki/Help:Media" title="Help:Media">media help</a>.</div> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%22Freedom_from_Fear%22_-_NARA_-_513538.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/%22Freedom_from_Fear%22_-_NARA_-_513538.jpg/190px-%22Freedom_from_Fear%22_-_NARA_-_513538.jpg" decoding="async" width="190" height="241" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2370" data-file-height="3000"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 190px;height: 241px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/%22Freedom_from_Fear%22_-_NARA_-_513538.jpg/190px-%22Freedom_from_Fear%22_-_NARA_-_513538.jpg" data-width="190" data-height="241" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/%22Freedom_from_Fear%22_-_NARA_-_513538.jpg/285px-%22Freedom_from_Fear%22_-_NARA_-_513538.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/%22Freedom_from_Fear%22_-_NARA_-_513538.jpg/380px-%22Freedom_from_Fear%22_-_NARA_-_513538.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Freedom_from_Fear_(painting)" title="Freedom from Fear (painting)">Freedom from Fear</a> from painter <a href="/wiki/Norman_Rockwell" title="Norman Rockwell">Norman Rockwell</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1943</figcaption></figure> By late 1940, re-armament was in high gear, partly to expand and re-equip the Army and Navy and partly to become the "<a href="/wiki/Arsenal_of_Democracy" title="Arsenal of Democracy">Arsenal of Democracy</a>" for Britain and other countries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerman2012128%E2%80%9329-255">[246]</a> With his <a href="/wiki/Four_Freedoms" title="Four Freedoms">Four Freedoms</a> speech in January 1941, which proposed four fundamental freedoms that people "everywhere in the world" ought to enjoy: <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech_and_expression" class="mw-redirect" title="Freedom of speech and expression">freedom of speech and expression</a>, <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_worship" class="mw-redirect" title="Freedom of worship">freedom of worship</a>, <a href="/wiki/Freedom_from_want" class="mw-redirect" title="Freedom from want">freedom from want</a> and <a href="/wiki/Freedom_from_fear" title="Freedom from fear">freedom from fear</a>, Roosevelt laid out the case for an Allied battle for basic rights throughout the world. Assisted by Willkie, Roosevelt won Congressional approval of the <a href="/wiki/Lend-Lease" title="Lend-Lease">Lend-Lease</a> program, which directed massive military and economic aid to Britain and China.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007488%E2%80%9390-256">[247]</a> In sharp contrast to the loans of World War I, there would be no repayment.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns197095-257">[248]</a> As Roosevelt took a firmer stance against Japan, Germany, and Italy, American isolationists such as Charles Lindbergh and the <a href="/wiki/America_First_Committee" title="America First Committee">America First Committee</a> vehemently attacked Roosevelt as an irresponsible warmonger.<a href="#cite_note-258">[249]</a> When Germany <a href="/wiki/Operation_Barbarossa" title="Operation Barbarossa">invaded</a> the Soviet Union in June 1941, Roosevelt agreed to extend Lend-Lease to the Soviets. Thus, Roosevelt had committed the U.S. to the <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allied</a> side with a policy of "all aid short of war".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChurchill1977119-259">[250]</a> By July 1941, Roosevelt authorized the creation of the <a href="/wiki/Office_of_the_Coordinator_of_Inter-American_Affairs" title="Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs">Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs</a> to counter perceived propaganda efforts in Latin America by Germany and Italy.<a href="#cite_note-260">[251]</a><a href="#cite_note-261">[252]</a> In August 1941, Roosevelt and Churchill conducted a secret bilateral meeting in which they drafted the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Charter" title="Atlantic Charter">Atlantic Charter</a>, conceptually outlining global wartime and postwar goals. This would be the first of several <a href="/wiki/List_of_World_War_II_conferences" class="mw-redirect" title="List of World War II conferences">wartime conferences</a>;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns1970126%E2%80%9328-262">[253]</a> Churchill and Roosevelt would meet ten more times in person.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGunther195015%E2%80%9316-263">[254]</a> Though Churchill pressed for an American declaration of war against Germany, Roosevelt believed that Congress would reject any attempt to bring the U.S. into the war.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007502-264">[255]</a> In September, a German submarine fired on the U.S. destroyer Greer, and Roosevelt declared that the U.S. Navy would assume an escort role for Allied convoys in the Atlantic as far east as Britain and would fire upon German ships or <a href="/wiki/U-boat" title="U-boat">U-boats</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Kriegsmarine" title="Kriegsmarine">Kriegsmarine</a> if they entered the U.S. Navy zone. This "shoot on sight" policy brought the U.S. Navy into direct conflict with German submarines and was favored by Americans by a margin of 2-to-1.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns1970141%E2%80%9342-265">[256]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Pearl_Harbor_and_declarations_of_war">Pearl Harbor and declarations of war</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Events_leading_to_the_attack_on_Pearl_Harbor" class="mw-redirect" title="Events leading to the attack on Pearl Harbor">Events leading to the attack on Pearl Harbor</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Prince_of_Wales-5.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Prince_of_Wales-5.jpg/220px-Prince_of_Wales-5.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="175" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="740" data-file-height="587"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 175px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Prince_of_Wales-5.jpg/220px-Prince_of_Wales-5.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="175" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Prince_of_Wales-5.jpg/330px-Prince_of_Wales-5.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Prince_of_Wales-5.jpg/440px-Prince_of_Wales-5.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Roosevelt and <a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a> aboard HMS Prince of Wales for 1941 Atlantic Charter meeting</figcaption></figure> After the German invasion of Poland, the primary concern of both Roosevelt and his top military staff was on the war in Europe, but Japan also presented foreign policy challenges. Relations with Japan had continually deteriorated since its <a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_Manchuria" title="Japanese invasion of Manchuria">invasion of Manchuria</a> in 1931 and worsened further with Roosevelt's support of China.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007506%E2%80%9308-266">[257]</a> After Roosevelt announced a $100 million loan (equivalent to $2.2 billion in 2023) to China in reaction to Japan's occupation of northern French Indochina, Japan signed the <a href="/wiki/Tripartite_Pact" title="Tripartite Pact">Tripartite Pact</a> with Germany and Italy; Germany, Japan, and Italy became known as the <a href="/wiki/Axis_powers" title="Axis powers">Axis powers</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007510%E2%80%9311-267">[258]</a> In July 1941, after Japan occupied the remainder of French Indochina, Roosevelt cut off the sale of oil to Japan, depriving Japan of more than 95 percent of its oil supply.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns1970134%E2%80%9346-268">[259]</a> He also placed the <a href="/wiki/Armed_Forces_of_the_Philippines" title="Armed Forces of the Philippines">Philippine military</a> under American command and reinstated General <a href="/wiki/Douglas_MacArthur" title="Douglas MacArthur">Douglas MacArthur</a> into active duty to command U.S. forces in the Philippines.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007516%E2%80%9317-269">[260]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:328px;max-width:328px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:162px;max-width:162px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Franklin_Roosevelt_signing_declaration_of_war_against_Japan.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Franklin_Roosevelt_signing_declaration_of_war_against_Japan.jpg/160px-Franklin_Roosevelt_signing_declaration_of_war_against_Japan.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="201" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2173" data-file-height="2731"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 160px;height: 201px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Franklin_Roosevelt_signing_declaration_of_war_against_Japan.jpg/160px-Franklin_Roosevelt_signing_declaration_of_war_against_Japan.jpg" data-alt="" data-width="160" data-height="201" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Franklin_Roosevelt_signing_declaration_of_war_against_Japan.jpg/240px-Franklin_Roosevelt_signing_declaration_of_war_against_Japan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Franklin_Roosevelt_signing_declaration_of_war_against_Japan.jpg/320px-Franklin_Roosevelt_signing_declaration_of_war_against_Japan.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:162px;max-width:162px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Franklin_Roosevelt_signing_declaration_of_war_against_Germany.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Franklin_Roosevelt_signing_declaration_of_war_against_Germany.jpg/160px-Franklin_Roosevelt_signing_declaration_of_war_against_Germany.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="201" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="923" data-file-height="1162"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 160px;height: 201px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Franklin_Roosevelt_signing_declaration_of_war_against_Germany.jpg/160px-Franklin_Roosevelt_signing_declaration_of_war_against_Germany.jpg" data-alt="" data-width="160" data-height="201" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Franklin_Roosevelt_signing_declaration_of_war_against_Germany.jpg/240px-Franklin_Roosevelt_signing_declaration_of_war_against_Germany.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Franklin_Roosevelt_signing_declaration_of_war_against_Germany.jpg/320px-Franklin_Roosevelt_signing_declaration_of_war_against_Germany.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Roosevelt signing <a href="/wiki/United_States_declaration_of_war_on_Japan" title="United States declaration of war on Japan">declaration of war against Japan</a> (left) on December 8 and <a href="/wiki/United_States_declaration_of_war_upon_Germany_(1941)" class="mw-redirect" title="United States declaration of war upon Germany (1941)">against Germany</a> (right) on December 11, 1941</div></div></div></div> The Japanese were incensed by the embargo and Japanese leaders became determined to attack the United States unless it lifted the embargo. The Roosevelt administration was unwilling to reverse the policy, and Secretary of State Hull blocked a potential summit between Roosevelt and Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Fumimaro_Konoe" title="Fumimaro Konoe">Fumimaro Konoe</a>.<a href="#cite_note-271">[j]</a> After diplomatic efforts failed, the <a href="/wiki/Privy_Council_of_Japan" title="Privy Council of Japan">Privy Council of Japan</a> authorized a strike against the United States.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007518%E2%80%9330-272">[262]</a> The Japanese believed that the destruction of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Asiatic_Fleet" title="United States Asiatic Fleet">United States Asiatic Fleet</a> (stationed in the Philippines) and the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Pacific_Fleet" title="United States Pacific Fleet">United States Pacific Fleet</a> (stationed at <a href="/wiki/Pearl_Harbor" title="Pearl Harbor">Pearl Harbor</a> in <a href="/wiki/Hawaii" title="Hawaii">Hawaii</a>) was vital to the conquest of Southeast Asia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007531%E2%80%9333-273">[263]</a> On December 7, 1941, the Japanese <a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor" title="Attack on Pearl Harbor">launched a surprise attack on Pearl Harbor</a>, knocking out the main American <a href="/wiki/Battleship" title="Battleship">battleship</a> fleet and killing 2,403 American servicemen and civilians. At the same time, separate Japanese task forces <a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_Thailand" title="Japanese invasion of Thailand">attacked Thailand</a>, British <a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a>, the Philippines, and other targets. Roosevelt called for war in his "<a href="/wiki/Infamy_Speech" class="mw-redirect" title="Infamy Speech">Infamy Speech</a>" to Congress, in which he said: "Yesterday, December 7, 1941—a date which will live in infamy—the United States of America was suddenly and deliberately attacked by naval and air forces of the Empire of Japan." In a nearly unanimous vote, Congress <a href="/wiki/United_States_declaration_of_war_on_Japan" title="United States declaration of war on Japan">declared war on Japan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007533%E2%80%9339-274">[264]</a> After Pearl Harbor, antiwar sentiment in the United States largely evaporated overnight. On December 11, 1941, Hitler and Mussolini declared war on the United States, which <a href="/wiki/United_States_declaration_of_war_upon_Germany_(1941)" class="mw-redirect" title="United States declaration of war upon Germany (1941)">responded in kind</a>.<a href="#cite_note-275">[k]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESainsbury1994184-276">[265]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1096940132"><div class="side-box side-box-left listen noprint listen-left"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg/50px-Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 50px;height: 50px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg/50px-Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="50" data-height="50" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg/75px-Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg/100px-Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> <figcaption></figcaption></figure></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><div class="haudio"> <div class="listen-file-header"><a href="/wiki/File:Roosevelt_Pearl_Harbor.ogg" title="File:Roosevelt Pearl Harbor.ogg">FDR Pearl Harbor speech</a></div> <div><audio id="mwe_player_4" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="232" style="width:232px;" data-durationhint="522" data-mwtitle="Roosevelt_Pearl_Harbor.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fd/Roosevelt_Pearl_Harbor.ogg" type='audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"' data-width="0" data-height="0"></source><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/f/fd/Roosevelt_Pearl_Harbor.ogg/Roosevelt_Pearl_Harbor.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0"></source><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ARoosevelt_Pearl_Harbor.ogg&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr"></track><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ARoosevelt_Pearl_Harbor.ogg&lang=fr&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="fr" label="français ‪(fr)‬" data-dir="ltr"></track><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ARoosevelt_Pearl_Harbor.ogg&lang=ja&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="ja" label="日本語 ‪(ja)‬" data-dir="ltr"></track></audio></div> <div class="description">Speech given before Joint Session of Congress in entirety. (3.1 <a href="/wiki/Megabyte" title="Megabyte">MB</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ogg" title="Ogg">ogg</a>/<a href="/wiki/Vorbis" title="Vorbis">Vorbis</a> format).</div></div><hr><div class="haudio"> <div class="listen-file-header"><a href="/wiki/File:Roosevelt_Infamy.ogg" title="File:Roosevelt Infamy.ogg">"A date which will live in infamy"</a></div> <div><audio id="mwe_player_5" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="232" style="width:232px;" data-durationhint="27" data-mwtitle="Roosevelt_Infamy.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/7e/Roosevelt_Infamy.ogg/Roosevelt_Infamy.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0"></source><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7e/Roosevelt_Infamy.ogg" type='audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"' data-width="0" data-height="0"></source><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ARoosevelt_Infamy.ogg&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr"></track></audio></div> <div class="description">Section of Pearl Harbor speech including "infamy" line. (168 <a href="/wiki/Kilobyte" title="Kilobyte">KB</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ogg" title="Ogg">ogg</a>/<a href="/wiki/Vorbis" title="Vorbis">Vorbis</a> format).</div></div></div></div> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"><hr>Problems playing these files? See <a href="/wiki/Help:Media" title="Help:Media">media help</a>.</div> </div> A majority of scholars have rejected the <a href="/wiki/Pearl_Harbor_advance-knowledge_conspiracy_theory" title="Pearl Harbor advance-knowledge conspiracy theory">conspiracy theories</a> that Roosevelt, or any other high government officials, knew in advance about the attack on Pearl Harbor.<a href="#cite_note-277">[266]</a> The Japanese had kept their secrets closely guarded, so it is unlikely that American officials were aware of Japanese plans for a surprise attack on the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Pacific_Fleet" title="United States Pacific Fleet">Pacific Fleet</a>. Senior American officials were aware that war was imminent, but they did not expect an attack on Pearl Harbor.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007523%E2%80%9339-278">[267]</a> Roosevelt assumed that the Japanese would attack either the Dutch East Indies or Thailand.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns1970159-279">[268]</a> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="War_plans">War plans</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ww2_allied_axis_1942_jun.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Ww2_allied_axis_1942_jun.png/300px-Ww2_allied_axis_1942_jun.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="127" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1480" data-file-height="628"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 300px;height: 127px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Ww2_allied_axis_1942_jun.png/300px-Ww2_allied_axis_1942_jun.png" data-width="300" data-height="127" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Ww2_allied_axis_1942_jun.png/450px-Ww2_allied_axis_1942_jun.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Ww2_allied_axis_1942_jun.png/600px-Ww2_allied_axis_1942_jun.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Territory controlled by the Allies (blue and red) and the Axis Powers (black) in June 1942</figcaption></figure> In late December 1941, Churchill and Roosevelt met at the <a href="/wiki/Arcadia_Conference" title="Arcadia Conference">Arcadia Conference</a>, which established a joint strategy between the U.S. and Britain. Both agreed on a <a href="/wiki/Europe_first" title="Europe first">Europe first</a> strategy that prioritized the defeat of Germany before Japan. The U.S. and Britain established the <a href="/wiki/Combined_Chiefs_of_Staff" title="Combined Chiefs of Staff">Combined Chiefs of Staff</a> to coordinate military policy and the <a href="/wiki/Combined_Munitions_Assignments_Board" title="Combined Munitions Assignments Board">Combined Munitions Assignments Board</a> to coordinate the allocation of supplies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007545%E2%80%9347-280">[269]</a> An agreement was also reached to establish a centralized command in the Pacific theater called <a href="/wiki/ABDA" class="mw-redirect" title="ABDA">ABDA</a>, named for the American, British, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Netherlands" title="Kingdom of the Netherlands">Dutch</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australian</a> forces in the theater.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns1970180%E2%80%9385-281">[270]</a> On January 1, 1942, the United States and the other <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allied Powers</a> issued the <a href="/wiki/Declaration_by_United_Nations" title="Declaration by United Nations">Declaration by United Nations</a>, in which each nation pledged to defeat the Axis powers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007547-282">[271]</a> In 1942, Roosevelt formed a new body, the <a href="/wiki/Joint_Chiefs_of_Staff" title="Joint Chiefs of Staff">Joint Chiefs of Staff</a>, which made the final decisions on American military strategy. Admiral <a href="/wiki/Ernest_J._King" title="Ernest J. King">Ernest J. King</a> as <a href="/wiki/Chief_of_Naval_Operations" title="Chief of Naval Operations">Chief of Naval Operations</a> commanded the Navy and Marines, while General <a href="/wiki/George_C._Marshall" title="George C. Marshall">George C. Marshall</a> led the Army and was in nominal control of the Air Force, which in practice was commanded by General <a href="/wiki/Hap_Arnold" class="mw-redirect" title="Hap Arnold">Hap Arnold</a>.<a href="#cite_note-283">[272]</a> The Joint Chiefs were chaired by Admiral <a href="/wiki/William_D._Leahy" title="William D. Leahy">William D. Leahy</a>, the most senior officer in the military.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007546-284">[273]</a> Roosevelt avoided micromanaging the war and let his top military officers make most decisions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007598%E2%80%9399-285">[274]</a> Roosevelt's civilian appointees handled the draft and procurement of men and equipment, but no civilians—not even the secretaries of War or Navy—had a voice in strategy. Roosevelt avoided the State Department and conducted high-level diplomacy through his aides, especially Harry Hopkins, whose influence was bolstered by his control of the Lend-Lease funds.<a href="#cite_note-286">[275]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Nuclear_program">Nuclear program</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_nuclear_weapons" title="History of nuclear weapons">History of nuclear weapons</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_of_the_United_States" title="Nuclear weapons of the United States">Nuclear weapons of the United States</a></div> In August 1939, <a href="/wiki/Leo_Szilard" title="Leo Szilard">Leo Szilard</a> and <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a> sent the <a href="/wiki/Einstein%E2%80%93Szil%C3%A1rd_letter" class="mw-redirect" title="Einstein–Szilárd letter">Einstein–Szilárd letter</a> to Roosevelt, warning of the possibility of a German <a href="/wiki/German_nuclear_weapon_project" class="mw-redirect" title="German nuclear weapon project">project</a> to develop <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">nuclear weapons</a>. Szilard realized that the recently discovered process of <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">nuclear fission</a> could be used to create a <a href="/wiki/Weapon_of_mass_destruction" title="Weapon of mass destruction">weapon of mass destruction</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrands2009678%E2%80%9380-287">[276]</a> Roosevelt feared the consequences of allowing Germany to have sole possession of the technology and authorized preliminary research into nuclear weapons.<a href="#cite_note-289">[l]</a> After Pearl Harbor, the Roosevelt administration secured funding to continue research and selected General <a href="/wiki/Leslie_Groves" title="Leslie Groves">Leslie Groves</a> to oversee the <a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a>, which was charged with developing the first nuclear weapons. Roosevelt and Churchill agreed to jointly pursue the project, and Roosevelt helped ensure that American scientists cooperated with their British counterparts.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007578%E2%80%9381-290">[278]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Wartime_conferences">Wartime conferences</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Diplomatic_history_of_World_War_II" title="Diplomatic history of World War II">Diplomatic history of World War II</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:224px;max-width:224px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:222px;max-width:222px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Cairo_conference.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Cairo_conference.jpg/220px-Cairo_conference.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="170" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2005" data-file-height="1551"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 170px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Cairo_conference.jpg/220px-Cairo_conference.jpg" data-alt="" data-width="220" data-height="170" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Cairo_conference.jpg/330px-Cairo_conference.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Cairo_conference.jpg/440px-Cairo_conference.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Chiang Kai-shek, Roosevelt, and Winston Churchill at the <a href="/wiki/Cairo_Conference" title="Cairo Conference">Cairo Conference</a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:222px;max-width:222px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Yalta_Conference_(Churchill,_Roosevelt,_Stalin)_(B%26W).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Yalta_Conference_%28Churchill%2C_Roosevelt%2C_Stalin%29_%28B%26W%29.jpg/220px-Yalta_Conference_%28Churchill%2C_Roosevelt%2C_Stalin%29_%28B%26W%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="181" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2720" data-file-height="2239"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 181px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Yalta_Conference_%28Churchill%2C_Roosevelt%2C_Stalin%29_%28B%26W%29.jpg/220px-Yalta_Conference_%28Churchill%2C_Roosevelt%2C_Stalin%29_%28B%26W%29.jpg" data-alt="" data-width="220" data-height="181" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Yalta_Conference_%28Churchill%2C_Roosevelt%2C_Stalin%29_%28B%26W%29.jpg/330px-Yalta_Conference_%28Churchill%2C_Roosevelt%2C_Stalin%29_%28B%26W%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Yalta_Conference_%28Churchill%2C_Roosevelt%2C_Stalin%29_%28B%26W%29.jpg/440px-Yalta_Conference_%28Churchill%2C_Roosevelt%2C_Stalin%29_%28B%26W%29.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Churchill, Roosevelt, and Stalin at the <a href="/wiki/Yalta_Conference" title="Yalta Conference">Yalta Conference</a>, February 1945, two months before Roosevelt's death</div></div></div></div></div> Roosevelt coined the term "<a href="/wiki/Four_Policemen" title="Four Policemen">Four Policemen</a>" to refer to the "Big Four" Allied powers of World War II: the United States, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, and China. The "<a href="/wiki/Grand_Alliance_(World_War_II)" class="mw-redirect" title="Grand Alliance (World War II)">Big Three</a>" of Roosevelt, <a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a>, and Soviet leader <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a>, together with Chinese Generalissimo <a href="/wiki/Chiang_Kai-shek" title="Chiang Kai-shek">Chiang Kai-shek</a>, cooperated informally on a plan in which American and British troops concentrated in the West; Soviet troops fought on the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Eastern Front (World War II)">Eastern front</a>; and Chinese, British and American troops fought in Asia and the Pacific. The United States also continued to send aid via the Lend-Lease program to the Soviet Union and other countries. The Allies formulated strategy in a series of high-profile conferences as well as by contact through diplomatic and military channels.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoeneckeStoler2005109%E2%80%9310-291">[279]</a> Beginning in May 1942, the Soviets urged an Anglo-American invasion of German-occupied France to divert troops from the Eastern front.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007557%E2%80%9359-292">[280]</a> Concerned that their forces were not yet ready, Churchill and Roosevelt decided to delay such an invasion until at least 1943 and instead focus on a landing in North Africa, known as <a href="/wiki/Operation_Torch" title="Operation Torch">Operation Torch</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007560%E2%80%9361-293">[281]</a> In November 1943, Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin met to discuss strategy and post-war plans at the <a href="/wiki/Tehran_Conference" title="Tehran Conference">Tehran Conference</a>, where Roosevelt met Stalin for the first time.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007587%E2%80%9388-294">[282]</a> Britain and the United States committed to opening a second front against Germany in 1944, while Stalin committed to entering the war against Japan at an unspecified date. Subsequent conferences at <a href="/wiki/Bretton_Woods_Conference" title="Bretton Woods Conference">Bretton Woods</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dumbarton_Oaks_Conference" title="Dumbarton Oaks Conference">Dumbarton Oaks</a> established the framework for the post-war <a href="/wiki/International_monetary_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="International monetary systems">international monetary system</a> and the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a>, an intergovernmental organization similar to the failed League of Nations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeuchtenburg2015214%E2%80%9316-295">[283]</a> Taking up the <a href="/wiki/Wilsonian" class="mw-redirect" title="Wilsonian">Wilsonian</a> mantle, Roosevelt pushed the establishment of the United Nations as his highest postwar priority. Roosevelt expected it would be controlled by Washington, Moscow, London and Beijing, and would resolve all major world problems.<a href="#cite_note-296">[284]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:352px;max-width:352px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:169px;max-width:169px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:132px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Emperor_Haile_Selassie_I_with_President_FDR.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Emperor_Haile_Selassie_I_with_President_FDR.jpg/167px-Emperor_Haile_Selassie_I_with_President_FDR.jpg" decoding="async" width="167" height="132" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="951"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 167px;height: 132px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Emperor_Haile_Selassie_I_with_President_FDR.jpg/167px-Emperor_Haile_Selassie_I_with_President_FDR.jpg" data-alt="" data-width="167" data-height="132" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Emperor_Haile_Selassie_I_with_President_FDR.jpg/251px-Emperor_Haile_Selassie_I_with_President_FDR.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Emperor_Haile_Selassie_I_with_President_FDR.jpg/334px-Emperor_Haile_Selassie_I_with_President_FDR.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:179px;max-width:179px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:132px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Franklin_D._Roosevelt_and_King_Farouk_of_Egypt_at_Great_Bitter_Lake_in_Egypt_-_NARA_-_196056.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Franklin_D._Roosevelt_and_King_Farouk_of_Egypt_at_Great_Bitter_Lake_in_Egypt_-_NARA_-_196056.jpg/177px-Franklin_D._Roosevelt_and_King_Farouk_of_Egypt_at_Great_Bitter_Lake_in_Egypt_-_NARA_-_196056.jpg" decoding="async" width="177" height="132" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2939" data-file-height="2194"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 177px;height: 132px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Franklin_D._Roosevelt_and_King_Farouk_of_Egypt_at_Great_Bitter_Lake_in_Egypt_-_NARA_-_196056.jpg/177px-Franklin_D._Roosevelt_and_King_Farouk_of_Egypt_at_Great_Bitter_Lake_in_Egypt_-_NARA_-_196056.jpg" data-alt="" data-width="177" data-height="132" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Franklin_D._Roosevelt_and_King_Farouk_of_Egypt_at_Great_Bitter_Lake_in_Egypt_-_NARA_-_196056.jpg/266px-Franklin_D._Roosevelt_and_King_Farouk_of_Egypt_at_Great_Bitter_Lake_in_Egypt_-_NARA_-_196056.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Franklin_D._Roosevelt_and_King_Farouk_of_Egypt_at_Great_Bitter_Lake_in_Egypt_-_NARA_-_196056.jpg/354px-Franklin_D._Roosevelt_and_King_Farouk_of_Egypt_at_Great_Bitter_Lake_in_Egypt_-_NARA_-_196056.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Ethiopian Emperor <a href="/wiki/Haile_Selassie_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Haile Selassie I">Haile Selassie I</a> (left) and <a href="/wiki/King_Farouk_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="King Farouk of Egypt">King Farouk of Egypt</a> (right) on board USS Quincy (CA-71) in Great Bitter Lake, after the Yalta Conference, February 1945</div></div></div></div> Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin met for a second time at the February 1945 <a href="/wiki/Yalta_Conference" title="Yalta Conference">Yalta Conference</a> in Crimea. With the end of the war in Europe approaching, Roosevelt's primary focus was convincing Stalin to enter the war against Japan; the Joint Chiefs had estimated that an <a href="/wiki/Operation_Downfall" title="Operation Downfall">American invasion of Japan</a> would cause as many as one million American casualties. In return, the Soviet Union was promised control of Asian territories such as <a href="/wiki/Sakhalin_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="Sakhalin Island">Sakhalin Island</a>. The three leaders agreed to hold a conference in 1945 to establish the United Nations, and they also agreed on the structure of the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council" title="United Nations Security Council">United Nations Security Council</a>, which would be charged with ensuring <a href="/wiki/International_security" title="International security">international security</a>. Roosevelt did not push for the immediate evacuation of Soviet soldiers from Poland, but he won the issuance of the Declaration on Liberated Europe, which promised free elections in countries that had been occupied by Germany. Germany itself would not be dismembered but would be jointly occupied by the United States, France, Britain, and the Soviet Union.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007623%E2%80%9324-297">[285]</a> Against Soviet pressure, Roosevelt and Churchill refused to consent to impose huge reparations and deindustrialization on Germany after the war.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeuchtenburg2015233%E2%80%9334-298">[286]</a> Roosevelt's role in the <a href="/wiki/Yalta_Conference" title="Yalta Conference">Yalta Conference</a> has been controversial; critics charge that he naively trusted the Soviet Union to allow free elections in Eastern Europe, while supporters argue that there was little more that Roosevelt could have done for the Eastern European countries given the Soviet occupation and the need for cooperation with the Soviet Union.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring2008584%E2%80%9387-299">[287]</a><a href="#cite_note-ebumiller1-300">[288]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Course_of_the_war">Course of the war</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the United States during World War II">Military history of the United States during World War II</a></div> The Allies invaded <a href="/wiki/French_North_Africa" title="French North Africa">French North Africa</a> in November 1942, securing the surrender of <a href="/wiki/Vichy_France" title="Vichy France">Vichy French</a> forces within days of landing.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007563%E2%80%9364-301">[289]</a> At the January 1943 <a href="/wiki/Casablanca_Conference" title="Casablanca Conference">Casablanca Conference</a>, the Allies agreed to defeat Axis forces in North Africa and then launch an invasion of Sicily, with an attack on France to take place in 1944. At the conference, Roosevelt also announced that he would only accept the <a href="/wiki/Unconditional_surrender" title="Unconditional surrender">unconditional surrender</a> of Germany, Japan, and Italy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007565%E2%80%9367-302">[290]</a> In February 1943, the Soviet Union won a major victory at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Stalingrad" title="Battle of Stalingrad">Battle of Stalingrad</a>, and in May 1943, the Allies secured the surrender of over 250,000 German and Italian soldiers in North Africa, ending the <a href="/wiki/North_African_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="North African Campaign">North African Campaign</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007573%E2%80%9374-303">[291]</a> The Allies launched an <a href="/wiki/Allied_invasion_of_Sicily" title="Allied invasion of Sicily">invasion of Sicily</a> in July 1943, capturing the island the following month.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007575%E2%80%9376-304">[292]</a> In September 1943, the Allies secured an <a href="/wiki/Armistice_of_Cassibile" title="Armistice of Cassibile">armistice</a> from Italian prime minister <a href="/wiki/Pietro_Badoglio" title="Pietro Badoglio">Pietro Badoglio</a>, but Germany quickly restored Mussolini to power.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007575%E2%80%9376-304">[292]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Allied_invasion_of_Italy" title="Allied invasion of Italy">Allied invasion of mainland Italy</a> commenced in September 1943, but the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Campaign_(World_War_II)" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Campaign (World War II)">Italian Campaign</a> continued until 1945 as German and Italian troops resisted the Allied advance.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007581%E2%80%9382-305">[293]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ww2_allied_axis_1944_dec.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Ww2_allied_axis_1944_dec.png/300px-Ww2_allied_axis_1944_dec.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="127" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1480" data-file-height="628"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 300px;height: 127px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Ww2_allied_axis_1944_dec.png/300px-Ww2_allied_axis_1944_dec.png" data-width="300" data-height="127" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Ww2_allied_axis_1944_dec.png/450px-Ww2_allied_axis_1944_dec.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Ww2_allied_axis_1944_dec.png/600px-Ww2_allied_axis_1944_dec.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The Allies (blue and red) and the Axis Powers (black) in December 1944</figcaption></figure> To command the invasion of France, Roosevelt chose General <a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Dwight D. Eisenhower</a>, who had successfully commanded a multinational coalition in North Africa and Sicily.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007596%E2%80%9397-306">[294]</a> Eisenhower launched <a href="/wiki/Operation_Overlord" title="Operation Overlord">Operation Overlord</a> on June 6, 1944. Supported by 12,000 aircraft and the largest naval force ever assembled, the Allies successfully established a beachhead in <a href="/wiki/Normandy" title="Normandy">Normandy</a> and then advanced further into France.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007598%E2%80%9399-285">[274]</a> Though reluctant to back an unelected government, Roosevelt recognized <a href="/wiki/Charles_de_Gaulle" title="Charles de Gaulle">Charles de Gaulle</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_French_Republic" title="Provisional Government of the French Republic">Provisional Government of the French Republic</a> as the de facto government of France in July 1944. After most of France had been liberated, Roosevelt granted formal recognition to de Gaulle's government in October 1944.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007613%E2%80%9317-307">[295]</a> Over the following months, the Allies liberated more territory and <a href="/wiki/Western_Allied_invasion_of_Germany" title="Western Allied invasion of Germany">began the invasion of Germany</a>. By April 1945, Nazi resistance was crumbling in the face of advances by both the Western Allies and the Soviet Union.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007630%E2%80%9331-308">[296]</a> In the opening weeks of the war, Japan conquered the Philippines and the British and Dutch colonies in Southeast Asia. The Japanese advance reached its maximum extent by June 1942, when the U.S. Navy scored a decisive victory at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Midway" title="Battle of Midway">Battle of Midway</a>. American and Australian forces then began a slow and costly strategy called <a href="/wiki/Leapfrogging_(strategy)" title="Leapfrogging (strategy)">island hopping</a> or <a href="/wiki/Leapfrogging" title="Leapfrogging">leapfrogging</a> through the Pacific Islands, with the objective of gaining bases from which strategic airpower could be brought to bear on Japan and from which Japan could ultimately be invaded. In contrast to Hitler, Roosevelt took no direct part in the tactical naval operations, though he approved strategic decisions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns1970228-309">[297]</a> Roosevelt gave way in part to insistent demands from the public and Congress that more effort be devoted against Japan, but he always insisted on Germany first. The strength of the Japanese navy was decimated in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Leyte_Gulf" title="Battle of Leyte Gulf">Battle of Leyte Gulf</a>, and by April 1945 the Allies had re-captured much of their lost territory in the Pacific.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrands2009785-310">[298]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Home_front">Home front</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/United_States_home_front_during_World_War_II" title="United States home front during World War II">United States home front during World War II</a></div> The home front was subject to dynamic social changes throughout the war, though domestic issues were no longer Roosevelt's most urgent policy concern. The military buildup spurred economic growth. Unemployment fell from 7.7 million in spring 1940 to 3.4 million in fall 1941 and to 1.5 million in fall 1942, out of a labor force of 54 million.<a href="#cite_note-312">[m]</a> There was a growing labor shortage, accelerating the second wave of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Great Migration (African American)">Great Migration</a> of African Americans, farmers and rural populations to manufacturing centers. African Americans from the South went to California and other West Coast states for new jobs in the defense industry. To pay for increased government spending, in 1941 Roosevelt proposed that Congress enact an income tax rate of 99.5% on all income over $100,000; when the proposal failed, he issued an executive order imposing an income tax of 100% on income over $25,000, which Congress rescinded.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchweikartAllen2004602-313">[300]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Revenue_Act_of_1942" title="Revenue Act of 1942">Revenue Act of 1942</a> instituted top tax rates as high as 94% (after accounting for the <a href="/wiki/Excess_profits_tax" title="Excess profits tax">excess profits tax</a>), greatly increased the tax base, and instituted the first federal <a href="/wiki/Withholding_tax" class="mw-redirect" title="Withholding tax">withholding tax</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeuchtenburg2015221%E2%80%9322-314">[301]</a> In 1944, Roosevelt requested that Congress enact legislation to tax all "unreasonable" profits, both corporate and individual, and thereby support his declared need for over $10 billion in revenue for the war and other government measures. Congress overrode Roosevelt's veto to pass a <a href="/wiki/Individual_Income_Tax_Act_of_1944" title="Individual Income Tax Act of 1944">smaller revenue bill</a> raising $2 billion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns1970436-315">[302]</a> In 1942, war production increased dramatically but fell short of Roosevelt's goals, due in part to manpower shortages.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns1970333-316">[303]</a> The effort was also hindered by numerous strikes, especially in the coal mining and railroad industries, which lasted well into 1944.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns1970343-317">[304]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerman2012139%E2%80%9344,_151,_246-318">[305]</a> Nonetheless, between 1941 and 1945, the United States produced 2.4 million trucks, 300,000 military aircraft, 88,400 tanks, and 40 billion rounds of ammunition. The production capacity of the United States dwarfed that of other countries; for example, in 1944, the United States produced more military aircraft than the combined production of Germany, Japan, Britain, and the Soviet Union.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007571%E2%80%9372-319">[306]</a> The White House became the ultimate site for labor mediation, conciliation or arbitration. One particular battle royale occurred between Vice President Wallace, who headed the <a href="/wiki/Board_of_Economic_Warfare" title="Board of Economic Warfare">Board of Economic Warfare</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Jesse_H._Jones" title="Jesse H. Jones">Jesse H. Jones</a>, in charge of the <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Finance_Corporation" title="Reconstruction Finance Corporation">Reconstruction Finance Corporation</a>; both agencies assumed responsibility for the acquisition of rubber supplies and came to loggerheads over funding. Roosevelt resolved the dispute by dissolving both agencies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns1970339%E2%80%9342-320">[307]</a> In 1943, Roosevelt established the <a href="/wiki/Office_of_War_Mobilization" title="Office of War Mobilization">Office of War Mobilization</a> to oversee the home front; the agency was led by <a href="/wiki/James_F._Byrnes" title="James F. Byrnes">James F. Byrnes</a>, who came to be known as the "assistant president" due to his influence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007575%E2%80%9376-304">[292]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><video id="mwe_player_6" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Second_Bill_of_Rights_Speech.ogv/220px--Second_Bill_of_Rights_Speech.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="169" data-durationhint="95" data-mwtitle="Second_Bill_of_Rights_Speech.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Second_Bill_of_Rights_Speech.ogv"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/b0/Second_Bill_of_Rights_Speech.ogv/Second_Bill_of_Rights_Speech.ogv.360p.vp9.webm" type='video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"' data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="470" data-height="360"></source><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/b0/Second_Bill_of_Rights_Speech.ogv/Second_Bill_of_Rights_Speech.ogv.360p.webm" type='video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"' data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="470" data-height="360"></source><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/b0/Second_Bill_of_Rights_Speech.ogv/Second_Bill_of_Rights_Speech.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type='video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"' data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="312" data-height="240"></source><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b0/Second_Bill_of_Rights_Speech.ogv" type='video/ogg; codecs="theora, vorbis"' data-width="469" data-height="360"></source><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ASecond_Bill_of_Rights_Speech.ogv&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr"></track><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ASecond_Bill_of_Rights_Speech.ogv&lang=sk&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="sk" label="slovenčina ‪(sk)‬" data-dir="ltr"></track></video><figcaption>Roosevelt announced the plan for a <a href="/wiki/Second_Bill_of_Rights" title="Second Bill of Rights">bill of social and economic rights</a> in the <a href="/wiki/State_of_the_Union_address" class="mw-redirect" title="State of the Union address">State of the Union address</a> broadcast on January 11, 1944 (excerpt).</figcaption></figure> Roosevelt's 1944 <a href="/wiki/State_of_the_Union_Address" class="mw-redirect" title="State of the Union Address">State of the Union Address</a> advocated that Americans should think of basic economic rights as a <a href="/wiki/Second_Bill_of_Rights" title="Second Bill of Rights">Second Bill of Rights</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeuchtenburg2015223%E2%80%9325-321">[308]</a> He stated that all Americans should have the right to "adequate medical care", "a good education", "a decent home", and a "useful and remunerative job".<a href="#cite_note-zeitzsbr-322">[309]</a> In the most ambitious domestic proposal of his third term, Roosevelt proposed the <a href="/wiki/G.I._Bill" title="G.I. Bill">G.I. Bill</a>, which would create a massive benefits program for returning soldiers. Benefits included <a href="/wiki/Higher_education" class="mw-redirect" title="Higher education">post-secondary education</a>, medical care, unemployment insurance, job counseling, and low-cost loans for homes and businesses. The G.I. Bill passed unanimously in both houses of Congress and was signed into law in June 1944. Of the fifteen million Americans who served in World War II, more than half benefitted from the educational opportunities provided for in the G.I. Bill.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007584%E2%80%9385-323">[310]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Declining_health">Declining health</h4></div> Roosevelt, a <a href="/wiki/Chain_smoking" title="Chain smoking">chain-smoker</a> throughout his adult life,<a href="#cite_note-nih-324">[311]</a><a href="#cite_note-smoker-325">[312]</a> had been in declining health since at least 1940. In March 1944, shortly after his 62nd birthday, he underwent testing at <a href="/wiki/Bethesda_Naval_Hospital" class="mw-redirect" title="Bethesda Naval Hospital">Bethesda Hospital</a> and was found to have <a href="/wiki/Hypertension" title="Hypertension">hypertension</a>, <a href="/wiki/Atherosclerosis" title="Atherosclerosis">atherosclerosis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coronary_artery_disease" title="Coronary artery disease">coronary artery disease</a> causing <a href="/wiki/Angina_pectoris" class="mw-redirect" title="Angina pectoris">angina pectoris</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Congestive_heart_failure" class="mw-redirect" title="Congestive heart failure">congestive heart failure</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns1970448-326">[313]</a><a href="#cite_note-327">[314]</a><a href="#cite_note-328">[315]</a> Hospital physicians and two outside specialists ordered Roosevelt to rest. His personal physician, Admiral Ross McIntire, created a daily schedule that banned business guests for lunch and incorporated two hours of rest daily. During the 1944 re-election campaign, McIntire denied several times that Roosevelt's health was poor; on October 12, for example, he announced that "The President's health is perfectly OK. There are absolutely no organic difficulties at all."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGunther1950372%E2%80%9374-329">[316]</a> Roosevelt realized that his declining health could eventually make it impossible for him to continue as president, and in 1945 he told a confidant that he might resign from the presidency following the end of the war.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallek2017618%E2%80%9319-330">[317]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Election_of_1944">Election of 1944</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/1944_United_States_presidential_election" title="1944 United States presidential election">1944 United States presidential election</a> and <a href="/wiki/1944_Democratic_Party_vice_presidential_candidate_selection" title="1944 Democratic Party vice presidential candidate selection">1944 Democratic Party vice presidential candidate selection</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ElectoralCollege1944.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/ElectoralCollege1944.svg/290px-ElectoralCollege1944.svg.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="169" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1020" data-file-height="593"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 290px;height: 169px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/ElectoralCollege1944.svg/290px-ElectoralCollege1944.svg.png" data-width="290" data-height="169" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/ElectoralCollege1944.svg/435px-ElectoralCollege1944.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/ElectoralCollege1944.svg/580px-ElectoralCollege1944.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>1944 electoral vote results</figcaption></figure> While some Democrats had opposed Roosevelt's nomination in 1940, the president faced little difficulty in securing his re-nomination at the <a href="/wiki/1944_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1944 Democratic National Convention">1944 Democratic National Convention</a>. Roosevelt made it clear before the convention that he was seeking another term, and on the lone presidential ballot of the convention, Roosevelt won the vast majority of delegates, although a minority of Southern Democrats voted for <a href="/wiki/Harry_F._Byrd" title="Harry F. Byrd">Harry F. Byrd</a>. Party leaders prevailed upon Roosevelt to drop Vice President Wallace from the ticket, believing him to be an electoral liability and a poor potential successor in case of Roosevelt's death. Roosevelt preferred Byrnes as Wallace's replacement but was convinced to support Senator <a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman" title="Harry S. Truman">Harry S. Truman</a> of Missouri, who had earned renown for his investigation of <a href="/wiki/Truman_Committee" title="Truman Committee">war production inefficiency</a> and was acceptable to the various factions of the party. On the second vice presidential ballot of the convention, Truman defeated Wallace to win the nomination.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007617%E2%80%9319-331">[318]</a> The Republicans nominated <a href="/wiki/Thomas_E._Dewey" title="Thomas E. Dewey">Thomas E. Dewey</a>, the governor of New York, who had a reputation as a liberal in his party. They accused the Roosevelt administration of domestic corruption and bureaucratic inefficiency, but Dewey's most effective gambit was to raise discreetly the age issue. He assailed the President as a "tired old man" with "tired old men" in his cabinet, pointedly suggesting that the President's lack of vigor had produced a less than vigorous economic recovery.<a href="#cite_note-FDR_Campaigns-135">[132]</a> Roosevelt, as most observers could see from his weight loss and haggard appearance, was a tired man in 1944. But upon entering the campaign in earnest in late September 1944, Roosevelt displayed enough passion to allay most concerns and deflect Republican attacks. With the war still raging, he urged voters not to "change horses in mid-stream".<a href="#cite_note-FDR_Campaigns-135">[132]</a> Labor unions, which had grown rapidly in the war, fully supported Roosevelt. Roosevelt and Truman won the <a href="/wiki/1944_United_States_presidential_election" title="1944 United States presidential election">1944 election</a>, defeating Dewey and his running mate <a href="/wiki/John_W._Bricker" title="John W. Bricker">John W. Bricker</a> with 53.4% of the popular vote and 432 out of the 531 electoral votes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan2011321-332">[319]</a> The president campaigned in favor of a strong United Nations, so his victory symbolized support for the nation's future participation in the international community.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns1970533,_562-333">[320]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Final_months_and_death">Final months and death</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:432px;max-width:432px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:164px;max-width:164px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:200px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:FDR-April-11-1945.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/FDR-April-11-1945.jpg/162px-FDR-April-11-1945.jpg" decoding="async" width="162" height="201" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2231" data-file-height="2763"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 162px;height: 201px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/FDR-April-11-1945.jpg/162px-FDR-April-11-1945.jpg" data-alt="" data-width="162" data-height="201" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/FDR-April-11-1945.jpg/243px-FDR-April-11-1945.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/FDR-April-11-1945.jpg/324px-FDR-April-11-1945.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Last photograph of Roosevelt, taken April 11, 1945, the day before his death</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:264px;max-width:264px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:200px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Franklin_Roosevelt_funeral_procession_1945.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Franklin_Roosevelt_funeral_procession_1945.jpg/262px-Franklin_Roosevelt_funeral_procession_1945.jpg" decoding="async" width="262" height="200" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1518" data-file-height="1161"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 262px;height: 200px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Franklin_Roosevelt_funeral_procession_1945.jpg/262px-Franklin_Roosevelt_funeral_procession_1945.jpg" data-alt="" data-width="262" data-height="200" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Franklin_Roosevelt_funeral_procession_1945.jpg/393px-Franklin_Roosevelt_funeral_procession_1945.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Franklin_Roosevelt_funeral_procession_1945.jpg/524px-Franklin_Roosevelt_funeral_procession_1945.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Roosevelt's funeral procession in Washington, D.C., watched by 300,000 spectators, April 14, 1945</div></div></div></div></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Franklin_Delano_Roosevelt_Gravesite_August_21,_2012.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Franklin_Delano_Roosevelt_Gravesite_August_21%2C_2012.jpg/220px-Franklin_Delano_Roosevelt_Gravesite_August_21%2C_2012.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="122" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2114" data-file-height="1177"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 122px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Franklin_Delano_Roosevelt_Gravesite_August_21%2C_2012.jpg/220px-Franklin_Delano_Roosevelt_Gravesite_August_21%2C_2012.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="122" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Franklin_Delano_Roosevelt_Gravesite_August_21%2C_2012.jpg/330px-Franklin_Delano_Roosevelt_Gravesite_August_21%2C_2012.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Franklin_Delano_Roosevelt_Gravesite_August_21%2C_2012.jpg/440px-Franklin_Delano_Roosevelt_Gravesite_August_21%2C_2012.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Graves of Franklin D. Roosevelt and Eleanor Roosevelt in Hyde Park, New York</figcaption></figure> When Roosevelt returned to the United States from the <a href="/wiki/Yalta_Conference" title="Yalta Conference">Yalta Conference</a>, many were shocked to see how old, thin and frail he looked. He spoke while seated in the well of the House, an unprecedented concession to his physical incapacity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallek1995520-334">[321]</a> During March 1945, he sent strongly worded messages to Stalin accusing him of breaking his Yalta commitments over Poland, Germany, <a href="/wiki/Prisoner_of_war" title="Prisoner of war">prisoners of war</a> and other issues. When Stalin accused the Western Allies of plotting behind his back a separate peace with Hitler, Roosevelt replied: "I cannot avoid a feeling of bitter resentment towards your informers, whoever they are, for such vile misrepresentations of my actions or those of my trusted subordinates."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns1970587-335">[322]</a> On March 29, 1945, Roosevelt departed for the <a href="/wiki/Little_White_House" title="Little White House">Little White House</a> in <a href="/wiki/Warm_Springs,_Georgia" title="Warm Springs, Georgia">Warm Springs, Georgia</a>, to rest before his anticipated appearance at the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Conference_on_International_Organization" title="United Nations Conference on International Organization">founding conference</a> of the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a>.<a href="#cite_note-dayb-336">[323]</a> In the afternoon of April 12, 1945, in <a href="/wiki/Warm_Springs,_Georgia" title="Warm Springs, Georgia">Warm Springs, Georgia</a>, while sitting for <a href="/wiki/Unfinished_portrait_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Unfinished portrait of Franklin D. Roosevelt">a portrait</a> by <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Shoumatoff" title="Elizabeth Shoumatoff">Elizabeth Shoumatoff</a>, Roosevelt said: "I have a terrific headache."<a href="#cite_note-dayb-336">[323]</a><a href="#cite_note-337">[324]</a> He then slumped forward in his chair, unconscious, and was carried into his bedroom. The president's attending cardiologist, <a href="/wiki/Howard_Bruenn" title="Howard Bruenn">Howard Bruenn</a>, diagnosed a massive <a href="/wiki/Intracerebral_hemorrhage" title="Intracerebral hemorrhage">intracerebral hemorrhage</a>.<a href="#cite_note-338">[325]</a> At 3:35 p.m., Roosevelt died at the age of 63.<a href="#cite_note-339">[326]</a> The following morning, Roosevelt's body was placed in a flag-draped coffin and loaded onto the presidential train for the trip back to Washington.<a href="#cite_note-340">[327]</a> Thousands flocked to the route to pay their respects. After a White House funeral on April 14, Roosevelt was transported by train from Washington to his birthplace at Hyde Park. On April 15 he was buried, per his wish, in the rose garden of his <a href="/wiki/Home_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt_National_Historic_Site" title="Home of Franklin D. Roosevelt National Historic Site">Springwood estate</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallek2017620-341">[328]</a> Roosevelt's declining physical health had been kept secret from the public. His death was met with shock and grief across the world.<a href="#cite_note-342">[329]</a> Germany surrendered during the 30-day mourning period, but Harry Truman (who had succeeded Roosevelt as president) ordered flags to remain at half-staff; he also dedicated <a href="/wiki/Victory_in_Europe_Day" title="Victory in Europe Day">Victory in Europe Day</a> and its celebrations to Roosevelt's memory.<a href="#cite_note-343">[330]</a> World War II ended with the signed <a href="/wiki/Surrender_of_Japan" title="Surrender of Japan">surrender of Japan</a> in September.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeuchtenburg2015243%E2%80%9352-344">[331]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(7)"><h2 id="Civil_rights,_repatriation,_internment,_and_the_Holocaust">Civil rights, repatriation, internment, and the Holocaust</h2></div><section class="mf-section-7 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-7"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt_and_civil_rights" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt and civil rights">Franklin D. Roosevelt and civil rights</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Froosevelt.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Froosevelt.jpeg/220px-Froosevelt.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="273" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2414" data-file-height="3000"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 273px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Froosevelt.jpeg/220px-Froosevelt.jpeg" data-width="220" data-height="273" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Froosevelt.jpeg/330px-Froosevelt.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Froosevelt.jpeg/440px-Froosevelt.jpeg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Official portrait of President Roosevelt by <a href="/wiki/Frank_O._Salisbury" title="Frank O. Salisbury">Frank O. Salisbury</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1947</figcaption></figure> Roosevelt was viewed as a hero by many African Americans, Catholics, and Jews, and he was highly successful in attracting large majorities of these voters into his New Deal coalition.<a href="#cite_note-345">[332]</a> From his first term until 1939, the <a href="/wiki/Mexican_Repatriation" title="Mexican Repatriation">Mexican Repatriation</a> started by President <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Hoover" title="Herbert Hoover">Herbert Hoover</a> continued under Roosevelt, which scholars today contend was a form of <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing" title="Ethnic cleansing">ethnic cleansing</a> towards <a href="/wiki/Mexican_Americans" title="Mexican Americans">Mexican Americans</a>. Roosevelt ended federal involvement in the deportations. After 1934, deportations fell by approximately 50 percent.<a href="#cite_note-Balderrama-346">[333]</a> However, Roosevelt did not attempt to suppress the deportations on a local or state level.<a href="#cite_note-347">[334]</a><a href="#cite_note-348">[335]</a> Mexican Americans were the only group explicitly excluded from New Deal benefits. The deprival of <a href="/wiki/Due_process" title="Due process">due process</a> for Mexican Americans is cited as a precedent for Roosevelt's <a href="/wiki/Internment_of_Japanese_Americans" title="Internment of Japanese Americans">internment of Japanese Americans</a> in <a href="/wiki/Concentration_camp" title="Concentration camp">concentration camps</a> during World War II.<a href="#cite_note-EthnicCleansingJohnson-349">[336]</a> Roosevelt won strong support from Chinese Americans and Filipino Americans, but not Japanese Americans, as he presided over their internment during the war.<a href="#cite_note-350">[337]</a> African Americans and <a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native Americans</a> fared well in two New Deal relief programs, the <a href="/wiki/Civilian_Conservation_Corps" title="Civilian Conservation Corps">Civilian Conservation Corps</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Reorganization_Act" title="Indian Reorganization Act">Indian Reorganization Act</a>, respectively. Sitkoff reports that the WPA "provided an economic floor for the whole black community in the 1930s, rivaling both agriculture and domestic service as the chief source" of income.<a href="#cite_note-351">[338]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lynching_and_civil_rights">Lynching and civil rights</h3></div> In contrast to Presidents Harding and Coolidge, Roosevelt stopped short of joining <a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">NAACP</a> leaders in pushing for federal anti-<a href="/wiki/Lynching" title="Lynching">lynching</a> legislation. He asserted that such legislation was unlikely to pass and that his support for it would alienate Southern congressmen, though by 1940 even his conservative Texan vice-president, Garner, supported federal action against lynching.<a href="#cite_note-352">[339]</a> Roosevelt did not appoint or nominate a single African American as secretary or assistant secretary to his cabinet. About one hundred African Americans met informally, however, to provide the administration with advice on issues related to African Americans. Although sometimes described as a "<a href="/wiki/Black_Cabinet" title="Black Cabinet">Black Cabinet</a>", Roosevelt never officially acknowledged it as such nor did he make "appointments" to it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcJimsey2000162%E2%80%9363-353">[340]</a> First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt vocally supported efforts designed to aid the African American community, including the Fair Labor Standards Act, which helped boost wages for nonwhite workers in the South.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallek2017307%E2%80%9308-354">[341]</a> In 1941, Roosevelt established the <a href="/wiki/Fair_Employment_Practices_Committee" class="mw-redirect" title="Fair Employment Practices Committee">Fair Employment Practices Committee</a> (FEPC) to implement <a href="/wiki/Executive_Order_8802" title="Executive Order 8802">Executive Order 8802</a>, which prohibited racial and religious discrimination in employment among defense contractors. The FEPC was the first national program directed against <a href="/wiki/Employment_discrimination" title="Employment discrimination">employment discrimination</a>, and it played a major role in opening up new employment opportunities to nonwhite workers. During World War II, the proportion of African American men employed in manufacturing positions rose significantly.<a href="#cite_note-collins-355">[342]</a> In response to Roosevelt's policies, African Americans increasingly defected from the Republican Party during the 1930s and 1940s, becoming an important Democratic <a href="/wiki/Voting_bloc" title="Voting bloc">voting bloc</a> in several Northern states.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcJimsey2000162%E2%80%9363-353">[340]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Japanese_Americans">Japanese Americans</h3></div> The attack on Pearl Harbor raised concerns among the public regarding the possibility of sabotage by <a href="/wiki/Japanese_Americans" title="Japanese Americans">Japanese Americans</a>. This suspicion was fed by long-standing racism against Japanese immigrants and the findings of the <a href="/wiki/Roberts_Commissions" title="Roberts Commissions">Roberts Commission</a>, which concluded that the attack on Pearl Harbor had been assisted by Japanese spies. On February 19, 1942, Roosevelt signed <a href="/wiki/Executive_Order_9066" title="Executive Order 9066">Executive Order 9066</a>, which relocated 110,000 Japanese-American citizens and immigrants, most of whom lived on the Pacific Coast.<a href="#cite_note-FDR_Domestic_Affairs-156">[152]</a> They were forced to liquidate their properties and businesses and <a href="/wiki/Internment_of_Japanese_Americans" title="Internment of Japanese Americans">interned in hastily built camps</a> in interior, harsh locations. Roosevelt delegated the decision for internment to Secretary of War Stimson, who in turn relied on the judgment of Assistant Secretary of War <a href="/wiki/John_J._McCloy" title="John J. McCloy">John J. McCloy</a>. The Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of the executive order in the 1944 case of <a href="/wiki/Korematsu_v._United_States" title="Korematsu v. United States">Korematsu v. United States</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007549%E2%80%9353-356">[343]</a> A much smaller number of <a href="/wiki/Internment_of_German_Americans" title="Internment of German Americans">German</a> and <a href="/wiki/Internment_of_Italian_Americans" title="Internment of Italian Americans">Italian</a> citizens were arrested or placed into internment camps. Unlike Japanese Americans, however, they were not sent to them on the sole basis of racial ancestry.<a href="#cite_note-357">[344]</a><a href="#cite_note-358">[345]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Holocaust">The Holocaust</h3></div> There is controversy among historians about Roosevelt's attitude to Jews and the Holocaust. <a href="/wiki/Arthur_M._Schlesinger_Jr." title="Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr.">Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr.</a> says Roosevelt "did what he could do" to help Jews; <a href="/wiki/David_Wyman" title="David Wyman">David Wyman</a> says Roosevelt's record on Jewish refugees and their rescue is "very poor" and one of the worst failures of his presidency.<a href="#cite_note-359">[346]</a> In 1923, as a member of the <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a> board of directors, Roosevelt decided there were too many Jewish students at Harvard and helped institute a quota to limit the number of Jews admitted.<a href="#cite_note-latimes.com-360">[347]</a> After Kristallnacht in 1938, Roosevelt had his ambassador to Germany recalled to Washington. He did not loosen immigration quotas but did allow German Jews already in the U.S. on visas to stay indefinitely.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBreitmanLichtman2013114%E2%80%9315-361">[348]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Rafael_Medoff" title="Rafael Medoff">Rafael Medoff</a>, Roosevelt could have saved 190,000 Jewish lives by telling his State Department to fill immigration quotas to the legal limit, but his administration discouraged and disqualified Jewish refugees based on its prohibitive requirements that left less than 25% of the quotas filled.<a href="#cite_note-latimes.com-360">[347]</a> <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a> chose to implement the "<a href="/wiki/Final_Solution" title="Final Solution">Final Solution</a>"—the extermination of the European Jewish population—by January 1942, and American officials learned of the scale of the Nazi extermination campaign in the following months. Against the objections of the State Department, Roosevelt convinced the other Allied leaders to issue the <a href="/wiki/Joint_Declaration_by_Members_of_the_United_Nations" title="Joint Declaration by Members of the United Nations">Joint Declaration by Members of the United Nations</a>, which condemned the ongoing <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">Holocaust</a> and warned to try its perpetrators as <a href="/wiki/War_crime" title="War crime">war criminals</a>. In 1943, Roosevelt told U.S. government officials that there should be limits on Jews in various professions to "eliminate the specific and understandable complaints which the Germans bore towards the Jews in Germany."<a href="#cite_note-latimes.com-360">[347]</a> The same year, Roosevelt was personally briefed by <a href="/wiki/Polish_Home_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish Home Army">Polish Home Army</a> intelligence agent <a href="/wiki/Jan_Karski" title="Jan Karski">Jan Karski</a> who was an eyewitness of the Holocaust; pleading for action, Karski told him that 1.8 million Jews had already been exterminated.<a href="#cite_note-362">[349]</a><a href="#cite_note-363">[350]</a> Karski recalled that Roosevelt "did not ask one question about the Jews".<a href="#cite_note-364">[351]</a> In January 1944, Roosevelt established the <a href="/wiki/War_Refugee_Board" title="War Refugee Board">War Refugee Board</a> to aid Jews and other victims of Axis atrocities. Aside from these actions, Roosevelt believed that the best way to help the persecuted populations of Europe was to end the war as quickly as possible. Top military leaders and War Department leaders rejected any campaign to bomb the <a href="/wiki/Extermination_camps" class="mw-redirect" title="Extermination camps">extermination camps</a> or the rail lines leading to them, fearing it would be a diversion from the war effort. According to biographer <a href="/wiki/Jean_Edward_Smith" title="Jean Edward Smith">Jean Edward Smith</a>, there is no evidence that anyone ever proposed such a campaign to Roosevelt.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007607%E2%80%9313-365">[352]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(8)"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2></div><section class="mf-section-8 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-8"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historical_reputation">Historical reputation</h3></div> Roosevelt is widely considered to be one of the most important figures in <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States" title="History of the United States">U.S. history</a>,<a href="#cite_note-100mostinfluential-366">[353]</a> and one of the most influential figures of the 20th century.<a href="#cite_note-kwalsh1-367">[354]</a> Historians and political scientists consistently rank Roosevelt, <a href="/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a> as the three <a href="/wiki/Historical_rankings_of_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="Historical rankings of presidents of the United States">greatest presidents</a>, although the order varies.<a href="#cite_note-greatestpresidents-368">[355]</a><a href="#cite_note-greatestpresidents2-369">[356]</a><a href="#cite_note-greatestpresidents3-370">[357]</a><a href="#cite_note-371">[358]</a> Reflecting on Roosevelt's presidency, "which brought the United States through the Great Depression and World War II to a prosperous future", biographer <a href="/wiki/Jean_Edward_Smith" title="Jean Edward Smith">Jean Edward Smith</a> said in 2007, "He lifted himself from a wheelchair to lift the nation from its knees."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007ix-372">[359]</a> His commitment to the working class and unemployed in need of relief in the nation's longest recession made him a favorite of blue-collar workers, labor unions, and ethnic minorities.<a href="#cite_note-373">[360]</a> The rapid expansion of government programs that occurred during Roosevelt's term redefined the role of government in the United States, and Roosevelt's advocacy for government social programs was instrumental in redefining <a href="/wiki/Modern_liberalism_in_the_United_States" title="Modern liberalism in the United States">liberalism</a> for coming generations.<a href="#cite_note-374">[361]</a> Roosevelt firmly established U.S. leadership on the world stage with his role in shaping and financing World War II. His isolationist critics faded away, and even the Republicans joined in his overall policies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlack20051126%E2%80%9327-375">[362]</a> He also permanently increased the power of the president at the expense of Congress.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeuchtenburg2015174%E2%80%9375-376">[363]</a> His Second Bill of Rights became, according to historian <a href="/wiki/Joshua_Zeitz" title="Joshua Zeitz">Joshua Zeitz</a>, "the basis of the Democratic Party's aspirations for the better part of four decades".<a href="#cite_note-zeitzsbr-322">[309]</a> After his death, Eleanor continued to be a forceful presence in U.S. and world politics, serving as delegate to the conference which established the United Nations and championing civil rights and liberalism generally. Some junior New Dealers played leading roles in the presidencies of Truman, John Kennedy, and Lyndon Johnson. Kennedy came from a Roosevelt-hating family. Historian <a href="/wiki/William_Leuchtenburg" title="William Leuchtenburg">William Leuchtenburg</a> says that before 1960, "Kennedy showed a conspicuous lack of inclination to identify himself as a New Deal liberal." He adds, as president, "Kennedy never wholly embraced the Roosevelt tradition and at times he deliberately severed himself from it."<a href="#cite_note-377">[364]</a> By contrast, young Lyndon Johnson had been an enthusiastic New Dealer and a favorite of Roosevelt. Johnson modelled his presidency on Roosevelt's.<a href="#cite_note-378">[365]</a><a href="#cite_note-379">[366]</a> During his presidency, and continuing to a lesser extent afterwards, there has been much <a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Criticism of Franklin D. Roosevelt">criticism of Roosevelt</a>, some of it intense. Critics have questioned not only <a href="/wiki/Critics_of_the_New_Deal" class="mw-redirect" title="Critics of the New Deal">his policies, positions</a>, and the consolidation of power that occurred due to his responses to the Depression and World War II but also his breaking with tradition by running for a third term as president.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallek2017624%E2%80%9325-380">[367]</a> Long after his death, new lines of attack criticized Roosevelt's policies regarding helping the Jews of Europe,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWyman1984-381">[368]</a> incarcerating the Japanese on the <a href="/wiki/West_Coast_of_the_United_States" title="West Coast of the United States">West Coast</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson2001-382">[369]</a> and opposing anti-lynching legislation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallek2017626-383">[370]</a> Roosevelt was criticized by conservatives for his economic policies, especially the shift in tone from <a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">individualism</a> to <a href="/wiki/Collectivism_and_individualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Collectivism and individualism">collectivism</a> with the expansion of the <a href="/wiki/Welfare_state" title="Welfare state">welfare state</a> and regulation of the economy. Those criticisms continued decades after his death. One factor in the revisiting of these issues was the election of <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan</a> in 1980, who opposed the New Deal.<a href="#cite_note-384">[371]</a><a href="#cite_note-385">[372]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Memorials">Memorials</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/List_of_memorials_to_Franklin_D._Roosevelt" class="mw-redirect" title="List of memorials to Franklin D. Roosevelt">List of memorials to Franklin D. Roosevelt</a></div> Roosevelt's <a href="/wiki/Home_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt_National_Historic_Site" title="Home of Franklin D. Roosevelt National Historic Site">home in Hyde Park</a> is now a <a href="/wiki/National_Historic_Sites_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="National Historic Sites (United States)">National Historic Site</a> and home to his <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt_Presidential_Library_and_Museum" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library and Museum">Presidential library</a>. Washington, D.C., hosts two memorials: the <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1154941027">.mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style>7+1⁄2-acre (3-hectare) <a href="/wiki/Franklin_Delano_Roosevelt_Memorial" title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt Memorial">Roosevelt Memorial</a>, located next to the <a href="/wiki/Jefferson_Memorial" title="Jefferson Memorial">Jefferson Memorial</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Tidal_Basin" title="Tidal Basin">Tidal Basin</a>,<a href="#cite_note-npsmem1-386">[373]</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Franklin_Delano_Roosevelt_Memorial#Original_Franklin_Delano_Roosevelt_Memorial" title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt Memorial">more modest memorial</a>, a block of marble in front of the National Archives building suggested by Roosevelt himself, erected in 1965.<a href="#cite_note-387">[374]</a> Roosevelt's leadership in the <a href="/wiki/March_of_Dimes" title="March of Dimes">March of Dimes</a> is one reason he is commemorated on the American <a href="/wiki/Dime_(United_States_coin)" title="Dime (United States coin)">dime</a>.<a href="#cite_note-dime1-388">[375]</a> Roosevelt has also appeared on several <a href="/wiki/U.S._Presidents_on_U.S._postage_stamps#Franklin_D._Roosevelt" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Presidents on U.S. postage stamps">U.S. Postage stamps</a>.<a href="#cite_note-389">[376]</a> On April 29, 1945, seventeen days after Roosevelt's death, the carrier <a href="/wiki/USS_Franklin_D._Roosevelt_(CV-42)" class="mw-redirect" title="USS Franklin D. Roosevelt (CV-42)">USS Franklin D. Roosevelt</a> was launched and served from 1945 to 1977.<a href="#cite_note-390">[377]</a> London's <a href="/wiki/Westminster_Abbey" title="Westminster Abbey">Westminster Abbey</a> also has a stone tablet memorial to Roosevelt that was unveiled by <a href="/wiki/Clement_Attlee" title="Clement Attlee">Attlee</a> and Churchill in 1948.<a href="#cite_note-391">[378]</a> <a href="/wiki/Roosevelt_Island" title="Roosevelt Island">Welfare Island</a> was renamed after Roosevelt in September 1973.<a href="#cite_note-392">[379]</a> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 180px;"><a href="/wiki/File:FDR-Memorial-Grosvenor-Square.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="1948 statue of Roosevelt in Grosvenor Square, London"><noscript><img alt="1948 statue of Roosevelt in Grosvenor Square, London" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/FDR-Memorial-Grosvenor-Square.jpg/128px-FDR-Memorial-Grosvenor-Square.jpg" decoding="async" width="128" height="150" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="934" data-file-height="1091"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 128px;height: 150px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/FDR-Memorial-Grosvenor-Square.jpg/128px-FDR-Memorial-Grosvenor-Square.jpg" data-alt="1948 statue of Roosevelt in Grosvenor Square, London" data-width="128" data-height="150" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/FDR-Memorial-Grosvenor-Square.jpg/193px-FDR-Memorial-Grosvenor-Square.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/FDR-Memorial-Grosvenor-Square.jpg/257px-FDR-Memorial-Grosvenor-Square.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div> <div class="gallerytext">1948 statue of Roosevelt in <a href="/wiki/Grosvenor_Square" title="Grosvenor Square">Grosvenor Square</a>, London</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 180px;"><a href="/wiki/File:FDR_Memorial_wall.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Engraving of the Four Freedoms at the Franklin Delano Roosevelt Memorial, dedicated in 1997 in Washington, D.C."><noscript><img alt="Engraving of the Four Freedoms at the Franklin Delano Roosevelt Memorial, dedicated in 1997 in Washington, D.C." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/FDR_Memorial_wall.jpg/200px-FDR_Memorial_wall.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="122" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1574" data-file-height="964"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 200px;height: 122px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/FDR_Memorial_wall.jpg/200px-FDR_Memorial_wall.jpg" data-alt="Engraving of the Four Freedoms at the Franklin Delano Roosevelt Memorial, dedicated in 1997 in Washington, D.C." data-width="200" data-height="122" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/FDR_Memorial_wall.jpg/300px-FDR_Memorial_wall.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/FDR_Memorial_wall.jpg/400px-FDR_Memorial_wall.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Engraving of the <a href="/wiki/Four_Freedoms" title="Four Freedoms">Four Freedoms</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Franklin_Delano_Roosevelt_Memorial" title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt Memorial">Franklin Delano Roosevelt Memorial</a>, dedicated in 1997 in Washington, D.C.</div> </li> </ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(9)"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div><section class="mf-section-9 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-9"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_Mail_scandal" title="Air Mail scandal">Air Mail scandal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/August_Adolph_Gennerich" title="August Adolph Gennerich">August Adolph Gennerich</a>, Roosevelt's bodyguard</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_depictions_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Cultural depictions of Franklin D. Roosevelt">Cultural depictions of Franklin D. Roosevelt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Allied_World_War_II_conferences" title="List of Allied World War II conferences">List of Allied World War II conferences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="List of presidents of the United States">List of presidents of the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States_by_previous_experience" title="List of presidents of the United States by previous experience">List of presidents of the United States by previous experience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunshine_Special_(automobile)" title="Sunshine Special (automobile)">Sunshine Special</a>, Roosevelt's limousine</li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(10)"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div><section class="mf-section-10 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-10"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> Pronounced <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/ˈdɛlənoʊ ˈroʊzəvɛlt, -vəlt/</a> <a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key">DEL-ə-noh ROH-zə-velt, -⁠vəlt</a>;<a href="#cite_note-AHD-1">[1]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> In 2008, Columbia awarded Roosevelt a posthumous <a href="/wiki/Juris_Doctor" title="Juris Doctor">Juris Doctor</a> degree.<a href="#cite_note-posthumousjd-27">[26]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> State legislatures elected United States senators prior to the ratification of the <a href="/wiki/Seventeenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Seventeenth Amendment</a> in 1913. </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a> Roosevelt was the last president inaugurated on March 4. The <a href="/wiki/Twentieth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twentieth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Twentieth Amendment</a> changed presidential inaugurations to January 20, from 1937. </li> <li id="cite_note-187"><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a> Biographer <a href="/wiki/Jean_Edward_Smith" title="Jean Edward Smith">Jean Edward Smith</a> notes that "the significance of the repeal of the two-thirds rule...is difficult to overstate. Not only did the power of the South in the Democratic party diminish, but without the repeal, it is open to question whether FDR could have been renominated in 1940."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007366-186">[182]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-189"><a href="#cite_ref-189">^</a> The <a href="/wiki/1964_United_States_presidential_election" title="1964 United States presidential election">1964</a> Democratic ticket of <a href="/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="Lyndon B. Johnson">Lyndon B. Johnson</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hubert_Humphrey" title="Hubert Humphrey">Hubert Humphrey</a> would later set a new record, taking 61.1% of the popular vote </li> <li id="cite_note-196"><a href="#cite_ref-196">^</a> The two Justices who Roosevelt did not originally appoint to the Court were <a href="/wiki/Harlan_Fiske_Stone" class="mw-redirect" title="Harlan Fiske Stone">Harlan Fiske Stone</a> and <a href="/wiki/Owen_Roberts" title="Owen Roberts">Owen Roberts</a>. However, in 1941, Roosevelt elevated Stone to the position of Chief Justice. </li> <li id="cite_note-216"><a href="#cite_ref-216">^</a> This table shows the estimated unemployment related as calculated by two economists. Michael Darby's estimate counts individuals on work relief programs as employed, while Stanley Lebergott's estimate counts individuals on work relief programs as unemployed<a href="#cite_note-margo1-215">[208]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-243"><a href="#cite_ref-243">^</a> The <a href="/wiki/Twenty-second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution">Twenty-second Amendment</a> ratified in 1951, would bar any individual from winning more than two presidential elections. </li> <li id="cite_note-271"><a href="#cite_ref-271">^</a> Hull and others in the administration were unwilling to recognize the Japanese conquest of China and feared that an American accommodation with Japan would leave the Soviet Union vulnerable to a two-front war.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007522%E2%80%9323-270">[261]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-275"><a href="#cite_ref-275">^</a> The United States would also declare war on <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bulgaria" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary_(1920%E2%80%9346)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Hungary (1920–46)">Hungary</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Romania" title="Kingdom of Romania">Romania</a>, all of which had joined the Axis bloc. </li> <li id="cite_note-289"><a href="#cite_ref-289">^</a> The Germans stopped research on nuclear weapons in 1942, choosing to focus on other projects. Japan gave up its own program in 1943.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007580-288">[277]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-312"><a href="#cite_ref-312">^</a> WPA workers were counted as unemployed by this set of statistics.<a href="#cite_note-311">[299]</a> </li> </ol></div></div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(11)"><h2 id="Citations">Citations</h2></div><section class="mf-section-11 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-11"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-AHD-1"><a href="#cite_ref-AHD_1-0">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="Reference-AHD-Roosevelt" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=Roosevelt">"Roosevelt"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_American_Heritage_Dictionary_of_the_English_Language" title="The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language">The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language</a> (5th ed.). 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(May 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/when-franklin-roosevelt-clashed-with-the-supreme-court-and-lost-78497994/">"When Franklin Roosevelt Clashed with the Supreme Court – and Lost"</a>. Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved March 1, 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Smithsonian+Magazine&rft.atitle=When+Franklin+Roosevelt+Clashed+with+the+Supreme+Court+%E2%80%93+and+Lost&rft.date=2005-05&rft.aulast=Leuchtenburg&rft.aufirst=William+E.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.smithsonianmag.com%2Fhistory%2Fwhen-franklin-roosevelt-clashed-with-the-supreme-court-and-lost-78497994%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranklin+D.+Roosevelt" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-198"><a href="#cite_ref-198">^</a> Leuchtenburg, E. (1996). The Supreme Court Reborn: The Constitutional Revolution in the Age of Roosevelt. Oxford University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-511131-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-511131-1">0-19-511131-1</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-jblake1-199"><a href="#cite_ref-jblake1_199-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlake2010" class="citation news cs1">Blake, John (December 14, 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cnn.com/2010/POLITICS/12/14/FDR.supremecourt/index.html">"How FDR unleashed his Supreme Court 'scorpions'"</a>. CNN. Retrieved October 10, 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=How+FDR+unleashed+his+Supreme+Court+%27scorpions%27&rft.date=2010-12-14&rft.aulast=Blake&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cnn.com%2F2010%2FPOLITICS%2F12%2F14%2FFDR.supremecourt%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranklin+D.+Roosevelt" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-belknap-200"><a href="#cite_ref-belknap_200-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBelknap2004" class="citation book cs1">Belknap, Michal (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oeFRJj8dVAUC&q=vinson+court">The Vinson Court: Justices, Rulings, and Legacy</a>. ABC-CLIO. pp. 162–63. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57607-201-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57607-201-1"><bdi>978-1-57607-201-1</bdi></a>. Retrieved March 3, 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Vinson+Court%3A+Justices%2C+Rulings%2C+and+Legacy&rft.pages=162-63&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-57607-201-1&rft.aulast=Belknap&rft.aufirst=Michal&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DoeFRJj8dVAUC%26q%3Dvinson%2Bcourt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranklin+D.+Roosevelt" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007390–91-201"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith2007390%E2%80%9391_201-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmith2007">Smith 2007</a>, pp. 390–91. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007408–09-202"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith2007408%E2%80%9309_202-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmith2007">Smith 2007</a>, pp. 408–09. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELeuchtenburg2015187–88-203"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeuchtenburg2015187%E2%80%9388_203-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLeuchtenburg2015">Leuchtenburg 2015</a>, pp. 187–88. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns1956320-204"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBurns1956320_204-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBurns1956">Burns 1956</a>, p. 320. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELeuchtenburg1963262–63,_271–73-205"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeuchtenburg1963262%E2%80%9363,_271%E2%80%9373_205-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLeuchtenburg1963">Leuchtenburg 1963</a>, pp. 262–63, 271–73. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007440–41-206"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith2007440%E2%80%9341_206-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmith2007">Smith 2007</a>, pp. 440–41. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDallek201719-207"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDallek201719_207-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDallek2017">Dallek 2017</a>, p. 19. </li> <li id="cite_note-208"><a href="#cite_ref-208">^</a> See also Edgar B. Nixon, ed. Franklin D. Roosevelt and Conservation, 1911-1945 (2 vol. 1957); <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/franklindrooseve0000nixo/page/n7/mode/2up">vol 1 online</a>; also see <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/franklindrooseve0002unse_p5t9/page/n6/mode/1up">vol 2 online</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-209"><a href="#cite_ref-209">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nps.gov/articles/fdr-s-conservation-legacy.htm">"FDR's Conservation Legacy (U.S. National Park Service)"</a>. nps.gov. Retrieved June 28, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=nps.gov&rft.atitle=FDR%27s+Conservation+Legacy+%28U.S.+National+Park+Service%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nps.gov%2Farticles%2Ffdr-s-conservation-legacy.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranklin+D.+Roosevelt" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-210"><a href="#cite_ref-:0_210-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeshy2009" class="citation book cs1">Leshy, John (2009). "FDR's Expansion of Our National Patrimony: A Model for Leadership". In Woolner, David; Henderson, Henry L. (eds.). FDR and the Environment. Springer. pp. 177–78. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-10067-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-230-10067-1"><bdi>978-0-230-10067-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=FDR%27s+Expansion+of+Our+National+Patrimony%3A+A+Model+for+Leadership&rft.btitle=FDR+and+the+Environment&rft.pages=177-78&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-230-10067-1&rft.aulast=Leshy&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranklin+D.+Roosevelt" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-America's_Idea-211"><a href="#cite_ref-America's_Idea_211-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/nationalparks/history/ep5">"The National Parks: America's Best Idea: History Episode 5: 1933–1945"</a>. PBS. Retrieved April 23, 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+National+Parks%3A+America%27s+Best+Idea%3A+History+Episode+5%3A+1933%E2%80%931945&rft.pub=PBS&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pbs.org%2Fnationalparks%2Fhistory%2Fep5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranklin+D.+Roosevelt" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrinkley2016170–86-212"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrinkley2016170%E2%80%9386_212-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBrinkley2016">Brinkley 2016</a>, pp. 170–86. </li> <li id="cite_note-213"><a href="#cite_ref-213">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaher2002" class="citation journal cs1">Maher, Neil M. (July 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://environmentalhistory.net/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/7-3_Maher.pdf">"A New Deal Body Politic: Landscape, Labor, and the Civilian Conservation Corps"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Environmental_History" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental History">Environmental History</a>. 7 (3): 435–61. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3985917">10.2307/3985917</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3985917">3985917</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144800756">144800756</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160602073403/http://environmentalhistory.net/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/7-3_Maher.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on June 2, 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Environmental+History&rft.atitle=A+New+Deal+Body+Politic%3A+Landscape%2C+Labor%2C+and+the+Civilian+Conservation+Corps&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=435-61&rft.date=2002-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144800756%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3985917%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3985917&rft.aulast=Maher&rft.aufirst=Neil+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fenvironmentalhistory.net%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2012%2F08%2F7-3_Maher.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranklin+D.+Roosevelt" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-214"><a href="#cite_ref-214">^</a> Anna L. Riesch Owen, Conservation Under FDR (Praeger, 1983). </li> <li id="cite_note-margo1-215">^ <a href="#cite_ref-margo1_215-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-margo1_215-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMargo1993" class="citation journal cs1">Margo, Robert A. (Spring 1993). "Employment and Unemployment in the 1930s". Journal of Economic Perspectives. 7 (2): 42–43. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.627.1613">10.1.1.627.1613</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1257%2Fjep.7.2.41">10.1257/jep.7.2.41</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:26369842">26369842</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Economic+Perspectives&rft.atitle=Employment+and+Unemployment+in+the+1930s&rft.ssn=spring&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=42-43&rft.date=1993&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.627.1613%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A26369842%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1257%2Fjep.7.2.41&rft.aulast=Margo&rft.aufirst=Robert+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranklin+D.+Roosevelt" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Historical_Statistics_1976-217">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Historical_Statistics_1976_217-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Historical_Statistics_1976_217-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=e91TplHLeQAC&pg=PP1">Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970</a>. The Bureau of the U.S. Census. 1976. pp. Y457, Y493, F32.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+Statistics+of+the+United+States%2C+Colonial+Times+to+1970&rft.pages=Y457%2C+Y493%2C+F32&rft.pub=The+Bureau+of+the+U.S.+Census&rft.date=1976&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3De91TplHLeQAC%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranklin+D.+Roosevelt" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-218"><a href="#cite_ref-218">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://graphics7.nytimes.com/images/2003/07/02/business/03JOBSch450.gif">"Presidents and Job Growth"</a> (GIF). The New York Times (graphic). July 2, 2003.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Presidents+and+Job+Growth&rft.date=2003-07-02&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgraphics7.nytimes.com%2Fimages%2F2003%2F07%2F02%2Fbusiness%2F03JOBSch450.gif&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranklin+D.+Roosevelt" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-219"><a href="#cite_ref-219">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=e91TplHLeQAC&pg=PP1">Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970</a>. The Bureau of the U.S. Census. 1976. p. 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Retrieved June 19, 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Pieces+of+History&rft.atitle=The+other+FDR+Memorial&rft.date=2015-04-10&rft.au=jessiekratz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fprologue.blogs.archives.gov%2F2015%2F04%2F10%2Fthe-other-fdr-memorial%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranklin+D.+Roosevelt" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-dime1-388"><a href="#cite_ref-dime1_388-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/washington/2003-12-05-reagan-dime_x.htm">"Conservatives want Reagan to replace FDR on U.S. dimes"</a>. USA Today. Associated Press. December 5, 2003. Retrieved January 22, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=USA+Today&rft.atitle=Conservatives+want+Reagan+to+replace+FDR+on+U.S.+dimes&rft.date=2003-12-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fusatoday30.usatoday.com%2Fnews%2Fwashington%2F2003-12-05-reagan-dime_x.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranklin+D.+Roosevelt" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-389"><a href="#cite_ref-389">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://postalmuseum.si.edu/exhibition/about-us-stamps-modern-period-1940-present-commemorative-issues-1940-1949-1944-1945-5">"Franklin Delano Roosevelt Issues"</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Postal_Museum" title="National Postal Museum">National Postal Museum</a>. Retrieved May 11, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Franklin+Delano+Roosevelt+Issues&rft.pub=National+Postal+Museum&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpostalmuseum.si.edu%2Fexhibition%2Fabout-us-stamps-modern-period-1940-present-commemorative-issues-1940-1949-1944-1945-5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranklin+D.+Roosevelt" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-390"><a href="#cite_ref-390">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://docs.fdrlibrary.marist.edu/ussroos4.html">"FDR Library – USS Roosevelt"</a>. docs.fdrlibrary.marist.edu. Retrieved September 25, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=docs.fdrlibrary.marist.edu&rft.atitle=FDR+Library+%E2%80%93+USS+Roosevelt&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdocs.fdrlibrary.marist.edu%2Fussroos4.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranklin+D.+Roosevelt" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-391"><a href="#cite_ref-391">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.westminster-abbey.org/abbey-commemorations/commemorations/franklin-delano-roosevelt">"Franklin Delano Roosevelt"</a>. Westminster Abbey. Retrieved April 16, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Franklin+Delano+Roosevelt&rft.pub=Westminster+Abbey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.westminster-abbey.org%2Fabbey-commemorations%2Fcommemorations%2Ffranklin-delano-roosevelt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranklin+D.+Roosevelt" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-392"><a href="#cite_ref-392">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archweb.cooper.edu/exhibitions/kahn/history_01.html">"COMING TO LIGHT: The Louis I. Kahn Monument to Franklin D. Roosevelt"</a>. archweb.cooper.edu. Retrieved September 25, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=archweb.cooper.edu&rft.atitle=COMING+TO+LIGHT%3A+The+Louis+I.+Kahn+Monument+to+Franklin+D.+Roosevelt&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchweb.cooper.edu%2Fexhibitions%2Fkahn%2Fhistory_01.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranklin+D.+Roosevelt" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(12)"><h2 id="Works_cited">Works cited</h2></div><section class="mf-section-12 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-12"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Bibliography of Franklin D. Roosevelt">Bibliography of Franklin D. Roosevelt</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlter2006" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Alter" title="Jonathan Alter">Alter, Jonathan</a> (2006), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/definingmomentfd00alte_0">The Defining Moment: FDR's Hundred Days and the Triumph of Hope</a> (popular history), Simon & Schuster, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7432-4600-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7432-4600-2"><bdi>978-0-7432-4600-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Defining+Moment%3A+FDR%27s+Hundred+Days+and+the+Triumph+of+Hope&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-7432-4600-2&rft.aulast=Alter&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdefiningmomentfd00alte_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranklin+D.+Roosevelt" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeito2023" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_T._Beito" title="David T. Beito">Beito, David T.</a> (2023). The New Deal's War on the Bill of Rights: The Untold Story of FDR's Concentration Camps, Censorship, and Mass Surveillance (First ed.). Oakland: Independent Institute. pp. 4–7. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1598133561" title="Special:BookSources/978-1598133561"><bdi>978-1598133561</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+New+Deal%27s+War+on+the+Bill+of+Rights%3A+The+Untold+Story+of+FDR%27s+Concentration+Camps%2C+Censorship%2C+and+Mass+Surveillance&rft.place=Oakland&rft.pages=4-7&rft.edition=First&rft.pub=Independent+Institute&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=978-1598133561&rft.aulast=Beito&rft.aufirst=David+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranklin+D.+Roosevelt" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlack2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Conrad_Black" title="Conrad Black">Black, Conrad</a> (2005) [2003]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lYVCi70HaigC">Franklin Delano Roosevelt: Champion of Freedom</a> (interpretive detailed biography). PublicAffairs. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58648-282-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58648-282-4"><bdi>978-1-58648-282-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Franklin+Delano+Roosevelt%3A+Champion+of+Freedom&rft.pub=PublicAffairs&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-58648-282-4&rft.aulast=Black&rft.aufirst=Conrad&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlYVCi70HaigC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranklin+D.+Roosevelt" class="Z3988">.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrands2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/H._W._Brands" title="H. W. Brands">Brands, H. W.</a> (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bmKMa_y3hh0C">Traitor to His Class: The Privileged Life and Radical Presidency of Franklin Delano Roosevelt</a>. Anchor Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-307-27794-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-307-27794-7"><bdi>978-0-307-27794-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Traitor+to+His+Class%3A+The+Privileged+Life+and+Radical+Presidency+of+Franklin+Delano+Roosevelt&rft.pub=Anchor+Books&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-307-27794-7&rft.aulast=Brands&rft.aufirst=H.+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbmKMa_y3hh0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranklin+D.+Roosevelt" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBreitmanLichtman2013" class="citation cs2">Breitman, Richard; <a href="/wiki/Allan_J._Lichtman" class="mw-redirect" title="Allan J. Lichtman">Lichtman, Allan J</a> (2013), FDR and the Jews, Harvard University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-05026-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-05026-6"><bdi>978-0-674-05026-6</bdi></a>, <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/812248674">812248674</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=FDR+and+the+Jews&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F812248674&rft.isbn=978-0-674-05026-6&rft.aulast=Breitman&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft.au=Lichtman%2C+Allan+J&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranklin+D.+Roosevelt" class="Z3988">,</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrinkley2016" class="citation book cs1">Brinkley, Douglas (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/rightfulheritage0000brin">Rightful Heritage: Franklin D. Roosevelt and the Land of America</a>. HarperCollins. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-208923-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-06-208923-6"><bdi>978-0-06-208923-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rightful+Heritage%3A+Franklin+D.+Roosevelt+and+the+Land+of+America&rft.pub=HarperCollins&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-06-208923-6&rft.aulast=Brinkley&rft.aufirst=Douglas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frightfulheritage0000brin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranklin+D.+Roosevelt" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurns1956" class="citation book cs1">Burns, James MacGregor (1956). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/rooseveltliont00jame">Roosevelt: The Lion and the Fox</a>. Easton Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-15-678870-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-15-678870-0"><bdi>978-0-15-678870-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Roosevelt%3A+The+Lion+and+the+Fox&rft.pub=Easton+Press&rft.date=1956&rft.isbn=978-0-15-678870-0&rft.aulast=Burns&rft.aufirst=James+MacGregor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frooseveltliont00jame&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranklin+D.+Roosevelt" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurns1970" class="citation book cs1">——— (1970). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/rooseveltliont00jame">Roosevelt: The Soldier of Freedom</a>. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2027%2Fheb.00626">2027/heb.00626</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-15-678870-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-15-678870-0"><bdi>978-0-15-678870-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Roosevelt%3A+The+Soldier+of+Freedom&rft.pub=Harcourt+Brace+Jovanovich&rft.date=1970&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2027%2Fheb.00626&rft.isbn=978-0-15-678870-0&rft.aulast=Burns&rft.aufirst=James+MacGregor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frooseveltliont00jame&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranklin+D.+Roosevelt" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCampbell2006" class="citation journal cs1">Campbell, James E. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.acsu.buffalo.edu/~jcampbel/documents/SSHRealignment06.pdf">"Party Systems and Realignments in the United States, 1868–2004"</a> (PDF). Social Science History. 30 (3): 359–86. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS014555320001350X">10.1017/S014555320001350X</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40267912">40267912</a> – via <a href="/wiki/Project_Muse" title="Project Muse">Project Muse</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Social+Science+History&rft.atitle=Party+Systems+and+Realignments+in+the+United+States%2C+1868%E2%80%932004&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=359-86&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS014555320001350X&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40267912%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Campbell&rft.aufirst=James+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.acsu.buffalo.edu%2F~jcampbel%2Fdocuments%2FSSHRealignment06.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranklin+D.+Roosevelt" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCaro1974" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Caro" title="Robert Caro">Caro, Robert</a> (1974). <a href="/wiki/The_Power_Broker" title="The Power Broker">The Power Broker: Robert Moses and the Fall of New York</a>. New York: Knopf. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-394-48076-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-394-48076-3"><bdi>978-0-394-48076-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/834874">834874</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Power+Broker%3A+Robert+Moses+and+the+Fall+of+New+York&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Knopf&rft.date=1974&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F834874&rft.isbn=978-0-394-48076-3&rft.aulast=Caro&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranklin+D.+Roosevelt" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChurchill1977" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Churchill, Winston</a> (1977). <a href="/wiki/The_Second_World_War_(book_series)" title="The Second World War (book series)">The Grand Alliance</a>. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-395-41057-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-395-41057-8"><bdi>978-0-395-41057-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Grand+Alliance&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin+Harcourt&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=978-0-395-41057-8&rft.aulast=Churchill&rft.aufirst=Winston&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranklin+D.+Roosevelt" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDallek1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Dallek" title="Robert Dallek">Dallek, Robert</a> (1995). Franklin D. Roosevelt and American Foreign Policy, 1932–1945. Oxford University. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-509732-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-509732-0"><bdi>978-0-19-509732-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Franklin+D.+Roosevelt+and+American+Foreign+Policy%2C+1932%E2%80%931945&rft.pub=Oxford+University&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-19-509732-0&rft.aulast=Dallek&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranklin+D.+Roosevelt" class="Z3988"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/franklindrooseve00robe">online free to borrow</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDallek2017" class="citation book cs1">——— (2017). Franklin D. Roosevelt: A Political Life. Viking. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-69-818172-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-69-818172-4"><bdi>978-0-69-818172-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Franklin+D.+Roosevelt%3A+A+Political+Life&rft.pub=Viking&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0-69-818172-4&rft.aulast=Dallek&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranklin+D.+Roosevelt" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Dighe, Ranjit S. "Saving private capitalism: The US bank holiday of 1933." Essays in Economic & Business History 29 (2011) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ebhsoc.org/journal/index.php/journal/article/download/40/37">online</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDoeneckeStoler2005" class="citation cs2">Doenecke, Justus D; Stoler, Mark A (2005), Debating Franklin D. Roosevelt's Foreign Policies, 1933–1945, Rowman & Littlefield, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8476-9415-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8476-9415-0"><bdi>978-0-8476-9415-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Debating+Franklin+D.+Roosevelt%27s+Foreign+Policies%2C+1933%E2%80%931945&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-8476-9415-0&rft.aulast=Doenecke&rft.aufirst=Justus+D&rft.au=Stoler%2C+Mark+A&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranklin+D.+Roosevelt" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFink2023" class="citation book cs1">Fink, Jesse (2023). The Eagle in the Mirror. Edinburgh: Black & White Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781785305108" title="Special:BookSources/9781785305108"><bdi>9781785305108</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Eagle+in+the+Mirror&rft.place=Edinburgh&rft.pub=Black+%26+White+Publishing&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=9781785305108&rft.aulast=Fink&rft.aufirst=Jesse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranklin+D.+Roosevelt" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFreidel1952–1973" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-long-vol"><a href="/wiki/Frank_Freidel" title="Frank Freidel">Freidel, Frank</a> (1952–1973), Franklin D. Roosevelt, vol. 4 volumes, Little, Brown and Co., <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/459748221">459748221</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Franklin+D.+Roosevelt&rft.pub=Little%2C+Brown+and+Co.&rft.date=1952%2F1973&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F459748221&rft.aulast=Freidel&rft.aufirst=Frank&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranklin+D.+Roosevelt" class="Z3988"> <ul><li>Frank Freidel, Franklin D. Roosevelt The Apprenticeship (vol 1 1952) to 1918, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.177661">online</a></li> <li>Frank Freidel, Franklin D. Roosevelt The Ordeal (1954), covers 1919 to 1928, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.151791">online</a></li> <li>Frank Freidel, Franklin D. Roosevelt The Triumph (1956) covers 1929–32, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.156788">online</a></li> <li>Frank Freidel, Franklin D. Roosevelt Launching the New Deal (1973).</li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFried2001" class="citation book cs1">Fried, Albert (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2_UACwAAQBAJ&pg=PA120">FDR and His Enemies: A History</a>. St. Martin's Press. pp. 120–23. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-250-10659-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-250-10659-9"><bdi>978-1-250-10659-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=FDR+and+His+Enemies%3A+A+History&rft.pages=120-23&rft.pub=St.+Martin%27s+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-1-250-10659-9&rft.aulast=Fried&rft.aufirst=Albert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2_UACwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA120&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranklin+D.+Roosevelt" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoldmanGoldman2017" class="citation book cs1">Goldman, Armond S.; Goldman, Daniel A. (2017). Prisoners of Time: The Misdiagnosis of FDR's 1921 Illness. EHDP Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-939-82403-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-939-82403-5"><bdi>978-1-939-82403-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Prisoners+of+Time%3A+The+Misdiagnosis+of+FDR%27s+1921+Illness&rft.pub=EHDP+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-939-82403-5&rft.aulast=Goldman&rft.aufirst=Armond+S.&rft.au=Goldman%2C+Daniel+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranklin+D.+Roosevelt" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoodwin1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Doris_Kearns_Goodwin" title="Doris Kearns Goodwin">Goodwin, Doris Kearns</a> (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/noordinarytimef000good">No Ordinary Time: Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt: The Home Front in World War II</a>. Simon & Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-684-80448-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-684-80448-4"><bdi>978-0-684-80448-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=No+Ordinary+Time%3A+Franklin+and+Eleanor+Roosevelt%3A+The+Home+Front+in+World+War+II&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-684-80448-4&rft.aulast=Goodwin&rft.aufirst=Doris+Kearns&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnoordinarytimef000good&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranklin+D.+Roosevelt" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGunther1950" class="citation book cs1">Gunther, John (1950). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/rooseveltinretro00gunt">Roosevelt in Retrospect</a>. Harper & Brothers.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Roosevelt+in+Retrospect&rft.pub=Harper+%26+Brothers&rft.date=1950&rft.aulast=Gunther&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frooseveltinretro00gunt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranklin+D.+Roosevelt" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHawley1995" class="citation book cs1">Hawley, Ellis (1995). The New Deal and the Problem of Monopoly. Fordham University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8232-1609-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8232-1609-3"><bdi>978-0-8232-1609-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+New+Deal+and+the+Problem+of+Monopoly&rft.pub=Fordham+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-8232-1609-3&rft.aulast=Hawley&rft.aufirst=Ellis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranklin+D.+Roosevelt" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHerman2012" class="citation book cs1">Herman, Arthur (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=p3-H8rexHIoC&pg=PP1">Freedom's Forge: How American Business Produced Victory in World War II</a>. Random House. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-679-60463-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-679-60463-1"><bdi>978-0-679-60463-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Freedom%27s+Forge%3A+How+American+Business+Produced+Victory+in+World+War+II&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-679-60463-1&rft.aulast=Herman&rft.aufirst=Arthur&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dp3-H8rexHIoC%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranklin+D.+Roosevelt" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHerring2008" class="citation book cs1">Herring, George C. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/fromcolonytosupe00herr">From Colony to Superpower; U.S. Foreign Relations Since 1776</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-507822-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-507822-0"><bdi>978-0-19-507822-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Colony+to+Superpower%3B+U.S.+Foreign+Relations+Since+1776&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-19-507822-0&rft.aulast=Herring&rft.aufirst=George+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffromcolonytosupe00herr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranklin+D.+Roosevelt" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJordan2011" class="citation book cs1">Jordan, David M (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/fdrdeweyelection0000jord">FDR, Dewey, and the Election of 1944</a>. Indiana University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-253-35683-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-253-35683-3"><bdi>978-0-253-35683-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=FDR%2C+Dewey%2C+and+the+Election+of+1944&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-253-35683-3&rft.aulast=Jordan&rft.aufirst=David+M&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffdrdeweyelection0000jord&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranklin+D.+Roosevelt" class="Z3988">.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKennedy1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_M._Kennedy_(historian)" title="David M. Kennedy (historian)">Kennedy, David M</a> (1999). <a href="/wiki/Freedom_From_Fear:_The_American_People_in_Depression_and_War,_1929%E2%80%931945" class="mw-redirect" title="Freedom From Fear: The American People in Depression and War, 1929–1945">Freedom From Fear: The American People in Depression and War, 1929–1945</a> (wide-ranging survey of national affairs by leading scholar; Pulitzer Prize). Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-503834-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-503834-7"><bdi>978-0-19-503834-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Freedom+From+Fear%3A+The+American+People+in+Depression+and+War%2C+1929%E2%80%931945&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-19-503834-7&rft.aulast=Kennedy&rft.aufirst=David+M&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranklin+D.+Roosevelt" class="Z3988">.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLash1971" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_P._Lash" title="Joseph P. Lash">Lash, Joseph P</a> (1971). <a href="/wiki/Eleanor_and_Franklin:_The_Story_of_Their_Relationship,_Based_on_Eleanor_Roosevelt%27s_Private_Papers" class="mw-redirect" title="Eleanor and Franklin: The Story of Their Relationship, Based on Eleanor Roosevelt's Private Papers">Eleanor and Franklin: The Story of Their Relationship, Based on Eleanor Roosevelt's Private Papers</a>. W.W. Norton & Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-07459-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-07459-8"><bdi>978-0-393-07459-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Eleanor+and+Franklin%3A+The+Story+of+Their+Relationship%2C+Based+on+Eleanor+Roosevelt%27s+Private+Papers&rft.pub=W.W.+Norton+%26+Company&rft.date=1971&rft.isbn=978-0-393-07459-8&rft.aulast=Lash&rft.aufirst=Joseph+P&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranklin+D.+Roosevelt" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeuchtenburg2015" class="citation book cs1">Leuchtenburg, William (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=inLNCgAAQBAJ">The American President: From Teddy Roosevelt to Bill Clinton</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-517616-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-517616-2"><bdi>978-0-19-517616-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+American+President%3A+From+Teddy+Roosevelt+to+Bill+Clinton&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-19-517616-2&rft.aulast=Leuchtenburg&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DinLNCgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranklin+D.+Roosevelt" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeuchtenburg1963" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_E._Leuchtenburg" class="mw-redirect" title="William E. Leuchtenburg">Leuchtenburg, William E.</a> (1963). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/franklindrooseve00leuc">Franklin D. Roosevelt and the New Deal, 1932–1940</a>. Harpers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-133025-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-06-133025-4"><bdi>978-0-06-133025-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Franklin+D.+Roosevelt+and+the+New+Deal%2C+1932%E2%80%931940&rft.pub=Harpers&rft.date=1963&rft.isbn=978-0-06-133025-4&rft.aulast=Leuchtenburg&rft.aufirst=William+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffranklindrooseve00leuc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranklin+D.+Roosevelt" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcJimsey2000" class="citation book cs1">McJimsey, George (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/presidencyoffran00mcji">The Presidency of Franklin Delano Roosevelt</a>. University Press of Kansas. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7006-1012-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7006-1012-9"><bdi>978-0-7006-1012-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Presidency+of+Franklin+Delano+Roosevelt&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Kansas&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-7006-1012-9&rft.aulast=McJimsey&rft.aufirst=George&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpresidencyoffran00mcji&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranklin+D.+Roosevelt" class="Z3988"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/presidencyoffran00mcji">online free to borrow</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorgan1985" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Ted_Morgan_(writer)" title="Ted Morgan (writer)">Morgan, Ted</a> (1985), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/fdrbiography00morg">FDR: A Biography</a> (popular biography), Simon & Schuster, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-671-45495-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-671-45495-1"><bdi>978-0-671-45495-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=FDR%3A+A+Biography&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0-671-45495-1&rft.aulast=Morgan&rft.aufirst=Ted&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffdrbiography00morg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranklin+D.+Roosevelt" class="Z3988">.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNorton2009" class="citation book cs1">Norton, Mary Beth (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=129rne8WpyoC&pg=PA670">A People and a Nation: A History of the United States. Since 1865</a>. Cengage. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-547-17560-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-547-17560-7"><bdi>978-0-547-17560-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+People+and+a+Nation%3A+A+History+of+the+United+States.+Since+1865&rft.pub=Cengage&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-547-17560-7&rft.aulast=Norton&rft.aufirst=Mary+Beth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D129rne8WpyoC%26pg%3DPA670&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranklin+D.+Roosevelt" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Riesch Owen, A. L. Conservation under F.D.R. (1983) <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://archive.org/details/conservationunde0000owen/page/n5/mode/2up">https://archive.org/details/conservationunde0000owen/page/n5/mode/2up</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobinson2001" class="citation cs2">Robinson, Greg (2001), By Order of the President: FDR and the Internment of Japanese Americans, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5226-7771-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5226-7771-0"><bdi>978-1-5226-7771-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=By+Order+of+the+President%3A+FDR+and+the+Internment+of+Japanese+Americans&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-1-5226-7771-0&rft.aulast=Robinson&rft.aufirst=Greg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranklin+D.+Roosevelt" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFF._Roosevelt,_E._Roosevelt" class="citation book cs1">Roosevelt, Franklin; Roosevelt, Elliott (1970). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MpkOAQAAMAAJ&q=taconic+commission+roosevelt+tender+you+my+resignation">F.D.R.: His Personal Letters, 1928–1945</a>. Vol. 1. Duell, Sloan, and Pearce.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=F.D.R.%3A+His+Personal+Letters%2C+1928%E2%80%931945&rft.pub=Duell%2C+Sloan%2C+and+Pearce&rft.date=1970&rft.aulast=Roosevelt&rft.aufirst=Franklin&rft.au=Roosevelt%2C+Elliott&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMpkOAQAAMAAJ%26q%3Dtaconic%2Bcommission%2Broosevelt%2Btender%2Byou%2Bmy%2Bresignation&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranklin+D.+Roosevelt" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRowley2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hazel_Rowley" title="Hazel Rowley">Rowley, Hazel</a> (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/franklineleanore0000rowl">Franklin and Eleanor: An Extraordinary Marriage</a>. Farrar, Straus & Giroux. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-374-15857-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-374-15857-6"><bdi>978-0-374-15857-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Franklin+and+Eleanor%3A+An+Extraordinary+Marriage&rft.pub=Farrar%2C+Straus+%26+Giroux&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-374-15857-6&rft.aulast=Rowley&rft.aufirst=Hazel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffranklineleanore0000rowl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranklin+D.+Roosevelt" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSainsbury1994" class="citation book cs1">Sainsbury, Keith (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/churchillrooseve0000sain">Churchill and Roosevelt at War: The War They Fought and the Peace They Hoped to Make</a>. New York University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8147-7991-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8147-7991-0"><bdi>978-0-8147-7991-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Churchill+and+Roosevelt+at+War%3A+The+War+They+Fought+and+the+Peace+They+Hoped+to+Make&rft.pub=New+York+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-8147-7991-0&rft.aulast=Sainsbury&rft.aufirst=Keith&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fchurchillrooseve0000sain&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranklin+D.+Roosevelt" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSavage1991" class="citation book cs1">Savage, Sean J. (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=J7QlafgkrnUC&pg=PA160">Roosevelt, the Party Leader, 1932–1945</a>. University Press of Kentucky. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8131-3079-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8131-3079-8"><bdi>978-0-8131-3079-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Roosevelt%2C+the+Party+Leader%2C+1932%E2%80%931945&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Kentucky&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-8131-3079-8&rft.aulast=Savage&rft.aufirst=Sean+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJ7QlafgkrnUC%26pg%3DPA160&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranklin+D.+Roosevelt" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchweikartAllen2004" class="citation book cs1">Schweikart, Larry; Allen, Michael (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=igOXnmTZ_wIC&pg=PP1">A Patriot's History of the United States: From Columbus's Great Discovery to the War on Terror</a>. Penguin Group US. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-101-21778-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-101-21778-8"><bdi>978-1-101-21778-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Patriot%27s+History+of+the+United+States%3A+From+Columbus%27s+Great+Discovery+to+the+War+on+Terror&rft.pub=Penguin+Group+US&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-101-21778-8&rft.aulast=Schweikart&rft.aufirst=Larry&rft.au=Allen%2C+Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DigOXnmTZ_wIC%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranklin+D.+Roosevelt" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jean_Edward_Smith" title="Jean Edward Smith">Smith, Jean Edward</a> (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/fdr00smit">FDR</a>. Random House. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4000-6121-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4000-6121-1"><bdi>978-1-4000-6121-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=FDR&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-4000-6121-1&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Jean+Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffdr00smit&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranklin+D.+Roosevelt" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSternsher1975" class="citation journal cs1">Sternsher, Bernard (Summer 1975). "The Emergence of the New Deal Party System: A Problem in Historical Analysis of Voter Behavior". <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Interdisciplinary_History" title="Journal of Interdisciplinary History">Journal of Interdisciplinary History</a>. 6 (1): 127–49. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F202828">10.2307/202828</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/202828">202828</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Interdisciplinary+History&rft.atitle=The+Emergence+of+the+New+Deal+Party+System%3A+A+Problem+in+Historical+Analysis+of+Voter+Behavior&rft.ssn=summer&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=127-49&rft.date=1975&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F202828&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F202828%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Sternsher&rft.aufirst=Bernard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranklin+D.+Roosevelt" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTobin2013" class="citation book cs1">Tobin, James (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/manhebecamehowfd0000tobi">The Man He Became: How FDR Defied Polio to Win the Presidency</a>. Simon and Schuster. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/manhebecamehowfd0000tobi/page/4">4</a>–7. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4516-9867-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4516-9867-1"><bdi>978-1-4516-9867-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Man+He+Became%3A+How+FDR+Defied+Polio+to+Win+the+Presidency&rft.pages=4-7&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-4516-9867-1&rft.aulast=Tobin&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmanhebecamehowfd0000tobi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranklin+D.+Roosevelt" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTully2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Grace_Tully" title="Grace Tully">Tully, Grace</a> (2005). Franklin Delano Roosevelt, My Boss. Kessinger Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4179-8926-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4179-8926-3"><bdi>978-1-4179-8926-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Franklin+Delano+Roosevelt%2C+My+Boss&rft.pub=Kessinger+Publishing&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-4179-8926-3&rft.aulast=Tully&rft.aufirst=Grace&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranklin+D.+Roosevelt" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUnderwood1991" class="citation book cs1">Underwood, Jeffery S. (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7BOe6NR-9BsC&pg=PA11">The Wings of Democracy: The Influence of Air Power on the Roosevelt Administration, 1933–1941</a>. Texas A&M University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89096-388-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-89096-388-3"><bdi>978-0-89096-388-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Wings+of+Democracy%3A+The+Influence+of+Air+Power+on+the+Roosevelt+Administration%2C+1933%E2%80%931941&rft.pub=Texas+A%26M+University+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-89096-388-3&rft.aulast=Underwood&rft.aufirst=Jeffery+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7BOe6NR-9BsC%26pg%3DPA11&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranklin+D.+Roosevelt" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWardBurns2014" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_C._Ward" title="Geoffrey C. Ward">Ward, Geoffrey C.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Ken_Burns" title="Ken Burns">Burns, Ken</a> (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=V73CAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1">The Roosevelts: An Intimate History</a>. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-385-35306-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-385-35306-9"><bdi>978-0-385-35306-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Roosevelts%3A+An+Intimate+History&rft.pub=Knopf+Doubleday+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-385-35306-9&rft.aulast=Ward&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey+C.&rft.au=Burns%2C+Ken&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DV73CAwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranklin+D.+Roosevelt" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWinkler2006" class="citation book cs1">Winkler, Allan M. (2006). Franklin D. Roosevelt and the Making of Modern America. Longman. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-321-41285-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-321-41285-0"><bdi>978-0-321-41285-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Franklin+D.+Roosevelt+and+the+Making+of+Modern+America&rft.pub=Longman&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-321-41285-0&rft.aulast=Winkler&rft.aufirst=Allan+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranklin+D.+Roosevelt" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWyman1984" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/David_Wyman" title="David Wyman">Wyman, David S</a> (1984), <a href="/wiki/The_Abandonment_of_the_Jews:_America_and_the_Holocaust_1941%E2%80%931945" class="mw-redirect" title="The Abandonment of the Jews: America and the Holocaust 1941–1945">The Abandonment of the Jews: America and the Holocaust 1941–1945</a>, Pantheon Books, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-394-42813-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-394-42813-0"><bdi>978-0-394-42813-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Abandonment+of+the+Jews%3A+America+and+the+Holocaust+1941%E2%80%931945&rft.pub=Pantheon+Books&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0-394-42813-0&rft.aulast=Wyman&rft.aufirst=David+S&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFranklin+D.+Roosevelt" class="Z3988">.</li></ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(13)"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div><section class="mf-section-13 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-13"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1250146164">.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow{padding:0.75em 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow>b{display:block}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul{border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.75em 0;width:217px;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul>li{min-height:31px}.mw-parser-output .sister-logo{display:inline-block;width:31px;line-height:31px;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-link{display:inline-block;margin-left:4px;width:182px;vertical-align:middle}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div role="navigation" aria-labelledby="sister-projects" class="side-box metadata side-box-right sister-box sistersitebox plainlinks"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> Franklin D. Roosevelt at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects">sister projects</a></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/27px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="391" data-file-height="391"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 27px;height: 27px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/27px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="27" data-height="27" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/41px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/54px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Roosevelt" class="extiw" title="wikt:Roosevelt">Definitions</a> from Wiktionary</li><li><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="27" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 20px;height: 27px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="20" data-height="27" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Franklin_Delano_Roosevelt" class="extiw" title="c:Franklin Delano Roosevelt">Media</a> from Commons</li><li><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/23px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="27" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 23px;height: 27px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/23px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="23" data-height="27" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/35px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/46px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> <a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" class="extiw" title="q:Franklin D. Roosevelt">Quotations</a> from Wikiquote</li><li><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/26px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="26" height="27" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 26px;height: 27px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/26px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="26" data-height="27" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/39px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/51px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Author:Franklin_Delano_Roosevelt" class="extiw" title="s:Author:Franklin Delano Roosevelt">Texts</a> from Wikisource</li><li><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/27px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1050" data-file-height="590"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 27px;height: 15px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/27px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="27" data-height="15" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/41px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/54px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8007" class="extiw" title="d:Q8007">Data</a> from Wikidata</li></ul></div></div> </div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about Franklin D. Roosevelt <hr></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Franklin+D.+Roosevelt">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Franklin+D.+Roosevelt&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> <div class="side-box-abovebelow">By Franklin D. Roosevelt <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?at=wp&au=Franklin+D.+Roosevelt">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?at=wp&au=Franklin+D.+Roosevelt&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li></ul> </div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fdrlibrary.marist.edu/">Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library and Museum</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nps.gov/frde/">Franklin Delano Roosevelt Memorial</a>, Washington, DC</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://millercenter.org/president/speeches#fdroosevelt">Full text and audio of a number of Roosevelt's speeches</a> – <a href="/wiki/Miller_Center_of_Public_Affairs" title="Miller Center of Public Affairs">Miller Center of Public Affairs</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/topic/person/franklin-delano-roosevelt">Franklin Delano Roosevelt</a> collected news and commentary at <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/presidents/fdroosevelt/index.html">Franklin Delano Roosevelt: A Resource Guide</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.c-span.org/person/?5157">Appearances</a> on <a href="/wiki/C-SPAN" title="C-SPAN">C-SPAN</a> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.c-span.org/video/?151628-1/life-portrait-franklin-d-roosevelt">"Life Portrait of Franklin D. Roosevelt"</a>, from <a href="/wiki/C-SPAN" title="C-SPAN">C-SPAN</a>'s <a href="/wiki/American_Presidents:_Life_Portraits" title="American Presidents: Life Portraits">American Presidents: Life Portraits</a>, October 11, 1999</li></ul></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/films/fdr/">The Presidents: FDR</a> – an <a href="/wiki/American_Experience" title="American Experience">American Experience</a> documentary</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/FDRSelectionsWritings">Franklin Delano Roosevelt: Selections from His Writings</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/author/67">Works by Franklin Delano Roosevelt</a> at <a href="/wiki/Project_Gutenberg" title="Project Gutenberg">Project Gutenberg</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://librivox.org/author/11299">Works by Franklin D. Roosevelt</a> at <a href="/wiki/LibriVox" title="LibriVox">LibriVox</a> (public domain audiobooks) <noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/15px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 15px;height: 15px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/15px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="15" data-height="15" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/23px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/30px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28subject%3A%22Roosevelt%2C%20Franklin%20Delano%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Roosevelt%2C%20Franklin%20D%2E%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Roosevelt%2C%20F%2E%20D%2E%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Franklin%20Delano%20Roosevelt%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Franklin%20D%2E%20Roosevelt%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22F%2E%20D%2E%20Roosevelt%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Roosevelt%2C%20Franklin%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Franklin%20Roosevelt%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Franklin%20Delano%20Roosevelt%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Franklin%20D%2E%20Roosevelt%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22F%2E%20D%2E%20Roosevelt%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22F%2E%20Delano%20Roosevelt%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Roosevelt%2C%20Franklin%20Delano%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Roosevelt%2C%20Franklin%20D%2E%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Roosevelt%2C%20F%2E%20D%2E%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Roosevelt%2C%20F%2E%20Delano%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Franklin%20Roosevelt%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Roosevelt%2C%20Franklin%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Franklin%20Delano%20Roosevelt%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Franklin%20D%2E%20Roosevelt%22%20OR%20title%3A%22F%2E%20D%2E%20Roosevelt%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Franklin%20Roosevelt%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Franklin%20Delano%20Roosevelt%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Franklin%20D%2E%20Roosevelt%22%20OR%20description%3A%22F%2E%20D%2E%20Roosevelt%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Roosevelt%2C%20Franklin%20Delano%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Roosevelt%2C%20Franklin%20D%2E%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Franklin%20Roosevelt%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Roosevelt%2C%20Franklin%22%29%20OR%20%28%221882-1945%22%20AND%20Roosevelt%29%29%20AND%20%28-mediatype:software%29">Works by or about Franklin D. 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.portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 0;column-gap:1em;align-items:baseline;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-item{display:inline-block;margin:0.15em 0.2em;min-height:24px;line-height:24px}@media screen and (max-width:768px){.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;flex-flow:column wrap;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{text-align:center;flex:0;padding-left:0.5em;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;align-items:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;align-items:center;flex:0;column-gap:1em;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0 auto;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{border-top:none;margin:0;list-style:none}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.sister-bar{margin-top:-1px}</style><div class="portal-bar noprint metadata noviewer portal-bar-bordered" role="navigation" aria-label="Portals"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Portals</a>:<ul class="portal-bar-content"><li class="portal-bar-item"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Lange-MigrantMother02.jpg/15px-Lange-MigrantMother02.jpg" decoding="async" width="15" height="19" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="6205" data-file-height="8066"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 15px;height: 19px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Lange-MigrantMother02.jpg/15px-Lange-MigrantMother02.jpg" data-alt="" data-width="15" data-height="19" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Lange-MigrantMother02.jpg/22px-Lange-MigrantMother02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Lange-MigrantMother02.jpg/29px-Lange-MigrantMother02.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element">  <a href="/wiki/Portal:1930s" class="mw-redirect" title="Portal:1930s">1930s</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/The_USS_Arizona_%28BB-39%29_burning_after_the_Japanese_attack_on_Pearl_Harbor_-_NARA_195617_-_Edit.jpg/21px-The_USS_Arizona_%28BB-39%29_burning_after_the_Japanese_attack_on_Pearl_Harbor_-_NARA_195617_-_Edit.jpg" decoding="async" width="21" height="17" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2940" data-file-height="2326"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 21px;height: 17px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/The_USS_Arizona_%28BB-39%29_burning_after_the_Japanese_attack_on_Pearl_Harbor_-_NARA_195617_-_Edit.jpg/21px-The_USS_Arizona_%28BB-39%29_burning_after_the_Japanese_attack_on_Pearl_Harbor_-_NARA_195617_-_Edit.jpg" data-alt="" data-width="21" data-height="17" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/The_USS_Arizona_%28BB-39%29_burning_after_the_Japanese_attack_on_Pearl_Harbor_-_NARA_195617_-_Edit.jpg/32px-The_USS_Arizona_%28BB-39%29_burning_after_the_Japanese_attack_on_Pearl_Harbor_-_NARA_195617_-_Edit.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/The_USS_Arizona_%28BB-39%29_burning_after_the_Japanese_attack_on_Pearl_Harbor_-_NARA_195617_-_Edit.jpg/42px-The_USS_Arizona_%28BB-39%29_burning_after_the_Japanese_attack_on_Pearl_Harbor_-_NARA_195617_-_Edit.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element">  <a href="/wiki/Portal:1940s" class="mw-redirect" title="Portal:1940s">1940s</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/P_vip.svg/19px-P_vip.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1911" data-file-height="1944"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 19px;height: 19px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/P_vip.svg/19px-P_vip.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="19" data-height="19" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/P_vip.svg/28px-P_vip.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/P_vip.svg/37px-P_vip.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element">  <a href="/wiki/Portal:Biography" title="Portal:Biography">Biography</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/21px-P_history.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="19" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 21px;height: 19px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/21px-P_history.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="21" data-height="19" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/32px-P_history.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/42px-P_history.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element">  <a href="/wiki/Portal:History" title="Portal:History">History</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><a href="/wiki/File:Yellow_flag_waving.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Yellow_flag_waving.svg/18px-Yellow_flag_waving.svg.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="19" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="249" data-file-height="268"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 18px;height: 19px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Yellow_flag_waving.svg/18px-Yellow_flag_waving.svg.png" data-alt="icon" data-width="18" data-height="19" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Yellow_flag_waving.svg/27px-Yellow_flag_waving.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Yellow_flag_waving.svg/35px-Yellow_flag_waving.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Liberalism" title="Portal:Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><noscript><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Flag_of_New_York.svg/21px-Flag_of_New_York.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="11" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="450"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 21px;height: 11px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Flag_of_New_York.svg/21px-Flag_of_New_York.svg.png" data-alt="flag" data-width="21" data-height="11" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Flag_of_New_York.svg/32px-Flag_of_New_York.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Flag_of_New_York.svg/42px-Flag_of_New_York.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element">  <a href="/wiki/Portal:New_York_(state)" title="Portal:New York (state)">New York (state)</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><a href="/wiki/File:A_coloured_voting_box.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/19px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 19px;height: 19px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/19px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png" data-alt="icon" data-width="19" data-height="19" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/29px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/38px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Politics" title="Portal:Politics">Politics</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><noscript><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/21px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="11" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 21px;height: 11px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/21px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" data-alt="flag" data-width="21" data-height="11" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/42px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element">  <a href="/wiki/Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">United States</a></li></ul></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div>    </section></div> <noscript><img src="https://login.m.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&mobile=1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Franklin_D._Roosevelt&oldid=1259805113">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Franklin_D._Roosevelt&oldid=1259805113</a>"</div></div> </div> <div class="post-content" id="page-secondary-actions"> </div> </main> <footer class="mw-footer minerva-footer" role="contentinfo"> <a class="last-modified-bar" href="/w/index.php?title=Franklin_D._Roosevelt&action=history"> <div class="post-content last-modified-bar__content"> Last edited on 27 November 2024, at 03:50 </div> </a> <div class="post-content footer-content"> <div id='mw-data-after-content'> <div class="read-more-container"></div> </div> <div id="p-lang"> <h4>Languages</h4> <section> <ul id="p-variants" class="minerva-languages"></ul> <ul class="minerva-languages"><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ace mw-list-item"><a href="https://ace.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt – Acehnese" lang="ace" hreflang="ace" data-title="Franklin D. Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Acèh" data-language-local-name="Acehnese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Acèh</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbd mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE_%D0%A0%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%82" title="Франклин Делано Рузвелт – Kabardian" lang="kbd" hreflang="kbd" data-title="Франклин Делано Рузвелт" data-language-autonym="Адыгэбзэ" data-language-local-name="Kabardian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Адыгэбзэ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Franklin D. Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Franklin D. Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8D%8D%E1%88%AB%E1%8A%95%E1%8A%AD%E1%88%8A%E1%8A%95_%E1%88%AE%E1%8B%98%E1%89%A8%E1%88%8D%E1%89%B5" title="ፍራንክሊን ሮዘቨልት – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ፍራንክሊን ሮዘቨልት" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AB%E0%A4%BC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%81%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BC%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F" title="फ़्राँक्लिन रुज़वेल्ट – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="फ़्राँक्लिन रुज़वेल्ट" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target">अंगिका</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ang mw-list-item"><a href="https://ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt – Old English" lang="ang" hreflang="ang" data-title="Franklin D. Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Ænglisc" data-language-local-name="Old English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ænglisc</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ab mw-list-item"><a href="https://ab.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82,_%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE" title="Рузвельт, Франклин Делано – Abkhazian" lang="ab" hreflang="ab" data-title="Рузвельт, Франклин Делано" data-language-autonym="Аԥсшәа" data-language-local-name="Abkhazian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Аԥсшәа</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%83%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%86_%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B2%D9%81%D9%84%D8%AA" title="فرانكلين روزفلت – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="فرانكلين روزفلت" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_Delano_Roosevelt" title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frp mw-list-item"><a href="https://frp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_Delano_Roosevelt" title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt – Arpitan" lang="frp" hreflang="frp" data-title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Arpetan" data-language-local-name="Arpitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Arpetan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_Delano_Roosevelt" title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-awa mw-list-item"><a href="https://awa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F" title="फ्रान्क्लिन रुजवेल्ट – Awadhi" lang="awa" hreflang="awa" data-title="फ्रान्क्लिन रुजवेल्ट" data-language-autonym="अवधी" data-language-local-name="Awadhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">अवधी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Franklin D. Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ay mw-list-item"><a href="https://ay.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt – Aymara" lang="ay" hreflang="ay" data-title="Franklin D. Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Aymar aru" data-language-local-name="Aymara" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aymar aru</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_Delano_Ruzvelt" title="Franklin Delano Ruzvelt – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Franklin Delano Ruzvelt" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%A9%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%86_%D8%AF%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88_%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B2%D9%88%D9%84%D8%AA" title="فرانکلین دلانو روزولت – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="فرانکلین دلانو روزولت" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ban mw-list-item"><a href="https://ban.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt – Balinese" lang="ban" hreflang="ban" data-title="Franklin D. Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Basa Bali" data-language-local-name="Balinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Basa Bali</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AB%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%99%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A8_%E0%A6%A1%E0%A6%BF._%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%AD%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9F" title="ফ্রাঙ্কলিন ডি. রুজভেল্ট – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ফ্রাঙ্কলিন ডি. রুজভেল্ট" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Franklin D. Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D0%A0%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82" title="Франклин Рузвельт – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Франклин Рузвельт" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BD_%D0%A0%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82" title="Франклін Рузвельт – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Франклін Рузвельт" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BD_%D0%94%D1%8D%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%A0%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%B2%D1%8D%D0%BB%D1%82" title="Франклін Дэлана Рузвэлт – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Франклін Дэлана Рузвэлт" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Franklin D. Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bi mw-list-item"><a href="https://bi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt – Bislama" lang="bi" hreflang="bi" data-title="Franklin D. Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Bislama" data-language-local-name="Bislama" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bislama</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE_%D0%A0%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%82" title="Франклин Делано Рузвелт – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Франклин Делано Рузвелт" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Franklin D. Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Boarisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Franklin D. Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_Delano_Roosevelt" title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE_%D0%A0%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82" title="Франклин Делано Рузвельт – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Франклин Делано Рузвельт" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target">Буряад</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_Delano_Roosevelt" title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D0%A0%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82" title="Франклин Рузвельт – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Франклин Рузвельт" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Franklin D. Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cebuano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_Delano_Roosevelt" title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ny mw-list-item"><a href="https://ny.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt – Nyanja" lang="ny" hreflang="ny" data-title="Franklin D. Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Chi-Chewa" data-language-local-name="Nyanja" class="interlanguage-link-target">Chi-Chewa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-co mw-list-item"><a href="https://co.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt – Corsican" lang="co" hreflang="co" data-title="Franklin D. Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Corsu" data-language-local-name="Corsican" class="interlanguage-link-target">Corsu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Franklin D. Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Franklin D. Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%83%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%86_%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B2%DA%A4%D9%8A%D9%84%D8%AA" title="فرانكلين روزڤيلت – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="فرانكلين روزڤيلت" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">الدارجة</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Franklin D. Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dv mw-list-item"><a href="https://dv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DE%8A%DE%B0%DE%83%DE%AC%DE%82%DE%B0%DE%86%DE%B0%DE%8D%DE%A8%DE%82%DE%B0_%DE%91%DE%A8%DE%8D%DE%A7%DE%82%DE%AF_%DE%83%DE%AB%DE%92%DE%A6%DE%88%DE%AC%DE%8D%DE%B0%DE%93%DE%B0" title="ފްރެންކްލިން ޑިލާނޯ ރޫޒަވެލްޓް – Divehi" lang="dv" hreflang="dv" data-title="ފްރެންކްލިން ޑިލާނޯ ރޫޒަވެލްޓް" data-language-autonym="ދިވެހިބަސް" data-language-local-name="Divehi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ދިވެހިބަސް</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_Delano_Roosevelt" title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A6%CF%81%CE%B1%CE%B3%CE%BA%CE%BB%CE%AF%CE%BD%CE%BF%CF%82_%CE%A1%CE%BF%CF%8D%CE%B6%CE%B2%CE%B5%CE%BB%CF%84" title="Φραγκλίνος Ρούζβελτ – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Φραγκλίνος Ρούζβελτ" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Franklin D. Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Franklin D. Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_Delano_Roosevelt" title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%A9%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%86_%D8%AF%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88_%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B2%D9%88%D9%84%D8%AA" title="فرانکلین دلانو روزولت – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="فرانکلین دلانو روزولت" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Franklin D. Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Franklin D. Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_Delano_Roosevelt" title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Franklin D. Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Franklin D. Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Franklin D. Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaelg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Franklin D. Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Franklin D. Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gom mw-list-item"><a href="https://gom.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%81%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%A1%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%85%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8B_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%9D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F" title="फ्रँक्लीन डेलॅनो रूझवेल्ट – Goan Konkani" lang="gom" hreflang="gom" data-title="फ्रँक्लीन डेलॅनो रूझवेल्ट" data-language-autonym="गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni" data-language-local-name="Goan Konkani" class="interlanguage-link-target">गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Franklin D. Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%94%84%EB%9E%AD%ED%81%B4%EB%A6%B0_D._%EB%A3%A8%EC%8A%A4%EB%B2%A8%ED%8A%B8" title="프랭클린 D. 루스벨트 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="프랭클린 D. 루스벨트" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-haw mw-list-item"><a href="https://haw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_Delano_Roosevelt" title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt – Hawaiian" lang="haw" hreflang="haw" data-title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Hawaiʻi" data-language-local-name="Hawaiian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hawaiʻi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%96%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%AF%D5%AC%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D4%B4._%D5%8C%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A6%D5%BE%D5%A5%D5%AC%D5%BF" title="Ֆրանկլին Դ. Ռուզվելտ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ֆրանկլին Դ. Ռուզվելտ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%A1%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8B_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BC%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F" title="फ्रैंकलिन डेलानो रूज़वेल्ट – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="फ्रैंकलिन डेलानो रूज़वेल्ट" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://hsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt – Upper Sorbian" lang="hsb" hreflang="hsb" data-title="Franklin D. Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Hornjoserbsce" data-language-local-name="Upper Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hornjoserbsce</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_Delano_Roosevelt" title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_Delano_Roosevelt" title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Franklin D. Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_Delano_Roosevelt" title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Franklin D. Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82,_%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE" title="Рузвельт, Франклин Делано – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Рузвельт, Франклин Делано" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Ossetic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ирон</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Franklin D. Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_Delano_Roosevelt" title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%A0%D7%A7%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%9F_%D7%93%D7%9C%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%95_%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%96%D7%95%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%98" title="פרנקלין דלאנו רוזוולט – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פרנקלין דלאנו רוזוולט" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_Delano_Roosevelt" title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AB%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B2%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%A8%E0%B3%8D_%E0%B2%A1%E0%B2%BF._%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%82%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B5%E0%B3%86%E0%B2%B2%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%9F%E0%B3%8D" title="ಫ್ರಾಂಕ್ಲಿನ್ ಡಿ. ರೂಸ್ವೆಲ್ಟ್ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಫ್ರಾಂಕ್ಲಿನ್ ಡಿ. ರೂಸ್ವೆಲ್ಟ್" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pam mw-list-item"><a href="https://pam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt – Pampanga" lang="pam" hreflang="pam" data-title="Franklin D. Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Kapampangan" data-language-local-name="Pampanga" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kapampangan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A4%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%99%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C_%E1%83%93%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%9D_%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A3%E1%83%96%E1%83%95%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98" title="ფრანკლინ დელანო რუზველტი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ფრანკლინ დელანო რუზველტი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE_%D0%A0%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82" title="Франклин Делано Рузвельт – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Франклин Делано Рузвельт" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Franklin D. Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rw mw-list-item"><a href="https://rw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_Delano_Roosevelt" title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt – Kinyarwanda" lang="rw" hreflang="rw" data-title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Ikinyarwanda" data-language-local-name="Kinyarwanda" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ikinyarwanda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Franklin D. Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_Delano_Roosevelt" title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Franklin D. Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D0%A0%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82" title="Франклин Рузвельт – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Франклин Рузвельт" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklinus_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklinus D. Roosevelt – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Franklinus D. Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklins_R%C5%ABzvelts" title="Franklins Rūzvelts – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Franklins Rūzvelts" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Franklin D. Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_Roosevelt" title="Franklin Roosevelt – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Franklin Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_Delano_Roosevelt" title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ligure</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Franklin D. Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ln mw-list-item"><a href="https://ln.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_Delano_Roosevelt" title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt – Lingala" lang="ln" hreflang="ln" data-title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Lingála" data-language-local-name="Lingala" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingála</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_Delano_Roosevelt" title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_Delano_Roosevelt" title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Franklin D. Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai mw-list-item"><a href="https://mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F" title="फ्रान्क्लिन रुजवेल्ट – Maithili" lang="mai" hreflang="mai" data-title="फ्रान्क्लिन रुजवेल्ट" data-language-autonym="मैथिली" data-language-local-name="Maithili" class="interlanguage-link-target">मैथिली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D0%94._%D0%A0%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%82" title="Франклин Д. Рузвелт – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Франклин Д. Рузвелт" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_Delano_Roosevelt" title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AB%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%99%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B3%E0%B4%BF%E0%B5%BB_%E0%B4%A1%E0%B4%BF._%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%82%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E2%80%8C%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%86%E0%B5%BD%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D" title="ഫ്രാങ്ക്ളിൻ ഡി. റൂസ്‌വെൽറ്റ് – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഫ്രാങ്ക്ളിൻ ഡി. റൂസ്‌വെൽറ്റ്" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Franklin D. Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%81%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8B_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%9D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F" title="फ्रँकलिन डिलानो रूझवेल्ट – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="फ्रँकलिन डिलानो रूझवेल्ट" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A4%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%99%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C_%E1%83%93%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%9D_%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A3%E1%83%96%E1%83%95%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98" title="ფრანკლინ დელანო რუზველტი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ფრანკლინ დელანო რუზველტი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%83%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%86_%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B2%D9%8A%DA%A4%D9%8A%D9%84%D8%AA" title="فرانكلين روزيڤيلت – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="فرانكلين روزيڤيلت" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%A9%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%86_%D8%AF%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88_%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B2%D9%88%D9%84%D8%AA" title="فرانکلین دلانو روزولت – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="فرانکلین دلانو روزولت" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target">مازِرونی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Franklin D. Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Franklin D. Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mdf mw-list-item"><a href="https://mdf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D0%94%D1%8D%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE_%D0%A0%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%B2%D1%8D%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82" title="Франклин Дэлано Рузвэльт – Moksha" lang="mdf" hreflang="mdf" data-title="Франклин Дэлано Рузвэльт" data-language-autonym="Мокшень" data-language-local-name="Moksha" class="interlanguage-link-target">Мокшень</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D0%A0%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82" title="Франклин Рузвельт – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Франклин Рузвельт" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%96%E1%80%9B%E1%80%94%E1%80%BA%E1%80%80%E1%80%9C%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA_%E1%80%92%E1%80%AE%E1%80%9C%E1%80%AC%E1%80%94%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF_%E1%80%9B%E1%80%AF%E1%80%85%E1%80%97%E1%80%B2%E1%80%B7" title="ဖရန်ကလင် ဒီလာနို ရုစဗဲ့ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ဖရန်ကလင် ဒီလာနို ရုစဗဲ့" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_Delano_Roosevelt" title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%99%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%A1%E0%A5%80._%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F" title="फ्र्याङ्क्लिन डी. रुजबेल्ट – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="फ्र्याङ्क्लिन डी. रुजबेल्ट" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8B_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F" title="फ्र्यान्क्लिन डिल्यानो रूजबेल्ट – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="फ्र्यान्क्लिन डिल्यानो रूजबेल्ट" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%95%E3%83%A9%E3%83%B3%E3%82%AF%E3%83%AA%E3%83%B3%E3%83%BB%E3%83%AB%E3%83%BC%E3%82%BA%E3%83%99%E3%83%AB%E3%83%88" title="フランクリン・ルーズベルト – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="フランクリン・ルーズベルト" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nqo mw-list-item"><a href="https://nqo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DF%9D%DF%91%DF%99%DF%AD%DF%8A%DF%B2%DF%9E%DF%91%DF%9F%DF%8A%DF%B2%DF%A3_%DF%98._%DF%99%DF%8E%DF%9B%DF%9D%DF%AD%DF%8B%DF%9F%DF%95" title="ߝߑߙ߭ߊ߲ߞߑߟߊ߲ߣ ߘ. ߙߎߛߝ߭ߋߟߕ – N’Ko" lang="nqo" hreflang="nqo" data-title="ߝߑߙ߭ߊ߲ߞߑߟߊ߲ߣ ߘ. ߙߎߛߝ߭ߋߟߕ" data-language-autonym="ߒߞߏ" data-language-local-name="N’Ko" class="interlanguage-link-target">ߒߞߏ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82,_%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD" title="Рузвельт, Франклин – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Рузвельт, Франклин" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Нохчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_Delano_Roosevelt" title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Franklin D. Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Franklin D. Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_Delano_Roosevelt" title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%AB%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%B0%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%99%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%95%E0%AC%B2%E0%AC%BF%E0%AC%A8_%E0%AC%A1%E0%AC%BF_%E0%AC%B0%E0%AD%81%E0%AC%9C%E0%AC%AD%E0%AD%87%E0%AC%B2%E0%AC%9F" title="ଫ୍ରାଙ୍କଲିନ ଡି ରୁଜଭେଲଟ – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ଫ୍ରାଙ୍କଲିନ ଡି ରୁଜଭେଲଟ" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target">ଓଡ଼ିଆ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Franklin D. Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AB%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%B0%E0%A9%88%E0%A8%82%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%B2%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%A8_%E0%A8%A1%E0%A9%80_%E0%A8%B0%E0%A9%82%E0%A8%9C%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%B5%E0%A9%88%E0%A8%B2%E0%A8%9F" title="ਫ਼ਰੈਂਕਲਿਨ ਡੀ ਰੂਜ਼ਵੈਲਟ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਫ਼ਰੈਂਕਲਿਨ ਡੀ ਰੂਜ਼ਵੈਲਟ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%86%DA%A9%D9%84%D9%86_%DA%88%DB%8C_%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B2%D9%88%DB%8C%D9%84%D9%B9" title="فرینکلن ڈی روزویلٹ – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="فرینکلن ڈی روزویلٹ" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%A9%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%86_%DA%89%DB%8C%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88_%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B2%D9%88%D9%84%D9%BC" title="فرانکلین ډیلانو روزولټ – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="فرانکلین ډیلانو روزولټ" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_Delano_Roosevelt" title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_Delano_Roosevelt" title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_Delano_Roosevelt" title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Franklin D. Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_Ruzvelt" title="Franklin Ruzvelt – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Franklin Ruzvelt" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qaraqalpaqsha</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-crh mw-list-item"><a href="https://crh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_Ruzvelt" title="Franklin Ruzvelt – Crimean Tatar" lang="crh" hreflang="crh" data-title="Franklin Ruzvelt" data-language-autonym="Qırımtatarca" data-language-local-name="Crimean Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qırımtatarca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_Delano_Roosevelt" title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rm mw-list-item"><a href="https://rm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_Delano_Roosevelt" title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt – Romansh" lang="rm" hreflang="rm" data-title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Rumantsch" data-language-local-name="Romansh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Rumantsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_Roosevelt" title="Franklin Roosevelt – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Franklin Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BD_%D0%A0%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%82" title="Франклін Рузвелт – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Франклін Рузвелт" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82,_%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE" title="Рузвельт, Франклин Делано – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Рузвельт, Франклин Делано" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82,_%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE" title="Рузвельт, Франклин Делано – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Рузвельт, Франклин Делано" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%99%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F" title="फ्रेङ्क्लिन रुजवेल्ट – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="फ्रेङ्क्लिन रुजवेल्ट" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target">संस्कृतम्</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%AF%E1%B1%B7%E1%B1%A8%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%9D%E1%B1%A0%E1%B1%9E%E1%B1%A4%E1%B1%B1_%E1%B1%B0%E1%B1%AE%E1%B1%9E%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%B1%E1%B1%B3_%E1%B1%A8%E1%B1%A9%E1%B1%A1%E1%B1%BD%E1%B1%B5%E1%B1%B7%E1%B1%AE%E1%B1%9E%E1%B1%B4" title="ᱯᱷᱨᱟᱝᱠᱞᱤᱱ ᱰᱮᱞᱟᱱᱳ ᱨᱩᱡᱽᱵᱷᱮᱞᱴ – Santali" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱯᱷᱨᱟᱝᱠᱞᱤᱱ ᱰᱮᱞᱟᱱᱳ ᱨᱩᱡᱽᱵᱷᱮᱞᱴ" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="Santali" class="interlanguage-link-target">ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_Delano_Roosevelt" title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Franklin D. Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_Delano_Roosevelt" title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B7%86%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%90%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%BD%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%8A_%E0%B6%A9%E0%B7%99%E0%B6%BD%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%9D_%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%96%E0%B7%83%E0%B7%8A%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%99%E0%B6%BD%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%A7%E0%B7%8A" title="ෆ්‍රැන්ක්ලින් ඩෙලානෝ රූස්වෙල්ට් – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ෆ්‍රැන්ක්ලින් ඩෙලානෝ රූස්වෙල්ට්" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Franklin D. Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_Delano_Roosevelt" title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_Delano_Roosevelt" title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%A9%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%86_%DA%95%DB%86%D8%B2%DA%A4%DB%8E%DA%B5%D8%AA" title="فرانکلین ڕۆزڤێڵت – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="فرانکلین ڕۆزڤێڵت" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D0%94._%D0%A0%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%82" title="Френклин Д. Рузвелт – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Френклин Д. Рузвелт" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_Delano_Roosevelt" title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_Delano_Roosevelt" title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Franklin D. Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Franklin D. Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Franklin D. Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%99%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B3%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%82%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%B5%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D" title="பிராங்க்ளின் ரூசவெல்ட் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="பிராங்க்ளின் ரூசவெல்ட்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_Delano_Ruzvelt" title="Franklin Delano Ruzvelt – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Franklin Delano Ruzvelt" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%9F%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%99_%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%B5._%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%8B%E0%B8%AD%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%95%E0%B9%8C" title="แฟรงคลิน ดี. โรเซอเวลต์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="แฟรงคลิน ดี. โรเซอเวลต์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D0%A0%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%82" title="Франклин Рузвелт – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Франклин Рузвелт" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-chr mw-list-item"><a href="https://chr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8E%A6%E1%8E%B8%E1%8F%A5%E1%8E%B5%E1%8F%82_%E1%8F%95._%E1%8F%AD%E1%8F%8E%E1%8F%AA%E1%8E%B5%E1%8F%98" title="ᎦᎸᏥᎵᏂ Ꮥ. ᏭᏎᏪᎵᏘ – Cherokee" lang="chr" hreflang="chr" data-title="ᎦᎸᏥᎵᏂ Ꮥ. ᏭᏎᏪᎵᏘ" data-language-autonym="ᏣᎳᎩ" data-language-local-name="Cherokee" class="interlanguage-link-target">ᏣᎳᎩ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Franklin D. Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tyv mw-list-item"><a href="https://tyv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82,_%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE" title="Рузвельт, Франклин Делано – Tuvinian" lang="tyv" hreflang="tyv" data-title="Рузвельт, Франклин Делано" data-language-autonym="Тыва дыл" data-language-local-name="Tuvinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тыва дыл</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BD_%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE_%D0%A0%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82" title="Франклін Делано Рузвельт – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Франклін Делано Рузвельт" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%86%DA%A9%D9%84%D9%86_%DA%88%DB%8C_%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B2%D9%88%DB%8C%D9%84%D9%B9" title="فرینکلن ڈی روزویلٹ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="فرینکلن ڈی روزویلٹ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%83%D9%84%D9%89%D9%86_%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B2%DB%8B%DB%90%D9%84%D8%AA" title="فرانكلىن روزۋېلت – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="فرانكلىن روزۋېلت" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target">ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_Delano_Roosevelt" title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vèneto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruzvel%27t_Franklin_Delano" title="Ruzvel't Franklin Delano – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Ruzvel't Franklin Delano" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vepsän kel’</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Franklin D. Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vo mw-list-item"><a href="https://vo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_Delano_Roosevelt" title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt – Volapük" lang="vo" hreflang="vo" data-title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Volapük" data-language-local-name="Volapük" class="interlanguage-link-target">Volapük</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roosevelti_Franklin_Delano" title="Roosevelti Franklin Delano – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Roosevelti Franklin Delano" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target">Võro</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%AF%8C%E8%98%AD%E5%85%8B%E6%9E%97%C2%B7%E5%BE%B7%E6%8B%89%E8%AB%BE%C2%B7%E7%BE%85%E6%96%AF%E7%A6%8F" title="富蘭克林·德拉諾·羅斯福 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="富蘭克林·德拉諾·羅斯福" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">文言</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Franklin D. Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%AF%8C%E8%98%AD%E5%85%8B%E6%9E%97%C2%B7%E5%BE%B7%E6%8B%89%E8%AB%BE%C2%B7%E7%BE%85%E6%96%AF%E7%A6%8F" title="富蘭克林·德拉諾·羅斯福 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="富蘭克林·德拉諾·羅斯福" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%A2%D7%A0%D7%A7%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%9F_%D7%93%D7%A2%D7%9C%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%90_%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%96%D7%A2%D7%95%D7%95%D7%A2%D7%9C%D7%98" title="פרענקלין דעלאנא רוזעוועלט – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="פרענקלין דעלאנא רוזעוועלט" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Franklin D. Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target">Yorùbá</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%AF%8C%E8%98%AD%E5%85%8B%E6%9E%97%E7%BE%85%E6%96%AF%E7%A6%8F" title="富蘭克林羅斯福 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="富蘭克林羅斯福" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Franklin D. Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zazaki</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zea mw-list-item"><a href="https://zea.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt – Zeelandic" lang="zea" hreflang="zea" data-title="Franklin D. Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Zeêuws" data-language-local-name="Zeelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zeêuws</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklins_R%C5%ABzvelts" title="Franklins Rūzvelts – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Franklins Rūzvelts" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Žemaitėška</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%AF%8C%E5%85%B0%E5%85%8B%E6%9E%97%C2%B7%E5%BE%B7%E6%8B%89%E8%AF%BA%C2%B7%E7%BD%97%E6%96%AF%E7%A6%8F" title="富兰克林·德拉诺·罗斯福 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="富兰克林·德拉诺·罗斯福" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-btm mw-list-item"><a href="https://btm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt – Batak Mandailing" lang="btm" hreflang="btm" data-title="Franklin D. Roosevelt" data-language-autonym="Batak Mandailing" data-language-local-name="Batak Mandailing" class="interlanguage-link-target">Batak Mandailing</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tly mw-list-item"><a href="https://tly.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_Ruzvelt" title="Franklin Ruzvelt – Talysh" lang="tly" hreflang="tly" data-title="Franklin Ruzvelt" data-language-autonym="Tolışi" data-language-local-name="Talysh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tolışi</a></li></ul> </section> </div> <div class="minerva-footer-logo"><img src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" alt="Wikipedia" width="120" height="18" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"/> </div> <ul id="footer-info" class="footer-info hlist hlist-separated"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 27 November 2024, at 03:50 (UTC).</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Content is available under <a class="external" rel="nofollow" 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<script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-5c9b544f44-676bx","wgBackendResponseTime":364,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"4.317","walltime":"5.018","ppvisitednodes":{"value":50878,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":1243716,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":343377,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":21,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":58,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":803691,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 3923.462 1 -total"," 21.49% 843.153 282 Template:Sfn"," 17.98% 705.579 2 Template:Reflist"," 15.00% 588.516 2 Template:Navboxes"," 12.64% 496.079 1 Template:Infobox_officeholder"," 11.93% 468.107 33 Template:Navbox"," 8.90% 349.304 56 Template:Cite_book"," 5.53% 217.047 33 Template:Cite_web"," 5.29% 207.548 329 Template:Main_other"," 4.53% 177.581 17 Template:Infobox_officeholder/office"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"2.304","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":26035787,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"table#1 {\n}\n\"\"\nanchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAbate1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAllen1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAlter2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAndrew_Glass2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFApplebyBrandsDallekFitzpatrick2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBalderramaRodriguez2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBeito2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBelknap2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBernard2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBlack2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBlake2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrands2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBreitmanLichtman2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrinkley2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBruenn1970\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBumiller2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBurns1956\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBurns1970\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCampbell2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChambers1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCharles2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChurchill1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCollins2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDallek1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDallek2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavidson2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDoeneckeStoler2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEverhart1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFF._Roosevelt,_E._Roosevelt\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFink2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFreidel1952–1973\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFried2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFullilove2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGlass2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoldmanGoldman2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoldmanSchmalstiegFreemanGoldman2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoodwin1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGreenstein2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGunther1950\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHastings2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHausman2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHawley1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHerman2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHerring2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohnson2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJonesJones2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJordan2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKalman2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKennedy1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLash1971\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLerner2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeshy2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeuchtenburg1963\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeuchtenburg2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeuchtenburg2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeuchtenburg2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeuchtenburg2016\"] = 4,\n [\"CITEREFLiptak2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLomazowFettmann2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaffeo2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMagness2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaher2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMargo1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMary_E._Stuckey2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcCullough1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcGrath2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcGreevy2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcJimsey2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMedoff2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoe2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMorgan1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNorton2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFO\u0026#039;Brien2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOdo2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobinson2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoosevelt1933\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRose2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRottinghausVaughn2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRowley2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSainsbury1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSavage1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchlesinger1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchlesinger2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchweikartAllen2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSitkoff1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmith2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSternsher1975\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTobin2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTully2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUnderwood1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWalsh2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWardBurns2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWinkler2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWooten2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWyman1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZeitz2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFjessiekratz2015\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Birth date\"] = 1,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 1,\n [\"C-SPAN\"] = 1,\n [\"Circa\"] = 2,\n [\"Citation\"] = 10,\n [\"Cite American Heritage Dictionary\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite Power Broker\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 55,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 13,\n [\"Cite magazine\"] = 3,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 19,\n [\"Cite video\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 32,\n [\"Clear\"] = 1,\n [\"Convert\"] = 3,\n [\"DEFAULTSORT:Roosevelt, Franklin D.\"] = 1,\n [\"Death date and age\"] = 1,\n [\"Democratic Party (United States)\"] = 1,\n [\"Efn\"] = 13,\n [\"Eleanor Roosevelt\"] = 1,\n [\"FD Roosevelt cabinet\"] = 1,\n [\"Franklin D. Roosevelt\"] = 1,\n [\"Further\"] = 4,\n [\"GBurl\"] = 20,\n [\"Good article\"] = 1,\n [\"Governors of New York\"] = 1,\n [\"Gutenberg author\"] = 1,\n [\"Hall of Fame for Great Americans\"] = 1,\n [\"IPAc-en\"] = 1,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 2,\n [\"Inflation\"] = 3,\n [\"Inflation-year\"] = 3,\n [\"Infobox officeholder\"] = 1,\n [\"Internet Archive author\"] = 1,\n [\"LCCN\"] = 1,\n [\"Lain in State (USA)\"] = 1,\n [\"Library resources box\"] = 1,\n [\"Librivox author\"] = 1,\n [\"Listen\"] = 4,\n [\"Longitem\"] = 3,\n [\"Main\"] = 13,\n [\"Marriage\"] = 1,\n [\"Multiple image\"] = 5,\n [\"Navboxes\"] = 2,\n [\"New Deal\"] = 1,\n [\"New York State Democratic Committee\"] = 1,\n [\"New York Times topic\"] = 1,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"PLH Recipients\"] = 1,\n [\"Plainlist\"] = 4,\n [\"Portal bar\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp-move\"] = 1,\n [\"Progressivism\"] = 1,\n [\"Redirect\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Refend\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Respell\"] = 1,\n [\"S-ach\"] = 1,\n [\"S-aft\"] = 9,\n [\"S-bef\"] = 8,\n [\"S-end\"] = 1,\n [\"S-off\"] = 1,\n [\"S-par\"] = 1,\n [\"S-ppo\"] = 1,\n [\"S-start\"] = 1,\n [\"S-ttl\"] = 9,\n [\"See also\"] = 6,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 282,\n [\"SfnRef\"] = 1,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Sister project links\"] = 1,\n [\"Spaced ndash\"] = 1,\n [\"Time 100: The Most Important People of the Century\"] = 1,\n [\"Time Persons of the Year\"] = 1,\n [\"US Presidents\"] = 1,\n [\"USSecNavy\"] = 1,\n [\"United States presidential election, 1920\"] = 1,\n [\"United States presidential election, 1932\"] = 1,\n [\"United States presidential election, 1936\"] = 1,\n [\"United States presidential election, 1940\"] = 1,\n [\"United States presidential election, 1944\"] = 1,\n [\"Unsuccessful major party VPOTUS candidates\"] = 1,\n [\"Use American English\"] = 1,\n [\"Use mdy dates\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","560","21.7"],["?","480","18.6"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","180","7.0"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getAllExpandedArguments","160","6.2"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","140","5.4"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getExpandedArgument","100","3.9"],["type","80","3.1"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::find","80","3.1"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::match","60","2.3"],["\u003Cmw.lua:694\u003E","60","2.3"],["[others]","680","26.4"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-api-ext.codfw.main-9884d96b7-2hm9p","timestamp":"20241127035040","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Franklin D. 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