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vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Salt-crystal_growth"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Salt-crystal growth</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Salt-crystal_growth-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biomechanical_relationship" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biomechanical_relationship"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Biomechanical relationship</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biomechanical_relationship-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chemical" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chemical"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Chemical</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Chemical-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Chemical subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Chemical-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Dissolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dissolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Dissolution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dissolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hydrolysis_and_carbonation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hydrolysis_and_carbonation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Hydrolysis and carbonation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hydrolysis_and_carbonation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Oxidation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Oxidation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Oxidation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Oxidation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hydration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hydration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Hydration</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hydration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biological" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biological"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Biological</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biological-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ocean_floor" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ocean_floor"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Ocean floor</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ocean_floor-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Buildings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Buildings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Buildings</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Buildings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Soil" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Soil"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Soil</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Soil-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Wood,_paint_and_plastic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wood,_paint_and_plastic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Wood, paint and plastic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wood,_paint_and_plastic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gallery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gallery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Gallery</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gallery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Weathering</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 65 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-65" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">65 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verwering" title="Verwering – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Verwering" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%AC%D9%88%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="تجوية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تجوية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9A%E0%A7%82%E0%A7%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A3%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%AD%E0%A7%B1%E0%A6%A8" title="বিচূৰ্ণীভৱন – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="বিচূৰ্ণীভৱন" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteorizaci%C3%B3n" title="Meteorización – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Meteorización" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%83%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BE_%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0" title="মৃত্তিকা আবহবিকার – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="মৃত্তিকা আবহবিকার" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hong-ho%C3%A0" title="Hong-hoà – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Hong-hoà" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%8B%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B5" title="Выветрыванне – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Выветрыванне" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%8B%D0%BF%D1%8F%D1%82%D1%80%D1%8D%D0%BD%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B5" title="Выпятрэньне – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Выпятрэньне" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%B7%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%80%D1%8F%D0%BD%D0%B5" title="Изветряне – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Изветряне" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteoritzaci%C3%B3" title="Meteorització – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Meteorització" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zv%C4%9Btr%C3%A1v%C3%A1n%C3%AD" title="Zvětrávání – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Zvětrávání" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verwitterung" title="Verwitterung – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Verwitterung" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murenemine" title="Murenemine – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Murenemine" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-myv mw-list-item"><a href="https://myv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Каракадома – Erzya" lang="myv" hreflang="myv" data-title="Каракадома" data-language-autonym="Эрзянь" data-language-local-name="Erzya" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Эрзянь</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteorizaci%C3%B3n" title="Meteorización – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Meteorización" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veterdisfalo" title="Veterdisfalo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Veterdisfalo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteorizazio" title="Meteorizazio – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Meteorizazio" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%87%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B2%D8%AF%DA%AF%DB%8C" title="هوازدگی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="هوازدگی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A9t%C3%A9orisation_(g%C3%A9ologie)" title="Météorisation (géologie) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Météorisation (géologie)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%ADonchaitheamh_(pr%C3%B3iseas)" title="Síonchaitheamh (próiseas) – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Síonchaitheamh (próiseas)" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteorizaci%C3%B3n" title="Meteorización – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Meteorización" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%92%8D%ED%99%94" title="풍화 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="풍화" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%B8%D5%B2%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%B0%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B4" title="Հողմահարում – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Հողմահարում" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%AF" title="अपक्षय – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="अपक्षय" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmosferilije" title="Atmosferilije – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Atmosferilije" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veter-tusho" title="Veter-tusho – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Veter-tusho" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pelapukan" title="Pelapukan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Pelapukan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ve%C3%B0run" title="Veðrun – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Veðrun" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degradazione_meteorica" title="Degradazione meteorica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Degradazione meteorica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%91%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%94" title="בליה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="בליה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%92%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98%E1%83%A2%E1%83%95%E1%83%90" title="გამოფიტვა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="გამოფიტვა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%AE%D0%B3%D1%96%D0%BB%D1%83" title="Үгілу – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Үгілу" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ustahimilivu_wa_hali_ya_hewa" title="Ustahimilivu wa hali ya hewa – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Ustahimilivu wa hali ya hewa" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degradasyon" title="Degradasyon – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Degradasyon" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C4%93d%C4%93%C5%A1ana" title="Dēdēšana – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Dēdēšana" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C5%ABl%C4%97jimas" title="Dūlėjimas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Dūlėjimas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A1ll%C3%A1s" title="Mállás – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Mállás" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%85%E0%B4%AA%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B7%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%82" title="അപക്ഷയം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="അപക്ഷയം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luluh_hawa" title="Luluh hawa – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Luluh hawa" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D3%A8%D0%B3%D3%A9%D1%80%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%BB" title="Өгөршил – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Өгөршил" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verwering" title="Verwering – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Verwering" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%A2%A8%E5%8C%96" title="風化 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="風化" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forvitring" title="Forvitring – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Forvitring" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forvitring" title="Forvitring – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Forvitring" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteorizacion" title="Meteorizacion – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Meteorizacion" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%9B%E0%A8%BF%E0%A9%B1%E0%A8%9C%E0%A8%A3" title="ਛਿੱਜਣ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਛਿੱਜਣ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wietrzenie" title="Wietrzenie – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Wietrzenie" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteoriza%C3%A7%C3%A3o" title="Meteorização – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Meteorização" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dezagregare" title="Dezagregare – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Dezagregare" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%8B%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5" title="Выветривание – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Выветривание" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weathering" title="Weathering – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Weathering" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zvetr%C3%A1vanie" title="Zvetrávanie – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Zvetrávanie" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preperevanje" title="Preperevanje – Slovenian" lang="sl" 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href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vittring" title="Vittring – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Vittring" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%B4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="வானிலையாலழிதல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="வானிலையாலழிதல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%81%D3%A3" title="Бодлесӣ – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Бодлесӣ" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayr%C4%B1%C5%9Fma_(jeoloji)" title="Ayrışma (jeoloji) – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Ayrışma (jeoloji)" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%B2%D1%96%D1%82%D1%80%D1%8E%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F" title="Вивітрювання – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Вивітрювання" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phong_h%C3%B3a" title="Phong hóa – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Phong hóa" 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<div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Deterioration of rocks and minerals through exposure to the elements</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about weathering of rocks and minerals. For weathering of polymers, see <a href="/wiki/Polymer_degradation" title="Polymer degradation">Polymer degradation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Weather_testing_of_polymers" title="Weather testing of polymers">Weather testing of polymers</a>. For the public health concept, see <a href="/wiki/Weathering_hypothesis" title="Weathering hypothesis">Weathering hypothesis</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:KharazaArch.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/KharazaArch.jpg/330px-KharazaArch.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="229" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/KharazaArch.jpg/500px-KharazaArch.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/KharazaArch.jpg/960px-KharazaArch.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1908" data-file-height="1456" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Natural_arch" title="Natural arch">natural arch</a> produced by erosion of differentially weathered rock in Jebel Kharaz (<a href="/wiki/Jordan" title="Jordan">Jordan</a>)</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist" style="border:2px solid #BFB4A2;"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Geology" title="Category:Geology">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#D8B982;font-size:175%;padding:0.2em;font-weight:normal;"><b><a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">Geology</a></b></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:WikiProject_Geology.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/WikiProject_Geology.svg/120px-WikiProject_Geology.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/WikiProject_Geology.svg/250px-WikiProject_Geology.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="327" data-file-height="328" /></a></span><div class="sidebar-caption"><b>Science of the solid Earth</b></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="display:block; margin-bottom:0.55em; background-color: #FFFBF4;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_geology_articles" title="Index of geology articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_geology" title="Outline of geology">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Geology" title="Category:Geology">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_geology" title="Glossary of geology">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_geology" title="History of geology">History</a> (<a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_geology" title="Timeline of geology">Timeline</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:#FFFBF4;background:light-dark(#FFFBF4,black);color:var(--color-base,#202122);font-family:inherit;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;background:#D8B982;font-size:100%;;color: var(--color-base)">Key components</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mineral" title="Mineral">Minerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rock_(geology)" title="Rock (geology)">Rock</a> (<a href="/wiki/Igneous_rock" title="Igneous rock">Igneous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sedimentary_rock" title="Sedimentary rock">Sedimentary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metamorphic_rock" title="Metamorphic rock">Metamorphic</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sediment" title="Sediment">Sediment</a></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">Plate tectonics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strata" class="mw-redirect" title="Strata">Strata</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Weathering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">Erosion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geologic_time_scale" title="Geologic time scale">Geologic time scale</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:#FFFBF4;background:light-dark(#FFFBF4,black);color:var(--color-base,#202122);font-family:inherit;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;background:#D8B982;font-size:100%;;color: var(--color-base)">Laws, principles, theories</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Stratigraphy" title="Stratigraphy">Stratigraphic principles</a></b></li></ul> <hr /> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Principle_of_original_horizontality" title="Principle of original horizontality">Principle of original horizontality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_superposition" title="Law of superposition">Law of superposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principle_of_lateral_continuity" title="Principle of lateral continuity">Principle of lateral continuity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principle_of_cross-cutting_relationships" class="mw-redirect" title="Principle of cross-cutting relationships">Principle of cross-cutting relationships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principle_of_faunal_succession" title="Principle of faunal succession">Principle of faunal succession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_included_fragments" title="Law of included fragments">Principle of inclusions and components</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walther%27s_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Walther's law">Walther's law</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:#FFFBF4;background:light-dark(#FFFBF4,black);color:var(--color-base,#202122);font-family:inherit;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;background:#D8B982;font-size:100%;;color: var(--color-base)">Topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-bottom:0.2em;"><hr /> <ul><li><b>Composition</b></li></ul> <hr /> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geochemistry" title="Geochemistry">Geochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mineralogy" title="Mineralogy">Mineralogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sedimentology" title="Sedimentology">Sedimentology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrology" title="Petrology">Petrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structure_of_Earth" class="mw-redirect" title="Structure of Earth">Structure of Earth</a></li></ul> </div> <hr /> <ul><li><b>Landform structures</b></li></ul> <hr /> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geomorphology" title="Geomorphology">Geomorphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glaciology" title="Glaciology">Glaciology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_Geology" class="mw-redirect" title="Structural Geology">Structural Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanology" title="Volcanology">Volcanology</a></li></ul> </div> <hr /> <ul><li><b>Geologic history</b></li></ul> <hr /> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geological_history_of_Earth" title="Geological history of Earth">Geological history of Earth</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:#FFFBF4;background:light-dark(#FFFBF4,black);color:var(--color-base,#202122);font-family:inherit;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;background:#D8B982;font-size:100%;;color: var(--color-base)">Research</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #90db90;padding-top:0.15em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_geology#Branches_of_geology" title="Outline of geology">Branches of geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geologist" title="Geologist">Geologist</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_geologists" title="List of geologists">List)</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b>Methods</b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geological_survey" title="Geological survey">Geological survey</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:#FFFBF4;background:light-dark(#FFFBF4,black);color:var(--color-base,#202122);font-family:inherit;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;background:#D8B982;font-size:100%;;color: var(--color-base)">Applications</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_geology" title="Engineering geology">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining_geology" title="Mining geology">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_geology" title="Forensic geology">Forensics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_geology" title="Military geology">Military</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:#FFFBF4;background:light-dark(#FFFBF4,black);color:var(--color-base,#202122);font-family:inherit;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;background:#D8B982;font-size:100%;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Planetary_geology" title="Planetary geology">Planetary geology</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_geological_features_of_the_Solar_System" title="Lists of geological features of the Solar System">Lists of geological features of the Solar System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_solar_terrestrial_planets" title="Geology of solar terrestrial planets">Geology of solar terrestrial planets</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b>By planet and body</b></li></ul> <hr /> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Mercury" title="Geology of Mercury">Mercury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Venus" title="Geology of Venus">Venus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_the_Moon" title="Geology of the Moon">Moon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Mars" title="Geology of Mars">Mars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/4_Vesta#Geology" title="4 Vesta"> Vesta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Ceres" title="Geology of Ceres">Ceres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Io_(moon)#Structure" title="Io (moon)">Io</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Titan_(moon)#Surface_features" title="Titan (moon)">Titan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Triton" title="Geology of Triton">Triton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Pluto" title="Geology of Pluto">Pluto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Charon" title="Geology of Charon">Charon</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="padding:0.25em 0.25em 0.25em; display:block; margin-bottom:0.55em; background-color: #FFFBF4;"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:WikiProject_Geology.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/WikiProject_Geology.svg/20px-WikiProject_Geology.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/WikiProject_Geology.svg/40px-WikiProject_Geology.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="327" data-file-height="328" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Geology" title="Portal:Geology">Geology portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Geology_sidebar" title="Template:Geology sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Geology_sidebar" title="Template talk:Geology sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Geology_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Geology sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Weathering</b> is the deterioration of <a href="/wiki/Rock_(geology)" title="Rock (geology)">rocks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">soils</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mineral" title="Mineral">minerals</a> (as well as <a href="/wiki/Wood" title="Wood">wood</a> and artificial materials) through contact with water, <a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_gases" class="mw-redirect" title="Atmospheric gases">atmospheric gases</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sunlight" title="Sunlight">sunlight</a>, and biological organisms. It occurs <i><a href="/wiki/In_situ" title="In situ">in situ</a></i> (on-site, with little or no movement), and so is distinct from <a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">erosion</a>, which involves the transport of rocks and minerals by agents such as <a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ice" title="Ice">ice</a>, <a href="/wiki/Snow" title="Snow">snow</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wind" title="Wind">wind</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wind_wave" title="Wind wave">waves</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gravity" title="Gravity">gravity</a>. </p><p>Weathering processes are either physical or chemical. The former involves the breakdown of rocks and soils through such mechanical effects as heat, water, ice and wind. The latter covers reactions to water, atmospheric gases and biologically produced chemicals with rocks and soils. Water is the principal agent behind both kinds,<sup id="cite_ref-leeder-4_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-leeder-4-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though atmospheric oxygen and carbon dioxide and the activities of biological organisms are also important.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Biological chemical weathering is also called biological weathering.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The materials left after the rock breaks down combine with organic material to create <a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">soil</a>. Many of Earth's <a href="/wiki/Landform" title="Landform">landforms</a> and landscapes are the result of weathering, erosion and redeposition. Weathering is a crucial part of the <a href="/wiki/Rock_cycle" title="Rock cycle">rock cycle</a>; <a href="/wiki/Sedimentary_rock" title="Sedimentary rock">sedimentary rock</a>, the product of weathered rock, covers 66% of the <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_continents" class="mw-redirect" title="Earth's continents">Earth's continents</a> and much of the <a href="/wiki/Ocean_floor" class="mw-redirect" title="Ocean floor">ocean floor</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Physical">Physical</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Weathering&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Physical"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b>Physical weathering</b>, also called <b>mechanical weathering</b> or <i>disaggregation</i>, is the class of processes that causes the disintegration of rocks without chemical change. Physical weathering involves the breakdown of rocks into smaller fragments through processes such as expansion and contraction, mainly due to temperature changes. Two types of physical breakdown are freeze-thaw weathering and thermal fracturing. Pressure release can also cause weathering without temperature change. It is usually much less important than chemical weathering, but can be significant in subarctic or alpine environments.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlattMiddletonMurray1980247_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlattMiddletonMurray1980247-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, chemical and physical weathering often go hand in hand. For example, cracks extended by physical weathering will increase the surface area exposed to chemical action, thus amplifying the rate of disintegration.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeeder20113_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeeder20113-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Frost_weathering" title="Frost weathering">Frost weathering</a> is the most important form of physical weathering. Next in importance is wedging by plant roots, which sometimes enter cracks in rocks and pry them apart. The burrowing of worms or other animals may also help disintegrate rock, as can "plucking" by lichens.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlattMiddletonMurray1980249–250_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlattMiddletonMurray1980249–250-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Frost">Frost</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Weathering&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Frost"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Abiskorock.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Abiskorock.JPG/220px-Abiskorock.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Abiskorock.JPG/330px-Abiskorock.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Abiskorock.JPG/440px-Abiskorock.JPG 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>A rock in <a href="/wiki/Abisko" title="Abisko">Abisko</a>, Sweden, fractured along existing <a href="/wiki/Joint_(geology)" title="Joint (geology)">joints</a> possibly by frost weathering or thermal stress</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Frost_weathering" title="Frost weathering">Frost weathering</a></div> <p><i>Frost weathering</i> is the collective name for those forms of physical weathering that are caused by the formation of ice within rock outcrops. It was long believed that the most important of these is <i>frost wedging</i>, which is the widening of cracks or joints in rocks resulting from the expansion of porewater when it freezes. A growing body of theoretical and experimental work suggests that ice segregation, whereby supercooled water migrates to lenses of ice forming within the rock, is the more important mechanism.<sup id="cite_ref-murton-etal-2006_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-murton-etal-2006-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeeder201118_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeeder201118-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-dkp_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dkp-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When water freezes, its volume increases by 9.2%. This expansion can theoretically generate pressures greater than 200 megapascals (29,000 psi), though a more realistic upper limit is 14 megapascals (2,000 psi). This is still much greater than the tensile strength of granite, which is about 4 megapascals (580 psi). This makes frost wedging, in which pore water freezes and its volumetric expansion fractures the enclosing rock, appear to be a plausible mechanism for frost weathering. Ice will simply expand out of a straight open fracture before it can generate significant pressure. Thus, frost wedging can only take place in small tortuous fractures.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlattMiddletonMurray1980247_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlattMiddletonMurray1980247-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The rock must also be almost completely saturated with water, or the ice will simply expand into the air spaces in the unsaturated rock without generating much pressure. These conditions are unusual enough that frost wedging is unlikely to be the dominant process of frost weathering.<sup id="cite_ref-matsuoka-murton-2008_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-matsuoka-murton-2008-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Frost wedging is most effective where there are daily cycles of melting and freezing of water-saturated rock, so it is unlikely to be significant in the tropics, in polar regions or in arid climates.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlattMiddletonMurray1980247_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlattMiddletonMurray1980247-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ice segregation is a less well characterized mechanism of physical weathering.<sup id="cite_ref-murton-etal-2006_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-murton-etal-2006-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It takes place because ice grains always have a surface layer, often just a few molecules thick, that resembles liquid water more than solid ice, even at temperatures well below the freezing point. This <i>premelted liquid layer</i> has unusual properties, including a strong tendency to draw in water by <a href="/wiki/Capillary_action" title="Capillary action">capillary action</a> from warmer parts of the rock. This results in growth of the ice grain that puts considerable pressure on the surrounding rock,<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> up to ten times greater than is likely with frost wedging. This mechanism is most effective in rock whose temperature averages just below the freezing point, −4 to −15 °C (25 to 5 °F). Ice segregation results in growth of ice needles and <a href="/wiki/Ice_lens" title="Ice lens">ice lenses</a> within fractures in the rock and parallel to the rock surface, which gradually pry the rock apart.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeeder201118_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeeder201118-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Thermal_stress">Thermal stress</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Weathering&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Thermal stress"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>Thermal stress weathering</i> results from the expansion and contraction of rock due to temperature changes. Thermal stress weathering is most effective when the heated portion of the rock is buttressed by surrounding rock, so that it is free to expand in only one direction.<sup id="cite_ref-hall-1999_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hall-1999-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Thermal stress weathering comprises two main types, <a href="/wiki/Thermal_shock" title="Thermal shock">thermal shock</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thermal_fatigue" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermal fatigue">thermal fatigue</a>. Thermal shock takes place when the stresses are so great that the rock cracks immediately, but this is uncommon. More typical is thermal fatigue, in which the stresses are not great enough to cause immediate rock failure, but repeated cycles of stress and release gradually weaken the rocks. Block disintegration, when rock joints weaken from temperature fluctuations and the rock splits into rectangular blocks, can be attributed to thermal fatigue.<sup id="cite_ref-hall-1999_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hall-1999-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-dkp_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dkp-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><span class="anchor" id="Insolation_weathering"></span> Thermal stress weathering is an important mechanism in <a href="/wiki/Deserts" class="mw-redirect" title="Deserts">deserts</a>, where there is a large <a href="/wiki/Diurnal_temperature_variation" title="Diurnal temperature variation">diurnal</a> temperature range, hot in the day and cold at night.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result, thermal stress weathering is sometimes called <b>insolation weathering</b>, but this is misleading. Thermal stress weathering can be caused by any large change of temperature, and not just intense solar heating. It is likely as important in cold climates as in hot, arid climates.<sup id="cite_ref-hall-1999_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hall-1999-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wildfires can also be a significant cause of rapid thermal stress weathering.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The importance of thermal stress weathering has long been discounted by geologists,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlattMiddletonMurray1980247_5-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlattMiddletonMurray1980247-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeeder201118_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeeder201118-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> based on experiments in the early 20th century that seemed to show that its effects were unimportant. These experiments have since been criticized as unrealistic, since the rock samples were small, were polished (which reduces nucleation of fractures), and were not buttressed. These small samples were thus able to expand freely in all directions when heated in experimental ovens, which failed to produce the kinds of stress likely in natural settings. The experiments were also more sensitive to thermal shock than thermal fatigue, but thermal fatigue is likely the more important mechanism in nature. <a href="/wiki/Geomorphology" title="Geomorphology">Geomorphologists</a> have begun to reemphasize the importance of thermal stress weathering, particularly in cold climates.<sup id="cite_ref-hall-1999_13-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hall-1999-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pressure_release">Pressure release</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Weathering&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Pressure release"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Erosion_and_tectonics" title="Erosion and tectonics">Erosion and tectonics</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:GeologicalExfoliationOfGraniteRock.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/GeologicalExfoliationOfGraniteRock.jpg/250px-GeologicalExfoliationOfGraniteRock.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/GeologicalExfoliationOfGraniteRock.jpg/330px-GeologicalExfoliationOfGraniteRock.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/GeologicalExfoliationOfGraniteRock.jpg/500px-GeologicalExfoliationOfGraniteRock.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1360" /></a><figcaption>Exfoliated granite sheets in Texas, possibly caused by pressure release</figcaption></figure> <p><i>Pressure release</i> or <i>unloading</i> is a form of physical weathering seen when deeply buried rock is <a href="/wiki/Exhumation_(geology)" title="Exhumation (geology)">exhumed</a>. Intrusive igneous rocks, such as <a href="/wiki/Granite" title="Granite">granite</a>, are formed deep beneath the Earth's surface. They are under tremendous <a href="/wiki/Overburden_pressure" title="Overburden pressure">pressure</a> because of the overlying rock material. When erosion removes the overlying rock material, these intrusive rocks are exposed and the pressure on them is released. The outer parts of the rocks then tend to expand. The expansion sets up stresses which cause fractures parallel to the rock surface to form. Over time, sheets of rock break away from the exposed rocks along the fractures, a process known as <a href="/wiki/Exfoliation_(geology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Exfoliation (geology)">exfoliation</a>. Exfoliation due to pressure release is also known as <i>sheeting</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlattMiddletonMurray1980249_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlattMiddletonMurray1980249-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As with thermal weathering, pressure release is most effective in buttressed rock. Here the differential stress directed toward the unbuttressed surface can be as high as 35 megapascals (5,100 psi), easily enough to shatter rock. This mechanism is also responsible for <a href="/wiki/Spalling" class="mw-redirect" title="Spalling">spalling</a> in mines and quarries, and for the formation of joints in rock outcrops.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeeder201119_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeeder201119-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Retreat of an overlying glacier can also lead to exfoliation due to pressure release. This can be enhanced by other physical wearing mechanisms.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Salt-crystal_growth">Salt-crystal growth <span class="anchor" id="Salt_weathering"></span></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Weathering&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Salt-crystal growth"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tafoni_03.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Tafoni_03.jpg/220px-Tafoni_03.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Tafoni_03.jpg/330px-Tafoni_03.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Tafoni_03.jpg/440px-Tafoni_03.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Tafoni" title="Tafoni">Tafoni</a> at <a href="/wiki/Salt_Point_State_Park" title="Salt Point State Park">Salt Point State Park</a>, Sonoma County, California</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Haloclasty" title="Haloclasty">Haloclasty</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Salt wedging" redirects here; not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Salt_wedge_(hydrology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Salt wedge (hydrology)">Salt wedge (hydrology)</a>.</div> <p><i>Salt crystallization</i> (also known as <b>salt weathering</b>, <b>salt wedging</b> or <a href="/wiki/Haloclasty" title="Haloclasty">haloclasty</a>) causes disintegration of rocks when <a href="/wiki/Salinity" title="Salinity">saline</a> solutions seep into cracks and joints in the rocks and evaporate, leaving salt <a href="/wiki/Crystals" class="mw-redirect" title="Crystals">crystals</a> behind. As with ice segregation, the surfaces of the salt grains draw in additional dissolved salts through capillary action, causing the growth of salt lenses that exert high pressure on the surrounding rock. Sodium and magnesium salts are the most effective at producing salt weathering. Salt weathering can also take place when <a href="/wiki/Pyrite" title="Pyrite">pyrite</a> in sedimentary rock is chemically weathered to <a href="/wiki/Iron(II)_sulfate" title="Iron(II) sulfate">iron(II) sulfate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gypsum" title="Gypsum">gypsum</a>, which then crystallize as salt lenses.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeeder201118_9-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeeder201118-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Salt crystallization can take place wherever salts are concentrated by evaporation. It is thus most common in <a href="/wiki/Arid" class="mw-redirect" title="Arid">arid</a> climates where strong heating causes strong evaporation and along coasts.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeeder201118_9-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeeder201118-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Salt weathering is likely important in the formation of <a href="/wiki/Tafoni" title="Tafoni">tafoni</a>, a class of cavernous rock weathering structures.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biomechanical_relationship">Biomechanical relationship</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Weathering&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Biomechanical relationship"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Roots_in_the_rocks_-_geograph.org.uk_-_5287743.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Roots_in_the_rocks_-_geograph.org.uk_-_5287743.jpg/250px-Roots_in_the_rocks_-_geograph.org.uk_-_5287743.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Roots_in_the_rocks_-_geograph.org.uk_-_5287743.jpg/330px-Roots_in_the_rocks_-_geograph.org.uk_-_5287743.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Roots_in_the_rocks_-_geograph.org.uk_-_5287743.jpg/440px-Roots_in_the_rocks_-_geograph.org.uk_-_5287743.jpg 2x" data-file-width="480" data-file-height="640" /></a><figcaption>Tree roots burrowing in the rock can lead to physical weathering while also providing a pathway for chemical infiltration.</figcaption></figure> <p>Living organisms may contribute to mechanical weathering, as well as chemical weathering (see <a href="#Biological_weathering">§ Biological weathering</a> below). <a href="/wiki/Lichen" title="Lichen">Lichens</a> and <a href="/wiki/Moss" title="Moss">mosses</a> grow on essentially bare rock surfaces and create a more humid chemical microenvironment. The attachment of these organisms to the rock surface enhances physical as well as chemical breakdown of the surface microlayer of the rock. Lichens have been observed to pry mineral grains loose from bare shale with their <a href="/wiki/Hyphae" class="mw-redirect" title="Hyphae">hyphae</a> (rootlike attachment structures), a process described as <i>plucking</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlattMiddletonMurray1980249_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlattMiddletonMurray1980249-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and to pull the fragments into their body, where the fragments then undergo a process of chemical weathering not unlike digestion.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On a larger scale, seedlings sprouting in a crevice and plant roots exert physical pressure as well as providing a pathway for water and chemical infiltration.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlattMiddletonMurray1980249–250_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlattMiddletonMurray1980249–250-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-dkp_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dkp-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Chemical"><span class="anchor" id="Chemical_weathering"></span>Chemical</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Weathering&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Chemical"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Weathering_Limestone_State_College_PA.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Weathering_Limestone_State_College_PA.jpg/220px-Weathering_Limestone_State_College_PA.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Weathering_Limestone_State_College_PA.jpg/330px-Weathering_Limestone_State_College_PA.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Weathering_Limestone_State_College_PA.jpg/440px-Weathering_Limestone_State_College_PA.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /></a><figcaption>Comparison of unweathered (left) and weathered (right) limestone</figcaption></figure> <p>Most rock forms at elevated temperature and pressure, and the minerals making up the rock are often chemically unstable in the relatively cool, wet, and oxidizing conditions typical of the Earth's surface. Chemical weathering takes place when water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and other chemical substances react with rock to change its composition. These reactions convert some of the original <i>primary</i> minerals in the rock to <i>secondary</i> minerals, remove other substances as solutes, and leave the most stable minerals as a chemically unchanged <i>resistate</i>. In effect, chemical weathering changes the original set of minerals in the rock into a new set of minerals that is in closer equilibrium with surface conditions. True equilibrium is rarely reached, because weathering is a slow process, and leaching carries away solutes produced by weathering reactions before they can accumulate to equilibrium levels. This is particularly true in tropical environments.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlattMiddletonMurray1980245–246_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlattMiddletonMurray1980245–246-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Water is the principal agent of chemical weathering, converting many primary minerals to clay minerals or hydrated oxides via reactions collectively described as <a href="/wiki/Hydrolysis" title="Hydrolysis">hydrolysis</a>. Oxygen is also important, acting to <a href="/wiki/Redox" title="Redox">oxidize</a> many minerals, as is carbon dioxide, whose weathering reactions are described as <a href="/wiki/Carbonation" title="Carbonation">carbonation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlattMiddletonMurray1980246_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlattMiddletonMurray1980246-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The process of mountain block uplift is important in exposing new rock strata to the atmosphere and moisture, enabling important chemical weathering to occur; significant release occurs of Ca<sup>2+</sup> and other ions into surface waters.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dissolution">Dissolution</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Weathering&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Dissolution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Weathered_limestone_cores.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Weathered_limestone_cores.jpg/220px-Weathered_limestone_cores.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Weathered_limestone_cores.jpg/330px-Weathered_limestone_cores.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Weathered_limestone_cores.jpg/440px-Weathered_limestone_cores.jpg 2x" data-file-width="452" data-file-height="280" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Limestone" title="Limestone">Limestone</a> <a href="/wiki/Core_samples" class="mw-redirect" title="Core samples">core samples</a> at different stages of chemical weathering, from very high at shallow depths (bottom) to very low at greater depths (top). Slightly weathered limestone shows brownish stains, while highly weathered limestone loses much of its carbonate mineral content, leaving behind clay. Limestone drill core taken from the carbonate West Congolian deposit in <a href="/wiki/Kimpese" title="Kimpese">Kimpese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_Congo" class="mw-redirect" title="Democratic Republic of Congo">Democratic Republic of Congo</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Dissolution (also called <i>simple solution</i> or <i>congruent dissolution</i>) is the process in which a mineral dissolves completely without producing any new solid substance.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rainwater easily dissolves soluble minerals, such as <a href="/wiki/Halite" title="Halite">halite</a> or <a href="/wiki/Gypsum" title="Gypsum">gypsum</a>, but can also dissolve highly resistant minerals such as <a href="/wiki/Quartz" title="Quartz">quartz</a>, given sufficient time.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Water breaks the bonds between atoms in the crystal:<sup id="cite_ref-Environmental_Studies_in_Sedimentar_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Environmental_Studies_in_Sedimentar-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:SiO_H2O.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Hydrolysis of a silica mineral"><img alt="Hydrolysis of a silica mineral" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1e/SiO_H2O.jpg" decoding="async" width="317" height="91" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="317" data-file-height="91" /></a></span> </p><p>The overall reaction for dissolution of quartz is </p> <dl><dd><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1123817410">.mw-parser-output .template-chem2-su{display:inline-block;font-size:80%;line-height:1;vertical-align:-0.35em}.mw-parser-output .template-chem2-su>span{display:block;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output sub.template-chem2-sub{font-size:80%;vertical-align:-0.35em}.mw-parser-output sup.template-chem2-sup{font-size:80%;vertical-align:0.65em}</style><span class="chemf nowrap">SiO<sub class="template-chem2-sub">2</sub> + 2 H<sub class="template-chem2-sub">2</sub>O → H<sub class="template-chem2-sub">4</sub>SiO<sub class="template-chem2-sub">4</sub></span></dd></dl> <p>The dissolved quartz takes the form of <a href="/wiki/Silicic_acid" title="Silicic acid">silicic acid</a>. </p><p>A particularly important form of dissolution is carbonate dissolution, in which atmospheric <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> enhances solution weathering. Carbonate dissolution affects rocks containing <a href="/wiki/Calcium_carbonate" title="Calcium carbonate">calcium carbonate</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Limestone" title="Limestone">limestone</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chalk" title="Chalk">chalk</a>. It takes place when rainwater combines with carbon dioxide to form <a href="/wiki/Carbonic_acid" title="Carbonic acid">carbonic acid</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Weak_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Weak acid">weak acid</a>, which dissolves calcium carbonate (limestone) and forms soluble <a href="/wiki/Calcium_bicarbonate" title="Calcium bicarbonate">calcium bicarbonate</a>. Despite a slower <a href="/wiki/Reaction_kinetics" class="mw-redirect" title="Reaction kinetics">reaction kinetics</a>, this process is thermodynamically favored at low temperature, because colder water holds more dissolved carbon dioxide gas (due to the retrograde <a href="/wiki/Solubility" title="Solubility">solubility</a> of gases). Carbonate dissolution is therefore an important feature of glacial weathering.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Carbonate dissolution involves the following steps: </p> <dl><dd>CO<sub>2</sub> + H<sub>2</sub>O → H<sub>2</sub>CO<sub>3</sub></dd> <dd>carbon dioxide + water → carbonic acid</dd></dl> <dl><dd>H<sub>2</sub>CO<sub>3</sub> + CaCO<sub>3</sub> → Ca(HCO<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub></dd> <dd>carbonic acid + calcium carbonate → calcium bicarbonate</dd></dl> <p>Carbonate dissolution on the surface of well-jointed limestone produces a dissected <a href="/wiki/Limestone_pavement" title="Limestone pavement">limestone pavement</a>. This process is most effective along the joints, widening and deepening them.<sup id="cite_ref-Geology_and_geomorphology_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Geology_and_geomorphology-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In unpolluted environments, the <a href="/wiki/PH" title="PH">pH</a> of rainwater due to dissolved carbon dioxide is around 5.6. <a href="/wiki/Acid_rain" title="Acid rain">Acid rain</a> occurs when gases such as sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides are present in the atmosphere. These oxides react in the rain water to produce stronger acids and can lower the pH to 4.5 or even 3.0. <a href="/wiki/Sulfur_dioxide" title="Sulfur dioxide">Sulfur dioxide</a>, SO<sub>2</sub>, comes from volcanic eruptions or from fossil fuels, and can become <a href="/wiki/Sulfuric_acid" title="Sulfuric acid">sulfuric acid</a> within rainwater, which can cause solution weathering to the rocks on which it falls.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hydrolysis_and_carbonation">Hydrolysis and carbonation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Weathering&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Hydrolysis and carbonation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Iddingsite.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Iddingsite.JPG/220px-Iddingsite.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Iddingsite.JPG/330px-Iddingsite.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Iddingsite.JPG/440px-Iddingsite.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="2736" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Olivine" title="Olivine">Olivine</a> weathering to <a href="/wiki/Iddingsite" title="Iddingsite">iddingsite</a> within a <a href="/wiki/Mantle_(geology)" title="Mantle (geology)">mantle</a> <a href="/wiki/Xenolith" title="Xenolith">xenolith</a></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Hydrolysis" title="Hydrolysis">Hydrolysis</a> (also called <i>incongruent dissolution</i>) is a form of chemical weathering in which only part of a mineral is taken into solution. The rest of the mineral is transformed into a new solid material, such as a <a href="/wiki/Clay_mineral" title="Clay mineral">clay mineral</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoggs20067–8_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoggs20067–8-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, <a href="/wiki/Forsterite" title="Forsterite">forsterite</a> (magnesium <a href="/wiki/Olivine" title="Olivine">olivine</a>) is hydrolyzed into solid <a href="/wiki/Brucite" title="Brucite">brucite</a> and dissolved silicic acid: </p> <dl><dd>Mg<sub>2</sub>SiO<sub>4</sub> + 4 H<sub>2</sub>O ⇌ 2 Mg(OH)<sub>2</sub> + H<sub>4</sub>SiO<sub>4</sub></dd> <dd>forsterite + water ⇌ brucite + silicic acid</dd></dl> <p>Most hydrolysis during weathering of minerals is <i>acid hydrolysis</i>, in which protons (hydrogen ions), which are present in acidic water, attack chemical bonds in mineral crystals.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeeder20114_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeeder20114-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The bonds between different cations and oxygen ions in minerals differ in strength, and the weakest will be attacked first. The result is that minerals in igneous rock weather in roughly the same order in which they were originally formed (<a href="/wiki/Bowen%27s_Reaction_Series" class="mw-redirect" title="Bowen's Reaction Series">Bowen's Reaction Series</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlattMiddletonMurray1980252_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlattMiddletonMurray1980252-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Relative bond strength is shown in the following table:<sup id="cite_ref-Environmental_Studies_in_Sedimentar_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Environmental_Studies_in_Sedimentar-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: left;"> <caption> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Bond </th> <th>Relative strength </th></tr> <tr> <td>Si–O </td> <td>2.4 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Ti–O </td> <td>1.8 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Al–O </td> <td>1.65 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Fe<sup>+3</sup>–O </td> <td>1.4 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Mg–O </td> <td>0.9 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Fe<sup>+2</sup>–O </td> <td>0.85 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Mn–O </td> <td>0.8 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Ca–O </td> <td>0.7 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Na–O </td> <td>0.35 </td></tr> <tr> <td>K–O </td> <td>0.25 </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>This table is only a rough guide to order of weathering. Some minerals, such as <a href="/wiki/Illite" title="Illite">illite</a>, are unusually stable, while silica is unusually unstable given the strength of the <a href="/wiki/Silicon%E2%80%93oxygen_bond" title="Silicon–oxygen bond">silicon–oxygen bond</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlattMiddletonMurray1980258_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlattMiddletonMurray1980258-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Carbon dioxide that dissolves in water to form carbonic acid is the most important source of protons, but organic acids are also important natural sources of acidity.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlattMiddletonMurray1980250_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlattMiddletonMurray1980250-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Acid hydrolysis from dissolved carbon dioxide is sometimes described as <i>carbonation</i>, and can result in weathering of the primary minerals to secondary carbonate minerals.<sup id="cite_ref-thornbury-1969_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-thornbury-1969-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, weathering of forsterite can produce <a href="/wiki/Magnesite" title="Magnesite">magnesite</a> instead of brucite via the reaction: </p> <dl><dd>Mg<sub>2</sub>SiO<sub>4</sub> + 2 CO<sub>2</sub> + 2 H<sub>2</sub>O ⇌ 2 MgCO<sub>3</sub> + H<sub>4</sub>SiO<sub>4</sub></dd> <dd>forsterite + carbon dioxide + water ⇌ magnesite + silicic acid in solution</dd></dl> <p><a href="/wiki/Carbonic_acid" title="Carbonic acid">Carbonic acid</a> is consumed by <a href="/wiki/Silicate" title="Silicate">silicate</a> weathering, resulting in more <a href="/wiki/Alkaline" class="mw-redirect" title="Alkaline">alkaline</a> solutions because of the <a href="/wiki/Bicarbonate" title="Bicarbonate">bicarbonate</a>. This is an important reaction in controlling the amount of CO<sub>2</sub> in the atmosphere and can affect climate.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Aluminosilicate" title="Aluminosilicate">Aluminosilicates</a> containing highly soluble cations, such as sodium or potassium ions, will release the cations as dissolved bicarbonates during acid hydrolysis: </p> <dl><dd>2 KAlSi<sub>3</sub>O<sub>8</sub> + 2 H<sub>2</sub>CO<sub>3</sub> + 9 H<sub>2</sub>O ⇌ Al<sub>2</sub>Si<sub>2</sub>O<sub>5</sub>(OH)<sub>4</sub> + 4 H<sub>4</sub>SiO<sub>4</sub> + 2 K<sup>+</sup> + 2 HCO<sub>3</sub><sup>−</sup></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Orthoclase" title="Orthoclase">orthoclase</a> (aluminosilicate feldspar) + carbonic acid + water ⇌ <a href="/wiki/Kaolinite" title="Kaolinite">kaolinite</a> (a clay mineral) + silicic acid in solution + potassium and bicarbonate ions in solution</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Oxidation">Oxidation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Weathering&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Oxidation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:GoldinPyriteDrainage_acide.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/GoldinPyriteDrainage_acide.JPG/220px-GoldinPyriteDrainage_acide.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/GoldinPyriteDrainage_acide.JPG/330px-GoldinPyriteDrainage_acide.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/GoldinPyriteDrainage_acide.JPG/440px-GoldinPyriteDrainage_acide.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1471" data-file-height="1176" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Pyrite" title="Pyrite">pyrite</a> cube has dissolved away from host rock, leaving <a href="/wiki/Gold" title="Gold">gold</a> particles behind.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PyOx.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/PyOx.JPG/250px-PyOx.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/PyOx.JPG/330px-PyOx.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/PyOx.JPG/500px-PyOx.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="2736" /></a><figcaption>Oxidized <a href="/wiki/Pyrite" title="Pyrite">pyrite</a> cubes</figcaption></figure> <p>Within the weathering environment, chemical <a href="/wiki/Oxidation" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxidation">oxidation</a> of a variety of metals occurs. The most commonly observed is the oxidation of Fe<sup>2+</sup> (<a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a>) by oxygen and water to form Fe<sup>3+</sup> oxides and hydroxides such as <a href="/wiki/Goethite" title="Goethite">goethite</a>, <a href="/wiki/Limonite" title="Limonite">limonite</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hematite" title="Hematite">hematite</a>. This gives the affected rocks a reddish-brown coloration on the surface which crumbles easily and weakens the rock. Many other metallic ores and minerals oxidize and hydrate to produce colored deposits, as does sulfur during the weathering of <a href="/wiki/Sulfide_mineral" title="Sulfide mineral">sulfide minerals</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Chalcopyrite" title="Chalcopyrite">chalcopyrites</a> or CuFeS<sub>2</sub> oxidizing to <a href="/wiki/Copper_hydroxide" class="mw-redirect" title="Copper hydroxide">copper hydroxide</a> and <a href="/wiki/Iron_oxide" title="Iron oxide">iron oxides</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoggs20069_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoggs20069-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hydration">Hydration</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Weathering&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Hydration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Mineral_hydration" title="Mineral hydration">Mineral hydration</a> is a form of chemical weathering that involves the rigid attachment of water molecules or H+ and OH- ions to the atoms and molecules of a mineral. No significant dissolution takes place. For example, <a href="/wiki/Iron_oxide" title="Iron oxide">iron oxides</a> are converted to <a href="/wiki/Iron_hydroxide" class="mw-redirect" title="Iron hydroxide">iron hydroxides</a> and the hydration of <a href="/wiki/Anhydrite" title="Anhydrite">anhydrite</a> forms <a href="/wiki/Gypsum" title="Gypsum">gypsum</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoggs19968_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoggs19968-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Bulk hydration of minerals is secondary in importance to dissolution, hydrolysis, and oxidation,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoggs20069_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoggs20069-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but hydration of the crystal surface is the crucial first step in hydrolysis. A fresh surface of a mineral crystal exposes ions whose electrical charge attracts water molecules. Some of these molecules break into H+ that bonds to exposed anions (usually oxygen) and OH- that bonds to exposed cations. This further disrupts the surface, making it susceptible to various hydrolysis reactions. Additional protons replace cations exposed on the surface, freeing the cations as solutes. As cations are removed, silicon-oxygen and silicon-aluminium bonds become more susceptible to hydrolysis, freeing silicic acid and aluminium hydroxides to be leached away or to form clay minerals.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlattMiddletonMurray1980258_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlattMiddletonMurray1980258-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeeder2011653–655_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeeder2011653–655-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Laboratory experiments show that weathering of feldspar crystals begins at dislocations or other defects on the surface of the crystal, and that the weathering layer is only a few atoms thick. Diffusion within the mineral grain does not appear to be significant.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Weathering_9039.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Weathering_9039.jpg/220px-Weathering_9039.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Weathering_9039.jpg/330px-Weathering_9039.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Weathering_9039.jpg/440px-Weathering_9039.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1067" /></a><figcaption>A freshly broken rock shows differential chemical weathering (probably mostly oxidation) progressing inward. This piece of <a href="/wiki/Sandstone" title="Sandstone">sandstone</a> was found in <a href="/wiki/Moraine" title="Moraine">glacial drift</a> near <a href="/wiki/Angelica,_New_York" title="Angelica, New York">Angelica, New York</a>.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biological">Biological</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Weathering&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Biological"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Mineral weathering can also be initiated or accelerated by soil microorganisms. Soil organisms make up about 10 mg/cm<sup>3</sup> of typical soils, and laboratory experiments have demonstrated that <a href="/wiki/Albite" title="Albite">albite</a> and <a href="/wiki/Muscovite" title="Muscovite">muscovite</a> weather twice as fast in live versus sterile soil. <a href="/wiki/Lichens" class="mw-redirect" title="Lichens">Lichens</a> on rocks are among the most effective biological agents of chemical weathering.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlattMiddletonMurray1980250_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlattMiddletonMurray1980250-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, an experimental study on hornblende granite in New Jersey, US, demonstrated a 3x – 4x increase in weathering rate under lichen covered surfaces compared to recently exposed bare rock surfaces.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lava_z14.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Lava_z14.jpg/220px-Lava_z14.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Lava_z14.jpg/330px-Lava_z14.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Lava_z14.jpg/440px-Lava_z14.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>Biological weathering of <a href="/wiki/Basalt" title="Basalt">basalt</a> by <a href="/wiki/Lichen" title="Lichen">lichen</a>, <a href="/wiki/La_Palma" title="La Palma">La Palma</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The most common forms of biological weathering result from the release of <a href="/wiki/Chelating" class="mw-redirect" title="Chelating">chelating</a> compounds (such as certain organic acids and <a href="/wiki/Siderophore" title="Siderophore">siderophores</a>) and of carbon dioxide and organic acids by plants. Roots can build up the carbon dioxide level to 30% of all soil gases, aided by adsorption of CO<sub style="font-size: 80%;vertical-align: -0.35em">2</sub> on clay minerals and the very slow diffusion rate of CO<sub style="font-size: 80%;vertical-align: -0.35em">2</sub> out of the soil.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The CO<sub style="font-size: 80%;vertical-align: -0.35em">2</sub> and organic acids help break down <a href="/wiki/Aluminium" title="Aluminium">aluminium</a>- and <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a>-containing compounds in the soils beneath them. Roots have a negative electrical charge balanced by protons in the soil next to the roots, and these can be exchanged for essential nutrient cations such as potassium.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlattMiddletonMurray1980251_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlattMiddletonMurray1980251-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Bacterial_decay" class="mw-redirect" title="Bacterial decay">Decaying</a> remains of dead plants in soil may form organic acids which, when dissolved in water, cause chemical weathering.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chelating compounds, mostly low molecular weight organic acids, are capable of removing metal ions from bare rock surfaces, with aluminium and silicon being particularly susceptible.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlattTracy1996233_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlattTracy1996233-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ability to break down bare rock allows lichens to be among the first colonizers of dry land.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlattMiddletonMurray1980250–251_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlattMiddletonMurray1980250–251-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The accumulation of chelating compounds can easily affect surrounding rocks and soils, and may lead to <a href="/wiki/Podsol" class="mw-redirect" title="Podsol">podsolisation</a> of soils.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The symbiotic <a href="/wiki/Mycorrhiza" title="Mycorrhiza">mycorrhizal fungi</a> associated with tree root systems can release inorganic nutrients from minerals such as apatite or biotite and transfer these nutrients to the trees, thus contributing to tree nutrition.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was also recently evidenced that bacterial communities can impact mineral stability leading to the release of inorganic nutrients.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A large range of bacterial strains or communities from diverse genera have been reported to be able to colonize mineral surfaces or to weather minerals, and for some of them a plant growth promoting effect has been demonstrated.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The demonstrated or hypothesised mechanisms used by bacteria to weather minerals include several oxidoreduction and dissolution reactions as well as the production of weathering agents, such as protons, organic acids and chelating molecules. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ocean_floor">Ocean floor</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Weathering&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Ocean floor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Weathering of basaltic oceanic crust differs in important respects from weathering in the atmosphere. Weathering is relatively slow, with basalt becoming less dense, at a rate of about 15% per 100 million years. The basalt becomes hydrated, and is enriched in total and ferric iron, magnesium, and sodium at the expense of silica, titanium, aluminum, ferrous iron, and calcium.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlattMiddletonMurray1960256_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlattMiddletonMurray1960256-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Buildings">Buildings</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Weathering&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Buildings"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:-47_Concrete_weathering.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/-47_Concrete_weathering.jpg/250px--47_Concrete_weathering.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="213" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/-47_Concrete_weathering.jpg/330px--47_Concrete_weathering.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/-47_Concrete_weathering.jpg/500px--47_Concrete_weathering.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6723" data-file-height="8404" /></a><figcaption>Concrete damaged by <a href="/wiki/Acid_rain" title="Acid rain">acid rain</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Buildings made of any stone, brick or concrete are susceptible to the same weathering agents as any exposed rock surface. Also <a href="/wiki/Statue" title="Statue">statues</a>, monuments and ornamental stonework can be badly damaged by natural weathering processes. This is accelerated in areas severely affected by <a href="/wiki/Acid_rain" title="Acid rain">acid rain</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Accelerated building weathering may be a threat to the environment and occupant safety. Design strategies can moderate the impact of environmental effects, such as using of pressure-moderated rain screening, ensuring that the HVAC system is able to effectively control humidity accumulation and selecting concrete mixes with reduced water content to minimize the impact of freeze-thaw cycles.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Soil">Soil</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Weathering&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Soil"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Granitic rock, the most abundant crystalline rock exposed at the Earth's surface, begins weathering with the destruction of <a href="/wiki/Hornblende" title="Hornblende">hornblende</a>. <a href="/wiki/Biotite" title="Biotite">Biotite</a> then weathers to <a href="/wiki/Vermiculite" title="Vermiculite">vermiculite</a>, and finally <a href="/wiki/Oligoclase" title="Oligoclase">oligoclase</a> and <a href="/wiki/Microcline" title="Microcline">microcline</a> are destroyed. All are converted into a mixture of clay minerals and iron oxides.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlattMiddletonMurray1980252_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlattMiddletonMurray1980252-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The resulting soil is depleted in calcium, sodium, and ferrous iron compared with the bedrock, and magnesium is reduced by 40% and silicon by 15%. At the same time, the soil is enriched in aluminium and potassium by at least 50%; by titanium, whose abundance triples, and ferric iron, whose abundance increases by an order of magnitude compared with the bedrock.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlattMiddletonMurray253_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlattMiddletonMurray253-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Basaltic rock is more easily weathered than granitic rock due to its formation at higher temperatures and drier conditions. The fine grain size and presence of volcanic glass also hasten weathering. In tropical settings, it rapidly weathers to clay minerals, aluminium hydroxides, and titanium-enriched iron oxides. Because most basalt is relatively poor in potassium, the basalt weathers directly to potassium-poor <a href="/wiki/Montmorillonite" title="Montmorillonite">montmorillonite</a>, then to <a href="/wiki/Kaolinite" title="Kaolinite">kaolinite</a>. Where leaching is continuous and intense, as in rain forests, the final weathering product is <a href="/wiki/Bauxite" title="Bauxite">bauxite</a>, the principal ore of aluminium. Where rainfall is intense but seasonal, as in monsoon climates, the final weathering product is iron- and titanium-rich <a href="/wiki/Laterite" title="Laterite">laterite</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlattMiddletonMurray254_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlattMiddletonMurray254-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Conversion of kaolinite to bauxite occurs only with intense leaching, as ordinary river water is in equilibrium with kaolinite.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlattMiddletonMurray262_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlattMiddletonMurray262-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Soil_formation" title="Soil formation">Soil formation</a> requires between 100 and 1,000 years, a brief interval in geologic time. As a result, some <a href="/wiki/Formation_(geology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Formation (geology)">formations</a> show numerous <a href="/wiki/Paleosol" title="Paleosol">paleosol</a> (fossil soil) beds. For example, the <a href="/wiki/Willwood_Formation" title="Willwood Formation">Willwood Formation</a> of Wyoming contains over 1,000 paleosol layers in a 770 meters (2,530 ft) section representing 3.5 million years of geologic time. Paleosols have been identified in formations as old as <a href="/wiki/Archean" title="Archean">Archean</a> (over 2.5 billion years in age). They are difficult to recognize in the geologic record.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlattMiddletonMurray233_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlattMiddletonMurray233-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Indications that a sedimentary bed is a paleosol include a gradational lower boundary and sharp upper boundary, the presence of much clay, poor sorting with few sedimentary structures, rip-up clasts in overlying beds, and desiccation cracks containing material from higher beds.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlattTracy1996236_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlattTracy1996236-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The degree of weathering of soil can be expressed as the <i>chemical index of alteration</i>, defined as <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410" /><span class="chemf nowrap">100 Al<sub class="template-chem2-sub">2</sub>O<sub class="template-chem2-sub">3</sub>/(Al<sub class="template-chem2-sub">2</sub>O<sub class="template-chem2-sub">3</sub> + CaO + Na<sub class="template-chem2-sub">2</sub>O + K<sub class="template-chem2-sub">2</sub>O)</span>. This varies from 47 for unweathered upper crust rock to 100 for fully weathered material.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeeder201111_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeeder201111-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Wood,_paint_and_plastic"><span id="Wood.2C_paint_and_plastic"></span>Wood, paint and plastic</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Weathering&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Wood, paint and plastic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Wood can be physically and chemically weathered by hydrolysis and other processes relevant to minerals and is highly susceptible to <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet" title="Ultraviolet">ultraviolet</a> radiation from sunlight. This induces photochemical reactions that degrade its surface.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These also significantly weather paint<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and plastics.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Gallery">Gallery</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Weathering&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Gallery"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Salt_weathering_in_gozo.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Salt weathering of building stone on the island of Gozo, Malta"><img alt="Salt weathering of building stone on the island of Gozo, Malta" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Salt_weathering_in_gozo.jpg/180px-Salt_weathering_in_gozo.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Salt_weathering_in_gozo.jpg/270px-Salt_weathering_in_gozo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Salt_weathering_in_gozo.jpg/360px-Salt_weathering_in_gozo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1200" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Salt weathering of building stone on the island of <a href="/wiki/Gozo" title="Gozo">Gozo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Malta" title="Malta">Malta</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Qobustan-salt.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Salt weathering of sandstone near Qobustan, Azerbaijan"><img alt="Salt weathering of sandstone near Qobustan, Azerbaijan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Qobustan-salt.jpg/250px-Qobustan-salt.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Qobustan-salt.jpg/330px-Qobustan-salt.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Qobustan-salt.jpg/500px-Qobustan-salt.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Salt weathering of <a href="/wiki/Sandstone" title="Sandstone">sandstone</a> near <a href="/wiki/Qobustan,_Baku" class="mw-redirect" title="Qobustan, Baku">Qobustan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan" title="Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Weathered_sandstone,_Sedona.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Permian sandstone wall near Sedona, Arizona, United States, weathered into a small alcove"><img alt="Permian sandstone wall near Sedona, Arizona, United States, weathered into a small alcove" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Weathered_sandstone%2C_Sedona.jpg/250px-Weathered_sandstone%2C_Sedona.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Weathered_sandstone%2C_Sedona.jpg/330px-Weathered_sandstone%2C_Sedona.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Weathered_sandstone%2C_Sedona.jpg/500px-Weathered_sandstone%2C_Sedona.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3872" data-file-height="2592" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Permian" title="Permian">Permian</a> sandstone wall near <a href="/wiki/Sedona,_Arizona" title="Sedona, Arizona">Sedona, Arizona</a>, United States, weathered into a small <a href="/wiki/Alcove_(landform)" title="Alcove (landform)">alcove</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Weathered_sandstone_DSC01497.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Weathering on a sandstone pillar in Bayreuth"><img alt="Weathering on a sandstone pillar in Bayreuth" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Weathered_sandstone_DSC01497.jpg/180px-Weathered_sandstone_DSC01497.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="129" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Weathered_sandstone_DSC01497.jpg/270px-Weathered_sandstone_DSC01497.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Weathered_sandstone_DSC01497.jpg/360px-Weathered_sandstone_DSC01497.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5082" data-file-height="3648" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Weathering on a sandstone pillar in <a href="/wiki/Bayreuth" title="Bayreuth">Bayreuth</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Pollution_-_Damaged_by_acid_rain.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Weathering effect of acid rain on statues"><img alt="Weathering effect of acid rain on statues" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Pollution_-_Damaged_by_acid_rain.jpg/180px-Pollution_-_Damaged_by_acid_rain.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Pollution_-_Damaged_by_acid_rain.jpg/270px-Pollution_-_Damaged_by_acid_rain.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Pollution_-_Damaged_by_acid_rain.jpg/360px-Pollution_-_Damaged_by_acid_rain.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2048" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Weathering effect of <a href="/wiki/Acid_rain" title="Acid rain">acid rain</a> on statues</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Skulptur_aus_Sandstein,_Dresden_2012-09-06-0555.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Weathering effect on a sandstone statue in Dresden, Germany"><img alt="Weathering effect on a sandstone statue in Dresden, Germany" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Skulptur_aus_Sandstein%2C_Dresden_2012-09-06-0555.jpg/120px-Skulptur_aus_Sandstein%2C_Dresden_2012-09-06-0555.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Skulptur_aus_Sandstein%2C_Dresden_2012-09-06-0555.jpg/180px-Skulptur_aus_Sandstein%2C_Dresden_2012-09-06-0555.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Skulptur_aus_Sandstein%2C_Dresden_2012-09-06-0555.jpg/240px-Skulptur_aus_Sandstein%2C_Dresden_2012-09-06-0555.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3168" data-file-height="4752" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Weathering effect on a sandstone statue in Dresden, Germany</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Physical_weathering.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Physical weathering of the pavements of Azad University Science and Research Branch, which is located in the heights of Tehran, the capital of Iran"><img alt="Physical weathering of the pavements of Azad University Science and Research Branch, which is located in the heights of Tehran, the capital of Iran" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Physical_weathering.jpg/250px-Physical_weathering.jpg" decoding="async" width="155" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Physical_weathering.jpg/330px-Physical_weathering.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1109" data-file-height="1286" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> Physical weathering of the pavements of Azad University Science and Research Branch, which is located in the heights of <a href="/wiki/Tehran" title="Tehran">Tehran</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Capital_city" title="Capital city">capital</a> of <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a> </div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Weathering&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aeolian_processes" title="Aeolian processes">Aeolian processes</a> – Processes due to wind activity</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biorhexistasy" title="Biorhexistasy">Biorhexistasy</a> – Soil formation theory</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Case_hardening_of_rocks" title="Case hardening of rocks">Case hardening of rocks</a> – Rock surface weathering phenomenon</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decomposition" title="Decomposition">Decomposition</a> – Process in which organic substances are broken down into simpler organic matter</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_chamber" title="Environmental chamber">Environmental chamber</a> – Enclosure for testing materials under controlled conditions</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eluvium" title="Eluvium">Eluvium</a> – End product of rock weathering</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exfoliating_granite" title="Exfoliating granite">Exfoliating granite</a> – Granite skin peeling like an onion (desquamation) because of weathering</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Factors_of_polymer_weathering" class="mw-redirect" title="Factors of polymer weathering">Factors of polymer weathering</a> – photo-oxidation of polymers<span style="display:none" class="category-wikidata-fallback-annotation">Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metasomatism" title="Metasomatism">Metasomatism</a> – Chemical alteration of a rock by hydrothermal and other fluids</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meteorite_weathering" title="Meteorite weathering">Meteorite weathering</a> – Terrestrial alteration of a meteorite</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedogenesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Pedogenesis">Pedogenesis</a> – Process of soil formation<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Residuum_(geology)" title="Residuum (geology)">Residuum (geology)</a> – Weathered rock that is not transported by erosion</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_weathering" title="Reverse weathering">Reverse weathering</a> – Formation of authigenic clay minerals</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_production_function" title="Soil production function">Soil production function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_weathering" title="Space weathering">Space weathering</a> – Type of weathering</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spheroidal_weathering" title="Spheroidal weathering">Spheroidal weathering</a> – Form of chemical weathering that affects jointed bedrock</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weather_testing_of_polymers" title="Weather testing of polymers">Weather testing of polymers</a> – Controlled polymer and polymer coating degradation</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weathering_steel" title="Weathering steel">Weathering steel</a> – Steel alloys designed so that surface rust inhibits further rusting</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Weathering&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-leeder-4-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-leeder-4_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFLeeder2011" class="citation book cs1">Leeder, M. R. (2011). <i>Sedimentology and sedimentary basins : from turbulence to tectonics</i> (2nd ed.). Chichester, West Sussex, UK: Wiley-Blackwell. p. 4. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781405177832" title="Special:BookSources/9781405177832"><bdi>9781405177832</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sedimentology+and+sedimentary+basins+%3A+from+turbulence+to+tectonics&rft.place=Chichester%2C+West+Sussex%2C+UK&rft.pages=4&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9781405177832&rft.aulast=Leeder&rft.aufirst=M.+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeathering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBlattMiddletonMurray1980" class="citation book cs1">Blatt, Harvey; Middleton, Gerard; Murray, Raymond (1980). <i>Origin of sedimentary rocks</i> (2d ed.). Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall. pp. <span class="nowrap">245–</span>246. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0136427103" title="Special:BookSources/0136427103"><bdi>0136427103</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Origin+of+sedimentary+rocks&rft.place=Englewood+Cliffs%2C+N.J.&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E245-%3C%2Fspan%3E246&rft.edition=2d&rft.pub=Prentice-Hall&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=0136427103&rft.aulast=Blatt&rft.aufirst=Harvey&rft.au=Middleton%2C+Gerard&rft.au=Murray%2C+Raymond&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeathering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGore" class="citation web cs1">Gore, Pamela J. W. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130510224332/http://facstaff.gpc.edu/~pgore/geology/geo101/weather.htm">"Weathering"</a>. <i>Georgia Perimeter College</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://facstaff.gpc.edu/~pgore/geology/geo101/weather.htm">the original</a> on 2013-05-10.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Georgia+Perimeter+College&rft.atitle=Weathering&rft.aulast=Gore&rft.aufirst=Pamela+J.+W.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffacstaff.gpc.edu%2F~pgore%2Fgeology%2Fgeo101%2Fweather.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeathering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBlattTracy1996" class="citation book cs1">Blatt, Harvey; Tracy, Robert J. (1996). <i>Petrology : igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic</i> (2nd ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman. p. 217. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0716724383" title="Special:BookSources/0716724383"><bdi>0716724383</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Petrology+%3A+igneous%2C+sedimentary+and+metamorphic.&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=217&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=W.H.+Freeman&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0716724383&rft.aulast=Blatt&rft.aufirst=Harvey&rft.au=Tracy%2C+Robert+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeathering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlattMiddletonMurray1980247-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlattMiddletonMurray1980247_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlattMiddletonMurray1980247_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlattMiddletonMurray1980247_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlattMiddletonMurray1980247_5-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBlattMiddletonMurray1980">Blatt, Middleton & Murray 1980</a>, p. 247.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELeeder20113-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeeder20113_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLeeder2011">Leeder 2011</a>, p. 3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlattMiddletonMurray1980249–250-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlattMiddletonMurray1980249–250_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlattMiddletonMurray1980249–250_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBlattMiddletonMurray1980">Blatt, Middleton & Murray 1980</a>, pp. 249–250.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-murton-etal-2006-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-murton-etal-2006_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-murton-etal-2006_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMurtonPetersonOzouf2006" class="citation journal cs1">Murton, J. B.; Peterson, R.; Ozouf, J.-C. (17 November 2006). "Bedrock Fracture by Ice Segregation in Cold Regions". <i>Science</i>. <b>314</b> (5802): <span class="nowrap">1127–</span>1129. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006Sci...314.1127M">2006Sci...314.1127M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1132127">10.1126/science.1132127</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17110573">17110573</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:37639112">37639112</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Bedrock+Fracture+by+Ice+Segregation+in+Cold+Regions&rft.volume=314&rft.issue=5802&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1127-%3C%2Fspan%3E1129&rft.date=2006-11-17&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1132127&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A37639112%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17110573&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2006Sci...314.1127M&rft.aulast=Murton&rft.aufirst=J.+B.&rft.au=Peterson%2C+R.&rft.au=Ozouf%2C+J.-C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeathering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELeeder201118-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeeder201118_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeeder201118_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeeder201118_9-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeeder201118_9-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeeder201118_9-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLeeder2011">Leeder 2011</a>, p. 18.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-dkp-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-dkp_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-dkp_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-dkp_10-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation book cs1">"Geology, Geography, and Meteorology". <i>The Ultimate Family Visual Dictionary</i>. 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Pub.</a> 2012. p. 282. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1434-1954-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1434-1954-9"><bdi>978-0-1434-1954-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Geology%2C+Geography%2C+and+Meteorology&rft.btitle=The+Ultimate+Family+Visual+Dictionary&rft.place=New+Delhi&rft.pages=282&rft.pub=D.K.+Pub.&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-1434-1954-9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeathering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-matsuoka-murton-2008-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-matsuoka-murton-2008_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMatsuokaMurton2008" class="citation journal cs1">Matsuoka, Norikazu; Murton, Julian (April 2008). 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(2000-02-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0016706199000774">"Advances in understanding the podzolization process resulting from a multidisciplinary study of three coniferous forest soils in the Nordic Countries"</a>. <i>Geoderma</i>. <b>94</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">335–</span>353. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000Geode..94..335L">2000Geode..94..335L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0016-7061%2899%2900077-4">10.1016/S0016-7061(99)00077-4</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0016-7061">0016-7061</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Geoderma&rft.atitle=Advances+in+understanding+the+podzolization+process+resulting+from+a+multidisciplinary+study+of+three+coniferous+forest+soils+in+the+Nordic+Countries&rft.volume=94&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E335-%3C%2Fspan%3E353&rft.date=2000-02-01&rft.issn=0016-7061&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0016-7061%2899%2900077-4&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2000Geode..94..335L&rft.aulast=Lundstr%C3%B6m&rft.aufirst=U.+S.&rft.au=van+Breemen%2C+N.&rft.au=Bain%2C+D.+C.&rft.au=van+Hees%2C+P.+A.+W.&rft.au=Giesler%2C+R.&rft.au=Gustafsson%2C+J.+P.&rft.au=Ilvesniemi%2C+H.&rft.au=Karltun%2C+E.&rft.au=Melkerud%2C+P.+-A.&rft.au=Olsson%2C+M.&rft.au=Riise%2C+G.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fpii%2FS0016706199000774&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeathering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWaugh2000" class="citation book cs1">Waugh, David (2000). <i>Geography : an integrated approach</i> (3rd ed.). Gloucester, U.K.: <a href="/wiki/Nelson_Thornes" title="Nelson Thornes">Nelson Thornes</a>. p. 272. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780174447061" title="Special:BookSources/9780174447061"><bdi>9780174447061</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Geography+%3A+an+integrated+approach&rft.place=Gloucester%2C+U.K.&rft.pages=272&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Nelson+Thornes&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=9780174447061&rft.aulast=Waugh&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeathering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLandeweert,_R.Hoffland,_E.Finlay,_R.D.Kuyper,_T.W.2001" class="citation journal cs1">Landeweert, R.; Hoffland, E.; Finlay, R.D.; Kuyper, T.W.; <a href="/wiki/Nico_van_Breemen" title="Nico van Breemen">van Breemen, N.</a> (2001). "Linking plants to rocks: Ectomycorrhizal fungi mobilize nutrients from minerals". <i>Trends in Ecology & Evolution</i>. <b>16</b> (5): <span class="nowrap">248–</span>254. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0169-5347%2801%2902122-X">10.1016/S0169-5347(01)02122-X</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11301154">11301154</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Trends+in+Ecology+%26+Evolution&rft.atitle=Linking+plants+to+rocks%3A+Ectomycorrhizal+fungi+mobilize+nutrients+from+minerals&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E248-%3C%2Fspan%3E254&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0169-5347%2801%2902122-X&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11301154&rft.au=Landeweert%2C+R.&rft.au=Hoffland%2C+E.&rft.au=Finlay%2C+R.D.&rft.au=Kuyper%2C+T.W.&rft.au=van+Breemen%2C+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeathering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCalvaruso,_C.Turpault,_M.-P.Frey-Klett,_P.2006" class="citation journal cs1">Calvaruso, C.; Turpault, M.-P.; Frey-Klett, P. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1392890">"Root-Associated Bacteria Contribute to Mineral Weathering and to Mineral Nutrition in Trees: A Budgeting Analysis"</a>. <i>Applied and Environmental Microbiology</i>. <b>72</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">1258–</span>66. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006ApEnM..72.1258C">2006ApEnM..72.1258C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1128%2FAEM.72.2.1258-1266.2006">10.1128/AEM.72.2.1258-1266.2006</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1392890">1392890</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16461674">16461674</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Applied+and+Environmental+Microbiology&rft.atitle=Root-Associated+Bacteria+Contribute+to+Mineral+Weathering+and+to+Mineral+Nutrition+in+Trees%3A+A+Budgeting+Analysis&rft.volume=72&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1258-%3C%2Fspan%3E66&rft.date=2006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1392890%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16461674&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1128%2FAEM.72.2.1258-1266.2006&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2006ApEnM..72.1258C&rft.au=Calvaruso%2C+C.&rft.au=Turpault%2C+M.-P.&rft.au=Frey-Klett%2C+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1392890&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeathering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFUroz,_S.Calvaruso,_C.Turpault,_M.-P.Frey-Klett,_P.2009" class="citation journal cs1">Uroz, S.; Calvaruso, C.; Turpault, M.-P.; Frey-Klett, P. (2009). "Mineral weathering by bacteria: ecology, actors and mechanisms". <i>Trends Microbiol</i>. <b>17</b> (8): <span class="nowrap">378–</span>87. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.tim.2009.05.004">10.1016/j.tim.2009.05.004</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19660952">19660952</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Trends+Microbiol&rft.atitle=Mineral+weathering+by+bacteria%3A+ecology%2C+actors+and+mechanisms&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E378-%3C%2Fspan%3E87&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.tim.2009.05.004&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19660952&rft.au=Uroz%2C+S.&rft.au=Calvaruso%2C+C.&rft.au=Turpault%2C+M.-P.&rft.au=Frey-Klett%2C+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeathering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlattMiddletonMurray1960256-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlattMiddletonMurray1960256_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBlattMiddletonMurray1960">Blatt, Middleton & Murray 1960</a>, p. 256.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFBlattMiddletonMurray1960 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSchaffer2016" class="citation book cs1">Schaffer, R. J. (2016). <i>Weathering of Natural Building Stones</i>. Taylor and Francis. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781317742524" title="Special:BookSources/9781317742524"><bdi>9781317742524</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Weathering+of+Natural+Building+Stones.&rft.pub=Taylor+and+Francis&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9781317742524&rft.aulast=Schaffer&rft.aufirst=R.+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeathering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bchousing.org/publications/MBAR-Chronic-Stressors.pdf">"Design Discussion Primer - Chronic Stressors"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. BC Housing<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 July</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Design+Discussion+Primer+-+Chronic+Stressors&rft.pub=BC+Housing&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bchousing.org%2Fpublications%2FMBAR-Chronic-Stressors.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeathering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlattMiddletonMurray253-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlattMiddletonMurray253_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBlattMiddletonMurray">Blatt, Middleton & Murray</a>, p. 253.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFBlattMiddletonMurray (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlattMiddletonMurray254-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlattMiddletonMurray254_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBlattMiddletonMurray">Blatt, Middleton & Murray</a>, p. 254.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFBlattMiddletonMurray (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlattMiddletonMurray262-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlattMiddletonMurray262_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBlattMiddletonMurray">Blatt, Middleton & Murray</a>, p. 262.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFBlattMiddletonMurray (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlattMiddletonMurray233-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlattMiddletonMurray233_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBlattMiddletonMurray">Blatt, Middleton & Murray</a>, p. 233.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFBlattMiddletonMurray (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlattTracy1996236-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlattTracy1996236_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBlattTracy1996">Blatt & Tracy 1996</a>, p. 236.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELeeder201111-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeeder201111_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLeeder201111">Leeder, 2011 & 11</a>.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFLeeder201111 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWilliams2005" class="citation book cs1">Williams, R.S. (2005). "7". In Rowell, Roger M. (ed.). <i>Handbook of wood chemistry and wood composites</i>. Boca Raton: Taylor & Francis. pp. <span class="nowrap">139–</span>185. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780203492437" title="Special:BookSources/9780203492437"><bdi>9780203492437</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=7&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+wood+chemistry+and+wood+composites&rft.place=Boca+Raton&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E139-%3C%2Fspan%3E185&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9780203492437&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=R.S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeathering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNicholsGerlockSmithDarr1999" class="citation journal cs1">Nichols, M.E.; Gerlock, J.L.; Smith, C.A.; Darr, C.A. (August 1999). "The effects of weathering on the mechanical performance of automotive paint systems". <i>Progress in Organic Coatings</i>. <b>35</b> (<span class="nowrap">1–</span>4): <span class="nowrap">153–</span>159. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0300-9440%2898%2900060-5">10.1016/S0300-9440(98)00060-5</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Progress+in+Organic+Coatings&rft.atitle=The+effects+of+weathering+on+the+mechanical+performance+of+automotive+paint+systems&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1%E2%80%93%3C%2Fspan%3E4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E153-%3C%2Fspan%3E159&rft.date=1999-08&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0300-9440%2898%2900060-5&rft.aulast=Nichols&rft.aufirst=M.E.&rft.au=Gerlock%2C+J.L.&rft.au=Smith%2C+C.A.&rft.au=Darr%2C+C.A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeathering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Weathering of plastics : testing to mirror real life performance</i>. [Brookfield, Conn.]: <a href="/wiki/Society_of_Plastics_Engineers" title="Society of Plastics Engineers">Society of Plastics Engineers</a>. 1999. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781884207754" title="Special:BookSources/9781884207754"><bdi>9781884207754</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Weathering+of+plastics+%3A+testing+to+mirror+real+life+performance&rft.place=%5BBrookfield%2C+Conn.%5D&rft.pub=Society+of+Plastics+Engineers&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=9781884207754&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeathering" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Weathering&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://physicalgeography.org/weathering-and-types-weathering/">Weathering and Its Different Types</a></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/40px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/60px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/80px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="400" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">The Wikibook <i><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Historical_Geology" class="extiw" title="wikibooks:Historical Geology">Historical Geology</a></i> has a page on the topic of: <i><b><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Historical_Geology/Mechanical_weathering_and_erosion" class="extiw" title="wikibooks:Historical Geology/Mechanical weathering and erosion">Mechanical weathering and erosion</a></b></i></div></div> </div><link 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/weathering" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Special:Search/weathering">weathering</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735" /><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link 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href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Special:Search/Weathering" class="extiw" title="v:Special:Search/Weathering">Weathering</a></b></i></div></div> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output 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dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Types_and_processes_of_weathering100" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background: #addfad;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Weathering" title="Template:Weathering"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:Weathering&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Template talk:Weathering (page does not exist)"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Weathering" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Weathering"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Types_and_processes_of_weathering100" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Types and processes of weathering</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #addfad;">Chemical weathering</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Biological_weathering">Biological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbonation" title="Carbonation">Carbonation</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Hydrolysis_of_silicates_and_carbonates">Hydrolysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mineral_hydration" title="Mineral hydration">Mineral hydration</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Oxidation">Oxidation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #addfad;">Physical weathering</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Frost_weathering" title="Frost weathering">Frost weathering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haloclasty" title="Haloclasty">Haloclasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fatigue_(material)" title="Fatigue (material)">Thermal fatigue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_shock" title="Thermal shock">Thermal shock</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #addfad;">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">Erosion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etchplain" title="Etchplain">Etchplain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fracture" title="Fracture">Fracture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rock_(geology)" title="Rock (geology)">Rock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saprolite" title="Saprolite">Saprolite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_weathering" title="Space weathering">Space weathering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photo-oxidation_of_polymers" title="Photo-oxidation of polymers">Factors of polymer weathering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taphonomy" title="Taphonomy">Taphonomy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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class="mw-redirect" title="Principle of cross-cutting relationships">Principle of cross-cutting relationships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principle_of_faunal_succession" title="Principle of faunal succession">Principle of faunal succession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_included_fragments" title="Law of included fragments">Principle of inclusions and components</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walther%27s_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Walther's law">Walther's law</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wallula-Gap-the-sisters.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Wallula-Gap-the-sisters.JPG/50px-Wallula-Gap-the-sisters.JPG" decoding="async" width="50" height="67" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Wallula-Gap-the-sisters.JPG/75px-Wallula-Gap-the-sisters.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Wallula-Gap-the-sisters.JPG/100px-Wallula-Gap-the-sisters.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1339" data-file-height="1786" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Petrology" title="Petrology">Petrologic principles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intrusive_rock" title="Intrusive rock">Intrusive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extrusive_rock" title="Extrusive rock">Extrusive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_rock" title="Volcanic rock">Volcanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exfoliation_joint" title="Exfoliation joint">Exfoliation</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Weathering</a></li> <li><a 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