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<span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Pre-Roman_Period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pre-Roman_Period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Pre-Roman Period</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pre-Roman_Period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Roman_Kingdom" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Roman_Kingdom"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Roman Kingdom</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Roman_Kingdom-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Roman_historical_tradition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Roman_historical_tradition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1</span> <span>Roman historical tradition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Roman_historical_tradition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Archaeological_evidence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Archaeological_evidence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.2</span> <span>Archaeological evidence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Archaeological_evidence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Roman_Republic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Roman_Republic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Roman Republic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Roman_Republic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Roman_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Roman_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Roman Empire</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Roman_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medieval" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medieval"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Medieval</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medieval-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Renaissance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Renaissance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Renaissance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Renaissance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Excavation_and_preservation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Excavation_and_preservation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>Excavation and preservation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Excavation_and_preservation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Temple_of_Saturn" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Temple_of_Saturn"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.8</span> <span>Temple of Saturn</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Temple_of_Saturn-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_art" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_art"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>In art</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_art-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_fora_in_Rome" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_fora_in_Rome"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Other fora in Rome</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_fora_in_Rome-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Roman Forum</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 65 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-65" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">65 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forum_Romanum" title="Forum Romanum – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Forum Romanum" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%86%D8%AA%D8%AF%D9%89_%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A" title="منتدى روماني – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="منتدى روماني" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%BC%D5%B8%D5%B4%D5%AB_%D5%96%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B4" title="Հռոմի Ֆորում – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Հռոմի Ֆորում" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Արեւմտահայերէն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AB%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8B_%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8B" title="ফোরো রোমানো – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ফোরো রোমানো" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%8B%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D1%96_%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%83%D0%BC" title="Рымскі форум – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Рымскі форум" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%8B%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D1%96_%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%83%D0%BC" title="Рымскі форум – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Рымскі форум" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%83%D0%BC" title="Римски форум – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Римски форум" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rimski_forum" title="Rimski forum – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Rimski forum" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%B2rum_Rom%C3%A0" title="Fòrum Romà – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Fòrum Romà" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forum_Romanum" title="Forum Romanum – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Forum Romanum" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forum_Romanum" title="Forum Romanum – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Forum Romanum" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forum_Romanum" title="Forum Romanum – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Forum Romanum" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rooma_foorum" title="Rooma foorum – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Rooma foorum" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A1%CF%89%CE%BC%CE%B1%CF%8A%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%91%CE%B3%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%AC_(%CE%A1%CF%8E%CE%BC%CE%B7)" title="Ρωμαϊκή Αγορά (Ρώμη) – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ρωμαϊκή Αγορά (Ρώμη)" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foro_Romano" title="Foro Romano – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Foro Romano" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roma_Forumo" title="Roma Forumo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Roma Forumo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erromako_foroa" title="Erromako foroa – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Erromako foroa" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85_%D8%B1%D9%85" title="فروم رم – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="فروم رم" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forum_Romain_(Rome)" title="Forum Romain (Rome) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Forum Romain (Rome)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forum_Romanum" title="Forum Romanum – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Forum Romanum" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%B3ram_na_R%C3%B3imhe" title="Fóram na Róimhe – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Fóram na Róimhe" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foro_Romano" title="Foro Romano – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Foro Romano" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%8F%AC%EB%A3%B8_%EB%A1%9C%EB%A7%88%EB%88%94" title="포룸 로마눔 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="포룸 로마눔" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%BC%D5%B8%D5%B4%D5%AB_%D6%86%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B4" title="Հռոմի ֆորում – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Հռոմի ֆորում" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE" title="फोरम – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="फोरम" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rimski_forum" title="Rimski forum – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Rimski forum" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forum_Romawi" title="Forum Romawi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Forum Romawi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forum_Romanum" title="Forum Romanum – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Forum Romanum" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foro_Romano" title="Foro Romano – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Foro Romano" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%9D_%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%9E%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%9D" title="פורום רומאנום – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פורום רומאנום" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forum_Romanum" title="Forum Romanum – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Forum Romanum" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romas_forums" title="Romas forums – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Romas forums" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romos_Forumas" title="Romos Forumas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Romos Forumas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foro_Roman" title="Foro Roman – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Foro Roman" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forum_Romanum" title="Forum Romanum – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Forum Romanum" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%83%D0%BC" title="Римски форум – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Римски форум" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%86%D8%AA%D8%AF%D9%89_%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%89" title="منتدى رومانى – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="منتدى رومانى" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forum_Rom" title="Forum Rom – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Forum Rom" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forum_Romanum" title="Forum Romanum – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Forum Romanum" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%95%E3%82%A9%E3%83%AD%E3%83%BB%E3%83%AD%E3%83%9E%E3%83%BC%E3%83%8E" title="フォロ・ロマーノ – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="フォロ・ロマーノ" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forum_Romanum" title="Forum Romanum – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Forum Romanum" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forum_Romanum" title="Forum Romanum – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Forum Romanum" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forum_Roman_(Roma)" title="Forum Roman (Roma) – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Forum Roman (Roma)" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85%D9%86_%D9%81%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%85" title="رومن فورم – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="رومن فورم" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forum_Romanum" title="Forum Romanum – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Forum Romanum" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%B3rum_Romano" title="Fórum Romano – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Fórum Romano" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forumul_roman" title="Forumul roman – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Forumul roman" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%83%D0%BC" title="Римский форум – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Римский форум" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Forum" title="Roman Forum – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Roman Forum" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forum_Romanum" title="Forum Romanum – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Forum Romanum" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rimski_forum" title="Rimski forum – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Rimski forum" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%83%D0%BC" title="Римски форум – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Римски форум" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rimski_forum" title="Rimski forum – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Rimski forum" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forum_Romanum" title="Forum Romanum – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Forum Romanum" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forum_Romanum" title="Forum Romanum – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Forum Romanum" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foro_ng_Roma" title="Foro ng Roma – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Foro ng Roma" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A1%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%99" title="ลานประชาคมโรมัน – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ลานประชาคมโรมัน" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roma_Forumu" title="Roma Forumu – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Roma Forumu" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%A4%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%83%D0%BC" title="Римський Форум – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Римський Форум" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85%DB%8C_%D9%81%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%85" title="رومی فورم – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="رومی فورم" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a 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.latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion"><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Roman_Forum&params=41_53_32_N_12_29_7_E_type:landmark"><span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">41°53′32″N</span> <span class="longitude">12°29′7″E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct"> / </span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">41.89222°N 12.48528°E</span><span style="display:none"> / <span class="geo">41.89222; 12.48528</span></span></span></a></span></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Ancient Roman centre of Rome, Italy</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the ancient centre of Rome. For the type of structure, see <a href="/wiki/Forum_(Roman)" title="Forum (Roman)">Forum (Roman)</a>. For examples in other cities, see <a href="/wiki/Roman_Forum_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Roman Forum (disambiguation)">Roman Forum (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vcard"><caption class="infobox-title fn org">Roman Forum</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader"><div class="nickname" lang="la">Forum Romanum</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Foro_Romano_Musei_Capitolini_Roma.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Foro_Romano_Musei_Capitolini_Roma.jpg/270px-Foro_Romano_Musei_Capitolini_Roma.jpg" decoding="async" width="270" height="111" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Foro_Romano_Musei_Capitolini_Roma.jpg/405px-Foro_Romano_Musei_Capitolini_Roma.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Foro_Romano_Musei_Capitolini_Roma.jpg/540px-Foro_Romano_Musei_Capitolini_Roma.jpg 2x" data-file-width="17000" data-file-height="6980" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Surviving structures: <a href="/wiki/Tabularium" title="Tabularium">Tabularium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gemonian_stairs" title="Gemonian stairs">Gemonian stairs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tarpeian_Rock" title="Tarpeian Rock">Tarpeian Rock</a>, <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Saturn" title="Temple of Saturn">Temple of Saturn</a>, <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Vespasian_and_Titus" title="Temple of Vespasian and Titus">Temple of Vespasian and Titus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arch_of_Septimius_Severus" title="Arch of Septimius Severus">Arch of Septimius Severus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Curia_Julia" title="Curia Julia">Curia Julia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rostra" title="Rostra">Rostra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Basilica_Aemilia" title="Basilica Aemilia">Basilica Aemilia</a>, Forum Main Square, <a href="/wiki/Basilica_Iulia" class="mw-redirect" title="Basilica Iulia">Basilica Iulia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Caesar" title="Temple of Caesar">Temple of Caesar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Regia" title="Regia">Regia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Castor_and_Pollux" title="Temple of Castor and Pollux">Temple of Castor and Pollux</a>, <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Vesta" title="Temple of Vesta">Temple of Vesta</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rostra" title="Rostra">Rostra Augusti</a>, <a href="/wiki/Umbilicus_Urbi" class="mw-redirect" title="Umbilicus Urbi">Umbilicus Urbi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Milliarium_Aureum" title="Milliarium Aureum">Milliarium Aureum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lapis_Niger" title="Lapis Niger">Lapis Niger</a>, <a href="/wiki/Basilica_of_Maxentius" title="Basilica of Maxentius">Basilica of Maxentius</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238443738">.mw-parser-output .locmap .od{position:absolute}.mw-parser-output .locmap .id{position:absolute;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .locmap .l0{font-size:0;position:absolute}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pv{line-height:110%;position:absolute;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pl{line-height:110%;position:absolute;top:-0.75em;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pr{line-height:110%;position:absolute;top:-0.75em;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pv>div{display:inline;padding:1px}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pl>div{display:inline;padding:1px;float:right}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pr>div{display:inline;padding:1px;float:left}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pv>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pl>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pr>div{background:#fff!important;color:#000!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .locmap{filter:grayscale(0.6)}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data .locmap div{background:transparent!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .locmap{filter:grayscale(0.6)}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pv>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pl>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pr>div{background:white!important;color:#000!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data .locmap div{background:transparent!important}}</style><div class="center"><div class="locmap" style="width:270px;float:none;clear:both;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto"><div style="width:270px;padding:0"><div style="position:relative;width:270px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Roma_PlanFXD.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Roman Forum is located in Rome"><img alt="Roman Forum is located in Rome" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Roma_PlanFXD.jpg/270px-Roma_PlanFXD.jpg" decoding="async" width="270" height="215" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Roma_PlanFXD.jpg/405px-Roma_PlanFXD.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Roma_PlanFXD.jpg/540px-Roma_PlanFXD.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1840" data-file-height="1463" /></a></span><div style="position:absolute;top:0;left:0"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Roma_PlanFXD.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Roma_PlanFXD.jpg/270px-Roma_PlanFXD.jpg" decoding="async" width="270" height="215" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Roma_PlanFXD.jpg/405px-Roma_PlanFXD.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Roma_PlanFXD.jpg/540px-Roma_PlanFXD.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1840" data-file-height="1463" /></a></span></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:51.504%;left:49.971%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Roman Forum"><img alt="Roman Forum" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Archaeological_site_icon_%28red%29.svg/8px-Archaeological_site_icon_%28red%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Archaeological_site_icon_%28red%29.svg/12px-Archaeological_site_icon_%28red%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Archaeological_site_icon_%28red%29.svg/16px-Archaeological_site_icon_%28red%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="16" data-file-height="16" /></span></span></div><div class="pr" style="width:6em;left:5px"><div>Roman Forum</div></div></div></div><div style="padding-top:0.2em">Shown within Augustan Rome</div></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a class="mw-kartographer-map notheme mw-kartographer-container center" style="width: 270px; height: 200px;" data-mw-kartographer="mapframe" data-style="osm-intl" data-width="270" data-height="200" data-zoom="12" data-overlays="["_4f91579f5565ed6a23344d4cd6748a942ed94076"]"><img src="https://maps.wikimedia.org/img/osm-intl,12,a,a,270x200.png?lang=en&domain=en.wikipedia.org&title=Roman_Forum&revid=1258087399&groups=_4f91579f5565ed6a23344d4cd6748a942ed94076" width="270" height="200" decoding="async" srcset="https://maps.wikimedia.org/img/osm-intl,12,a,a,270x200@2x.png?lang=en&domain=en.wikipedia.org&title=Roman_Forum&revid=1258087399&groups=_4f91579f5565ed6a23344d4cd6748a942ed94076 2x" alt="Map" /></a><div class="infobox-caption">Click on the map for a fullscreen view</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Location</th><td class="infobox-data label">Central <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Region</th><td class="infobox-data label"><a href="/wiki/Lazio" title="Lazio">Lazio</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Coordinates</th><td class="infobox-data"><span class="geo-inline"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion"><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Roman_Forum&params=41_53_32_N_12_29_7_E_type:landmark"><span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">41°53′32″N</span> <span class="longitude">12°29′7″E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct"> / </span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">41.89222°N 12.48528°E</span><span style="display:none"> / <span class="geo">41.89222; 12.48528</span></span></span></a></span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Altitude</th><td class="infobox-data">13 m (43 ft)<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Type</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Forum_(Roman)" title="Forum (Roman)">forum</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Part of</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Area</th><td class="infobox-data">2 ha (4.9 acres)</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #eee;">History</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Founded</th><td class="infobox-data">8th century BC – AD 608</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Abandoned</th><td class="infobox-data">Largely neglected from the 8th century AD onward</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Cultures</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #eee;">Site notes</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Condition</th><td class="infobox-data">Most buildings in ruins</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Public access</th><td class="infobox-data">Yes</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Website</th><td class="infobox-data"><span class="url"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://parcocolosseo.it/en/area/the-roman-forum/">parcocolosseo.it</a></span></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #eee;">Architecture</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Architectural styles</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_architecture" title="Ancient Roman architecture">Ancient Roman architecture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paleochristian_architecture" class="mw-redirect" title="Paleochristian architecture">Paleochristian architecture</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>Roman Forum</b> (<a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a>: <i lang="it">Foro Romano</i>), also known by its <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> name <b>Forum Romanum</b>, is a rectangular <a href="/wiki/Forum_(Roman)" title="Forum (Roman)">forum</a> (<a href="/wiki/Plaza" class="mw-redirect" title="Plaza">plaza</a>) surrounded by the ruins of several important ancient government buildings at the centre of the city of <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a>. Citizens of the ancient city referred to this space, originally a marketplace, as the <i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Forum Magnum</i></span></i>, or simply the <i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Forum</i></span></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For centuries, the Forum was the centre of day-to-day life in Rome: the site of <a href="/wiki/Roman_triumph" title="Roman triumph">triumphal processions</a> and elections; the venue for public speeches, <a href="/wiki/Roman_litigation" title="Roman litigation">criminal trials</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gladiator" title="Gladiator">gladiatorial matches</a>; and the nucleus of commercial affairs. Here statues and monuments commemorated the city's leaders. The heart of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">ancient Rome</a>, it has been called the most celebrated meeting place in the world, and in all history.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Located in the small valley between the <a href="/wiki/Palatine_Hill" title="Palatine Hill">Palatine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Capitoline_Hill" title="Capitoline Hill">Capitoline Hills</a>, the Forum today is a sprawling ruin of architectural fragments and intermittent archaeological excavations attracting 4.5 million or more sightseers yearly.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many of the oldest and most important structures of the ancient city were located on or near the Forum. The <a href="/wiki/Roman_Kingdom" title="Roman Kingdom">Roman Kingdom</a>'s earliest shrines and temples were located on the southeastern edge. These included the ancient former royal residence, the <a href="/wiki/Regia" title="Regia">Regia</a> (8th century BC), and the <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Vesta" title="Temple of Vesta">Temple of Vesta</a> (7th century BC), as well as the surrounding <a href="/wiki/House_of_the_Vestals" title="House of the Vestals">complex of the Vestal Virgins</a>, all of which were rebuilt after the rise of <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">imperial Rome</a>. </p><p>Other archaic shrines to the northwest, such as the <i><a href="/wiki/Umbilicus_Urbis" class="mw-redirect" title="Umbilicus Urbis">Umbilicus Urbis</a></i> and the <a href="/wiki/Vulcanal" title="Vulcanal">Vulcanal</a> (Shrine of Vulcan), developed into the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Republic</a>'s formal <a href="/wiki/Comitium" title="Comitium">Comitium</a> (assembly area). This was where the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Senate</a>—as well as <a href="/wiki/Republican_government" class="mw-redirect" title="Republican government">Republican government</a> itself—began. The Senate House, government offices, tribunals, temples, memorials and statues gradually cluttered the area. </p><p>Over time, the archaic <a href="/wiki/Comitium" title="Comitium">Comitium</a> was replaced by the larger adjacent Forum, and the focus of judicial activity moved to the new <a href="/wiki/Basilica_Aemilia" title="Basilica Aemilia">Basilica Aemilia</a> (179 BC). Some 130 years later, <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a> built the <a href="/wiki/Basilica_Julia" title="Basilica Julia">Basilica Julia</a>, along with the new <a href="/wiki/Curia_Julia" title="Curia Julia">Curia Julia</a>, refocusing both the judicial offices and the Senate itself. This new Forum, in what proved to be its final form, then served as a revitalized city square where the people of Rome could gather for commercial, political, <a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">judicial</a> and <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">religious</a> pursuits in ever greater numbers. </p><p>Eventually, much economic and judicial business would transfer away from the <i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Forum Romanum</i></span></i> to the larger and more extravagant structures (<a href="/wiki/Trajan%27s_Forum" title="Trajan's Forum">Trajan's Forum</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Basilica_Ulpia" title="Basilica Ulpia">Basilica Ulpia</a>) to the north. The reign of <a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great" title="Constantine the Great">Constantine the Great</a> saw the construction of the last major expansion of the Forum complex—the <a href="/wiki/Basilica_of_Maxentius" title="Basilica of Maxentius">Basilica of Maxentius</a> (312 AD). This returned the political centre to the Forum until the fall of the <a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Roman Empire</a> almost two centuries later. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Description">Description</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_Forum&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Description"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_handbook_of_Rome_and_the_Campagna_(1899)_(14579302047).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/A_handbook_of_Rome_and_the_Campagna_%281899%29_%2814579302047%29.jpg/310px-A_handbook_of_Rome_and_the_Campagna_%281899%29_%2814579302047%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="310" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/A_handbook_of_Rome_and_the_Campagna_%281899%29_%2814579302047%29.jpg/465px-A_handbook_of_Rome_and_the_Campagna_%281899%29_%2814579302047%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/A_handbook_of_Rome_and_the_Campagna_%281899%29_%2814579302047%29.jpg/620px-A_handbook_of_Rome_and_the_Campagna_%281899%29_%2814579302047%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2574" data-file-height="1260" /></a><figcaption>Plan of the Forum</figcaption></figure> <p>Unlike the later imperial fora in Rome—which were self-consciously modelled on the ancient Greek <i><a href="/wiki/Plateia" title="Plateia">plateia</a></i> (πλατεῖα) public plaza or <a href="/wiki/Town_square" title="Town square">town square</a>—the Roman Forum developed gradually, organically, and piecemeal over many centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is the case despite attempts, with some success, to impose some order there, by <a href="/wiki/Sulla" title="Sulla">Sulla</a>, <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a> and others. By the Imperial period, the large public buildings that crowded around the central square had reduced the open area to a rectangle of about 130 by 50 meters.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Its long dimension was oriented northwest to southeast and extended from the foot of the <a href="/wiki/Capitoline_Hill" title="Capitoline Hill">Capitoline Hill</a> to that of the <a href="/wiki/Velian_Hill" title="Velian Hill">Velian Hill</a>. The Forum's <a href="/wiki/Basilica" title="Basilica">basilicas</a> during the Imperial period—the <a href="/wiki/Basilica_Aemilia" title="Basilica Aemilia">Basilica Aemilia</a> on the north and the <a href="/wiki/Basilica_Julia" title="Basilica Julia">Basilica Julia</a> on the south—defined its long sides and its final form. The Forum proper included this square, the buildings facing it and, sometimes, an additional area (the <i>Forum Adjectum</i>) extending southeast as far as the <a href="/wiki/Arch_of_Titus" title="Arch of Titus">Arch of Titus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Originally, the site of the Forum had been a <a href="/wiki/Marsh" title="Marsh">marshy</a> lake where waters from the surrounding hills drained.<sup id="cite_ref-Stories_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stories-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was drained by the <a href="/wiki/Tarquinius_Priscus" class="mw-redirect" title="Tarquinius Priscus">Tarquins</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Cloaca_Maxima" title="Cloaca Maxima">Cloaca Maxima</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because of its location, sediments from both the flooding of the <a href="/wiki/Tiber" title="Tiber">Tiber</a> and the erosion of the surrounding hills have been raising the level of the Forum floor for centuries. Excavated sequences of remains of paving show that sediment eroded from the surrounding hills was already raising the level in early <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Republican</a> times.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As the ground around buildings rose, residents simply paved over the debris that was too much to remove. Its final <a href="/wiki/Travertine" title="Travertine">travertine</a> paving, still visible, dates from the reign of <a href="/wiki/Caesar_Augustus" class="mw-redirect" title="Caesar Augustus">Augustus</a>. Excavations in the 19th century revealed one layer on top of another. The deepest level excavated was 3.60 meters <a href="/wiki/Above_mean_sea_level" class="mw-redirect" title="Above mean sea level">above sea level</a>. Archaeological finds show human activity at that level with the discovery of carbonized wood.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>An important function of the Forum, during both Republican and Imperial times, was to serve as the culminating venue for the celebratory military processions known as <a href="/wiki/Roman_triumph" title="Roman triumph">Triumphs</a>. Victorious generals entered the city by the western Triumphal Gate (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Porta_Triumphalis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Porta Triumphalis (page does not exist)">Porta Triumphalis</a>) and circumnavigated the Palatine Hill (counterclockwise) before proceeding from the <a href="/wiki/Velian_Hill" title="Velian Hill">Velian Hill</a> down the <a href="/wiki/Via_Sacra" title="Via Sacra">Via Sacra</a> and into the Forum.<sup id="cite_ref-GrantOp_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GrantOp-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From here, they would mount the Capitoline Rise (<i><a href="/wiki/Clivus_Capitolinus" title="Clivus Capitolinus">Clivus Capitolinus</a></i>) up to the <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Jupiter_Optimus_Maximus" title="Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus">Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus</a> on the summit of the Capitol. Lavish public banquets ensued back down on the Forum.<sup id="cite_ref-GrantOp_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GrantOp-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (In addition to the Via Sacra, the Forum was accessed by several storied roads and streets, including the <a href="/wiki/Vicus_Jugarius" title="Vicus Jugarius">Vicus Jugarius</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vicus_Tuscus" title="Vicus Tuscus">Vicus Tuscus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Argiletum" title="Argiletum">Argiletum</a>, and Via Nova.) </p> <div class="thumb tnone" style="margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto;overflow:hidden;width:auto;max-width:608px"><div class="thumbinner"><div class="noresize" style="overflow:auto"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Forum_romanum_6k_(5760x2097).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Forum Romanum: view facing north east from above the Portico Dii Consentes"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Forum_romanum_6k_%285760x2097%29.jpg/600px-Forum_romanum_6k_%285760x2097%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="600" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Forum_romanum_6k_%285760x2097%29.jpg/900px-Forum_romanum_6k_%285760x2097%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Forum_romanum_6k_%285760x2097%29.jpg/1200px-Forum_romanum_6k_%285760x2097%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5760" data-file-height="2097" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption" style="text-align:center"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Forum_romanum_6k_(5760x2097).jpg" title="File:Forum romanum 6k (5760x2097).jpg"> </a></div>The <i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Forum Romanum</i></span></i>: view facing north east from above the <a href="/wiki/Portico_Dii_Consentes" title="Portico Dii Consentes">Portico Dii Consentes</a></div></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_Forum&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pre-Roman_Period">Pre-Roman Period</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_Forum&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Pre-Roman Period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Pottery deposits discovered in the Forum, Palatine and Capitoline demonstrated that humans occupied these areas in the <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_Europe" title="Bronze Age Europe">Final Bronze Age</a> (1200–975 BC).<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the early <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_Europe" title="Iron Age Europe">Iron Age</a> an area of the future Forum, close to the site of <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Antoninus_and_Faustina" title="Temple of Antoninus and Faustina">Temple of Antoninus and Faustina</a>, was used as a cemetery (10th century BC), possibly by the communities based on the Palatine and Capitoline hills.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most of the burials were cremations of the same type which is also found in the other sites in <a href="/wiki/Latium" title="Latium">Latium</a>. The urn containing the ashes of the deceased was placed inside a large earthenware jar, along with grave goods, and then buried in a cavity cut into the ground and covered with a capstone.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There were also a small number of inhumation burials. On current evidence, it is likely that burials in the Forum ceased in the late 9th century BC and that the <a href="/wiki/Esquiline_Necropolis" title="Esquiline Necropolis">Esquiline Necropolis</a> replaced them.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first archaeological finds on the sites of the key public buildings point to a transformation of the Forum from a cemetery to a public site in the 8th century BC.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Part of the Forum was paved over. The earliest finds in the sites of the <a href="/wiki/Comitium" title="Comitium">Comitium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vulcanal" title="Vulcanal">Vulcanal</a> were votive offerings. They indicate that the area was dedicated to a celebration of religious cults.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Roman_Kingdom">Roman Kingdom</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_Forum&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Roman Kingdom"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rome_in_753_BC.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Rome_in_753_BC.png/220px-Rome_in_753_BC.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Rome_in_753_BC.png/330px-Rome_in_753_BC.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Rome_in_753_BC.png/440px-Rome_in_753_BC.png 2x" data-file-width="1083" data-file-height="852" /></a><figcaption>A speculative map of Rome <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 753 BC</span> showing the swampy situation of the early Forum between the <a href="/wiki/Arx_(Roman)" title="Arx (Roman)">Arx</a> and <a href="/wiki/Velian_Hill" title="Velian Hill">Velia</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Roman_historical_tradition">Roman historical tradition</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_Forum&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Roman historical tradition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to Roman historical tradition, the Forum's beginnings are connected with the alliance between <a href="/wiki/Romulus" title="Romulus">Romulus</a>, the first king of Rome controlling the <a href="/wiki/Palatine_Hill" title="Palatine Hill">Palatine Hill</a>, and his rival, <a href="/wiki/Titus_Tatius" title="Titus Tatius">Titus Tatius</a>, who occupied the <a href="/wiki/Capitoline_Hill" title="Capitoline Hill">Capitoline Hill</a>. An alliance formed after combat had been halted by the prayers and cries of the <a href="/wiki/Sabine" class="mw-redirect" title="Sabine">Sabine</a> women. Because the valley lay between the two settlements, it was the designated place for the two peoples to meet. Since the early Forum area included pools of stagnant water, the most easily accessible area was the northern part of the valley which was designated as the <a href="/wiki/Comitium" title="Comitium">Comitium</a>. It was here at the <a href="/wiki/Vulcanal" title="Vulcanal">Vulcanal</a> that, according to the story, the two parties laid down their weapons and formed an alliance.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Forum was outside the walls of the original Sabine fortress, which was entered through the Porta Saturni. These walls were mostly destroyed when the two hills were joined.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The original Forum functioned as an open-air market abutting on the Comitium, but eventually outgrew its day-to-day shopping and marketplace role. As political speeches, civil trials, and other public affairs began to take up more and more space in the Forum, additional fora throughout the city began to emerge to expand on specific needs of the growing population. Fora for cattle, pork, vegetables and wine specialised in their niche products and the associated deities.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Rome's second king, <a href="/wiki/Numa_Pompilius" title="Numa Pompilius">Numa Pompilius</a> (r. 715–673 BC), is said to have begun the cult of <a href="/wiki/Vesta_(mythology)" title="Vesta (mythology)">Vesta</a>, building its <a href="/wiki/House_of_the_Vestals" title="House of the Vestals">house</a> and <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Vesta" title="Temple of Vesta">temple</a> as well as the <a href="/wiki/Regia" title="Regia">Regia</a> as the city's first royal palace. Later <a href="/wiki/Tullus_Hostilius" title="Tullus Hostilius">Tullus Hostilius</a> (r. 673–642 BC) enclosed the Comitium around the old Etruscan temple where the <a href="/wiki/Senate_of_the_Roman_Kingdom" title="Senate of the Roman Kingdom">Senate</a> would meet at the site of the Sabine conflict. He is said to have converted that temple into the <a href="/wiki/Curia_Hostilia" title="Curia Hostilia">Curia Hostilia</a> close to where the Senate originally met in an old Etruscan hut. In 600 BC <a href="/wiki/Tarquinius_Priscus" class="mw-redirect" title="Tarquinius Priscus">Tarquinius Priscus</a> had the area paved for the first time.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Archaeological_evidence">Archaeological evidence</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_Forum&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Archaeological evidence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Parte_di_fregio_con_minotauro_e_felini,_600-550_ac_ca.,_da_regia,_foro_romano_(antiquarium_del_foro)_02.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Parte_di_fregio_con_minotauro_e_felini%2C_600-550_ac_ca.%2C_da_regia%2C_foro_romano_%28antiquarium_del_foro%29_02.JPG/220px-Parte_di_fregio_con_minotauro_e_felini%2C_600-550_ac_ca.%2C_da_regia%2C_foro_romano_%28antiquarium_del_foro%29_02.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="134" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Parte_di_fregio_con_minotauro_e_felini%2C_600-550_ac_ca.%2C_da_regia%2C_foro_romano_%28antiquarium_del_foro%29_02.JPG/330px-Parte_di_fregio_con_minotauro_e_felini%2C_600-550_ac_ca.%2C_da_regia%2C_foro_romano_%28antiquarium_del_foro%29_02.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Parte_di_fregio_con_minotauro_e_felini%2C_600-550_ac_ca.%2C_da_regia%2C_foro_romano_%28antiquarium_del_foro%29_02.JPG/440px-Parte_di_fregio_con_minotauro_e_felini%2C_600-550_ac_ca.%2C_da_regia%2C_foro_romano_%28antiquarium_del_foro%29_02.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3114" data-file-height="1896" /></a><figcaption>Fragment of a terracotta frieze plaque from the Regia at the east end of the Forum showing a minotaur and felines, c. 600–550 BC, Antiquarium Museo del Foro Romano</figcaption></figure> <p>Originally a low-lying, grassy <a href="/wiki/Wetland" title="Wetland">wetland</a>, the Forum was drained in the 7th century BC with the building of the first structures of <a href="/wiki/Cloaca_Maxima" title="Cloaca Maxima">Cloaca Maxima</a>, a large covered sewer system that emptied into the <a href="/wiki/Tiber" title="Tiber">Tiber</a>, as more people began to settle between the two hills. Archaeological evidence shows that by the end of the 7th century BC, the ground level of the Forum was raised significantly in some places to overcome the problems of poor drainage and provide a foundation for a pebble-paved area.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the middle of the 7th century BC thatch-and-timber huts were demolished on the route of the <a href="/wiki/Via_Sacra" title="Via Sacra">Via Sacra</a> and rectangular stone buildings began to replace them.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The earliest structures in the Forum were discovered in two separate locations: the site of the <a href="/wiki/Comitium" title="Comitium">Comitium</a> and the group of sanctuaries of <a href="/wiki/Regia" title="Regia">Regia</a> (House of the kings), <a href="/wiki/House_of_the_Vestals" title="House of the Vestals">House of the Vestals</a> and <a href="/wiki/Domus_Publica" class="mw-redirect" title="Domus Publica">Domus Publica</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_20-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Around 650–630 BC the area of the Comitium was excavated into a deep triangular depression. The area was paved with a beaten earth pavement and later replaced with a more substantial gravel one. Nearby was located an archaic sanctuary dedicated to <a href="/wiki/Vulcan_(mythology)" title="Vulcan (mythology)">Vulcan</a> known as <a href="/wiki/Vulcanal" title="Vulcanal">Vulcanal</a> (also <i>Volcanal</i>): a small rectangular pit and elliptical basin carved out of an outcrop of <a href="/wiki/Tuff" title="Tuff">tuff</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has been suggested that the earliest ancient materials collected in the area of the Vulcanal are from the second half of the 8th century BC.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It appears that the Romans were aware of the sites’ archaic origins: the foundation of the Comitium and Vulcanal were attributed to Romulus himself while the first <a href="/wiki/Curia" title="Curia">Curia</a> (senate house), which was located nearby, to <a href="/wiki/Tullus_Hostilius" title="Tullus Hostilius">Tullus Hostilius</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At the western end of the Forum, excavations near the House of the Vestals and the sanctuary of <a href="/wiki/Vesta_(mythology)" title="Vesta (mythology)">Vesta</a> have revealed an important group of 7th-century-BC buildings. The archaeologists have identified them as the early phases of the Regia (House of the kings), House of the Vestals, and Domus Publica (official residence of the <i>pontifex maximus</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There seems to have been something of a surge in development of the Forum in the last quarter of the 7th century BC, as many of the changes date from 625 to 600 BC. Archaeologically, there is substantial evidence for development of the Forum in the 6th century BC: parts of the paving have been found and a large number of fragments of terracotta decorations from this area suggests that structures around the Forum were becoming more elaborate and highly decorated.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Roman_Republic">Roman Republic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_Forum&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Roman Republic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Templo_de_Vesta.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Templo_de_Vesta.JPG/220px-Templo_de_Vesta.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Templo_de_Vesta.JPG/330px-Templo_de_Vesta.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Templo_de_Vesta.JPG/440px-Templo_de_Vesta.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2448" data-file-height="3264" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Vesta" title="Temple of Vesta">Temple of Vesta</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:2012-02-17_Foro_Romano_da_Palazzo_Senatorio_3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/2012-02-17_Foro_Romano_da_Palazzo_Senatorio_3.jpg/220px-2012-02-17_Foro_Romano_da_Palazzo_Senatorio_3.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/2012-02-17_Foro_Romano_da_Palazzo_Senatorio_3.jpg/330px-2012-02-17_Foro_Romano_da_Palazzo_Senatorio_3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/2012-02-17_Foro_Romano_da_Palazzo_Senatorio_3.jpg/440px-2012-02-17_Foro_Romano_da_Palazzo_Senatorio_3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2848" data-file-height="2134" /></a><figcaption>A view of the Roman Forum seen from a window of the <a href="/wiki/Palazzo_Senatorio" class="mw-redirect" title="Palazzo Senatorio">Palazzo Senatorio</a>: at the centre the church of <a href="/wiki/Santi_Luca_e_Martina" title="Santi Luca e Martina">Santi Luca e Martina</a> (beside it at the right, the roof of the <a href="/wiki/Curia_Julia" title="Curia Julia">Curia Julia</a>), in the lower right the <a href="/wiki/Arch_of_Septimius_Severus" title="Arch of Septimius Severus">Arch of Septimius Severus</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Platner-forum-republic-96_recontructed_color.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Platner-forum-republic-96_recontructed_color.jpg/220px-Platner-forum-republic-96_recontructed_color.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Platner-forum-republic-96_recontructed_color.jpg/330px-Platner-forum-republic-96_recontructed_color.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Platner-forum-republic-96_recontructed_color.jpg/440px-Platner-forum-republic-96_recontructed_color.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3207" /></a><figcaption>Map of the Roman Forum. Structures of Republican Rome are shown in red and those of Imperial Rome in black. From Platner's <i>Topography and Monuments of Ancient Rome</i>, 1904 (adjusted).</figcaption></figure> <p>During the Republican period, the Comitium continued to be the central location for all judicial and political life in the city.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, to create a larger gathering place, the Senate began expanding the open area between the Comitium and the <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Vesta" title="Temple of Vesta">Temple of Vesta</a> by purchasing existing private homes and removing them for public use. Building projects of several consuls repaved and built onto both the Comitium and the adjacent central plaza that was becoming the Forum.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The 5th century BC witnessed the earliest Forum temples with known dates of construction: the <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Saturn" title="Temple of Saturn">Temple of Saturn</a> (497 BC) and the <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Castor_and_Pollux" title="Temple of Castor and Pollux">Temple of Castor and Pollux</a> (484 BC).<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Concord" title="Temple of Concord">Temple of Concord</a> was added in the following century, possibly by the soldier and statesman <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Furius_Camillus" title="Marcus Furius Camillus">Marcus Furius Camillus</a>. A long-held tradition of speaking from the elevated speakers' <a href="/wiki/Rostra" title="Rostra">Rostra</a>—originally facing north towards the Senate House to the assembled politicians and elites—put the orator's back to the people assembled in the Forum. A <a href="/wiki/Tribune" title="Tribune">tribune</a> known as <a href="/wiki/Caius_Licinius" class="mw-redirect" title="Caius Licinius">Caius Licinius</a> (consul in 361 BC) is said to have been the first to turn away from the elite towards the Forum, an act symbolically repeated two centuries later by <a href="/wiki/Gaius_Gracchus" title="Gaius Gracchus">Gaius Gracchus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This began the tradition of <i>locus popularis</i>, in which even young nobles were expected to speak to the people from the Rostra. Gracchus was thus credited with (or accused of) disturbing the <i><a href="/wiki/Mos_maiorum" title="Mos maiorum">mos maiorum</a></i> ("custom of the fathers/ancestors") in ancient Rome. When <a href="/wiki/Roman_censor" title="Roman censor">Censor</a> in 318 BC, <a href="/wiki/Gaius_Maenius" title="Gaius Maenius">Gaius Maenius</a> provided buildings in the Forum neighborhood with balconies, which were called after him <i>maeniana</i>, so that the spectators might better view the games put on within the temporary wooden arenas set up there. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Tribune_bench" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribune bench">Tribune benches</a> were placed on the Forum Romanum, as well. First, they stood next to the senate house; during the late Roman Republic, they were placed in front of the Basilica Porcia. </p><p>The earliest <a href="/wiki/Basilica" title="Basilica">basilicas</a> (large, aisled halls) were introduced to the Forum in 184 BC by <a href="/wiki/Cato_the_Elder" title="Cato the Elder">Marcus Porcius Cato</a>, who thus began the process of "monumentalizing" the site. The <a href="/wiki/Basilica_Fulvia" title="Basilica Fulvia">Basilica Fulvia</a> was dedicated on the north side of the Forum square in 179 BC. (It was rebuilt and renamed several times, as Basilica Fulvia et Aemilia, Basilica Paulli, <a href="/wiki/Basilica_Aemilia" title="Basilica Aemilia">Basilica Aemilia</a>). Nine years later, the <a href="/wiki/Basilica_Sempronia" title="Basilica Sempronia">Basilica Sempronia</a> was dedicated on the south side.<sup id="cite_ref-books.google_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-books.google-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many of the traditions from the Comitium, such as the popular assemblies, funerals of nobles, and games, were transferred to the Forum as it developed.<sup id="cite_ref-books.google_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-books.google-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Especially notable was the move of the <i><a href="/wiki/Comitia_tributa" class="mw-redirect" title="Comitia tributa">comitia tributa</a></i>, then the focus of popular politics, in 145 BC. In 133 BC the <a href="/wiki/Tribune_of_the_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribune of the people">Tribune</a> <a href="/wiki/Tiberius_Gracchus" title="Tiberius Gracchus">Tiberius Gracchus</a> was lynched there by a group of senators. </p><p>In the 80s BC, during the dictatorship of <a href="/wiki/Sulla" title="Sulla">Sulla</a>, major work was done on the Forum including the raising of the plaza level by almost a meter and the laying of permanent marble paving stones.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Remarkably, this level of the paving was maintained more or less intact for over a millennium: at least until the sack of Rome by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Guiscard" title="Robert Guiscard">Robert Guiscard</a> and his Normans in 1084, when neglect finally allowed debris to begin to accumulate unabated.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 78 BC, the immense <a href="/wiki/Tabularium" title="Tabularium">Tabularium</a> (Records Hall) was built at the Capitoline Hill end of the Forum by order of the consuls for that year, <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aemilius_Lepidus_(consul_78_BC)" title="Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (consul 78 BC)">M. Aemilius Lepidus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Quintus_Lutatius_Catulus_Capitolinus" title="Quintus Lutatius Catulus Capitolinus">Q. Lutatius Catulus</a>. In 63 BC, <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a> delivered his famous speech denouncing the companions of the conspirator <a href="/wiki/Catiline" title="Catiline">Catiline</a> at the Forum (in the <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Concord" title="Temple of Concord">Temple of Concord</a>, whose spacious hall was sometimes used as a meeting place by the Senators). After the verdict, they were led to their deaths at the <a href="/wiki/Tullianum" class="mw-redirect" title="Tullianum">Tullianum</a>, the nearby dungeon which was the only known state prison of the ancient Romans.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Over time, the Comitium was lost to the ever-growing Curia and to <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a>'s rearrangements before his assassination in 44 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> That year, two events were witnessed by the Forum, perhaps the most famous ever to transpire there: <a href="/wiki/Marc_Antony" class="mw-redirect" title="Marc Antony">Marc Antony</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Friends,_Romans,_countrymen,_lend_me_your_ears" title="Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears">funeral oration for Caesar</a> (immortalized in <a href="/wiki/Shakespeare" class="mw-redirect" title="Shakespeare">Shakespeare</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar_(play)" title="Julius Caesar (play)">famous play</a>) was delivered from the partially completed speaker's platform known as the <a href="/wiki/Rostra" title="Rostra">New Rostra</a> and the public burning of Caesar's body occurred on a site directly across from the Rostra around which the <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Caesar" title="Temple of Caesar">Temple to the Deified Caesar</a> was subsequently built by his great-nephew Octavius (<a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Almost two years later, Marc Antony added to the notoriety of the Rostra by publicly displaying the severed head and right hand of his enemy <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a> there. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Roman_Empire">Roman Empire</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_Forum&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Roman Empire"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Roman_forum_sketch_up_model.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Roman_forum_sketch_up_model.png/220px-Roman_forum_sketch_up_model.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="125" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Roman_forum_sketch_up_model.png/330px-Roman_forum_sketch_up_model.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Roman_forum_sketch_up_model.png/440px-Roman_forum_sketch_up_model.png 2x" data-file-width="4096" data-file-height="2329" /></a><figcaption>Rendering of the Roman Forum as it may have appeared during the Late <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Empire</a></figcaption></figure> <p>After Julius Caesar's death and the end of the subsequent <a href="/wiki/Liberators%27_civil_war" title="Liberators' civil war">civil war</a>, Augustus finished his great-uncle's work, giving the Forum its final form. This included the southeastern end of the plaza where he constructed the <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Caesar" title="Temple of Caesar">Temple of Caesar</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Arch_of_Augustus,_Rome" title="Arch of Augustus, Rome">Arch of Augustus</a> there (both in 29 BC). The Temple of Caesar was placed between Caesar's funeral pyre and the Regia. The Temple's location and reconstruction of adjacent structures resulted in greater organization akin to the <a href="/wiki/Forum_of_Caesar" title="Forum of Caesar">Forum of Caesar</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Forum was also witness to the assassination of a Roman Emperor in 69 AD: <a href="/wiki/Galba" title="Galba">Galba</a> had set out from the palace to meet rebels but was so feeble that he had to be carried in a litter. He was immediately met by a troop of his rival <a href="/wiki/Otho" title="Otho">Otho</a>'s cavalry near the <i>Lacus Curtius</i> in the Forum, where he was killed. </p><p>During these early Imperial times, much economic and judicial business transferred away from the Forum to larger and more extravagant structures to the north. After the building of <a href="/wiki/Trajan%27s_Forum" title="Trajan's Forum">Trajan's Forum</a> (110 AD), these activities transferred to the <a href="/wiki/Basilica_Ulpia" title="Basilica Ulpia">Basilica Ulpia</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Arch_Septimius_Severus_Column_Phocas_Forum_Romanum_Rome.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Arch_Septimius_Severus_Column_Phocas_Forum_Romanum_Rome.jpg/220px-Arch_Septimius_Severus_Column_Phocas_Forum_Romanum_Rome.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Arch_Septimius_Severus_Column_Phocas_Forum_Romanum_Rome.jpg/330px-Arch_Septimius_Severus_Column_Phocas_Forum_Romanum_Rome.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Arch_Septimius_Severus_Column_Phocas_Forum_Romanum_Rome.jpg/440px-Arch_Septimius_Severus_Column_Phocas_Forum_Romanum_Rome.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4592" data-file-height="3032" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Arch_of_Septimius_Severus" title="Arch of Septimius Severus">Arch of Septimius Severus</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The white marble <a href="/wiki/Arch_of_Septimius_Severus" title="Arch of Septimius Severus">Arch of Septimius Severus</a> was added at the northwest end of the Forum close to the foot of the Capitoline Hill and adjacent to the old, vanishing Comitium. It was dedicated in 203 AD to commemorate the <a href="/wiki/Roman-Parthian_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman-Parthian Wars">Parthian victories</a> of Emperor <a href="/wiki/Septimius_Severus" title="Septimius Severus">Septimius Severus</a> and his two sons against Pescennius Niger and is one of the most visible landmarks there today. The arch closed the Forum's central area. Besides the Arch of Augustus, which was also constructed following a Roman victory against the Parthians, it is the only triumphal arch in the Forum.<sup id="cite_ref-Archaeology_p._358_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Archaeology_p._358-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Emperor <a href="/wiki/Diocletian" title="Diocletian">Diocletian</a> (r. 284–305) was the last of the great builders of Rome's city infrastructure and he did not omit the Forum from his program. By his day it had become highly cluttered with honorific memorials. He refurbished and reorganized it, building anew the <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Saturn" title="Temple of Saturn">Temple of Saturn</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Vesta" title="Temple of Vesta">Temple of Vesta</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Curia_Julia" title="Curia Julia">Curia Julia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The latter represents the best-preserved tetrarchic building in Rome. He also reconstructed the rostra at each end of the Forum and added columns.<sup id="cite_ref-Archaeology_p._358_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Archaeology_p._358-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The reign of <a href="/wiki/Constantine_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Constantine I">Constantine the Great</a> saw the completion of the construction of the <a href="/wiki/Basilica_of_Maxentius" title="Basilica of Maxentius">Basilica of Maxentius</a> (312 AD), the last significant expansion of the Forum complex.<sup id="cite_ref-history.com_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-history.com-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This restored much of the political focus to the Forum until the fall of the <a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Roman Empire</a> almost two centuries later. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medieval">Medieval</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_Forum&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Medieval"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Colonna_di_Foca_Forum_Romanum_Rome.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Colonna_di_Foca_Forum_Romanum_Rome.jpg/220px-Colonna_di_Foca_Forum_Romanum_Rome.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="362" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Colonna_di_Foca_Forum_Romanum_Rome.jpg/330px-Colonna_di_Foca_Forum_Romanum_Rome.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Colonna_di_Foca_Forum_Romanum_Rome.jpg/440px-Colonna_di_Foca_Forum_Romanum_Rome.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3060" data-file-height="5032" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Column_of_Phocas" title="Column of Phocas">Column of Phocas</a></figcaption></figure> <p>After the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">Fall of the Western Roman Empire</a>, and the resulting <a href="/wiki/Gothic_War_(535%E2%80%93554)" title="Gothic War (535–554)">Gothic Wars</a> between the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine / Eastern Roman Empire</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Ostrogothic_Kingdom" title="Ostrogothic Kingdom">Ostrogoths</a> over Italia, much of the city of Rome fell into ruin, from famine, warfare, and lack of authority. The population of Rome was reduced from hundreds of thousands to tens of thousands, as the populated areas contracted to the river, largely abandoning the forum. Strenuous efforts were made to keep the Forum (and the Palatine structures) intact, not without some success. In the 6th century, some of the old edifices within the Forum began to be transformed into Christian churches. On 1 August 608, the <a href="/wiki/Column_of_Phocas" title="Column of Phocas">Column of Phocas</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Roman_triumphal_column" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman triumphal column">Roman monumental column</a>, was erected before the <a href="/wiki/Rostra" title="Rostra">Rostra</a> and dedicated or rededicated in honour of the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Eastern Roman Emperor</a> <a href="/wiki/Phocas" title="Phocas">Phocas</a>. This proved to be the last monumental addition made to the Forum. The emperor <a href="/wiki/Constans_II" title="Constans II">Constans II</a>, who visited the city in 663 AD, stripped the lead roofs of the monumental buildings, exposing the structures to the weather and hastening their deterioration. By the 8th century, the whole space was surrounded by Christian churches taking the place of abandoned and ruined temples.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An anonymous eighth-century <a href="/wiki/Einsiedeln_Itinerary" title="Einsiedeln Itinerary">Einsiedeln Itinerary</a> reports that the Forum was already falling apart at that time. During the Middle Ages, though the memory of the <i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Forum Romanum</i></span></i> persisted, its monuments were for the most part buried under debris, and its location was designated the <i>"Campo Vaccino"</i> or "cattle field,"<sup id="cite_ref-history.com_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-history.com-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> located between the <a href="/wiki/Capitoline_Hill" title="Capitoline Hill">Capitoline Hill</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Colosseum" title="Colosseum">Colosseum</a>. </p><p>After the eighth century, the structures of the Forum were dismantled, rearranged, and used to build towers and castles within the local area. In the 13th century, these rearranged structures were torn down and the site became a dumping ground. This, along with the debris from the dismantled medieval buildings and ancient structures, helped contribute to the rising ground level.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The return of <a href="/wiki/Pope_Urban_V" title="Pope Urban V">Pope Urban V</a> from <a href="/wiki/Avignon_papacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Avignon papacy">Avignon</a> in 1367 led to an increased interest in ancient monuments, partly for their moral lesson and partly as a quarry for new buildings being undertaken in Rome after a long lapse. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Renaissance">Renaissance</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_Forum&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Renaissance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Forum Romanum suffered some of its worst depredations during the Italian Renaissance, particularly in the decade between 1540 and 1550, when <a href="/wiki/Pope_Paul_III" title="Pope Paul III">Pope Paul III</a> exploited it intensively for material to build the new <a href="/wiki/Saint_Peter%27s_Basilica" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Peter's Basilica">Saint Peter's Basilica</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Lanciani,_1897;_p._247-48_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lanciani,_1897;_p._247-48-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Just a few years before, in 1536, the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Holy Roman Emperor">Holy Roman Emperor</a> <a href="/wiki/Charles_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor">Charles V</a> held a triumph in Rome on his return from <a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Tunis_(1535)" title="Conquest of Tunis (1535)">conquering Tunis</a> in North Africa. To prepare the Forum for the procession intended to imitate the pageantry of the ancient Roman triumph, the papal authorities undertook sweeping demolitions of the many medieval structures on the site, to reveal and better display the ancient monuments.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This required the clearance of some 200 houses and several churches, the excavation of a new "Via Sacra" to pass under the arches of <a href="/wiki/Arch_of_Titus" title="Arch of Titus">Titus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arch_of_Septimius_Severus" title="Arch of Septimius Severus">Septimius Severus</a>, and the excavation of the more prominent monuments to reveal their foundations.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1425, <a href="/wiki/Pope_Martin_V" title="Pope Martin V">Pope Martin V</a> issued a <a href="/wiki/Papal_bull" title="Papal bull">papal bull</a> inaugurating a campaign of civic improvement and rebuilding in the city, which was depopulated and dominated by ruins.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The demand for building materials consequently increased significantly, making the Forum a convenient quarry for stone and marble. </p><p>Since the 12th century, when Rome's civic government was formed, responsibility for protecting the ruins of the forum fell to the <i>maestri di strade</i> under the authority of the <a href="/wiki/Conservatore_of_Rome" title="Conservatore of Rome">Conservatori</a>, Rome's senior magistrates.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historically, the <i>maestri</i> and the <i>Conservatori</i> saw themselves as guardians of Rome's ancient legacy and zealously protected the ruins in the Forum from further destruction, but in the 15th century the Papacy gradually encroached upon these prerogatives. The Bull of 1425 strengthened the powers of the <i>maestri</i> in protecting the ruins, but in conferring papal authority the Vatican essentially brought the <i>maestri</i> under its control and away from the independence of the Conservators.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 15th century, the Vatican escalated the issuance of excavation licenses, which gave broad permission to individuals to mine specific sites or structures for stone.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1452, the ability of the <i>maestri</i> to issue their own excavation licenses was revoked by the Bull of <a href="/wiki/Pope_Nicholas_V" title="Pope Nicholas V">Pope Nicholas V</a>, which absorbed that power into the Vatican. From then on only two authorities in Rome had the power to issue such licenses: the Vatican and the Conservators.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This dual, overlapping authority was recognized in 1462 by a Bull of <a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_II" title="Pope Pius II">Pope Pius II</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Within the context of these disputes over jurisdiction, ruins in the forum were increasingly exploited and stripped. In 1426, a papal license authorized the destruction of the foundations of a structure called the "Templum Canapare" for burning into lime, provided that half the stone quarried be shared with the <a href="/wiki/Apostolic_Camera" title="Apostolic Camera">Apostolic Camera</a> (the Papal treasury). This structure was identified by <a href="/wiki/Rodolfo_Lanciani" title="Rodolfo Lanciani">Rodolfo Lanciani</a> as the <a href="/wiki/Basilica_Julia" title="Basilica Julia">Basilica Julia</a>, but the name could have applied to any structure in the western section of the Forum, often called the <i>Canapare</i> or <i><a href="/wiki/Hemp_in_the_Papal_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Hemp in the Papal States">Cannapara</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Between 1431 and 1462 the huge travertine wall between the Senate House and the <a href="/wiki/Forum_of_Caesar" title="Forum of Caesar">Forum of Caesar</a> adjoining the Forum Romanum was demolished by a grant of <a href="/wiki/Pope_Eugene_IV" title="Pope Eugene IV">Pope Eugene IV</a>, followed by the demolition of the <i>Templum Sacrae Urbis</i> (1461–1462), the <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Venus_and_Roma" title="Temple of Venus and Roma">Temple of Venus and Roma</a> (1450), and the <a href="/wiki/House_of_the_Vestals" title="House of the Vestals">House of the Vestals</a> (1499), all by papal license.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The worst destruction in the forum occurred under Paul III, who in 1540 revoked previous excavation licenses and brought the forum exclusively under the control of the Deputies of the Fabric of the new <a href="/wiki/Saint_Peter%27s_Basilica" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Peter's Basilica">Saint Peter's Basilica</a>, who exploited the site for stone and marble.<sup id="cite_ref-Lanciani,_1897;_pp._247-48_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lanciani,_1897;_pp._247-48-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Monuments which fell victim to dismantling and the subsequent burning of their materials for lime included the remains of the <a href="/wiki/Arch_of_Augustus,_Rome" title="Arch of Augustus, Rome">Arch of Augustus</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Caesar" title="Temple of Caesar">Temple of Caesar</a>, parts of the <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Antoninus_and_Faustina" title="Temple of Antoninus and Faustina">Temple of Antoninus and Faustina</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Vesta" title="Temple of Vesta">Temple of Vesta</a>, the steps and foundation of the <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Castor_and_Pollux" title="Temple of Castor and Pollux">Temple of Castor and Pollux</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Regia" title="Regia">Regia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Conservators protested vehemently against the ruination of their heritage, as they perceived it, and on one occasion applied fruitlessly to <a href="/wiki/Pope_Gregory_XIII" title="Pope Gregory XIII">Pope Gregory XIII</a> (1572–1585) to revoke all licenses for foraging materials, including the one granted to the <i>fabbrica</i> of Saint Peter's in the forum.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Excavation_and_preservation">Excavation and preservation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_Forum&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Excavation and preservation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Joseph_Mallord_William_Turner_-_Forum_Romanum,_for_Mr_Soane%27s_Museum_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Joseph_Mallord_William_Turner_-_Forum_Romanum%2C_for_Mr_Soane%27s_Museum_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/220px-Joseph_Mallord_William_Turner_-_Forum_Romanum%2C_for_Mr_Soane%27s_Museum_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Joseph_Mallord_William_Turner_-_Forum_Romanum%2C_for_Mr_Soane%27s_Museum_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/330px-Joseph_Mallord_William_Turner_-_Forum_Romanum%2C_for_Mr_Soane%27s_Museum_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Joseph_Mallord_William_Turner_-_Forum_Romanum%2C_for_Mr_Soane%27s_Museum_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/440px-Joseph_Mallord_William_Turner_-_Forum_Romanum%2C_for_Mr_Soane%27s_Museum_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2500" data-file-height="1451" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Forum_Romanum_(painting)" title="Forum Romanum (painting)">Forum Romanum</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/J._M._W._Turner" title="J. M. W. Turner">J. M. W. Turner</a>, 1826</figcaption></figure> <p>The excavation by <a href="/wiki/Carlo_Fea" title="Carlo Fea">Carlo Fea</a>, who began clearing the debris from the Arch of Septimius Severus in 1803 marked the beginning of clearing the Forum. Excavations were officially begun in 1898 by the Italian government under the Minister of Public Instruction, Dr. Baccelli.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The 1898, restoration had three main objectives: restore fragmented pieces of columns, bases, and cornices to their original locations in the Forum, reach the lowest possible level of the Forum without damaging existing structures, and to identify already half-excavated structures, along with the Senate house and Basilica Aemilia. These state-funded excavations were led by Dr. <a href="/wiki/Giacomo_Boni_(archaeologist)" title="Giacomo Boni (archaeologist)">Giacomo Boni</a> until he died in 1925, stopping briefly during World War I.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2008, heavy rains caused structural damage to the modern concrete covering holding the "Black Stone" marble together over the <a href="/wiki/Lapis_Niger" title="Lapis Niger">Lapis Niger</a> in Rome. Excavations in the Forum continue, with discoveries by archaeologists working in the Forum since 2009 leading to questions about Rome's exact age. One of these recent discoveries includes a <a href="/wiki/Tuff" title="Tuff">tuff</a> wall near the Lapis Niger used to channel water from nearby <a href="/wiki/Aquifer" title="Aquifer">aquifers</a>. Around the wall, pottery remains and food scraps allowed archaeologists to date the likely construction of the wall to the 8th or 9th century BC, over a century before the traditional date of Rome's founding.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2020, Italian archaeologists discovered a <a href="/wiki/Sarcophagus" title="Sarcophagus">sarcophagus</a> and a circular altar dating to the 6th century BC. Experts disagree whether it is a memorial tomb dedicated to Rome's legendary founder, <a href="/wiki/Romulus" title="Romulus">Romulus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Temple_of_Saturn">Temple of Saturn</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_Forum&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Temple of Saturn"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Foro_romano_tempio_Saturno_09feb08_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Foro_romano_tempio_Saturno_09feb08_01.jpg/220px-Foro_romano_tempio_Saturno_09feb08_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Foro_romano_tempio_Saturno_09feb08_01.jpg/330px-Foro_romano_tempio_Saturno_09feb08_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Foro_romano_tempio_Saturno_09feb08_01.jpg/440px-Foro_romano_tempio_Saturno_09feb08_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Saturn" title="Temple of Saturn">Temple of Saturn</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Saturn" title="Temple of Saturn">Temple of Saturn</a> was one of the more significant buildings located in the Roman Forum. Little is known about when the temple was built, as the original temple is believed to have been burnt down by the Gauls early in the fourth century. However, it is understood that it was also rebuilt by <a href="/wiki/Munatius_Plancus" class="mw-redirect" title="Munatius Plancus">Munatius Plancus</a> in 42 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The eight remaining columns are all that is left of the illustrious temple. Though its exact date of completion is not known, it stands as one of the oldest buildings in the Forum.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The temple originally was to be built to the <a href="/wiki/Jupiter_(mythology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jupiter (mythology)">god Jupiter</a> but was replaced with <a href="/wiki/Saturn_(mythology)" title="Saturn (mythology)">Saturn</a>; historians are unsure why.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The building was not used solely for religious practice; the temple also functioned as a <a href="/wiki/Roman_economy" title="Roman economy">bank</a> for Roman society. </p><p>The Temple stood in the forum along with four other temples, the temples of <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Concord" title="Temple of Concord">Concord</a>, <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Vesta" title="Temple of Vesta">Vesta</a>, <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Castor_and_Pollux" title="Temple of Castor and Pollux">Castor and Pollox</a>. At each temple, animal sacrifices and rituals were done in front of the religious sites. These acts were meant to provide good fortune to those entering and using the temple.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since the Temple of Saturn also functioned as a bank, and since Saturn was the god of the Golden Age, sacrifices were made there in the hope of financial success.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Inside the Temple, there were multiple vaults for the public and private ones for individuals. There were also sections of the Temple for public speaking events and feasts which often followed the sacrifices.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_art">In art</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_Forum&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: In art"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>From the 17th through the 19th century, the Roman Forum was a site for many artists and architects studying in Rome to sketch. The focus of many of these works produced by visiting Northern artists was on the current state of the Roman Forum, known locally as the Campo Vaccino, or "cow field", from the livestock who grazed on the largely ignored section of the city. <a href="/wiki/Claude_Lorrain" title="Claude Lorrain">Claude Lorrain</a>'s 1636 <i>Campo Vaccino</i> shows the extent to which the buildings in the Forum were buried under sediment. Renowned British artist <a href="/wiki/J._M._W._Turner" title="J. M. W. Turner">J. M. W. Turner</a> painted <i>Modern Rome – Campo Vaccino</i> in 1839, following his final trip to the city.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rome-_Ruins_of_the_Forum,_Looking_towards_the_Capitol.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Rome-_Ruins_of_the_Forum%2C_Looking_towards_the_Capitol.jpg/220px-Rome-_Ruins_of_the_Forum%2C_Looking_towards_the_Capitol.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="388" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Rome-_Ruins_of_the_Forum%2C_Looking_towards_the_Capitol.jpg/330px-Rome-_Ruins_of_the_Forum%2C_Looking_towards_the_Capitol.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Rome-_Ruins_of_the_Forum%2C_Looking_towards_the_Capitol.jpg/440px-Rome-_Ruins_of_the_Forum%2C_Looking_towards_the_Capitol.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="1235" /></a><figcaption><i>Rome: Ruins of the Forum, Looking Towards the Capitol</i> (1742) by <a href="/wiki/Canaletto" title="Canaletto">Canaletto</a>, showing the remains of the <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Castor_and_Pollux" title="Temple of Castor and Pollux">Temple of Castor and Pollux</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The Roman Forum has been a source of inspiration for visual artists for centuries. Especially notable is <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Battista_Piranesi" title="Giovanni Battista Piranesi">Giovanni Battista Piranesi</a>, who created a set of 135 etchings, the <i>Vedute di Roma</i> ("Views of Rome"), in which the Forum figured significantly. (Many of the features documented in Piranesi's views have now vanished.) </p><p>Other notable artists of the Forum include <a href="/wiki/Canaletto" title="Canaletto">Canaletto</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maerten_van_Heemskerck" class="mw-redirect" title="Maerten van Heemskerck">Maerten van Heemskerck</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pirro_Ligorio" title="Pirro Ligorio">Pirro Ligorio</a>, <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Paolo_Panini" title="Giovanni Paolo Panini">Giovanni Paolo Panini</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hubert_Robert" title="Hubert Robert">Hubert Robert</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_fora_in_Rome">Other fora in Rome</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_Forum&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Other fora in Rome"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Other <a href="/wiki/Forum_(Roman)" title="Forum (Roman)">fora</a> existed in other areas of the city; remains of most of them, sometimes substantial, still exist. The most important of these are several large <a href="/wiki/Imperial_fora" title="Imperial fora">imperial fora</a> forming a complex with the Forum Romanum: the <i><a href="/wiki/Forum_of_Caesar" title="Forum of Caesar">Forum Iulium</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Forum_of_Augustus" title="Forum of Augustus">Forum Augustum</a></i>, the <i><a href="/wiki/Forum_of_Nerva" title="Forum of Nerva">Forum Transitorium</a></i> (also: <i>Forum Nerva</i>), and <a href="/wiki/Trajan%27s_Forum" title="Trajan's Forum">Trajan's Forum</a>. The planners of the <a href="/wiki/Mussolini_era" class="mw-redirect" title="Mussolini era">Mussolini era</a> removed most of the medieval and Baroque strata and built the Via dei Fori Imperiali road between the Imperial Fora and the Forum. There are also: </p> <ul><li>The <i><a href="/wiki/Forum_Boarium" title="Forum Boarium">Forum Boarium</a></i>, dedicated to the commerce of <a href="/wiki/Cattle" title="Cattle">cattle</a>, between the <a href="/wiki/Palatine_Hill" title="Palatine Hill">Palatine Hill</a> and the river <a href="/wiki/Tiber" title="Tiber">Tiber</a>,</li> <li>The <i><a href="/wiki/Forum_Holitorium" title="Forum Holitorium">Forum Holitorium</a></i>, dedicated to the commerce of <a href="/wiki/Herb" title="Herb">herbs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vegetable" title="Vegetable">vegetables</a>, between the Capitoline Hill and the <a href="/wiki/Servian_walls" class="mw-redirect" title="Servian walls">Servian walls</a>,</li> <li>The <i><a href="/wiki/Forum_Piscarium" title="Forum Piscarium">Forum Piscarium</a></i>, dedicated to the commerce of <a href="/wiki/Fish" title="Fish">fish</a>, between the Capitoline hill and the Tiber, in the area of the current <a href="/wiki/Roman_Ghetto" title="Roman Ghetto">Roman Ghetto</a>,</li> <li>The <i><a href="/wiki/Forum_Suarium" title="Forum Suarium">Forum Suarium</a></i>, dedicated to the commerce of <a href="/wiki/Pork" title="Pork">pork</a>, near the barracks of the cohortes urbanae in the northern part of the <a href="/wiki/Campus_Martius" title="Campus Martius">Campus Martius</a>,</li> <li>The <i><a href="/wiki/Forum_Vinarium" title="Forum Vinarium">Forum Vinarium</a></i>, dedicated to the commerce of <a href="/wiki/Wine" title="Wine">wine</a>, in the area now of the "quartiere" <a href="/wiki/Testaccio" title="Testaccio">Testaccio</a>, between <a href="/wiki/Aventine_Hill" title="Aventine Hill">Aventine Hill</a> and the Tiber.</li></ul> <p>Other markets were known but remain unidentifiable due to a lack of precise information on each site's function.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_Forum&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/SPQRomani.svg/32px-SPQRomani.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/SPQRomani.svg/48px-SPQRomani.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/SPQRomani.svg/64px-SPQRomani.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="931" data-file-height="548" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Ancient_Rome" title="Portal:Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Colossus_of_Constantine" title="Colossus of Constantine">Colossus of Constantine</a></i>, colossal statue formerly in the west apse of the <a href="/wiki/Basilica_of_Maxentius" title="Basilica of Maxentius">Basilica of Maxentius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farnese_Gardens" title="Farnese Gardens">Farnese Gardens</a> (1550), immediately overlooking the Forum</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Veduta" title="Veduta">Veduta</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tourist_attractions_in_Rome" title="List of tourist attractions in Rome">List of tourist attractions in Rome</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_Forum&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://elevation.maplogs.com/poi/roman_forum_via_della_salara_vecchia_5_6_roma_italy.209609.html">"Worldwide Elevation Finder"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Worldwide+Elevation+Finder&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Felevation.maplogs.com%2Fpoi%2Froman_forum_via_della_salara_vecchia_5_6_roma_italy.209609.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Forum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_Henry_Middleton1885" class="citation book cs1">John Henry Middleton (1885). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_NCwkplUN-AC&pg=PA252"><i>Ancient Rome in 1885</i></a>. A. & C. Black. p. 252.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Rome+in+1885&rft.pages=252&rft.pub=A.+%26+C.+Black&rft.date=1885&rft.au=John+Henry+Middleton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_NCwkplUN-AC%26pg%3DPA252&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Forum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Grant_(author)" class="mw-redirect" title="Michael Grant (author)">Grant, Michael</a> (1970), <i>The Roman Forum</i>, London: <a href="/wiki/Weidenfeld_%26_Nicolson" title="Weidenfeld & Nicolson">Weidenfeld & Nicolson</a>; Photos by <a href="/wiki/Werner_Forman" title="Werner Forman">Werner Forman</a>, p. 11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lastampa.it/2013/03/11/italia/cronache/la-top-ten-dei-monumenti-piu-visti-primo-il-colosseo-seconda-pompei-SQCygHLbPhGPWnqteamQRJ/pagina.html">"La Stampa – La top ten dei monumenti più visti Primo il Colosseo, seconda Pompei"</a>. Lastampa.it. 11 March 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 August</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=La+Stampa+%E2%80%93+La+top+ten+dei+monumenti+pi%C3%B9+visti+Primo+il+Colosseo%2C+seconda+Pompei&rft.pub=Lastampa.it&rft.date=2013-03-11&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lastampa.it%2F2013%2F03%2F11%2Fitalia%2Fcronache%2Fla-top-ten-dei-monumenti-piu-visti-primo-il-colosseo-seconda-pompei-SQCygHLbPhGPWnqteamQRJ%2Fpagina.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Forum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Watkin69" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Watkin_(historian)" class="mw-redirect" title="David Watkin (historian)">Watkin, David</a> (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MGoOoAcg43gC"><i>The Roman Forum</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>, Cambridge, Massachusetts. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-03341-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-03341-2"><bdi>978-0-674-03341-2</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 March</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Roman+Forum&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press%2C+Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-674-03341-2&rft.au=Watkin%2C+David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMGoOoAcg43gC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Forum" class="Z3988"></span>, p. 22.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A more generous estimate, including the surrounding buildings, would be about 200 by 75 meters.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Grant, 1970, p. 43.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stories-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Stories_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLovell,_Isabel1904" class="citation book cs1">Lovell, Isabel (1904). <i>Stories in Stone from the Roman Forum</i>. pp. 8–9.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Stories+in+Stone+from+the+Roman+Forum&rft.pages=8-9&rft.date=1904&rft.au=Lovell%2C+Isabel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Forum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLivy" class="citation book cs1">Livy. <i>History</i>. p. 1.38.6.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History&rft.pages=1.38.6&rft.au=Livy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Forum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmmerman1990" class="citation journal cs1">Ammerman, Albert (1990). "On the Origins of the Forum Romanum". <i>American Journal of Archaeology</i>. <b>94</b> (4): 633. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F505123">10.2307/505123</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/505123">505123</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:193074571">193074571</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Archaeology&rft.atitle=On+the+Origins+of+the+Forum+Romanum&rft.volume=94&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=633&rft.date=1990&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A193074571%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F505123%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F505123&rft.aulast=Ammerman&rft.aufirst=Albert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Forum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-GrantOp-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-GrantOp_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GrantOp_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Grant, 1970, p. 16.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lomas, Kathryn, 2018 (hardcover in 2017), <i>Rise of Rome: From the Iron Age to the Punic Wars, 1000 BC – 264 BC</i>, London: Profile Books, p. 38.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fulminante, Francesca, 2014, <i>The Urbanisation of Rome and Latium Vetus. From the Bronze Age to the Archaic Era</i>, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 72–74.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Lomas, 2018, p. 39.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lomas, 2018, pp. 40–42.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lomas, 2018, p. 41.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarucchi1906" class="citation book cs1">Marucchi, Horace (1906). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/romanforumpalati00maru"><i>The Roman Forum and the Palatine According to the Latest Discoveries</i></a>. Paris: Lefebvre. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/romanforumpalati00maru/page/1">1</a>–2. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-237-4314-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-237-4314-1"><bdi>978-81-237-4314-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Roman+Forum+and+the+Palatine+According+to+the+Latest+Discoveries&rft.place=Paris&rft.pages=1-2&rft.pub=Lefebvre&rft.date=1906&rft.isbn=978-81-237-4314-1&rft.aulast=Marucchi&rft.aufirst=Horace&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fromanforumpalati00maru&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Forum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParker1881" class="citation book cs1">Parker, John Henry (1881). <i>The Architectural History of the City of Rome</i>. Oxford: Parker and Company. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=D_UAvPBgcDUC&pg=PA122&lpg=PA122">122</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Architectural+History+of+the+City+of+Rome&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=122&rft.pub=Parker+and+Company&rft.date=1881&rft.aulast=Parker&rft.aufirst=John+Henry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Forum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ammerman, Albert J., 1990, “On the Origins of the Forum Romanum”, <i>American Journal of Archaeology</i>, Vol. 94, No. 4 (Oct., 1990), p. 627–645. </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_20-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Lomas, 2018, pp. 90–95.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Peter_Wiseman" class="mw-redirect" title="Timothy Peter Wiseman">Wiseman, Timothy Peter</a>, 2008, <i>Unwritten Rome</i>, Exeter: University of Exeter Press, p. 2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Filippi, Dunia, 2017 (edition in Italian in 2012), 'Region VIII. Forum Romanum Magnum', in <a href="/wiki/Andrea_Carandini" title="Andrea Carandini">Andrea Carandini</a>, Paola Carafa, <i>The Atlas of Ancient Rome. Biography and Portraits of the City. Vol. 1. Text and Images</i>, Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press, pp. 151–152.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lomas, 2018, p. 91.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Carafa, Paolo, 2005, ‘Il Volcanal e il Comizio’, <i>Workshop di Archeologia Classica</i> 2, p. 135.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dionysius of Halicarnassus, <i>Roman Antiquities</i>, 2.50.2 (attributes the foundation of the Vulcanal to Romulus and Titus Tatius); Varro, <i>On the Latin Language</i>, 5.74 (attributes the institution of the Vulcanal to Titus Tatius alone); Plutarch, <i>Life of Romulus</i>, 19.27.6 (mentions that Romulus was supposedly killed by the senators next to the Vulcanal).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lomas, 2018, pp. 91–93.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lomas, 2018, p. 145.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVasaly1996" class="citation book cs1">Vasaly, Ann (1996). <i>Representations: Images of the World in Ciceronian Oratory</i>. Berkeley: University of California Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nXJ5d0lvTFMC&pg=PA61">61</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-07755-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-520-07755-5"><bdi>0-520-07755-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Representations%3A+Images+of+the+World+in+Ciceronian+Oratory&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pages=61&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-520-07755-5&rft.aulast=Vasaly&rft.aufirst=Ann&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Forum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYoung1908" class="citation book cs1">Young, Norwood, ed. (1908). <i>Handbook for Rome and the Campagna</i>. London: John Murray. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SGwPAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1–PA95">95</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+for+Rome+and+the+Campagna&rft.place=London&rft.pages=95&rft.pub=John+Murray&rft.date=1908&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Forum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Richmond, Ian Archibald, et al. (1996), Entry, "Forum Romanum", In: Hornblower, Simon and Antony Spawforth (eds.), <i><a href="/wiki/The_Oxford_Classical_Dictionary" class="mw-redirect" title="The Oxford Classical Dictionary">The Oxford Classical Dictionary</a></i> (3rd ed.), <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>, p. 607.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeard,_MaryNorth,_John_A.;_Price,_Simon1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Mary_Beard_(classicist)" title="Mary Beard (classicist)">Beard, Mary</a>; North, John A.; Price, Simon (1998). <i>Religions of Rome: A History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2rtaTFYuM3QC&pg=PA109">109 (note 139)</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-30401-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-30401-6"><bdi>0-521-30401-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Religions+of+Rome%3A+A+History&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=109+%28note+139%29&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-521-30401-6&rft.au=Beard%2C+Mary&rft.au=North%2C+John+A.%3B+Price%2C+Simon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Forum" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-books.google-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-books.google_32-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-books.google_32-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaedeker,_Karl1903" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Karl_Baedeker" title="Karl Baedeker">Baedeker, Karl</a> (1903). <i>Italy: Handbook for Travellers</i>. Leipzig: Karl Baedeker. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uAlBAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA251">251</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Italy%3A+Handbook+for+Travellers&rft.place=Leipzig&rft.pages=251&rft.pub=Karl+Baedeker&rft.date=1903&rft.au=Baedeker%2C+Karl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Forum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Connolly" title="Peter Connolly">Connolly, Peter</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hazel_Dodge" title="Hazel Dodge">Hazel Dodge</a> (1998), <i>The Ancient City: Life in Classical Athens & Rome</i>, <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>, p. 109.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Watkin, 2009, p. 106.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Watkin, 2009, p. 79.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The close relationship between the Comitium and the <i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Forum Romanum</i></span></i> eventually faded from the writings of the ancients. The former is last mentioned in the reign of <a href="/wiki/Septimius_Severus" title="Septimius Severus">Septimius Severus</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 200 AD</span>).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Grant, 1970, pp. 111–112.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Roman Art and Archaeology," Mark Fullerton, p. 118.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Archaeology_p._358-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Archaeology_p._358_39-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Archaeology_p._358_39-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">"Roman Art and Archaeology," Mark Fullerton p. 358</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Connolly and Dodge, 1998, pp. 250–251.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-history.com-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-history.com_41-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-history.com_41-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.history.com/topics/ancient-rome/roman-forum">"Roman Forum"</a>. <i>HISTORY</i>. 25 July 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=HISTORY&rft.atitle=Roman+Forum&rft.date=2023-07-25&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.history.com%2Ftopics%2Fancient-rome%2Froman-forum&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Forum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarucchi1906" class="citation book cs1">Marucchi, Orazio (1906). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5GETAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA9"><i>The Roman Forum and the Palatine According to the Latest Discoveries ...</i></a> Desclée, Lefebvre e Company. p. 9.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Roman+Forum+and+the+Palatine+According+to+the+Latest+Discoveries+...&rft.pages=9&rft.pub=Descl%C3%A9e%2C+Lefebvre+e+Company&rft.date=1906&rft.aulast=Marucchi&rft.aufirst=Orazio&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5GETAAAAYAAJ%26pg%3DPA9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Forum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoodyear1899" class="citation book cs1">Goodyear, W. 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New York: Macmillan. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/romanandmedieva03goodgoog/page/n119">109</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Roman+and+Medieval+Art&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=109&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1899&rft.aulast=Goodyear&rft.aufirst=W.+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Forum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lanciani,_1897;_p._247-48-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lanciani,_1897;_p._247-48_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lanciani, 1897, pp. 247–248</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.world-archaeology.com/books/the-roman-forum/">"The Roman Forum"</a>. world-archaeology.com. 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 February</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+Roman+Forum&rft.date=2010&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.world-archaeology.com%2Fbooks%2Fthe-roman-forum%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Forum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeard2007" class="citation book cs1">Beard, Mary (2007). <i>The Roman Triumph</i>. 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Oxford University Press. p. 107.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ruin+of+the+Eternal+City&rft.pages=107&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.au=David+Karmon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Forum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKarmon2011" class="citation book cs1">Karmon, David (2011). <i>The Ruin of the Eternal City</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 January</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Roman+Forum&rft.pub=world-archaeology.com&rft.date=2010-09-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.world-archaeology.com%2Fbooks%2Fthe-roman-forum%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Forum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lanciani, 1897; p. 248</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRodolfo_Lanciani1899" class="citation book cs1">Rodolfo Lanciani (1899). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/destructionanci02lancgoog"><i>The Destruction of Ancient Rome: A Sketch of the History of the Monuments</i></a>. Macmillan. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/destructionanci02lancgoog/page/n249">228</a>–231, 234–235.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Destruction+of+Ancient+Rome%3A+A+Sketch+of+the+History+of+the+Monuments&rft.pages=228-231%2C+234-235&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1899&rft.au=Rodolfo+Lanciani&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdestructionanci02lancgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Forum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarter1910" class="citation journal cs1">Carter, Jesse Benedict (March 1910). "A Decade of Forum Excavation and the Results for Roman History". <i>The Classical Journal</i>. <b>5</b> (5): 202–211. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3286845">3286845</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Classical+Journal&rft.atitle=A+Decade+of+Forum+Excavation+and+the+Results+for+Roman+History&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=202-211&rft.date=1910-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3286845%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Carter&rft.aufirst=Jesse+Benedict&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Forum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGray1901" class="citation journal cs1">Gray, Mason D. (March 1901). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F472777">"Recent Excavations in the Roman Forum"</a>. <i>The Biblical World</i>. <b>17</b> (3): 199–202. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F472777">10.1086/472777</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3136821">3136821</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Biblical+World&rft.atitle=Recent+Excavations+in+the+Roman+Forum&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=199-202&rft.date=1901-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F472777&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3136821%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Gray&rft.aufirst=Mason+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1086%252F472777&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Forum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPruitt" class="citation web cs1">Pruitt, Sarah. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.history.com/news/forum-excavations-reveal-romes-advanced-age">"Forum Excavations Reveal Rome's Advanced Age"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Forum+Excavations+Reveal+Rome%27s+Advanced+Age&rft.aulast=Pruitt&rft.aufirst=Sarah&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.history.com%2Fnews%2Fforum-excavations-reveal-romes-advanced-age&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Forum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-51587892">"Romulus mystery: Experts divided on 'tomb of Rome's founding father'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>BBC News</i>. 21 February 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 June</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Romulus+mystery%3A+Experts+divided+on+%27tomb+of+Rome%27s+founding+father%27&rft.date=2020-02-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fnews%2Fworld-europe-51587892&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Forum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichardson1980" class="citation journal cs1">Richardson, L. (1 January 1980). "The Approach to the Temple of Saturn in Rome". <i>American Journal of Archaeology</i>. <b>84</b> (1): 55. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F504394">10.2307/504394</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/504394">504394</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:193115520">193115520</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Archaeology&rft.atitle=The+Approach+to+the+Temple+of+Saturn+in+Rome&rft.volume=84&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=55&rft.date=1980-01-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A193115520%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F504394%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F504394&rft.aulast=Richardson&rft.aufirst=L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Forum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Richardson, 1980, p. 52</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Richardson, 1980, pp. 51-62</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Watkin, David, and Watkin, David. Wonders of the World Ser.: The Roman Forum. Cumberland, US: Harvard University Press, 2009. ProQuest ebrary.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKalas2015" class="citation book cs1">Kalas, Gregor (2015). <i>Ashley and Peter Larkin Series in Greek and Roman Culture: Restoration of the Roman Forum in Late Antiquity: Transforming Public Space</i>. Austin: University of Texas Press. p. 16.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ashley+and+Peter+Larkin+Series+in+Greek+and+Roman+Culture%3A+Restoration+of+the+Roman+Forum+in+Late+Antiquity%3A+Transforming+Public+Space&rft.place=Austin&rft.pages=16&rft.pub=University+of+Texas+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Kalas&rft.aufirst=Gregor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Forum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kalas, 2015, p. 17</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.getty.edu/art/collection/objects/251762/joseph-mallord-william-turner-modern-rome-campo-vaccino-british-1839/">"Modern Rome – Campo Vaccino (Getty Museum)"</a>. <i>The J. Paul Getty in Los Angeles</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+J.+Paul+Getty+in+Los+Angeles&rft.atitle=Modern+Rome+%E2%80%93+Campo+Vaccino+%28Getty+Museum%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.getty.edu%2Fart%2Fcollection%2Fobjects%2F251762%2Fjoseph-mallord-william-turner-modern-rome-campo-vaccino-british-1839%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Forum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichardson,_L._Jr.1992" class="citation book cs1">Richardson, L. Jr. (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=K_qjo30tjHAC&q=Forum+cuppedinis&pg=PA164"><i>A New Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome</i></a>. JHU Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0801843006" title="Special:BookSources/978-0801843006"><bdi>978-0801843006</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+New+Topographical+Dictionary+of+Ancient+Rome&rft.pub=JHU+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0801843006&rft.au=Richardson%2C+L.+Jr.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DK_qjo30tjHAC%26q%3DForum%2Bcuppedinis%26pg%3DPA164&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Forum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_Forum&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Forum_Romanum" class="extiw" title="commons:Forum Romanum">Forum Romanum</a> at Wikimedia Commons</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.italyrome.info/foro_romano_3d_eng.php">Reconstruction in 3D of the Roman Forum</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.italyrome.info/circomassimo/circo-massimo-3d-eng.php">Circus Maximus</a>, and the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.italyrome.info/isolatiberina/isola-tiberina-3d-eng.php">Tiber Island</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.italyrome.info">italyrome.info</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.stockholm360.net/list.php?id=forum">Roman Forum's 360x180 degree panorama virtual tour</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dlib.etc.ucla.edu/projects/Forum">Digital Roman Forum</a>, 3D reconstructions of the Roman Forum in c. 400</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Places/Europe/Italy/Lazio/Roma/Rome/Forum_Romanum/_Texts/Huelsen*/home.html">Christian Hülsen: The Roman Forum</a> (at LacusCurtius; Hülsen was one of the principal excavators of the Forum)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sights.seindal.dk/sight/4_Forum_Romanum.html">Forum Romanum (photo archive)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.euratlas.net/Roma/rome3-3.htm">Map of the Forum in AD 100, blank or labelled</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLucentini2012" class="citation book cs1">Lucentini, M. (31 December 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=laMDAQAAQBAJ"><i>The Rome Guide: Step by Step through History's Greatest City</i></a>. Interlink. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781623710088" title="Special:BookSources/9781623710088"><bdi>9781623710088</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rome+Guide%3A+Step+by+Step+through+History%27s+Greatest+City&rft.pub=Interlink&rft.date=2012-12-31&rft.isbn=9781623710088&rft.aulast=Lucentini&rft.aufirst=M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlaMDAQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Forum" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <table class="wikitable" style="margin:0.5em auto; font-size:95%; clear: both;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;">Preceded by<br /><b><a href="/wiki/Porta_Maggiore_Basilica" title="Porta Maggiore Basilica">Porta Maggiore Basilica</a></b> </td> <td style="text-align: center;"><b>Landmarks of Rome</b><br />Roman Forum </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;">Succeeded by<br /><b><a href="/wiki/Imperial_fora" title="Imperial fora">Imperial fora</a></b> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": 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.navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Monuments_of_Rome" title="Template:Monuments of Rome"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Monuments_of_Rome" title="Template talk:Monuments of Rome"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Monuments_of_Rome" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Monuments of Rome"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Landmarks_of_Rome" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_monuments_in_Rome" title="List of ancient monuments in Rome">Landmarks of Rome</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space:normal; line-height:1.1em;">Walls and gates</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aurelian_Walls" title="Aurelian Walls">Aurelian Walls</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Porta_Ardeatina" title="Porta Ardeatina">Ardeatina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porta_Asinaria" title="Porta Asinaria">Asinaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porta_Latina" title="Porta Latina">Latina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porta_Maggiore" title="Porta Maggiore">Maggiore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porta_Metronia" title="Porta Metronia">Metronia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porta_Nomentana" title="Porta Nomentana">Nomentana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porta_Pia" title="Porta Pia">Pia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porta_Pinciana" title="Porta Pinciana">Pinciana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porta_del_Popolo" title="Porta del Popolo">Popolo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porta_Portese" title="Porta Portese">Portese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porta_San_Pancrazio" title="Porta San Pancrazio">San Pancrazio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porta_San_Paolo" title="Porta San Paolo">San Paolo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porta_San_Giovanni_(Rome)" title="Porta San Giovanni (Rome)">San Giovanni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porta_San_Sebastiano" title="Porta San Sebastiano">San Sebastiano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porta_Settimiana" title="Porta Settimiana">Settimiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porta_Tiburtina" title="Porta Tiburtina">Tiburtina</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonine_City" title="Leonine City">Leonine Wall</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Porta_Cavalleggeri" title="Porta Cavalleggeri">Cavalleggeri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porta_Pertusa" title="Porta Pertusa">Pertusa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porta_Santo_Spirito" title="Porta Santo Spirito">Santo Spirito</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Castra_Praetoria" title="Castra Praetoria">Castra Praetoria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Janiculum_walls" title="Janiculum walls">Janiculum Wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murus_Terreus" title="Murus Terreus">Terreus Wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murus_Romuli" title="Murus Romuli">Romuli Wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Servian_Wall" title="Servian Wall">Servian Wall</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Porta_Caelimontana" title="Porta Caelimontana">Caelimontana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porta_Capena" title="Porta Capena">Capena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porta_Collina" title="Porta Collina">Collina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arch_of_Dolabella" title="Arch of Dolabella">Dolabella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porta_Esquilina" title="Porta Esquilina">Esquilina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porta_Fontinalis" title="Porta Fontinalis">Fontinalis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arch_of_Gallienus" title="Arch of Gallienus">Gallienus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porta_Viminale" title="Porta Viminale">Viminale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porta_Naevia" title="Porta Naevia">Naevia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porta_Querquetulana" title="Porta Querquetulana">Querquetulana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porta_Trigemina" title="Porta Trigemina">Trigemina</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space:normal; line-height:1.1em;">Ancient <a href="/wiki/List_of_obelisks_in_Rome" title="List of obelisks in Rome">obelisks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lateran_Obelisk" title="Lateran Obelisk">Lateran Obelisk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flaminio_Obelisk" title="Flaminio Obelisk">Flaminian Obelisk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elephant_and_Obelisk" title="Elephant and Obelisk">Obelisk of Minerveo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obelisk_of_Montecitorio" title="Obelisk of Montecitorio">Obelisk of Montecitorio</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space:normal; line-height:1.1em;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_monuments_in_Rome" title="List of ancient monuments in Rome">Ancient Roman<br />landmarks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align:right;">Triumphal arches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arch_of_Constantine" title="Arch of Constantine">Arch of Constantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arch_of_Dolabella" title="Arch of Dolabella">Arch of Dolabella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arch_of_Drusus" title="Arch of Drusus">Arch of Drusus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arch_of_Gallienus" title="Arch of Gallienus">Arch of Gallienus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arch_of_Janus" title="Arch of Janus">Arch of Janus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arch_of_Septimius_Severus" title="Arch of Septimius Severus">Arch of Septimius Severus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arch_of_Titus" title="Arch of Titus">Arch of Titus</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Arcus_Novus" title="Arcus Novus">Arcus Novus</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align:right;">Aqueducts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Aqua_Appia" title="Aqua Appia">Aqua Appia</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Aqua_Alexandrina" title="Aqua Alexandrina">Aqua Alexandrina</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Aqua_Anio_Vetus" title="Aqua Anio Vetus">Aqua Anio Vetus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Aqua_Anio_Novus" title="Aqua Anio Novus">Aqua Anio Novus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Aqua_Claudia" title="Aqua Claudia">Aqua Claudia</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Aqua_Julia" title="Aqua Julia">Aqua Julia</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Aqua_Marcia" title="Aqua Marcia">Aqua Marcia</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Aqua_Tepula" title="Aqua Tepula">Aqua Tepula</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align:right;">Sewers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Cloaca_Maxima" title="Cloaca Maxima">Cloaca Maxima</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cloaca_Circi_Maximi" title="Cloaca Circi Maximi">Cloaca Circi Maximi</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align:right;">Public baths</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baths_of_Agrippa" title="Baths of Agrippa">Baths of Agrippa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baths_of_Caracalla" title="Baths of Caracalla">Baths of Caracalla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baths_of_Diocletian" title="Baths of Diocletian">Baths of Diocletian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baths_of_Nero" title="Baths of Nero">Baths of Nero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baths_of_Trajan" title="Baths of Trajan">Baths of Trajan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align:right;">Religious</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Ara_Pacis" title="Ara Pacis">Ara Pacis</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Antoninus_and_Faustina" title="Temple of Antoninus and Faustina">Temple of Antoninus and Faustina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Apollo_Palatinus" title="Temple of Apollo Palatinus">Temple of Apollo Palatinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Apollo_Sosianus" title="Temple of Apollo Sosianus">Temple of Apollo Sosianus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Hadrian" title="Temple of Hadrian">Temple of Hadrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Hercules_Victor" title="Temple of Hercules Victor">Temple of Hercules Victor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Janus_(Forum_Holitorium)" title="Temple of Janus (Forum Holitorium)">Temple of Janus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Jupiter_Optimus_Maximus" title="Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus">Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Jupiter_Tonans" title="Temple of Jupiter Tonans">Temple of Jupiter Tonans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Minerva_Medica_(nymphaeum)" title="Temple of Minerva Medica (nymphaeum)">Temple of Minerva Medica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Portunus" title="Temple of Portunus">Temple of Portunus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Saturn" title="Temple of Saturn">Temple of Saturn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Vesta" title="Temple of Vesta">Temple of Vesta</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/House_of_the_Vestals" title="House of the Vestals">House of the Vestals</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Largo_di_Torre_Argentina" title="Largo di Torre Argentina">Largo di Torre Argentina</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lupercal" title="Lupercal">Lupercal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pantheon,_Rome" title="Pantheon, Rome">Pantheon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porta_Maggiore_Basilica" title="Porta Maggiore Basilica">Porta Maggiore Basilica</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align:right;">Fora</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Roman Forum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_fora" title="Imperial fora">Imperial fora</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Forum_of_Augustus" title="Forum of Augustus">Forum of Augustus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forum_of_Caesar" title="Forum of Caesar">Forum of Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forum_of_Nerva" title="Forum of Nerva">Forum of Nerva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Peace,_Rome" title="Temple of Peace, Rome">Forum of Vespasian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trajan%27s_Forum" title="Trajan's Forum">Trajan's Forum</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Forum_Boarium" title="Forum Boarium">Forum Boarium</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Forum_Holitorium" title="Forum Holitorium">Forum Holitorium</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align:right;">Civic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Basilica_Argentaria" title="Basilica Argentaria">Basilica Argentaria</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Basilica_Julia" title="Basilica Julia">Basilica Julia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basilica_of_Junius_Bassus" title="Basilica of Junius Bassus">Basilica of Junius Bassus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basilica_of_Maxentius" title="Basilica of Maxentius">Basilica of Maxentius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basilica_of_Neptune" title="Basilica of Neptune">Basilica of Neptune</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Basilica_Ulpia" title="Basilica Ulpia">Basilica Ulpia</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Comitium" title="Comitium">Comitium</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Curia_Julia" title="Curia Julia">Curia Julia</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Portico_Dii_Consentes" title="Portico Dii Consentes">Portico Dii Consentes</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Porticus_Octaviae" title="Porticus Octaviae">Porticus Octaviae</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tabularium" title="Tabularium">Tabularium</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align:right;">Entertainment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Circus_Maximus" title="Circus Maximus">Circus Maximus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circus_of_Maxentius" title="Circus of Maxentius">Circus of Maxentius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circus_of_Nero" title="Circus of Nero">Circus of Nero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colosseum" title="Colosseum">Colosseum</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Ludus_Magnus" title="Ludus Magnus">Ludus Magnus</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gardens_of_Maecenas" title="Gardens of Maecenas">Gardens of Maecenas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gardens_of_Sallust" title="Gardens of Sallust">Gardens of Sallust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stadium_of_Domitian" title="Stadium of Domitian">Stadium of Domitian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_Marcellus" title="Theatre of Marcellus">Theatre of Marcellus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_Pompey" title="Theatre of Pompey">Theatre of Pompey</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align:right;">Palaces and <i>villae</i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Domus_Augustana" title="Domus Augustana">Domus Augustana</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Domus_Aurea" title="Domus Aurea">Domus Aurea</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Domus_Transitoria" title="Domus Transitoria">Domus Transitoria</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flavian_Palace" title="Flavian Palace">Flavian Palace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Augustus" title="House of Augustus">House of Augustus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palace_of_Domitian" title="Palace of Domitian">Palace of Domitian</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Villa_Gordiani" title="Villa Gordiani">Villa Gordiani</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Villa_of_Livia" title="Villa of Livia">Villa of Livia</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Insula_dell%27Ara_Coeli" title="Insula dell'Ara Coeli">Insula dell'Ara Coeli</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Villa_of_the_Quintilii" title="Villa of the Quintilii">Villa of the Quintilii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Villa_dei_Sette_Bassi" title="Villa dei Sette Bassi">Villa of the <i>sette bassi</i></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align:right;">Column monuments</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Column_of_Antoninus_Pius" title="Column of Antoninus Pius">Column of Antoninus Pius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Column_of_Marcus_Aurelius" title="Column of Marcus Aurelius">Column of Marcus Aurelius</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Column_of_Phocas" title="Column of Phocas">Column of Phocas</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trajan%27s_Column" title="Trajan's Column">Trajan's Column</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five-Columns_Monument" title="Five-Columns Monument">Five-Columns Monument</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align:right;">Commerce</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Porticus_Aemilia" title="Porticus Aemilia">Porticus Aemilia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trajan%27s_Market" title="Trajan's Market">Trajan's Market</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align:right;">Tombs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Casal_Rotondo" title="Casal Rotondo">Casal Rotondo</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catacombs_of_Domitilla" title="Catacombs of Domitilla">Catacombs of Domitilla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catacombs_of_Rome" title="Catacombs of Rome">Catacombs of Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catacombs_of_San_Sebastiano" title="Catacombs of San Sebastiano">Catacombs of San Sebastiano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columbarium_of_Pomponius_Hylas" title="Columbarium of Pomponius Hylas">Columbarium of Pomponius Hylas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mausoleum_of_Augustus" title="Mausoleum of Augustus">Mausoleum of Augustus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mausoleum_of_Helena" title="Mausoleum of Helena">Mausoleum of Helena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mausoleum_of_Maxentius" title="Mausoleum of Maxentius">Mausoleum of Maxentius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyramid_of_Cestius" title="Pyramid of Cestius">Pyramid of Cestius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tomb_of_Eurysaces_the_Baker" title="Tomb of Eurysaces the Baker">Tomb of Eurysaces the Baker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tomb_of_Hilarus_Fuscus" title="Tomb of Hilarus Fuscus">Tomb of Hilarus Fuscus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tomb_of_the_Haterii" title="Tomb of the Haterii">Tomb of the Haterii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tomb_of_the_Scipios" title="Tomb of the Scipios">Tomb of the Scipios</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tombs_of_Via_Latina" title="Tombs of Via Latina">Tombs of Via Latina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tomb_of_Priscilla" title="Tomb of Priscilla">Tomb of Priscilla</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vigna_Randanini" title="Vigna Randanini">Vigna Randanini</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align:right;">Bridges</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Pons_Cestius" title="Pons Cestius">Pons Cestius</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pons_Fabricius" title="Pons Fabricius">Pons Fabricius</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ponte_Milvio" title="Ponte Milvio">Ponte Milvio</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ponte_Sant%27Angelo" title="Ponte Sant'Angelo">Ponte Sant'Angelo</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space:normal; line-height:1.1em;"><a href="/wiki/Churches_of_Rome" title="Churches of Rome">Roman Catholic<br />basilicas</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archbasilica_of_Saint_John_Lateran" title="Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran">Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santa_Maria_Maggiore" title="Santa Maria Maggiore">Basilica of Saint Mary Major</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basilica_of_Saint_Paul_Outside_the_Walls" title="Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls">Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St._Peter%27s_Basilica" title="St. Peter's Basilica">Basilica of Saint Peter in the Vatican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/San_Lorenzo_fuori_le_mura" title="San Lorenzo fuori le mura">S. Lorenzo fuori le mura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sant%27Agnese_fuori_le_mura" title="Sant'Agnese fuori le mura">S. Agnese fuori le mura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sant%27Agostino,_Rome" title="Sant'Agostino, Rome">S. Agostino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sant%27Anastasia_al_Palatino" title="Sant'Anastasia al Palatino">S. Anastasia al Palatino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sant%27Andrea_delle_Fratte" title="Sant'Andrea delle Fratte">S. Andrea delle Fratte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sant%27Andrea_della_Valle" title="Sant'Andrea della Valle">S. Andrea della Valle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sant%27Antonio_da_Padova_in_Via_Merulana" title="Sant'Antonio da Padova in Via Merulana">S. Antonio da Padova in Via Merulana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sant%27Apollinare,_Rome" title="Sant'Apollinare, Rome">S. Apollinare alle Terme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santi_Apostoli,_Rome" title="Santi Apostoli, Rome">Ss. Apostoli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santa_Balbina" title="Santa Balbina">S. Balbina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/San_Bartolomeo_all%27Isola" title="San Bartolomeo all'Isola">S. Bartolomeo all'Isola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santi_Bonifacio_ed_Alessio" title="Santi Bonifacio ed Alessio">Ss. Bonifacio ed Alessio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/San_Camillo_de_Lellis" title="San Camillo de Lellis">S. Camillo de Lellis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sant%27Ambrogio_e_Carlo_al_Corso" title="Sant'Ambrogio e Carlo al Corso">S. Carlo al Corso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santa_Cecilia_in_Trastevere" title="Santa Cecilia in Trastevere">S. Cecilia in Trastevere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santi_Celso_e_Giuliano" title="Santi Celso e Giuliano">Ss. Celso e Giuliano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/San_Clemente_al_Laterano" title="San Clemente al Laterano">S. Clemente</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santi_Cosma_e_Damiano,_Rome" title="Santi Cosma e Damiano, Rome">Ss. Cosma e Damiano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/San_Crisogono,_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="San Crisogono, Rome">S. Crisogono</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santa_Croce_in_Via_Flaminia" title="Santa Croce in Via Flaminia">S. Croce in Via Flaminia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santa_Croce_in_Gerusalemme" title="Santa Croce in Gerusalemme">S. Croce in Gerusalemme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sant%27Eugenio" title="Sant'Eugenio">S. Eugenio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sant%27Eustachio" title="Sant'Eustachio">S. Eustachio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santa_Francesca_Romana" title="Santa Francesca Romana">S. Francesca Romana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/San_Giovanni_a_Porta_Latina" title="San Giovanni a Porta Latina"> S. Giovanni a Porta Latina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/San_Giovanni_dei_Fiorentini" title="San Giovanni dei Fiorentini">S. Giovanni dei Fiorentini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santi_Giovanni_e_Paolo_al_Celio" title="Santi Giovanni e Paolo al Celio">Ss. Giovanni e Paolo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/San_Lorenzo_in_Damaso" title="San Lorenzo in Damaso">S. Lorenzo in Damaso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/San_Lorenzo_in_Lucina" title="San Lorenzo in Lucina">S. Lorenzo in Lucina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santa_Maria_Ausiliatrice,_Rome" title="Santa Maria Ausiliatrice, Rome">S. Maria Ausiliatrice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/San_Marco_Evangelista_al_Campidoglio,_Rome" title="San Marco Evangelista al Campidoglio, Rome">S. Marco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santa_Maria_degli_Angeli_e_dei_Martiri" title="Santa Maria degli Angeli e dei Martiri">S. Maria degli Angeli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santa_Maria_dei_Miracoli_and_Santa_Maria_in_Montesanto" title="Santa Maria dei Miracoli and Santa Maria in Montesanto">S. Maria in Montesanto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santa_Maria_in_Cosmedin" title="Santa Maria in Cosmedin">S. Maria in Cosmedin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santa_Maria_in_Domnica" title="Santa Maria in Domnica">S. Maria in Domnica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santa_Maria_in_Ara_Coeli" title="Santa Maria in Ara Coeli">S. Maria in Aracoeli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santa_Maria_del_Popolo" title="Santa Maria del Popolo">S. Maria del Popolo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santa_Maria_sopra_Minerva" title="Santa Maria sopra Minerva">S. Maria sopra Minerva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santa_Maria_in_Trastevere" title="Santa Maria in Trastevere">S. Maria in Trastevere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santa_Maria_in_Via" title="Santa Maria in Via">S. Maria in Via</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santa_Maria_in_Via_Lata" title="Santa Maria in Via Lata">S. Maria in Via Lata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santa_Maria_della_Vittoria,_Rome" title="Santa Maria della Vittoria, Rome">S. Maria della Vittoria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/San_Martino_ai_Monti" title="San Martino ai Monti">S. Martino ai Monti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santi_Nereo_e_Achilleo" title="Santi Nereo e Achilleo">Ss. Nereo e Achilleo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/San_Nicola_in_Carcere" title="San Nicola in Carcere">S. Nicola in Carcere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/San_Pancrazio" title="San Pancrazio">S. Pancrazio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pantheon,_Rome" title="Pantheon, Rome">Pantheon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/San_Pietro_in_Vincoli" title="San Pietro in Vincoli">S. Pietro in Vincoli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santa_Prassede" title="Santa Prassede">S. Prassede</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santa_Pudenziana" title="Santa Pudenziana">S. Pudenziana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santi_Quattro_Coronati" title="Santi Quattro Coronati">Ss. Quattro Coronati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/San_Saba,_Rome" title="San Saba, Rome">S. Saba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santa_Sabina" title="Santa Sabina">S. Sabina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacro_Cuore_di_Maria" title="Sacro Cuore di Maria">Sacro Cuore di Maria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacro_Cuore_di_Cristo_Re" title="Sacro Cuore di Cristo Re">Sacro Cuore di Cristo Re</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacro_Cuore_di_Ges%C3%B9_a_Castro_Pretorio" title="Sacro Cuore di Gesù a Castro Pretorio">Sacro Cuore di Gesù a Castro Pretorio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/San_Sebastiano_fuori_le_mura" title="San Sebastiano fuori le mura">S. Sebastiano fuori le mura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/San_Silvestro_in_Capite" title="San Silvestro in Capite">S. Silvestro in Capite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/San_Sisto_Vecchio" title="San Sisto Vecchio">S. Sisto Vecchio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santa_Sofia_a_Via_Boccea" title="Santa Sofia a Via Boccea">S. Sofia a Via Boccea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santo_Stefano_al_Monte_Celio" title="Santo Stefano al Monte Celio">S. Stefano Rotondo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santa_Teresa,_Rome" title="Santa Teresa, Rome">S. Teresa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/San_Vitale,_Rome" title="San Vitale, Rome">S. Vitale</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space:normal; line-height:1.1em;"><a href="/wiki/Churches_of_Rome" title="Churches of Rome">Other churches</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Churches_of_Rome" title="Churches of Rome">List of churches in Rome</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space:normal; line-height:1.1em;">Castles and palaces</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arx_(Roman)" title="Arx (Roman)">Arx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casa_dei_Cavalieri_di_Rodi" title="Casa dei Cavalieri di Rodi">Casa dei Cavalieri di Rodi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Castel_Sant%27Angelo" title="Castel Sant'Angelo">Castel Sant'Angelo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domus_Internationalis_Paulus_VI" title="Domus Internationalis Paulus VI">Domus Internationalis Paulus VI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palazzo_Aragona_Gonzaga" title="Palazzo Aragona Gonzaga">Palazzo Aragona Gonzaga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palazzo_Barberini" title="Palazzo Barberini">Palazzo Barberini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palazzo_Barberini_ai_Giubbonari" title="Palazzo Barberini ai Giubbonari">Palazzo Barberini ai Giubbonari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palazzo_Borghese" title="Palazzo Borghese">Palazzo Borghese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palazzo_della_Cancelleria" title="Palazzo della Cancelleria">Palazzo della Cancelleria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chigi_Palace" title="Chigi Palace">Palazzo Chigi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palazzo_Colonna" title="Palazzo Colonna">Palazzo Colonna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palazzo_della_Consulta" title="Palazzo della Consulta">Palazzo della Consulta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palazzo_Farnese" title="Palazzo Farnese">Palazzo Farnese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palazzo_Fusconi-Pighini" title="Palazzo Fusconi-Pighini">Palazzo Fusconi-Pighini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palazzo_Giustiniani,_Rome" title="Palazzo Giustiniani, Rome">Palazzo Giustinani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lateran_Palace" title="Lateran Palace">Lateran Palace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palazzo_Madama,_Rome" title="Palazzo Madama, Rome">Palazzo Madama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palazzo_Malta" title="Palazzo Malta">Palazzo Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palace_of_Justice,_Rome" title="Palace of Justice, Rome">Palazzo di Giustizia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palazzo_Massimo_alle_Colonne" title="Palazzo Massimo alle Colonne">Palazzo Massimo alle Colonne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palazzo_Mattei" title="Palazzo Mattei">Palazzo Mattei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quirinal_Palace" title="Quirinal Palace">Palazzo del Quirinale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palazzo_Pamphilj" title="Palazzo Pamphilj">Palazzo Pamphilj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palazzo_Poli" title="Palazzo Poli">Palazzo Poli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palazzo_Corsini,_Rome" title="Palazzo Corsini, Rome">Palazzo Riario</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palazzo_Ruspoli" title="Palazzo Ruspoli">Palazzo Ruspoli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palazzo_Spada" title="Palazzo Spada">Palazzo Spada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palazzo_Valentini" title="Palazzo Valentini">Palazzo Valentini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palazzo_Vidoni-Caffarelli" title="Palazzo Vidoni-Caffarelli">Palazzo Vidoni-Caffarelli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palazzo_del_Viminale" title="Palazzo del Viminale">Palazzo del Viminale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palazzo_Wedekind" title="Palazzo Wedekind">Palazzo Wedekind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palazzo_Zuccari,_Rome" title="Palazzo Zuccari, Rome">Palazzo Zuccari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Villa_Farnesina" title="Villa Farnesina">Villa Farnesina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Villa_Giulia" title="Villa Giulia">Villa Giulia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Villa_Madama" title="Villa Madama">Villa Madama</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space:normal; line-height:1.1em;">Fountains</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fontana_delle_Api" title="Fontana delle Api">Api</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fontana_dell%27Acqua_Felice" title="Fontana dell'Acqua Felice">Acqua Felice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fontana_dell%27Acqua_Paola" title="Fontana dell'Acqua Paola">Acqua Paola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babuino" title="Babuino">Babuino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fontana_della_Barcaccia" title="Fontana della Barcaccia">Barcaccia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Il_Facchino" title="Il Facchino">Il Facchino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marforio" title="Marforio">Marforio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fontana_del_Moro" title="Fontana del Moro">Moro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nasone" title="Nasone">Nasone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fontana_della_Navicella,_Rome" title="Fontana della Navicella, Rome">Navicella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fountain_of_Neptune,_Rome" title="Fountain of Neptune, Rome">Neptune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fontana_del_Nettuno,_Piazza_del_Popolo" title="Fontana del Nettuno, Piazza del Popolo">Nettuno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fontana_del_Pantheon" title="Fontana del Pantheon">del Pantheon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fontana_del_Pianto" title="Fontana del Pianto">Pianto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fontana_di_Piazza_d%27Aracoeli" title="Fontana di Piazza d'Aracoeli">di Piazza d'Aracoeli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fontana_di_Piazza_Colonna" title="Fontana di Piazza Colonna">di Piazza Colonna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fontane_di_Piazza_Farnese" title="Fontane di Piazza Farnese">di Piazza Farnese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fontana_della_Piazza_dei_Quiriti" title="Fontana della Piazza dei Quiriti">della Piazza dei Quiriti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fontana_di_Piazza_Nicosia" title="Fontana di Piazza Nicosia">di Piazza Nicosia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fountain_in_Piazza_Santa_Maria_in_Trastevere" title="Fountain in Piazza Santa Maria in Trastevere">in Piazza Santa Maria in Trastevere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fontanone_di_Ponte_Sisto" title="Fontanone di Ponte Sisto">di Ponte Sisto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fontana_dei_Quattro_Fiumi" title="Fontana dei Quattro Fiumi">Quattro Fiumi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quattro_Fontane" title="Quattro Fontane">Quattro Fontane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fontana_delle_Tartarughe" title="Fontana delle Tartarughe">Tartarughe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trevi_Fountain" title="Trevi Fountain">Trevi Fountain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fountain_of_the_Tritons" title="Fountain of the Tritons">Tritons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fontana_del_Tritone,_Rome" title="Fontana del Tritone, Rome">Tritone</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space:normal; line-height:1.1em;">Other landmarks</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Victor_Emmanuel_II_Monument" title="Victor Emmanuel II Monument">Altare della Patria</a> (<a href="/wiki/Tomb_of_the_Unknown_Soldier_(Italy)" title="Tomb of the Unknown Soldier (Italy)">Tomb of the Unknown Soldier of Italy</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campo_Verano" title="Campo Verano">Campo Verano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torre_dei_Capocci" title="Torre dei Capocci">Capocci Tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Column_of_the_Immaculate_Conception,_Rome" title="Column of the Immaculate Conception, Rome">Column of the Immaculate Conception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torre_dei_Conti" title="Torre dei Conti">Conti Tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ospedale_di_Santo_Spirito_in_Sassia" title="Ospedale di Santo Spirito in Sassia">Hospital of the Holy Spirit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torre_delle_Milizie" title="Torre delle Milizie">Milizie Tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ponte_Sisto" title="Ponte Sisto">Sisto Bridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Steps" title="Spanish Steps">Spanish Steps</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space:normal; line-height:1.1em;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Piazzas_in_Rome" title="Category:Piazzas in Rome">Squares</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_streets_in_Rome" title="List of streets in Rome">streets</a><br />and public spaces</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Appian_Way" title="Appian Way">Appian Way</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campo_de%27_Fiori" title="Campo de' Fiori">Campo de' Fiori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clivus_Capitolinus" title="Clivus Capitolinus">Clivus Capitolinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piazza_Colonna" title="Piazza Colonna">Piazza Colonna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piazza_d%27Aracoeli" title="Piazza d'Aracoeli">Piazza d'Aracoeli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piazza_del_Popolo" title="Piazza del Popolo">Piazza del Popolo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piazza_della_Minerva" title="Piazza della Minerva">Piazza della Minerva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piazza_della_Repubblica,_Rome" title="Piazza della Repubblica, Rome">Piazza della Repubblica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piazza_Farnese" title="Piazza Farnese">Piazza Farnese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piazza_Navona" title="Piazza Navona">Piazza Navona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St._Peter%27s_Square" title="St. Peter's Square">Piazza San Pietro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piazza_di_Spagna" title="Piazza di Spagna">Piazza di Spagna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piazza_Venezia" title="Piazza Venezia">Piazza Venezia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Via_dei_Coronari" title="Via dei Coronari">Via dei Coronari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Via_del_Corso" title="Via del Corso">Via del Corso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Via_della_Conciliazione" title="Via della Conciliazione">Via della Conciliazione</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Via_dei_Fori_Imperiali" title="Via dei Fori Imperiali">Via dei Fori Imperiali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Via_Sacra" title="Via Sacra">Via Sacra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Via_Veneto" title="Via Veneto">Via Veneto</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space:normal; line-height:1.1em;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_parks_and_gardens_in_Rome" title="List of parks and gardens in Rome">Parks, gardens</a><br />and zoos</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioparco_di_Roma" title="Bioparco di Roma">Bioparco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Villa_Ada" title="Villa Ada">Villa Ada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Villa_Borghese_gardens" title="Villa Borghese gardens">Villa Borghese gardens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Villa_Doria_Pamphili" title="Villa Doria Pamphili">Villa Doria Pamphili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Villa_Medici" title="Villa Medici">Villa Medici</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Villa_Torlonia_(Rome)" title="Villa Torlonia (Rome)">Villa Torlonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parco_degli_Acquedotti" title="Parco degli Acquedotti">Parco degli Acquedotti</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space:normal; line-height:1.1em;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_museums_in_Rome" title="List of museums in Rome">Museums and<br />art galleries</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boncompagni_Ludovisi_Decorative_Art_Museum" title="Boncompagni Ludovisi Decorative Art Museum">Boncompagni Ludovisi Decorative Art Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitoline_Museums" title="Capitoline Museums">Capitoline Museums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casa_di_Goethe" title="Casa di Goethe">Casa di Goethe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galleria_Borghese" title="Galleria Borghese">Galleria Borghese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galleria_Comunale_d%27Arte_Moderna,_Rome" title="Galleria Comunale d'Arte Moderna, Rome">Galleria Comunale d'Arte Moderna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galleria_Doria_Pamphilj" title="Galleria Doria Pamphilj">Galleria Doria Pamphilj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galleria_Nazionale_d%27Arte_Antica" title="Galleria Nazionale d'Arte Antica">Galleria Nazionale d'Arte Antica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galleria_Nazionale_d%27Arte_Moderna" title="Galleria Nazionale d'Arte Moderna">Galleria Nazionale d'Arte Moderna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giorgio_de_Chirico_House_Museum" title="Giorgio de Chirico House Museum">Giorgio de Chirico House Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galleria_Spada" title="Galleria Spada">Galleria Spada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Museum_of_Rome" title="Jewish Museum of Rome">Jewish Museum of Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keats%E2%80%93Shelley_Memorial_House" title="Keats–Shelley Memorial House">Keats–Shelley Memorial House</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MAXXI" title="MAXXI">MAXXI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Museo_Archeologico_Ostiense" title="Museo Archeologico Ostiense">Museo Archeologico Ostiense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Museo_Barracco_di_Scultura_Antica" title="Museo Barracco di Scultura Antica">Museo Barracco di Scultura Antica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Museo_Civico_di_Zoologia" title="Museo Civico di Zoologia">Museo Civico di Zoologia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Museo_delle_anime_del_Purgatorio" title="Museo delle anime del Purgatorio">Museo delle anime del Purgatorio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Museo_delle_Mura" title="Museo delle Mura">Museo delle Mura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Museo_di_Roma" title="Museo di Roma">Museo di Roma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Museo_di_Roma_in_Trastevere" title="Museo di Roma in Trastevere">Museo di Roma in Trastevere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Museo_nazionale_del_Palazzo_di_Venezia" title="Museo nazionale del Palazzo di Venezia">Museo nazionale del Palazzo di Venezia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Etruscan_Museum" title="National Etruscan Museum">Museo Nazionale Etrusco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Museo_Nazionale_Romano" title="Museo Nazionale Romano">Museo Nazionale Romano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Museo_Storico_Nazionale_dell%27Arte_Sanitaria" title="Museo Storico Nazionale dell'Arte Sanitaria">Museo Storico Nazionale dell'Arte Sanitaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Contemporary_Art_of_Rome" title="Museum of Contemporary Art of Rome">Museum of Contemporary Art of Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Roman_Civilization" title="Museum of Roman Civilization">Museum of Roman Civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Museum_of_the_Ara_Pacis" title="Museum of the Ara Pacis">Museum of the Ara Pacis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Museum_of_the_Liberation_of_Rome" title="Museum of the Liberation of Rome">Museum of the Liberation of Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Museum_of_Oriental_Art" title="National Museum of Oriental Art">National Museum of Oriental Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palazzo_Colonna" title="Palazzo Colonna">Palazzo Colonna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palazzo_delle_Esposizioni" title="Palazzo delle Esposizioni">Palazzo delle Esposizioni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pigorini_National_Museum_of_Prehistory_and_Ethnography" title="Pigorini National Museum of Prehistory and Ethnography">Pigorini National Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porta_San_Paolo_Railway_Museum" title="Porta San Paolo Railway Museum">Porta San Paolo Railway Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Accademia_Nazionale_di_Santa_Cecilia_Musical_Instruments_Museum" title="Accademia Nazionale di Santa Cecilia Musical Instruments Museum">Santa Cecilia Musical Instruments Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venanzo_Crocetti_Museum" title="Venanzo Crocetti Museum">Venanzo Crocetti Museum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space:normal; line-height:1.1em;"><a href="/wiki/Roman_art" title="Roman art">Art</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Apollo_Belvedere" title="Apollo Belvedere">Apollo Belvedere</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustus_of_Prima_Porta" title="Augustus of Prima Porta">Augustus of Prima Porta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colossus_of_Constantine" title="Colossus of Constantine">Colossus of Constantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bocca_della_Verit%C3%A0" title="Bocca della Verità">La Bocca della Verità</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Laoco%C3%B6n_and_His_Sons" title="Laocoön and His Sons">Laocoön and His Sons</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludovisi_Battle_sarcophagus" title="Ludovisi Battle sarcophagus">Ludovisi Battle sarcophagus</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ecstasy_of_Saint_Teresa" title="Ecstasy of Saint Teresa">Ecstasy of Saint Teresa</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Piet%C3%A0_(Michelangelo)" title="Pietà (Michelangelo)">Pietà</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portonaccio_sarcophagus" title="Portonaccio sarcophagus">Portonaccio sarcophagus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raphael_Rooms" title="Raphael Rooms">Raphael Rooms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sistine_Chapel_ceiling" title="Sistine Chapel ceiling">Sistine Chapel ceiling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velletri_Sarcophagus" title="Velletri Sarcophagus">Velletri Sarcophagus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space:normal; line-height:1.1em;">Landscape</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Seven_Hills" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Seven_hills_of_Rome" title="Seven hills of Rome">Seven Hills</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aventine_Hill" title="Aventine Hill">Aventine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caelian_Hill" title="Caelian Hill">Caelian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitoline_Hill" title="Capitoline Hill">Capitoline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esquiline_Hill" title="Esquiline Hill">Esquiline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palatine_Hill" title="Palatine Hill">Palatine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quirinal_Hill" title="Quirinal Hill">Quirinal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viminal_Hill" title="Viminal Hill">Viminal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tiber_Island" title="Tiber Island">Tiber Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monte_Testaccio" title="Monte Testaccio">Monte Testaccio</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space:normal; line-height:1.1em;"><a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_City_of_Rome_Capital" title="Metropolitan City of Rome Capital">Metropolitan City<br />of Rome Capital</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Appian_Way_Regional_Park" title="Appian Way Regional Park">Appian Way Regional Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capo_di_Bove" title="Capo di Bove">Capo di Bove</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Castello_Orsini-Odescalchi" title="Castello Orsini-Odescalchi">Castello Orsini-Odescalchi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frascati" title="Frascati">Frascati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hadrian%27s_Villa" title="Hadrian's Villa">Hadrian's Villa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ostia_Antica" title="Ostia Antica">Ostia Antica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Villa_Aldobrandini" title="Villa Aldobrandini">Villa Aldobrandini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Villa_d%27Este" title="Villa d'Este">Villa d'Este</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Villa_Farnese" title="Villa Farnese">Villa Farnese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space:normal; line-height:1.1em;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Rome" title="Culture of Rome">Events and traditions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Festa_della_Repubblica" title="Festa della Repubblica">Festa della Repubblica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rome_Quadriennale" title="Rome Quadriennale">Rome Quadriennale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rome_Film_Festival" title="Rome Film Festival">Rome Film Festival</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space:normal; line-height:1.1em;">Enclave</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vatican_City" title="Vatican City">Vatican City</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Roman_Forum" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Roman_Forum" title="Template:Roman Forum"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Roman_Forum" title="Template talk:Roman Forum"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Roman_Forum" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Roman Forum"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Roman_Forum" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Roman Forum</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Temples</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Antoninus_and_Faustina" title="Temple of Antoninus and Faustina">Temple of Antoninus and Faustina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Divus_Augustus" title="Temple of Divus Augustus">Temple of Divus Augustus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Concord" title="Temple of Concord">Temple of Concord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Castor_and_Pollux" title="Temple of Castor and Pollux">Temple of Castor and Pollux</a> (<a href="/wiki/Lacus_Juturnae" title="Lacus Juturnae">Lacus Juturnae</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Caesar" title="Temple of Caesar">Temple of Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Janus_(Roman_Forum)" title="Temple of Janus (Roman Forum)">Temple of Janus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Jupiter_Stator_(8th_century_BC)" class="mw-redirect" title="Temple of Jupiter Stator (8th century BC)">Temple of Jupiter Stator (8th century BC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Romulus" class="mw-redirect" title="Temple of Romulus">Temple of Romulus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Saturn" title="Temple of Saturn">Temple of Saturn</a> (<a href="/wiki/Altar_of_Saturn" title="Altar of Saturn">Altar of Saturn</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shrine_of_Venus_Cloacina" title="Shrine of Venus Cloacina">Shrine of Venus Cloacina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Venus_and_Roma" title="Temple of Venus and Roma">Temple of Venus and Roma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Vespasian_and_Titus" title="Temple of Vespasian and Titus">Temple of Vespasian and Titus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Vesta" title="Temple of Vesta">Temple of Vesta</a> (<a href="/wiki/House_of_the_Vestals" title="House of the Vestals">House of the Vestals</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portico_Dii_Consentes" title="Portico Dii Consentes">Portico Dii Consentes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Basilicas" class="mw-redirect" title="Basilicas">Basilicas</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Basilica_Aemilia" title="Basilica Aemilia">Basilica Aemilia</a> (<a href="/wiki/Basilica_Fulvia" title="Basilica Fulvia">Basilica Fulvia</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basilica_Julia" title="Basilica Julia">Basilica Julia</a> (<a href="/wiki/Basilica_Sempronia" title="Basilica Sempronia">Basilica Sempronia</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basilica_of_Maxentius" title="Basilica of Maxentius">Basilica of Maxentius</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Colossus_of_Constantine" title="Colossus of Constantine">Colossus of Constantine</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basilica_Opimia" title="Basilica Opimia">Basilica Opimia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basilica_Porcia" title="Basilica Porcia">Basilica Porcia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Arches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arch_of_Augustus,_Rome" title="Arch of Augustus, Rome">Arch of Augustus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arch_of_Tiberius" title="Arch of Tiberius">Arch of Tiberius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arch_of_Titus" title="Arch of Titus">Arch of Titus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arch_of_Septimius_Severus" title="Arch of Septimius Severus">Arch of Septimius Severus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arch_of_Constantine" title="Arch of Constantine">Arch of Constantine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Columns</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Columna_Maenia" title="Columna Maenia">Columna Maenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Column_of_Phocas" title="Column of Phocas">Column of Phocas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five-Columns_Monument" title="Five-Columns Monument">Five-Columns Monument</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Streets</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Milliarium_Aureum" title="Milliarium Aureum">Milliarium Aureum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clivus_Capitolinus" title="Clivus Capitolinus">Clivus Capitolinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Via_Sacra" title="Via Sacra">Via Sacra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vicus_Jugarius" title="Vicus Jugarius">Vicus Jugarius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vicus_Tuscus" title="Vicus Tuscus">Vicus Tuscus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cloaca_Maxima" title="Cloaca Maxima">Cloaca Maxima</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comitium" title="Comitium">Comitium</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Ficus_Ruminalis" title="Ficus Ruminalis">Ficus Ruminalis</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curia" title="Curia">Curia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curia_Cornelia" title="Curia Cornelia">Curia Cornelia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curia_Hostilia" title="Curia Hostilia">Curia Hostilia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curia_Julia" title="Curia Julia">Curia Julia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemonian_stairs" title="Gemonian stairs">Gemonian stairs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graecostasis" title="Graecostasis">Graecostasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lacus_Curtius" title="Lacus Curtius">Lacus Curtius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lapis_Niger" title="Lapis Niger">Lapis Niger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mamertine_Prison" title="Mamertine Prison">Mamertine Prison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutei_of_Trajan" title="Plutei of Trajan">Plutei of Trajan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puteal_Scribonianum" title="Puteal Scribonianum">Puteal Scribonianum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regia" title="Regia">Regia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rostra" title="Rostra">Rostra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tabularium" title="Tabularium">Tabularium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umbilicus_urbis_Romae" title="Umbilicus urbis Romae">Umbilicus urbis Romae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velian_Hill" title="Velian Hill">Velian Hill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulcanal" title="Vulcanal">Vulcanal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="List-Class article"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/List_of_monuments_of_the_Roman_Forum" title="List of monuments of the Roman Forum">List of monuments of the Roman Forum</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q180212#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q180212#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q180212#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://isni.org/isni/0000000117025050">ISNI</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/122726162">VIAF</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4076810-7">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85114930">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Collegio romano"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ko2013765861&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span><ul><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Římské fórum (Řím, Itálie)"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=xx0122857&CON_LNG=ENG">2</a></span></span></li></ul></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007287135205171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" 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