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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Voltage,_current,_and_charge_control"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Voltage, current, and charge control</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Voltage,_current,_and_charge_control-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Turn-on,_turn-off,_and_storage_delay" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Turn-on,_turn-off,_and_storage_delay"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Turn-on, turn-off, and storage delay</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Turn-on,_turn-off,_and_storage_delay-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transistor_characteristics:_alpha_(α)_and_beta_(β)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transistor_characteristics:_alpha_(α)_and_beta_(β)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Transistor characteristics: alpha (<i>α</i>) and beta (<i>β</i>)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transistor_characteristics:_alpha_(α)_and_beta_(β)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Common-emitter_current_gain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Common-emitter_current_gain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.1</span> <span>Common-emitter current gain</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Common-emitter_current_gain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Common-base_current_gain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Common-base_current_gain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.2</span> <span>Common-base current gain</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Common-base_current_gain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Structure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Structure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Structure</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Structure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Regions_of_operation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Regions_of_operation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Regions of operation</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Regions_of_operation-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Regions of operation subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Regions_of_operation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Active-mode_transistors_in_circuits" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Active-mode_transistors_in_circuits"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Active-mode transistors in circuits</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Active-mode_transistors_in_circuits-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Germanium_transistors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Germanium_transistors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Germanium transistors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Germanium_transistors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_manufacturing_techniques" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_manufacturing_techniques"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Early manufacturing techniques</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_manufacturing_techniques-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theory_and_modeling" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theory_and_modeling"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Theory and modeling</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Theory_and_modeling-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Theory and modeling subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Theory_and_modeling-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Large-signal_models" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Large-signal_models"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Large-signal models</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Large-signal_models-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ebers–Moll_model" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ebers–Moll_model"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1.1</span> <span>Ebers–Moll model</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ebers–Moll_model-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Base-width_modulation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Base-width_modulation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1.1.1</span> <span>Base-width modulation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Base-width_modulation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Punchthrough" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Punchthrough"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1.1.2</span> <span>Punchthrough</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Punchthrough-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gummel–Poon_charge-control_model" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gummel–Poon_charge-control_model"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1.2</span> <span>Gummel–Poon charge-control model</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gummel–Poon_charge-control_model-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Small-signal_models" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Small-signal_models"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Small-signal models</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Small-signal_models-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Hybrid-pi_model" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hybrid-pi_model"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2.1</span> <span>Hybrid-pi model</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hybrid-pi_model-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-h-parameter_model" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#h-parameter_model"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2.2</span> <span>h-parameter model</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-h-parameter_model-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Etymology_of_hFE" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Etymology_of_hFE"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2.2.1</span> <span>Etymology of <i>h</i><sub>FE</sub></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Etymology_of_hFE-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Industry_models" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Industry_models"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Industry models</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Industry_models-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Applications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Applications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Applications</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Applications-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Applications subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Applications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-High-speed_digital_logic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#High-speed_digital_logic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>High-speed digital logic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-High-speed_digital_logic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Amplifiers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Amplifiers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Amplifiers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Amplifiers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Temperature_sensors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Temperature_sensors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Temperature sensors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Temperature_sensors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Logarithmic_converters" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Logarithmic_converters"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4</span> <span>Logarithmic converters</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Logarithmic_converters-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Avalanche_pulse_generators" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Avalanche_pulse_generators"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.5</span> <span>Avalanche pulse generators</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Avalanche_pulse_generators-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vulnerabilities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vulnerabilities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Vulnerabilities</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vulnerabilities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Bipolar junction transistor</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 46 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-46" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">46 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B2%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1_%D8%AB%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%8A_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D8%B7%D8%A8" title="ترانزستور ثنائي القطب – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="ترانزستور ثنائي القطب" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%96%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8F%D1%80%D0%BD%D1%8B_%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B7%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Біпалярны транзістар – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Біпалярны транзістар" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%96%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8F%D1%80%D0%BD%D1%8B_%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B7%D1%8B%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Біпалярны транзыстар – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Біпалярны транзыстар" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8F%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80" title="Биполярен транзистор – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Биполярен транзистор" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistor_bipolar" title="Transistor bipolar – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Transistor bipolar" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bipol%C3%A1rn%C3%AD_tranzistor" title="Bipolární tranzistor – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Bipolární tranzistor" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bipolar_transistor" title="Bipolar transistor – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Bipolar transistor" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bipolartransistor" title="Bipolartransistor – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Bipolartransistor" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bipolaartransistor" title="Bipolaartransistor – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Bipolaartransistor" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%94%CE%B9%CF%80%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C_%CF%84%CF%81%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%B6%CE%AF%CF%83%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%81" title="Διπολικό τρανζίστορ – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Διπολικό τρανζίστορ" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistor_de_uni%C3%B3n_bipolar" title="Transistor de unión bipolar – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Transistor de unión bipolar" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistore_bipolar" title="Transistore bipolar – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Transistore bipolar" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B2%DB%8C%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1_%D9%BE%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%86%D8%AF%DB%8C_%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%82%D8%B7%D8%A8%DB%8C" title="ترانزیستور پیوندی دوقطبی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ترانزیستور پیوندی دوقطبی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistor_bipolaire" title="Transistor bipolaire – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Transistor bipolaire" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A0%91%ED%95%A9%ED%98%95_%ED%8A%B8%EB%9E%9C%EC%A7%80%EC%8A%A4%ED%84%B0" title="접합형 트랜지스터 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="접합형 트랜지스터" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B5%D6%80%D5%AF%D5%A2%D6%87%D5%A5%D5%BC_%D5%BF%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%A6%D5%AB%D5%BD%D5%BF%D5%B8%D6%80" title="Երկբևեռ տրանզիստոր – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Երկբևեռ տրանզիստոր" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%80" title="बीजेटी – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="बीजेटी" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistor_sambungan_dwikutub" title="Transistor sambungan dwikutub – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Transistor sambungan dwikutub" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistor_a_giunzione_bipolare" title="Transistor a giunzione bipolare – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Transistor a giunzione bipolare" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%98%D7%A8%D7%A0%D7%96%D7%99%D7%A1%D7%98%D7%95%D7%A8_%D7%91%D7%99%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%A8%D7%99" title="טרנזיסטור ביפולרי – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="טרנזיסטור ביפולרי" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistor_sambungan_dwikutub" title="Transistor sambungan dwikutub – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Transistor sambungan dwikutub" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8F%D1%80%D0%BB%D1%8B%D2%9B_%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80" title="Биполярлық транзистор – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Биполярлық транзистор" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistrum_unionis_bipolaris" title="Transistrum unionis bipolaris – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Transistrum unionis bipolaris" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bipol%C4%81rais_tranzistors" title="Bipolārais tranzistors – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Bipolārais tranzistors" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80" title="Биполарен споен транзистор – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Биполарен споен транзистор" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%A6%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A7%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%B5_%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BE%E0%B5%BB%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%BC" title="ദ്വിധ്രുവ ട്രാൻസിസ്റ്റർ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ദ്വിധ്രുവ ട്രാൻസിസ്റ്റർ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%BE%D1%81_%D1%82%D1%83%D0%B9%D0%BB%D1%82_%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80" title="Хос туйлт транзистор – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Хос туйлт транзистор" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bipolaire_transistor" title="Bipolaire transistor – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Bipolaire transistor" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%90%E3%82%A4%E3%83%9D%E3%83%BC%E3%83%A9%E3%83%88%E3%83%A9%E3%83%B3%E3%82%B8%E3%82%B9%E3%82%BF" title="バイポーラトランジスタ – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="バイポーラトランジスタ" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tranzystor_bipolarny" title="Tranzystor bipolarny – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Tranzystor bipolarny" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistor_de_jun%C3%A7%C3%A3o_bipolar" title="Transistor de junção bipolar – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Transistor de junção bipolar" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tranzistor_bipolar" title="Tranzistor bipolar – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Tranzistor bipolar" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8F%D1%80%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80" title="Биполярный транзистор – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Биполярный транзистор" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tranzistori_bipolar_me_kontakt" title="Tranzistori bipolar me kontakt – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Tranzistori bipolar me kontakt" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bipolar_junction_transistor" title="Bipolar junction transistor – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Bipolar junction transistor" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bipolarni_tranzistor" title="Bipolarni tranzistor – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Bipolarni tranzistor" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80" title="Биполарни транзистор – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Биполарни транзистор" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bipolarni_tranzistor" title="Bipolarni tranzistor – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Bipolarni tranzistor" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bipol%C3%A4r_transistor" title="Bipolär transistor – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Bipolär transistor" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%88_%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%A8%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF_%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="இருமுனை சந்தி திரிதடையம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="இருமுனை சந்தி திரிதடையம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bipolar_ba%C4%9Flant%C4%B1_transist%C3%B6r%C3%BC" title="Bipolar bağlantı transistörü – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Bipolar bağlantı transistörü" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%96%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8F%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80" title="Біполярний транзистор – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Біполярний транзистор" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%A6%DB%8C_%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%84%D8%B1_%D8%AC%D9%86%DA%A9%D8%B4%D9%86_%D9%B9%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B2%D8%B3%D9%B9%D8%B1" title="بائی پولر جنکشن ٹرانزسٹر – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="بائی پولر جنکشن ٹرانزسٹر" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistor_l%C6%B0%E1%BB%A1ng_c%E1%BB%B1c" title="Transistor lưỡng cực – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Transistor lưỡng cực" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%8C%E6%9E%81%E6%80%A7%E6%99%B6%E4%BD%93%E7%AE%A1" title="双极性晶体管 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="双极性晶体管" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%8C%E6%9E%81%E6%80%A7%E6%99%B6%E4%BD%93%E7%AE%A1" title="双极性晶体管 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="双极性晶体管" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div 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class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Transistor that uses both electrons and holes as charge carriers</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"BJT" and "Junction transistor" redirect here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/BJT_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="BJT (disambiguation)">BJT (disambiguation)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Junction_transistor_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Junction transistor (disambiguation)">Junction transistor (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><caption class="infobox-title">Bipolar junction transistor (BJT)</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Transistorer_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Transistorer_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Transistorer_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Transistorer_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Transistorer_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Transistorer_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-Transistorer_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4400" data-file-height="3480" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Typical individual BJT packages. From left to right: <a href="/wiki/Small-outline_transistor" title="Small-outline transistor">SOT-23</a>, <a href="/wiki/TO-92" title="TO-92">TO-92</a>, <a href="/wiki/TO-126" title="TO-126">TO-126</a>, <a href="/wiki/TO-3" title="TO-3">TO-3</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><span class="nowrap">Working principle<span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span></span></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor">Semiconductor</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Inventor</th><td class="infobox-data">December 1947</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><span class="nowrap">Pin names</span></th><td class="infobox-data">Collector, base, emitter</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header"><a href="/wiki/Electronic_symbol" title="Electronic symbol">Electronic symbol</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:IEEE_315-1975_(1993)_8.6.1.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/IEEE_315-1975_%281993%29_8.6.1.svg/100px-IEEE_315-1975_%281993%29_8.6.1.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/IEEE_315-1975_%281993%29_8.6.1.svg/150px-IEEE_315-1975_%281993%29_8.6.1.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/IEEE_315-1975_%281993%29_8.6.1.svg/200px-IEEE_315-1975_%281993%29_8.6.1.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></a></span> <span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:IEEE_315-1975_(1993)_8.6.2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/IEEE_315-1975_%281993%29_8.6.2.svg/100px-IEEE_315-1975_%281993%29_8.6.2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/IEEE_315-1975_%281993%29_8.6.2.svg/150px-IEEE_315-1975_%281993%29_8.6.2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/IEEE_315-1975_%281993%29_8.6.2.svg/200px-IEEE_315-1975_%281993%29_8.6.2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></a></span><br />BJTs PNP and NPN schematic symbols</td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BipolarTransistor3Dmodel.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="box with 3 wires, one with big and silicon chip - others connect to chip with wires" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/BipolarTransistor3Dmodel.png/170px-BipolarTransistor3Dmodel.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/BipolarTransistor3Dmodel.png/255px-BipolarTransistor3Dmodel.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/BipolarTransistor3Dmodel.png/340px-BipolarTransistor3Dmodel.png 2x" data-file-width="1080" data-file-height="1080" /></a><figcaption>3D model of a TO-92 package, commonly used for small bipolar transistors</figcaption></figure> <p>A <b>bipolar junction transistor</b> (<b>BJT</b>) is a type of <a href="/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">transistor</a> that uses both <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a> and <a href="/wiki/Electron_hole" title="Electron hole">electron holes</a> as <a href="/wiki/Charge_carrier" title="Charge carrier">charge carriers</a>. In contrast, a unipolar transistor, such as a <a href="/wiki/Field-effect_transistor" title="Field-effect transistor">field-effect transistor</a> (FET), uses only one kind of charge carrier. A bipolar transistor allows a small <a href="/wiki/Electric_current" title="Electric current">current</a> injected at one of its <a href="/wiki/Terminal_(electronics)" title="Terminal (electronics)">terminals</a> to control a much larger current between the remaining two terminals, making the device capable of <a href="/wiki/Amplifier" title="Amplifier">amplification</a> or <a href="/wiki/Electronic_switch" title="Electronic switch">switching</a>. </p><p>BJTs use two <a href="/wiki/P%E2%80%93n_junction" title="P–n junction">p–n junctions</a> between two <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor">semiconductor</a> types, n-type and p-type, which are regions in a single <a href="/wiki/Crystal" title="Crystal">crystal</a> of material. The junctions can be made in several different ways, such as changing the <a href="/wiki/Doping_(semiconductor)" title="Doping (semiconductor)">doping</a> of the semiconductor material as it is grown, by depositing metal pellets to form alloy junctions, or by such methods as diffusion of n-type and p-type doping substances into the crystal. The superior predictability and performance of junction transistors quickly displaced the original <a href="/wiki/Point-contact_transistor" title="Point-contact transistor">point-contact transistor</a>. Diffused transistors, along with other components, are elements of <a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">integrated circuits</a> for analog and digital functions. Hundreds of bipolar junction transistors can be made in one circuit at a very low cost. </p><p>Bipolar transistor integrated circuits were the main active devices of a generation of <a href="/wiki/Mainframe_computer" title="Mainframe computer">mainframe</a> and <a href="/wiki/Minicomputer" title="Minicomputer">minicomputers</a>, but most computer systems now use Complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor (<a href="/wiki/CMOS" title="CMOS">CMOS</a>) integrated circuits relying on the field-effect transistor (FET). Bipolar transistors are still used for amplification of signals, switching, and in <a href="/wiki/Mixed-signal_integrated_circuit" title="Mixed-signal integrated circuit">mixed-signal integrated circuits</a> using <a href="/wiki/BiCMOS" title="BiCMOS">BiCMOS</a>. Specialized types are used for high voltage switches, for <a href="/wiki/Radio_frequency" title="Radio frequency">radio-frequency</a> (RF) amplifiers, or for switching high currents. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Current_direction_conventions">Current direction conventions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bipolar_junction_transistor&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Current direction conventions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>By convention, the direction of current on diagrams is shown as the direction that a positive charge would move. This is called <i>conventional current</i>. However, current in <a href="/wiki/Metal" title="Metal">metal</a> conductors is generally<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> due to the flow of electrons. Because electrons carry a negative charge, they move in the direction opposite to conventional current. On the other hand, inside a bipolar transistor, currents can be composed of both positively charged holes and negatively charged electrons. In this article, current arrows are shown in the conventional direction, but labels for the movement of holes and electrons show their actual direction inside the transistor. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arrow_direction">Arrow direction</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bipolar_junction_transistor&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Arrow direction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The arrow on the symbol for bipolar transistors indicates the p–n junction between base and emitter and points in the direction in which <a href="/wiki/Conventional_current" class="mw-redirect" title="Conventional current">conventional current</a> travels. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Function">Function</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bipolar_junction_transistor&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Function"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Technical plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-technical" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>may be too technical for most readers to understand</b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bipolar_junction_transistor&action=edit">help improve it</a> to <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Make_technical_articles_understandable" title="Wikipedia:Make technical articles understandable">make it understandable to non-experts</a>, without removing the technical details.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">July 2012</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>BJTs exist as PNP and NPN types, based on the doping types of the three main terminal regions. An NPN transistor comprises two semiconductor junctions that share a thin p-doped region, and a PNP transistor comprises two semiconductor junctions that share a thin n-doped region. N-type means doped with <a href="/wiki/Impurity" class="mw-redirect" title="Impurity">impurities</a> (such as <a href="/wiki/Phosphorus" title="Phosphorus">phosphorus</a> or <a href="/wiki/Arsenic" title="Arsenic">arsenic</a>) that provide mobile electrons, while p-type means doped with impurities (such as <a href="/wiki/Boron" title="Boron">boron</a>) that provide holes that readily accept electrons. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NPN_BJT_Basic_Operation_(Active)_jP.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/NPN_BJT_Basic_Operation_%28Active%29_jP.svg/220px-NPN_BJT_Basic_Operation_%28Active%29_jP.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="104" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/NPN_BJT_Basic_Operation_%28Active%29_jP.svg/330px-NPN_BJT_Basic_Operation_%28Active%29_jP.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/NPN_BJT_Basic_Operation_%28Active%29_jP.svg/440px-NPN_BJT_Basic_Operation_%28Active%29_jP.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="475" data-file-height="225" /></a><figcaption>NPN BJT with forward-biased B–E junction and reverse-biased B–C junction</figcaption></figure> <p>Charge flow in a BJT is due to <a href="/wiki/Diffusion" title="Diffusion">diffusion</a> of <a href="/wiki/Charge_carriers_in_semiconductors" class="mw-redirect" title="Charge carriers in semiconductors">charge carriers</a> (electrons and holes) across a junction between two regions of different charge carrier concentration. The regions of a BJT are called <i>emitter</i>, <i>base</i>, and <i>collector</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A discrete transistor has three <a href="/wiki/Lead_(electronics)" title="Lead (electronics)">leads</a> for connection to these regions. Typically, the emitter region is heavily doped compared to the other two layers, and the collector is doped more lightly (typically ten times lighter<sup id="cite_ref-hu_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hu-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) than the base. By design, most of the BJT collector current is due to the flow of charge carriers injected from a heavily doped emitter into the base where they are <a href="/wiki/Minority_carrier" class="mw-redirect" title="Minority carrier">minority carriers</a> (electrons in NPNs, holes in PNPs) that diffuse toward the collector, so BJTs are classified as <i>minority-carrier devices</i>. </p><p>In typical operation, the base–emitter junction is <a href="/wiki/P%E2%80%93n_junction#Forward_bias" title="P–n junction">forward biased</a>, which means that the p-doped side of the junction is at a more positive potential than the n-doped side, and the base–collector junction is <a href="/wiki/P%E2%80%93n_junction#Reverse_bias" title="P–n junction">reverse biased</a>. When forward bias is applied to the base–emitter junction, the equilibrium between the thermally generated carriers and the repelling electric field of the emitter <a href="/wiki/Depletion_region" title="Depletion region">depletion region</a> is disturbed. This allows thermally excited carriers (electrons in NPNs, holes in PNPs) to inject from the emitter into the base region. These carriers create a <a href="/wiki/Diffusion_current" title="Diffusion current">diffusion current</a> through the base from the region of high concentration near the emitter toward the region of low concentration near the collector. </p><p>To minimize the fraction of carriers that <a href="/wiki/Carrier_generation_and_recombination" title="Carrier generation and recombination">recombine</a> before reaching the collector–base junction, the transistor's base region must be thin enough that carriers can diffuse across it in much less time than the semiconductor's minority-carrier lifetime. Having a lightly doped base ensures recombination rates are low. In particular, the thickness of the base must be much less than the <a href="/wiki/Fick%27s_law#Example_solution_in_one_dimension:_diffusion_length" class="mw-redirect" title="Fick's law">diffusion length</a> of the carriers. The collector–base junction is reverse-biased, and so negligible carrier injection occurs from the collector to the base, but carriers that are injected into the base from the emitter, and diffuse to reach the collector–base depletion region, are swept into the collector by the electric field in the depletion region. The thin <i>shared</i> base and asymmetric collector–emitter doping are what differentiates a bipolar transistor from two <i>separate</i> diodes connected in series. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Voltage,_current,_and_charge_control"><span id="Voltage.2C_current.2C_and_charge_control"></span>Voltage, current, and charge control</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bipolar_junction_transistor&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Voltage, current, and charge control"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The collector–emitter current can be viewed as being controlled by the base–emitter current (current control), or by the base–emitter voltage (voltage control). These views are related by the current–voltage relation of the base–emitter junction, which is the usual exponential current–voltage curve of a p–n junction (diode).<sup id="cite_ref-Horowitz_1989_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Horowitz_1989-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The explanation for collector current is the concentration gradient of minority carriers in the base region.<sup id="cite_ref-Horowitz_1989_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Horowitz_1989-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Due to <a href="/wiki/Low-level_injection" title="Low-level injection">low-level injection</a> (in which there are much fewer excess carriers than normal majority carriers) the <a href="/wiki/Ambipolar_diffusion" title="Ambipolar diffusion">ambipolar transport</a> rates (in which the excess majority and minority carriers flow at the same rate) is in effect determined by the excess minority carriers. </p><p>Detailed <a href="/wiki/Transistor_models" class="mw-redirect" title="Transistor models">transistor models</a> of transistor action, such as the <a href="/wiki/Gummel%E2%80%93Poon_model" title="Gummel–Poon model">Gummel–Poon model</a>, account for the distribution of this charge explicitly to explain transistor behaviour more exactly.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The charge-control view easily handles <a href="/wiki/Phototransistor" class="mw-redirect" title="Phototransistor">phototransistors</a>, where minority carriers in the base region are created by the absorption of <a href="/wiki/Photon" title="Photon">photons</a>, and handles the dynamics of turn-off, or recovery time, which depends on charge in the base region recombining. However, because base charge is not a signal that is visible at the terminals, the current- and voltage-control views are generally used in circuit design and analysis. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Analog_circuit" class="mw-redirect" title="Analog circuit">analog circuit</a> design, the current-control view is sometimes used because it is approximately linear. That is, the collector current is approximately <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \beta _{\text{F}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>β</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>F</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \beta _{\text{F}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/d0ed5f2b014e8afc3e80585b17eb5ae780555cdd" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.621ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \beta _{\text{F}}}"></span> times the base current. Some basic circuits can be designed by assuming that the base–emitter voltage is approximately constant and that collector current is β times the base current. However, to accurately and reliably design production BJT circuits, the voltage-control model (e.g. the <a href="/wiki/Ebers%E2%80%93Moll_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Ebers–Moll model">Ebers–Moll model</a>) is required.<sup id="cite_ref-Horowitz_1989_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Horowitz_1989-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The voltage-control model requires an exponential function to be taken into account, but when it is linearized such that the transistor can be modeled as a transconductance, as in the Ebers–Moll model, design for circuits such as differential amplifiers again becomes a mostly linear problem, so the voltage-control view is often preferred. For <a href="/wiki/Translinear_circuit" title="Translinear circuit">translinear circuits</a>, in which the exponential I–V curve is key to the operation, the transistors are usually modeled as voltage-controlled current sources whose <a href="/wiki/Transconductance" title="Transconductance">transconductance</a> is proportional to their collector current. In general, transistor-level circuit analysis is performed using <a href="/wiki/SPICE" title="SPICE">SPICE</a> or a comparable analog-circuit simulator, so mathematical model complexity is usually not of much concern to the designer, but a simplified view of the characteristics allows designs to be created following a logical process. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Turn-on,_turn-off,_and_storage_delay"><span id="Turn-on.2C_turn-off.2C_and_storage_delay"></span>Turn-on, turn-off, and storage delay</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bipolar_junction_transistor&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Turn-on, turn-off, and storage delay"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Baker_clamp" title="Baker clamp">Baker clamp</a></div> <p>Bipolar transistors, and particularly power transistors, have long base-storage times when they are driven into saturation; the base storage limits turn-off time in switching applications. A <a href="/wiki/Baker_clamp" title="Baker clamp">Baker clamp</a> can prevent the transistor from heavily saturating, which reduces the amount of charge stored in the base and thus improves switching time. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transistor_characteristics:_alpha_(α)_and_beta_(β)"><span id="Transistor_characteristics:_alpha_.28.CE.B1.29_and_beta_.28.CE.B2.29"></span>Transistor characteristics: alpha (<i>α</i>) and beta (<i>β</i>) <span class="anchor" id="Alpha"></span><span class="anchor" id="Beta"></span><span class="anchor" id="AlphaBeta"></span></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bipolar_junction_transistor&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Transistor characteristics: alpha (α) and beta (β)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The proportion of carriers able to cross the base and reach the collector is a measure of the BJT efficiency. The heavy doping of the emitter region and light doping of the base region causes many more electrons to be injected from the emitter into the base than holes to be injected from the base into the emitter. A thin and lightly doped base region means that most of the minority carriers that are injected into the base will diffuse to the collector and not recombine. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Common-emitter_current_gain">Common-emitter current gain</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bipolar_junction_transistor&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Common-emitter current gain"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <i><a href="/wiki/Common-emitter" class="mw-redirect" title="Common-emitter">common-emitter</a> current gain</i> is represented by <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">β</span><sub>F</sub> or the <a href="/wiki/Two-port_network#h-parameters" title="Two-port network"><span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">h</span>-parameter</a> <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">h</span><sub>FE</sub>; it is approximately the ratio of the collector's direct current to the base's direct current in forward-active region. (The F subscript is used to indicate the forward-active mode of operation.) It is typically greater than 50 for small-signal transistors, but can be smaller in transistors designed for high-power applications. Both injection efficiency and recombination in the base reduce the BJT gain. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Common-base_current_gain">Common-base current gain</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bipolar_junction_transistor&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Common-base current gain"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Another useful characteristic is the <i><a href="/wiki/Common-base" class="mw-redirect" title="Common-base">common-base</a> current gain</i>, <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">α</span><sub>F</sub>. The common-base current gain is approximately the gain of current from emitter to collector in the forward-active region. This ratio usually has a value close to unity; between 0.980 and 0.998. It is less than unity due to recombination of charge carriers as they cross the base region. </p><p>Alpha and beta are related by the following identities: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\alpha _{\text{F}}&={\frac {I_{\text{C}}}{I_{\text{E}}}},&\beta _{\text{F}}&={\frac {I_{\text{C}}}{I_{\text{B}}}},\\\alpha _{\text{F}}&={\frac {\beta _{\text{F}}}{1+\beta _{\text{F}}}}&\iff \beta _{\text{F}}&={\frac {\alpha _{\text{F}}}{1-\alpha _{\text{F}}}}.\end{aligned}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtable columnalign="right left right left right left right left right left right left" rowspacing="3pt" columnspacing="0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em" displaystyle="true"> <mtr> <mtd> <msub> <mi>α</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>F</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mtd> <mtd> <mi></mi> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msub> <mi>I</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>C</mtext> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>I</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>E</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>,</mo> </mtd> <mtd> <msub> <mi>β</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>F</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mtd> <mtd> <mi></mi> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msub> <mi>I</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>C</mtext> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>I</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>B</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>,</mo> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <msub> <mi>α</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>F</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mtd> <mtd> <mi></mi> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msub> <mi>β</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>F</mtext> </mrow> </msub> <mrow> <mn>1</mn> <mo>+</mo> <msub> <mi>β</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>F</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mtd> <mtd> <mspace width="thickmathspace" /> <mo stretchy="false">⟺</mo> <mspace width="thickmathspace" /> <msub> <mi>β</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>F</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mtd> <mtd> <mi></mi> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msub> <mi>α</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>F</mtext> </mrow> </msub> <mrow> <mn>1</mn> <mo>−</mo> <msub> <mi>α</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>F</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>.</mo> </mtd> </mtr> </mtable> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\alpha _{\text{F}}&={\frac {I_{\text{C}}}{I_{\text{E}}}},&\beta _{\text{F}}&={\frac {I_{\text{C}}}{I_{\text{B}}}},\\\alpha _{\text{F}}&={\frac {\beta _{\text{F}}}{1+\beta _{\text{F}}}}&\iff \beta _{\text{F}}&={\frac {\alpha _{\text{F}}}{1-\alpha _{\text{F}}}}.\end{aligned}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/59f5873e17d0435935e3ebee078dec1b53e42fc9" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -5.338ex; width:38.999ex; height:11.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\alpha _{\text{F}}&={\frac {I_{\text{C}}}{I_{\text{E}}}},&\beta _{\text{F}}&={\frac {I_{\text{C}}}{I_{\text{B}}}},\\\alpha _{\text{F}}&={\frac {\beta _{\text{F}}}{1+\beta _{\text{F}}}}&\iff \beta _{\text{F}}&={\frac {\alpha _{\text{F}}}{1-\alpha _{\text{F}}}}.\end{aligned}}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>Beta is a convenient figure of merit to describe the performance of a bipolar transistor, but is not a fundamental physical property of the device. Bipolar transistors can be considered voltage-controlled devices (fundamentally the collector current is controlled by the base–emitter voltage; the base current could be considered a defect and is controlled by the characteristics of the base–emitter junction and recombination in the base). In many designs beta is assumed high enough so that base current has a negligible effect on the circuit. In some circuits (generally switching circuits), sufficient base current is supplied so that even the lowest beta value a particular device may have will still allow the required collector current to flow. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Structure">Structure</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bipolar_junction_transistor&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Structure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Frame"><a href="/wiki/File:NPN_BJT_(Planar)_Cross-section.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/NPN_BJT_%28Planar%29_Cross-section.svg/300px-NPN_BJT_%28Planar%29_Cross-section.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/NPN_BJT_%28Planar%29_Cross-section.svg/450px-NPN_BJT_%28Planar%29_Cross-section.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/NPN_BJT_%28Planar%29_Cross-section.svg/600px-NPN_BJT_%28Planar%29_Cross-section.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="175" /></a><figcaption>Simplified cross section of a planar <i>NPN</i> bipolar junction transistor</figcaption></figure> <p>BJTs consists of three differently doped semiconductor regions: the <i>emitter</i> region, the <i>base</i> region and the <i>collector</i> region. These regions are, respectively, <i>p</i> type, <i>n</i> type and <i>p</i> type in a PNP transistor, and <i>n</i> type, <i>p</i> type and <i>n</i> type in an NPN transistor. Each semiconductor region is connected to a terminal, appropriately labeled: <i>emitter</i> (E), <i>base</i> (B) and <i>collector</i> (C). </p><p>The <i>base</i> is physically located between the <i>emitter</i> and the <i>collector</i> and is made from lightly doped, high-resistivity material. The collector surrounds the emitter region, making it almost impossible for the electrons injected into the base region to escape without being collected, thus making the resulting value of α very close to unity, and so, giving the transistor a large β. A cross-section view of a BJT indicates that the collector–base junction has a much larger area than the emitter–base junction. </p><p>The bipolar junction transistor, unlike other transistors, is usually not a symmetrical device. This means that interchanging the collector and the emitter makes the transistor leave the forward active mode and start to operate in reverse mode. Because the transistor's internal structure is usually optimized for forward-mode operation, interchanging the collector and the emitter makes the values of α and β in reverse operation much smaller than those in forward operation; often the α of the reverse mode is lower than 0.5. The lack of symmetry is primarily due to the doping ratios of the emitter and the collector. The emitter is heavily doped, while the collector is lightly doped, allowing a large reverse bias voltage to be applied before the collector–base junction breaks down. The collector–base junction is reverse biased in normal operation. The reason the emitter is heavily doped is to increase the emitter injection efficiency: the ratio of carriers injected by the emitter to those injected by the base. For high current gain, most of the carriers injected into the emitter–base junction must come from the emitter. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:IPRS_BANEASA_2N2222.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/IPRS_BANEASA_2N2222.jpg/220px-IPRS_BANEASA_2N2222.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="186" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/IPRS_BANEASA_2N2222.jpg/330px-IPRS_BANEASA_2N2222.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/IPRS_BANEASA_2N2222.jpg/440px-IPRS_BANEASA_2N2222.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3860" data-file-height="3270" /></a><figcaption>Die of a 2N2222 NPN transistor: the NPN materials are made in layers with the collector at the bottom. Bond wires connect metalisation on the base to the left lead, and emitter to the right. The collector is connected to the can with a third external lead..</figcaption></figure> <p>The low-performance "lateral" bipolar transistors sometimes used in CMOS processes are sometimes designed symmetrically, that is, with no difference between forward and backward operation. </p><p>Small changes in the voltage applied across the base–emitter terminals cause the current between the <i>emitter</i> and the <i>collector</i> to change significantly. This effect can be used to amplify the input voltage or current. BJTs can be thought of as voltage-controlled <a href="/wiki/Current_source" title="Current source">current sources</a>, but are more simply characterized as current-controlled current sources, or current amplifiers, due to the low impedance at the base. </p><p>Early transistors were made from <a href="/wiki/Germanium" title="Germanium">germanium</a> but most modern BJTs are made from <a href="/wiki/Silicon" title="Silicon">silicon</a>. A significant minority are also now made from <a href="/wiki/Gallium_arsenide" title="Gallium arsenide">gallium arsenide</a>, especially for very high speed applications (see HBT, below). </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Heterojunction_bipolar_transistor" title="Heterojunction bipolar transistor">heterojunction bipolar transistor</a> (HBT) is an improvement of the BJT that can handle signals of very high frequencies up to several hundred <a href="/wiki/Hertz" title="Hertz">GHz</a>. It is common in modern ultrafast circuits, mostly RF systems.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ashburn_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ashburn-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Diagrama_de_Transistor_NPN.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Diagrama_de_Transistor_NPN.svg/110px-Diagrama_de_Transistor_NPN.svg.png" decoding="async" width="110" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Diagrama_de_Transistor_NPN.svg/165px-Diagrama_de_Transistor_NPN.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Diagrama_de_Transistor_NPN.svg/220px-Diagrama_de_Transistor_NPN.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="122" data-file-height="132" /></a><figcaption>Symbol for NPN bipolar transistor with current flow direction</figcaption></figure> <p>Two commonly used HBTs are silicon–germanium and aluminum gallium arsenide, though a wide variety of semiconductors may be used for the HBT structure. HBT structures are usually grown by <a href="/wiki/Epitaxy" title="Epitaxy">epitaxy</a> techniques like <a href="/wiki/Metalorganic_vapour_phase_epitaxy" class="mw-redirect" title="Metalorganic vapour phase epitaxy">MOCVD</a> and <a href="/wiki/Molecular_beam_epitaxy" class="mw-redirect" title="Molecular beam epitaxy">MBE</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Regions_of_operation">Regions of operation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bipolar_junction_transistor&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Regions of operation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable floatright"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">Junction <br />type </th> <th rowspan="2">Applied <br />voltages </th> <th colspan="2">Junction bias </th> <th rowspan="2">Mode </th></tr> <tr> <th>B–E </th> <th>B–C </th></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="4">NPN </td> <td>E < B < C</td> <td>Forward</td> <td>Reverse</td> <td>Forward-active </td></tr> <tr> <td>E < B > C</td> <td>Forward</td> <td>Forward</td> <td>Saturation </td></tr> <tr> <td>E > B < C</td> <td>Reverse</td> <td>Reverse</td> <td>Cut-off </td></tr> <tr> <td>E > B > C</td> <td>Reverse</td> <td>Forward</td> <td>Reverse-active </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="4">PNP </td> <td>E < B < C</td> <td>Reverse</td> <td>Forward</td> <td>Reverse-active </td></tr> <tr> <td>E < B > C</td> <td>Reverse</td> <td>Reverse</td> <td>Cut-off </td></tr> <tr> <td>E > B < C</td> <td>Forward</td> <td>Forward</td> <td>Saturation </td></tr> <tr> <td>E > B > C</td> <td>Forward</td> <td>Reverse</td> <td>Forward-active </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Bipolar transistors have four distinct regions of operation, defined by BJT junction biases:<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dt>Forward-active (or simply <i>active</i>)</dt> <dd>The base–emitter junction is forward biased and the base–collector junction is reverse biased. Most bipolar transistors are designed to afford the greatest common-emitter current gain, β<sub>F</sub>, in forward-active mode. If this is the case, the collector–emitter current is approximately <a href="/wiki/Proportionality_(mathematics)" title="Proportionality (mathematics)">proportional</a> to the base current, but many times larger, for small base current variations.</dd> <dt>Reverse-active (or <i>inverse-active</i> or <i>inverted</i>)</dt> <dd>By reversing the biasing conditions of the forward-active region, a bipolar transistor goes into reverse-active mode. In this mode, the emitter and collector regions switch roles. Because most BJTs are designed to maximize current gain in forward-active mode, the β<sub>F</sub> in inverted mode is several times smaller (2–3 times for the ordinary germanium transistor). This transistor mode is seldom used, usually being considered only for failsafe conditions and some types of <a href="/wiki/Transistor%E2%80%93transistor_logic#Implementation" title="Transistor–transistor logic">bipolar logic</a>. The reverse bias breakdown voltage to the base may be an order of magnitude lower in this region.</dd> <dt>Saturation</dt> <dd>With both junctions forward biased, a BJT is in saturation mode and facilitates high current conduction from the emitter to the collector (or the other direction in the case of NPN, with negatively charged carriers flowing from emitter to collector). This mode corresponds to a logical "on", or a closed switch.</dd> <dt>Cut-off</dt> <dd>In cut-off, biasing conditions opposite of saturation (both junctions reverse biased) are present. There is very little current, which corresponds to a logical "off", or an open switch.</dd></dl> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:308px;max-width:308px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:132px;max-width:132px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Input_characteristic_common-base_silicon_transistor-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Input_characteristic_common-base_silicon_transistor-en.svg/130px-Input_characteristic_common-base_silicon_transistor-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="130" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Input_characteristic_common-base_silicon_transistor-en.svg/195px-Input_characteristic_common-base_silicon_transistor-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Input_characteristic_common-base_silicon_transistor-en.svg/260px-Input_characteristic_common-base_silicon_transistor-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="624" data-file-height="576" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Input characteristics</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:172px;max-width:172px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Output_characteristic_common-base_silicon_transistor-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Output_characteristic_common-base_silicon_transistor-en.svg/170px-Output_characteristic_common-base_silicon_transistor-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Output_characteristic_common-base_silicon_transistor-en.svg/255px-Output_characteristic_common-base_silicon_transistor-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Output_characteristic_common-base_silicon_transistor-en.svg/340px-Output_characteristic_common-base_silicon_transistor-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="816" data-file-height="576" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Output characteristics</div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Input and output characteristics for a common-base silicon transistor amplifier.</div></div></div></div> <p>Although these regions are well defined for sufficiently large applied voltage, they overlap somewhat for small (less than a few hundred millivolts) biases. For example, in the typical grounded-emitter configuration of an NPN BJT used as a pulldown switch in digital logic, the "off" state never involves a reverse-biased junction because the base voltage never goes below ground; nevertheless the forward bias is close enough to zero that essentially no current flows, so this end of the forward active region can be regarded as the cutoff region. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Active-mode_transistors_in_circuits">Active-mode transistors in circuits</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bipolar_junction_transistor&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Active-mode transistors in circuits"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Frame"><a href="/wiki/File:NPN_BJT_-_Structure_%26_circuit.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/NPN_BJT_-_Structure_%26_circuit.svg/250px-NPN_BJT_-_Structure_%26_circuit.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="300" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/NPN_BJT_-_Structure_%26_circuit.svg/375px-NPN_BJT_-_Structure_%26_circuit.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/NPN_BJT_-_Structure_%26_circuit.svg/500px-NPN_BJT_-_Structure_%26_circuit.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="300" /></a><figcaption>Structure and use of NPN transistor; arrow according to schematic</figcaption></figure> <p>The diagram shows a schematic representation of an NPN transistor connected to two voltage sources. (The same description applies to a PNP transistor with reversed directions of current flow and applied voltage.) This applied voltage causes the lower p–n junction to become forward biased, allowing a flow of electrons from the emitter into the base. In active mode, the electric field existing between base and collector (caused by <i>V</i><sub>CE</sub>) will cause the majority of these electrons to cross the upper p–n junction into the collector to form the collector current <i>I</i><sub>C</sub>. The remainder of the electrons recombine with holes, the majority carriers in the base, making a current through the base connection to form the base current, <i>I</i><sub>B</sub>. As shown in the diagram, the emitter current, <i>I</i><sub>E</sub>, is the total transistor current, which is the sum of the other terminal currents, (i.e. <i>I</i><sub>E</sub> = <i>I</i><sub>B</sub> + <i>I</i><sub>C</sub>). </p><p>In the diagram, the arrows representing current point in the direction of conventional current – the flow of electrons is in the opposite direction of the arrows because electrons carry negative <a href="/wiki/Electric_charge" title="Electric charge">electric charge</a>. In active mode, the ratio of the collector current to the base current is called the <i>DC current gain</i>. This gain is usually 100 or more, but robust circuit designs do not depend on the exact value (for example see <a href="/wiki/Op-amp" class="mw-redirect" title="Op-amp">op-amp</a>). The value of this gain for DC signals is referred to as <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle h_{\text{FE}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>h</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>FE</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle h_{\text{FE}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/529629f65669f9202629903104017d8278921a0a" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:3.764ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle h_{\text{FE}}}"></span>, and the value of this gain for small signals is referred to as <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle h_{\text{fe}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>h</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>fe</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle h_{\text{fe}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/adb839586bc8a963771d5026efcad3c955713419" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.805ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle h_{\text{fe}}}"></span>. That is, when a small change in the currents occurs, and sufficient time has passed for the new condition to reach a steady state <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle h_{\text{fe}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>h</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>fe</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle h_{\text{fe}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/adb839586bc8a963771d5026efcad3c955713419" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.805ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle h_{\text{fe}}}"></span> is the ratio of the change in collector current to the change in base current. The symbol <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \beta }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>β</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \beta }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/7ed48a5e36207156fb792fa79d29925d2f7901e8" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.332ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \beta }"></span> is used for both <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle h_{\text{FE}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>h</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>FE</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle h_{\text{FE}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/529629f65669f9202629903104017d8278921a0a" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:3.764ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle h_{\text{FE}}}"></span> and <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle h_{\text{fe}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>h</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>fe</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle h_{\text{fe}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/adb839586bc8a963771d5026efcad3c955713419" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.805ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle h_{\text{fe}}}"></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-Horowitz_1989_5-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Horowitz_1989-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 62–66">: 62–66 </span></sup> </p><p>The emitter current is related to <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle V_{\text{BE}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>BE</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle V_{\text{BE}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ee056123acdfc21bfdddb9f255f3379ca300b333" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:3.87ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle V_{\text{BE}}}"></span> exponentially. At <a href="/wiki/Room_temperature" title="Room temperature">room temperature</a>, an increase in <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle V_{\text{BE}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>BE</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle V_{\text{BE}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ee056123acdfc21bfdddb9f255f3379ca300b333" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:3.87ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle V_{\text{BE}}}"></span> by approximately 60 mV increases the emitter current by a factor of 10. Because the base current is approximately proportional to the collector and emitter currents, they vary in the same way. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bipolar_junction_transistor&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The bipolar point-contact transistor was invented in December 1947<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> at the <a href="/wiki/Bell_Telephone_Laboratories" class="mw-redirect" title="Bell Telephone Laboratories">Bell Telephone Laboratories</a> by <a href="/wiki/John_Bardeen" title="John Bardeen">John Bardeen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Walter_Brattain" class="mw-redirect" title="Walter Brattain">Walter Brattain</a> under the direction of <a href="/wiki/William_Shockley" title="William Shockley">William Shockley</a>. The junction version known as the bipolar junction transistor (BJT), invented by Shockley in 1948,<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was for three decades the device of choice in the design of discrete and <a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuits" class="mw-redirect" title="Integrated circuits">integrated circuits</a>. Nowadays, the use of the BJT has declined in favor of CMOS technology in the design of digital integrated circuits. The incidental low performance BJTs inherent in CMOS ICs, however, are often utilized as <a href="/wiki/Bandgap_voltage_reference" title="Bandgap voltage reference">bandgap voltage reference</a>, <a href="/wiki/Silicon_bandgap_temperature_sensor" title="Silicon bandgap temperature sensor">silicon bandgap temperature sensor</a> and to handle <a href="/wiki/Electrostatic_discharge" title="Electrostatic discharge">electrostatic discharge</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Germanium_transistors">Germanium transistors</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bipolar_junction_transistor&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Germanium transistors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The germanium transistor was more common in the 1950s and 1960s but has a greater tendency to exhibit <a href="/wiki/Thermal_runaway" title="Thermal runaway">thermal runaway</a>. Since <a href="/wiki/Diode#Forward_bias" title="Diode">germanium p-n junctions have a lower forward bias</a> than silicon, germanium transistors turn on at lower voltage. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_manufacturing_techniques">Early manufacturing techniques</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bipolar_junction_transistor&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Early manufacturing techniques"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Various methods of manufacturing bipolar transistors were developed.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Point-contact_transistor" title="Point-contact transistor">Point-contact transistor</a> – first transistor ever constructed (December 1947), a bipolar transistor, limited commercial use due to high cost and noise. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tetrode_transistor#Early_tetrode_transistors" title="Tetrode transistor">Tetrode point-contact transistor</a> – Point-contact transistor having two emitters. It became obsolete in the middle 1950s.</li></ul></li> <li>Junction transistors <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grown-junction_transistor" title="Grown-junction transistor">Grown-junction transistor</a> –  first bipolar <i>junction</i> transistor made.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Invented by William Shockley at <a href="/wiki/Bell_Labs" title="Bell Labs">Bell Labs</a> on June 23, 1948.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Patent filed on June 26, 1948.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alloy-junction_transistor" title="Alloy-junction transistor">Alloy-junction transistor</a> –  emitter and collector alloy beads fused to base. Developed at <a href="/wiki/General_Electric" title="General Electric">General Electric</a> and <a href="/wiki/RCA" title="RCA">RCA</a><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in 1951. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Micro-alloy_transistor" class="mw-redirect" title="Micro-alloy transistor">Micro-alloy transistor</a> (MAT) –  high-speed type of alloy junction transistor. Developed at <a href="/wiki/Philco" title="Philco">Philco</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micro-alloy_diffused_transistor" class="mw-redirect" title="Micro-alloy diffused transistor">Micro-alloy diffused transistor</a> (MADT) –  high-speed type of alloy junction transistor, speedier than MAT, a <a href="/wiki/Diffused-base_transistor" class="mw-redirect" title="Diffused-base transistor">diffused-base transistor</a>. Developed at Philco.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-alloy_diffused_transistor" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-alloy diffused transistor">Post-alloy diffused transistor</a> (PADT) –  high-speed type of alloy junction transistor, speedier than MAT, a diffused-base transistor. Developed at <a href="/wiki/Philips" title="Philips">Philips</a>.</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetrode_transistor" title="Tetrode transistor">Tetrode transistor</a> –  high-speed variant of grown-junction transistor<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or alloy junction transistor<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with two connections to base.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface-barrier_transistor" title="Surface-barrier transistor">Surface-barrier transistor</a> –  high-speed metal-barrier junction transistor. Developed at Philco<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in 1953.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drift-field_transistor" title="Drift-field transistor">Drift-field transistor</a> –  high-speed bipolar junction transistor. Invented by <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Kroemer" title="Herbert Kroemer">Herbert Kroemer</a><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> at the Central Bureau of Telecommunications Technology of the German Postal Service, in 1953.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spacistor" title="Spacistor">Spacistor</a> –  around 1957.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diffusion_transistor" class="mw-redirect" title="Diffusion transistor">Diffusion transistor</a> –  modern type bipolar junction transistor. Prototypes<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> developed at Bell Labs in 1954. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diffused-base_transistor" class="mw-redirect" title="Diffused-base transistor">Diffused-base transistor</a> –  first implementation of diffusion transistor.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesa_transistor" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesa transistor">Mesa transistor</a> –  developed at <a href="/wiki/Texas_Instruments" title="Texas Instruments">Texas Instruments</a> in 1957.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planar_transistor" class="mw-redirect" title="Planar transistor">Planar transistor</a> –  the bipolar junction transistor that made mass-produced monolithic integrated circuits possible. Developed by <a href="/wiki/Jean_Hoerni" title="Jean Hoerni">Jean Hoerni</a><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> at <a href="/wiki/Fairchild_Semiconductor" title="Fairchild Semiconductor">Fairchild</a> in 1959.</li></ul></li> <li>Epitaxial transistor<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> –  a bipolar junction transistor made using vapor-phase deposition. See <a href="/wiki/Epitaxy" title="Epitaxy">Epitaxy</a>. Allows very precise control of doping levels and gradients.</li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Theory_and_modeling">Theory and modeling</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bipolar_junction_transistor&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Theory and modeling"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NPN_Band_Diagram_Equilibrium.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/NPN_Band_Diagram_Equilibrium.svg/220px-NPN_Band_Diagram_Equilibrium.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="127" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/NPN_Band_Diagram_Equilibrium.svg/330px-NPN_Band_Diagram_Equilibrium.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/NPN_Band_Diagram_Equilibrium.svg/440px-NPN_Band_Diagram_Equilibrium.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="230" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Band_diagram" title="Band diagram">Band diagram</a> for NPN transistor at equilibrium</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NPN_Band_Diagram_Active.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/NPN_Band_Diagram_Active.svg/220px-NPN_Band_Diagram_Active.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/NPN_Band_Diagram_Active.svg/330px-NPN_Band_Diagram_Active.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/NPN_Band_Diagram_Active.svg/440px-NPN_Band_Diagram_Active.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="375" data-file-height="205" /></a><figcaption>Band diagram for NPN transistor in active mode, showing injection of electrons from emitter to base, and their overshoot into the collector</figcaption></figure> <p>BJTs can be thought of as two diodes (p–n junctions) sharing a common region that minority carriers can move through. A PNP BJT will function like two diodes that share an N-type cathode region, and the NPN like two diodes sharing a P-type anode region. Connecting two diodes with wires will not make a BJT, since minority carriers will not be able to get from one p–n junction to the other through the wire. </p><p>Both types of BJT function by letting a small current input to the base control an amplified output from the collector. The result is that the BJT makes a good switch that is controlled by its base input. The BJT also makes a good amplifier, since it can multiply a weak input signal to about 100 times its original strength. Networks of BJTs are used to make powerful amplifiers with many different applications. </p><p>In the discussion below, focus is on the NPN BJT. In what is called active mode, the base–emitter voltage <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle V_{\text{BE}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>BE</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle V_{\text{BE}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ee056123acdfc21bfdddb9f255f3379ca300b333" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:3.87ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle V_{\text{BE}}}"></span> and collector–base voltage <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle V_{\text{CB}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>CB</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle V_{\text{CB}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/3974e68ffb3693cb4daf21592c4029d758efbb78" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:3.938ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle V_{\text{CB}}}"></span> are positive, forward biasing the emitter–base junction and reverse-biasing the collector–base junction. In this mode, electrons are injected from the forward biased n-type emitter region into the p-type base where they diffuse as minority carriers to the reverse-biased n-type collector and are swept away by the electric field in the reverse-biased collector–base junction. </p><p>For an illustration of forward and reverse bias, see <a href="/wiki/Diode#Current–voltage_characteristic" title="Diode">semiconductor diodes</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Large-signal_models">Large-signal models</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bipolar_junction_transistor&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Large-signal models"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1954, <a href="/wiki/Jewell_James_Ebers" title="Jewell James Ebers">Jewell James Ebers</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_L._Moll" title="John L. Moll">John L. Moll</a> introduced their <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_model" title="Mathematical model">mathematical model</a> of transistor currents:<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ebers–Moll_model"><span id="Ebers.E2.80.93Moll_model"></span>Ebers–Moll model <span class="anchor" id="Ebers-Moll_model"></span><span class="anchor" id="Ebers-Moll"></span><span class="anchor" id="Ebers–Moll"></span></h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bipolar_junction_transistor&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Ebers–Moll model"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Frame"><a href="/wiki/File:Ebers-Moll_model_schematic_(NPN).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Ebers-Moll_model_schematic_%28NPN%29.svg/250px-Ebers-Moll_model_schematic_%28NPN%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Ebers-Moll_model_schematic_%28NPN%29.svg/375px-Ebers-Moll_model_schematic_%28NPN%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Ebers-Moll_model_schematic_%28NPN%29.svg/500px-Ebers-Moll_model_schematic_%28NPN%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="175" /></a><figcaption>Ebers–Moll model for an NPN transistor.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>I</i><sub>B</sub>, <i>I</i><sub>C</sub> and <i>I</i><sub>E</sub> are the base, collector and emitter currents; <i>I</i><sub>CD</sub> and <i>I</i><sub>ED</sub> are the collector and emitter diode currents; <i>α</i><sub>F</sub> and <i>α</i><sub>R</sub> are the forward and reverse common-base current gains.</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Frame"><a href="/wiki/File:Ebers-Moll_model_schematic_(PNP).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Ebers-Moll_model_schematic_%28PNP%29.svg/250px-Ebers-Moll_model_schematic_%28PNP%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Ebers-Moll_model_schematic_%28PNP%29.svg/375px-Ebers-Moll_model_schematic_%28PNP%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Ebers-Moll_model_schematic_%28PNP%29.svg/500px-Ebers-Moll_model_schematic_%28PNP%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="175" /></a><figcaption>Ebers–Moll model for a PNP transistor</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Frame"><a href="/wiki/File:Approximated_Ebers_Moll.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Approximated_Ebers_Moll.svg/250px-Approximated_Ebers_Moll.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Approximated_Ebers_Moll.svg/375px-Approximated_Ebers_Moll.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Approximated_Ebers_Moll.svg/500px-Approximated_Ebers_Moll.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="175" /></a><figcaption>Approximated Ebers–Moll model for an NPN transistor in the forward active mode. The collector diode is reverse-biased so <i>I</i><sub>CD</sub> is virtually zero. Most of the emitter diode current (<i>α</i><sub>F</sub> is nearly 1) is drawn from the collector, providing the amplification of the base current.</figcaption></figure> <p>The DC emitter and collector currents in active mode are well modeled by an approximation to the Ebers–Moll model: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}I_{\text{E}}&=I_{\text{ES}}\left(e^{\frac {V_{\text{BE}}}{V_{\text{T}}}}-1\right)\\I_{\text{C}}&=\alpha _{\text{F}}I_{\text{E}}\\I_{\text{B}}&=\left(1-\alpha _{\text{F}}\right)I_{\text{E}}\end{aligned}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtable columnalign="right left right left right left right left right left right left" rowspacing="3pt" columnspacing="0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em" displaystyle="true"> <mtr> <mtd> <msub> <mi>I</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>E</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mtd> <mtd> <mi></mi> <mo>=</mo> <msub> <mi>I</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>ES</mtext> </mrow> </msub> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow> <msup> <mi>e</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>BE</mtext> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>T</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mfrac> </mrow> </msup> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <msub> <mi>I</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>C</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mtd> <mtd> <mi></mi> <mo>=</mo> <msub> <mi>α</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>F</mtext> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>I</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>E</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <msub> <mi>I</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>B</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mtd> <mtd> <mi></mi> <mo>=</mo> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow> <mn>1</mn> <mo>−</mo> <msub> <mi>α</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>F</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <msub> <mi>I</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>E</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mtd> </mtr> </mtable> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}I_{\text{E}}&=I_{\text{ES}}\left(e^{\frac {V_{\text{BE}}}{V_{\text{T}}}}-1\right)\\I_{\text{C}}&=\alpha _{\text{F}}I_{\text{E}}\\I_{\text{B}}&=\left(1-\alpha _{\text{F}}\right)I_{\text{E}}\end{aligned}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/95b72ff2accd775d082d041434acf09b4b7523f4" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -6.171ex; width:22.568ex; height:13.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}I_{\text{E}}&=I_{\text{ES}}\left(e^{\frac {V_{\text{BE}}}{V_{\text{T}}}}-1\right)\\I_{\text{C}}&=\alpha _{\text{F}}I_{\text{E}}\\I_{\text{B}}&=\left(1-\alpha _{\text{F}}\right)I_{\text{E}}\end{aligned}}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>The base internal current is mainly by diffusion (see <a href="/wiki/Fick%27s_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Fick's law">Fick's law</a>) and </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle J_{n\,({\text{base}})}={\frac {1}{W}}qD_{n}n_{bo}e^{\frac {V_{\text{EB}}}{V_{\text{T}}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>J</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>n</mi> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>base</mtext> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mi>W</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> <mi>q</mi> <msub> <mi>D</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>n</mi> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>n</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>b</mi> <mi>o</mi> </mrow> </msub> <msup> <mi>e</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>EB</mtext> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>T</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mfrac> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle J_{n\,({\text{base}})}={\frac {1}{W}}qD_{n}n_{bo}e^{\frac {V_{\text{EB}}}{V_{\text{T}}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/64d68d0e025f445512dc8a0f5e37408d1446f04b" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.005ex; width:25.917ex; height:6.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle J_{n\,({\text{base}})}={\frac {1}{W}}qD_{n}n_{bo}e^{\frac {V_{\text{EB}}}{V_{\text{T}}}}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>where </p> <ul><li><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle V_{\text{T}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>T</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle V_{\text{T}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/573325c2eb7a29f0dc1ad78430474a93f303ebe3" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.774ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle V_{\text{T}}}"></span> is the <a href="/wiki/Boltzmann_constant#Thermal_voltage" title="Boltzmann constant">thermal voltage</a> <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle kT/q}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>k</mi> <mi>T</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mi>q</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle kT/q}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1dbafab47b145f1c71ba8eda8f71c235622df819" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:5.08ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle kT/q}"></span> (approximately 26 mV at 300 K ≈ room temperature).</li> <li><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle I_{\text{E}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>I</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>E</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle I_{\text{E}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/06aed683bad1d7421032c4b6a9c95616133232bb" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.375ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle I_{\text{E}}}"></span> is the emitter current</li> <li><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle I_{\text{C}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>I</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>C</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle I_{\text{C}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/4e82cbbf8f0a9e3019d85df2ca9eb12a98a470c8" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.442ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle I_{\text{C}}}"></span> is the collector current</li> <li><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \alpha _{\text{F}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>α</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>F</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \alpha _{\text{F}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/358c3f75425bb3a51398560ef839e1be82170b0a" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.793ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \alpha _{\text{F}}}"></span> is the common base forward short-circuit current gain (0.98 to 0.998)</li> <li><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle I_{\text{ES}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>I</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>ES</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle I_{\text{ES}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/d19d916b96f8d97c8ba3910d8d0bfacf09bf5c31" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:3.289ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle I_{\text{ES}}}"></span> is the reverse saturation current of the base–emitter diode (on the order of 10<sup>−15</sup> to 10<sup>−12</sup> amperes)</li> <li><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle V_{\text{BE}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>BE</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle V_{\text{BE}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ee056123acdfc21bfdddb9f255f3379ca300b333" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:3.87ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle V_{\text{BE}}}"></span> is the base–emitter voltage</li> <li><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle D_{n}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>D</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>n</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle D_{n}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/0fe03857347bf517e7fbda4085b0dafd6018cf18" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:3.143ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle D_{n}}"></span> is the diffusion constant for electrons in the p-type base</li> <li><i>W</i> is the base width</li></ul> <p>The <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \alpha }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>α</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \alpha }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b79333175c8b3f0840bfb4ec41b8072c83ea88d3" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.488ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \alpha }"></span> and forward <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \beta }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>β</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \beta }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/7ed48a5e36207156fb792fa79d29925d2f7901e8" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.332ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \beta }"></span> parameters are as described previously. A reverse <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \beta }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>β</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \beta }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/7ed48a5e36207156fb792fa79d29925d2f7901e8" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.332ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \beta }"></span> is sometimes included in the model. </p><p>The unapproximated Ebers–Moll equations used to describe the three currents in any operating region are given below. These equations are based on the transport model for a bipolar junction transistor.<sup id="cite_ref-Sedra_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sedra-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}i_{\text{C}}&=I_{\text{S}}\left[\left(e^{\frac {V_{\text{BE}}}{V_{\text{T}}}}-e^{\frac {V_{\text{BC}}}{V_{\text{T}}}}\right)-{\frac {1}{\beta _{\text{R}}}}\left(e^{\frac {V_{\text{BC}}}{V_{\text{T}}}}-1\right)\right]\\i_{\text{B}}&=I_{\text{S}}\left[{\frac {1}{\beta _{\text{F}}}}\left(e^{\frac {V_{\text{BE}}}{V_{\text{T}}}}-1\right)+{\frac {1}{\beta _{\text{R}}}}\left(e^{\frac {V_{\text{BC}}}{V_{\text{T}}}}-1\right)\right]\\i_{\text{E}}&=I_{\text{S}}\left[\left(e^{\frac {V_{\text{BE}}}{V_{\text{T}}}}-e^{\frac {V_{\text{BC}}}{V_{\text{T}}}}\right)+{\frac {1}{\beta _{\text{F}}}}\left(e^{\frac {V_{\text{BE}}}{V_{\text{T}}}}-1\right)\right]\end{aligned}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtable columnalign="right left right left right left right left right left right left" rowspacing="3pt" columnspacing="0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em" displaystyle="true"> <mtr> <mtd> <msub> <mi>i</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>C</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mtd> <mtd> <mi></mi> <mo>=</mo> <msub> <mi>I</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>S</mtext> </mrow> </msub> <mrow> <mo>[</mo> <mrow> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow> <msup> <mi>e</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>BE</mtext> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>T</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mfrac> </mrow> </msup> <mo>−</mo> <msup> <mi>e</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>BC</mtext> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>T</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mfrac> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <msub> <mi>β</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>R</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mfrac> </mrow> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow> <msup> <mi>e</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>BC</mtext> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>T</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mfrac> </mrow> </msup> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>]</mo> </mrow> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <msub> <mi>i</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>B</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mtd> <mtd> <mi></mi> <mo>=</mo> <msub> <mi>I</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>S</mtext> </mrow> </msub> <mrow> <mo>[</mo> <mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <msub> <mi>β</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>F</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mfrac> </mrow> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow> <msup> <mi>e</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>BE</mtext> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>T</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mfrac> </mrow> </msup> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <msub> <mi>β</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>R</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mfrac> </mrow> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow> <msup> <mi>e</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>BC</mtext> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>T</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mfrac> </mrow> </msup> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>]</mo> </mrow> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <msub> <mi>i</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>E</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mtd> <mtd> <mi></mi> <mo>=</mo> <msub> <mi>I</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>S</mtext> </mrow> </msub> <mrow> <mo>[</mo> <mrow> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow> <msup> <mi>e</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>BE</mtext> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>T</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mfrac> </mrow> </msup> <mo>−</mo> <msup> <mi>e</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>BC</mtext> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>T</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mfrac> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <msub> <mi>β</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>F</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mfrac> </mrow> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow> <msup> <mi>e</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>BE</mtext> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>T</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mfrac> </mrow> </msup> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>]</mo> </mrow> </mtd> </mtr> </mtable> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}i_{\text{C}}&=I_{\text{S}}\left[\left(e^{\frac {V_{\text{BE}}}{V_{\text{T}}}}-e^{\frac {V_{\text{BC}}}{V_{\text{T}}}}\right)-{\frac {1}{\beta _{\text{R}}}}\left(e^{\frac {V_{\text{BC}}}{V_{\text{T}}}}-1\right)\right]\\i_{\text{B}}&=I_{\text{S}}\left[{\frac {1}{\beta _{\text{F}}}}\left(e^{\frac {V_{\text{BE}}}{V_{\text{T}}}}-1\right)+{\frac {1}{\beta _{\text{R}}}}\left(e^{\frac {V_{\text{BC}}}{V_{\text{T}}}}-1\right)\right]\\i_{\text{E}}&=I_{\text{S}}\left[\left(e^{\frac {V_{\text{BE}}}{V_{\text{T}}}}-e^{\frac {V_{\text{BC}}}{V_{\text{T}}}}\right)+{\frac {1}{\beta _{\text{F}}}}\left(e^{\frac {V_{\text{BE}}}{V_{\text{T}}}}-1\right)\right]\end{aligned}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/2b9ab64b3efec643711bf37b452cc3ba5fb725d5" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -10.838ex; width:47.26ex; height:22.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}i_{\text{C}}&=I_{\text{S}}\left[\left(e^{\frac {V_{\text{BE}}}{V_{\text{T}}}}-e^{\frac {V_{\text{BC}}}{V_{\text{T}}}}\right)-{\frac {1}{\beta _{\text{R}}}}\left(e^{\frac {V_{\text{BC}}}{V_{\text{T}}}}-1\right)\right]\\i_{\text{B}}&=I_{\text{S}}\left[{\frac {1}{\beta _{\text{F}}}}\left(e^{\frac {V_{\text{BE}}}{V_{\text{T}}}}-1\right)+{\frac {1}{\beta _{\text{R}}}}\left(e^{\frac {V_{\text{BC}}}{V_{\text{T}}}}-1\right)\right]\\i_{\text{E}}&=I_{\text{S}}\left[\left(e^{\frac {V_{\text{BE}}}{V_{\text{T}}}}-e^{\frac {V_{\text{BC}}}{V_{\text{T}}}}\right)+{\frac {1}{\beta _{\text{F}}}}\left(e^{\frac {V_{\text{BE}}}{V_{\text{T}}}}-1\right)\right]\end{aligned}}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>where </p> <ul><li><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle i_{\text{C}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>i</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>C</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle i_{\text{C}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b7f808f5810c680dda22807e337fb161af1eb3a1" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.221ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle i_{\text{C}}}"></span> is the collector current</li> <li><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle i_{\text{B}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>i</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>B</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle i_{\text{B}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/6c9bcaba77529d12a23348e74720c5144bd2958d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.198ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle i_{\text{B}}}"></span> is the base current</li> <li><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle i_{\text{E}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>i</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>E</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle i_{\text{E}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/11eddae316602855275b0350a42d01ed6d5fbfcb" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.154ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle i_{\text{E}}}"></span> is the emitter current</li> <li><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \beta _{\text{F}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>β</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>F</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \beta _{\text{F}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/d0ed5f2b014e8afc3e80585b17eb5ae780555cdd" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.621ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \beta _{\text{F}}}"></span> is the forward common emitter current gain (20 to 500)</li> <li><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \beta _{\text{R}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>β</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>R</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \beta _{\text{R}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f76c7b12427920b14d29de8b64d77fbbb86602d8" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.758ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \beta _{\text{R}}}"></span> is the reverse common emitter current gain (0 to 20)</li> <li><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle I_{\text{S}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>I</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>S</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle I_{\text{S}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/75ad731dfa09b44b0291374f0eda9c9f320b440e" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.169ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle I_{\text{S}}}"></span> is the reverse saturation current (on the order of 10<sup>−15</sup> to 10<sup>−12</sup> amperes)</li> <li><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle V_{\text{T}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>T</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle V_{\text{T}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/573325c2eb7a29f0dc1ad78430474a93f303ebe3" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.774ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle V_{\text{T}}}"></span> is the thermal voltage (approximately 26 mV at 300 K ≈ room temperature).</li> <li><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle V_{\text{BE}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>BE</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle V_{\text{BE}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ee056123acdfc21bfdddb9f255f3379ca300b333" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:3.87ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle V_{\text{BE}}}"></span> is the base–emitter voltage</li> <li><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle V_{\text{BC}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>BC</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle V_{\text{BC}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ccbe9a4c824bc18f452279030c79754f9668b689" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:3.938ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle V_{\text{BC}}}"></span> is the base–collector voltage</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Base-width_modulation">Base-width modulation</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bipolar_junction_transistor&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Base-width modulation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Early_effect" title="Early effect">Early effect</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Frame"><a href="/wiki/File:Early_effect_(NPN).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Early_effect_%28NPN%29.svg/250px-Early_effect_%28NPN%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="340" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Early_effect_%28NPN%29.svg/375px-Early_effect_%28NPN%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Early_effect_%28NPN%29.svg/500px-Early_effect_%28NPN%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="340" /></a><figcaption>Top: NPN base width for low collector–base reverse bias; Bottom: narrower NPN base width for large collector–base reverse bias. Hashed regions are <a href="/wiki/Depletion_width" class="mw-redirect" title="Depletion width">depleted regions</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>As the collector–base voltage (<span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle V_{\text{CB}}=V_{\text{CE}}-V_{\text{BE}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>CB</mtext> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>CE</mtext> </mrow> </msub> <mo>−</mo> <msub> <mi>V</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>BE</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle V_{\text{CB}}=V_{\text{CE}}-V_{\text{BE}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/3a568803f7a0b4e411deed904c491e981a37c097" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:17.64ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle V_{\text{CB}}=V_{\text{CE}}-V_{\text{BE}}}"></span>) varies, the collector–base depletion region varies in size. An increase in the collector–base voltage, for example, causes a greater reverse bias across the collector–base junction, increasing the collector–base depletion region width, and decreasing the width of the base. This variation in base width often is called the <i><a href="/wiki/Early_effect" title="Early effect">Early effect</a></i> after its discoverer <a href="/wiki/James_M._Early" title="James M. Early">James M. Early</a>. </p><p>Narrowing of the base width has two consequences: </p> <ul><li>There is a lesser chance for recombination within the "smaller" base region.</li> <li>The charge gradient is increased across the base, and consequently, the current of minority carriers injected across the emitter junction increases.</li></ul> <p>Both factors increase the collector or "output" current of the transistor in response to an increase in the collector–base voltage. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Punchthrough">Punchthrough</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bipolar_junction_transistor&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Punchthrough"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>When the base–collector voltage reaches a certain (device-specific) value, the base–collector depletion region boundary meets the base–emitter depletion region boundary. When in this state the transistor effectively has no base. The device thus loses all gain when in this state. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Gummel–Poon_charge-control_model"><span id="Gummel.E2.80.93Poon_charge-control_model"></span>Gummel–Poon charge-control model</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bipolar_junction_transistor&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Gummel–Poon charge-control model"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Gummel–Poon model<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is a detailed charge-controlled model of BJT dynamics, which has been adopted and elaborated by others to explain transistor dynamics in greater detail than the terminal-based models typically do.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This model also includes the dependence of transistor <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \beta }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>β</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \beta }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/7ed48a5e36207156fb792fa79d29925d2f7901e8" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.332ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \beta }"></span>-values upon the direct current levels in the transistor, which are assumed current-independent in the Ebers–Moll model.<sup id="cite_ref-Sedra2_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sedra2-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Small-signal_models">Small-signal models</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bipolar_junction_transistor&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Small-signal models"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Hybrid-pi_model">Hybrid-pi model</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bipolar_junction_transistor&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Hybrid-pi model"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Hybrid-pi_model" title="Hybrid-pi model">hybrid-pi model</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hybrid-pi_detailed_model.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Hybrid-pi_detailed_model.svg/220px-Hybrid-pi_detailed_model.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Hybrid-pi_detailed_model.svg/330px-Hybrid-pi_detailed_model.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Hybrid-pi_detailed_model.svg/440px-Hybrid-pi_detailed_model.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="371" data-file-height="216" /></a><figcaption>Hybrid-pi model</figcaption></figure> <p>The hybrid-pi model is a popular <a href="/wiki/Electronic_circuit" title="Electronic circuit">circuit</a> model used for analyzing the <a href="/wiki/Small_signal" class="mw-redirect" title="Small signal">small signal</a> and AC behavior of bipolar junction and field effect <a href="/wiki/Transistors" class="mw-redirect" title="Transistors">transistors</a>. Sometimes it is also called <i>Giacoletto model</i> because it was introduced by <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_J._Giacoletto" title="Lawrence J. Giacoletto">L.J. Giacoletto</a> in 1969. The model can be quite accurate for low-frequency circuits and can easily be adapted for higher-frequency circuits with the addition of appropriate inter-electrode <a href="/wiki/Capacitance" title="Capacitance">capacitances</a> and other parasitic elements. </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="h-parameter_model">h-parameter model</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bipolar_junction_transistor&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: h-parameter model"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Frame"><a href="/wiki/File:BJT_h-parameters_(generalised).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/BJT_h-parameters_%28generalised%29.svg/300px-BJT_h-parameters_%28generalised%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/BJT_h-parameters_%28generalised%29.svg/450px-BJT_h-parameters_%28generalised%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/BJT_h-parameters_%28generalised%29.svg/600px-BJT_h-parameters_%28generalised%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="175" /></a><figcaption>Generalized h-parameter model of an NPN BJT.<br /><i>Replace <b>x</b> with <b>e</b>, <b>b</b> or <b>c</b> for CE, CB and CC topologies respectively.</i></figcaption></figure> <p>Another model commonly used to analyze BJT circuits is the <i><a href="/wiki/Two-port_network#Hybrid_parameters_(h-parameters)" title="Two-port network">h-parameter</a></i> model, also known as the hybrid equivalent model, closely related to the <a href="/wiki/Hybrid-pi_model" title="Hybrid-pi model">hybrid-pi model</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Admittance_parameters" title="Admittance parameters">y-parameter</a> <a href="/wiki/Two-port_network#Y-parameters_(admittance_parameters)" title="Two-port network">two-port</a>, but using input current and output voltage as independent variables, rather than input and output voltages. This two-port network is particularly suited to BJTs as it lends itself easily to the analysis of circuit behaviour, and may be used to develop further accurate models. As shown, the term <i>x</i> in the model represents a different BJT lead depending on the topology used. For common-emitter mode the various symbols take on the specific values as: </p> <ul><li>Terminal 1, base</li> <li>Terminal 2, collector</li> <li>Terminal 3 (common), emitter; giving <i>x</i> to be <i>e</i></li> <li><i>i</i><sub>i</sub>, base current (<i>i</i><sub>b</sub>)</li> <li><i>i</i><sub>o</sub>, collector current (<i>i</i><sub>c</sub>)</li> <li><i>V</i><sub>in</sub>, base-to-emitter voltage (<i>V</i><sub>BE</sub>)</li> <li><i>V</i><sub>o</sub>, collector-to-emitter voltage (<i>V</i><sub>CE</sub>)</li></ul> <p>and the h-parameters are given by: </p> <ul><li><i>h</i><sub>ix</sub> = <i>h</i><sub>ie</sub> for the common-emitter configuration, the <b>i</b>nput impedance of the transistor (corresponding to the base resistance <i>r</i><sub>pi</sub>).</li> <li><i>h</i><sub>rx</sub> = <i>h</i><sub>re</sub>, a <b>r</b>everse transfer relationship, it represents the dependence of the transistor's (input) <i>I</i><sub>B</sub>–<i>V</i><sub>BE</sub> curve on the value of (output) <i>V</i><sub>CE</sub>. It is usually very small and is often neglected (assumed to be zero) at DC.</li> <li><i>h</i><sub>fx</sub> = <i>h</i><sub>fe</sub>, the "forward" current-gain of the transistor, sometimes written <i>h<sub>21</sub></i>. This parameter, with lower case "fe" to imply small signal (AC) gain, or more often with capital letters for "FE" (specified as <i>h</i><sub>FE</sub>) to mean the "large signal" or DC current-gain (<i>β</i><sub>DC</sub> or often simply <i>β</i>), is one of the main parameters in datasheets, and may be given for a typical collector current and voltage or plotted as a function of collector current. See below.</li> <li><i>h</i><sub>ox</sub> = 1/<i>h</i><sub>oe</sub>, the output impedance of transistor. The parameter <i>h</i><sub>oe</sub> usually corresponds to the output admittance of the bipolar transistor and has to be inverted to convert it to an impedance.</li></ul> <p>As shown, the h-parameters have lower-case subscripts and hence signify AC conditions or analyses. For DC conditions they are specified in upper-case. For the CE topology, an approximate h-parameter model is commonly used which further simplifies the circuit analysis. For this the <i>h</i><sub>oe</sub> and <i>h</i><sub>re</sub> parameters are neglected (that is, they are set to infinity and zero, respectively). The h-parameter model as shown is suited to low-frequency, small-signal analysis. For high-frequency analyses the inter-electrode capacitances that are important at high frequencies must be added. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Etymology_of_hFE">Etymology of <i>h</i><sub>FE</sub></h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bipolar_junction_transistor&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Etymology of hFE"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <i>h</i> refers to its being an h-parameter, a set of parameters named for their origin in a <i><b>h</b>ybrid equivalent circuit</i> model (see above). As with all h parameters, the choice of lower case or capitals for the letters that follow the "h" is significant; lower-case signifies "small signal" parameters, that is, the slope the particular relationship; upper-case letters imply "large signal" or <a href="/wiki/Direct_Current" class="mw-redirect" title="Direct Current">DC</a> values, the ratio of the voltages or currents. In the case of the very often used <i>h</i><sub>FE</sub>: </p> <ul><li><i>F</i> is from <i><b>F</b>orward current amplification</i> also called the current gain.</li> <li><i>E</i> refers to the transistor operating in a <i>common <b>E</b>mitter</i> (CE) configuration.</li></ul> <p>So h<sub>FE</sub> (or hFE) refers to the (total; DC) collector current divided by the base current, and is dimensionless. It is a parameter that varies somewhat with collector current, but is often approximated as a constant; it is normally specified at a typical collector current and voltage, or graphed as a function of collector current. </p><p>Had capital letters not been used for used in the subscript, i.e. if it were written <i>h<sub>fe</sub></i> the parameter indicate small signal (<a href="/wiki/Alternating_Current" class="mw-redirect" title="Alternating Current">AC</a>) current gain, i.e. the slope of the Collector current versus Base current graph at a given point, which is often close to the hFE value unless the test frequency is high. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Industry_models">Industry models <span class="anchor" id="Mextram"></span><span class="anchor" id="HICUM"></span><span class="anchor" id="HiCuM"></span><span class="anchor" id="Modella"></span><span class="anchor" id="VBIC"></span></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bipolar_junction_transistor&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Industry models"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b>. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bipolar_junction_transistor&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">January 2015</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The Gummel–Poon SPICE model is often used, but it suffers from several limitations. For instance, reverse breakdown of the base–emitter diode is not captured by the SGP (SPICE Gummel–Poon) model, neither are thermal effects (self-heating) or quasi-saturation.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These have been addressed in various more advanced models which either focus on specific cases of application (Mextram, HICUM, Modella) or are designed for universal usage (VBIC).<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Gildenblat2010_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gildenblat2010-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Schröter2010_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schröter2010-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Applications">Applications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bipolar_junction_transistor&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Applications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The BJT remains a device that excels in some applications, such as discrete circuit design, due to the very wide selection of BJT types available, and because of its high transconductance and output resistance compared to <a href="/wiki/MOSFET" title="MOSFET">MOSFETs</a>. </p><p>The BJT is also the choice for demanding analog circuits, especially for <a href="/wiki/Very-high-frequency" class="mw-redirect" title="Very-high-frequency">very-high-frequency</a> applications, such as <a href="/wiki/Radio-frequency" class="mw-redirect" title="Radio-frequency">radio-frequency</a> circuits for wireless systems. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="High-speed_digital_logic">High-speed digital logic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bipolar_junction_transistor&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: High-speed digital logic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Emitter-coupled_logic" title="Emitter-coupled logic">Emitter-coupled logic</a> (ECL) use BJTs. </p><p>Bipolar transistors can be combined with MOSFETs in an integrated circuit by using a BiCMOS process of wafer fabrication to create circuits that take advantage of the application strengths of both types of transistor. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Amplifiers">Amplifiers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bipolar_junction_transistor&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Amplifiers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Electronic_amplifier" class="mw-redirect" title="Electronic amplifier">Electronic amplifier</a></div> <p>The <a href="#Transistor_parameters:_alpha_(α)_and_beta_(β)">transistor parameters</a> α and β characterize the <a href="/wiki/Gain_(electronics)" title="Gain (electronics)">current gain</a> of the BJT. It is this gain that allows BJTs to be used as the building blocks of electronic amplifiers. The three main BJT amplifier topologies are: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Common_emitter" title="Common emitter">Common emitter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_base" title="Common base">Common base</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_collector" title="Common collector">Common collector</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Temperature_sensors">Temperature sensors</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bipolar_junction_transistor&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Temperature sensors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Silicon_bandgap_temperature_sensor" title="Silicon bandgap temperature sensor">Silicon bandgap temperature sensor</a></div> <p>Because of the known temperature and current dependence of the forward-biased base–emitter junction voltage, the BJT can be used to measure temperature by subtracting two voltages at two different bias currents in a known ratio.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Logarithmic_converters">Logarithmic converters</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bipolar_junction_transistor&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Logarithmic converters"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Because base–emitter voltage varies as the logarithm of the base–emitter and collector–emitter currents, a BJT can also be used to compute <a href="/wiki/Logarithm" title="Logarithm">logarithms</a> and anti-logarithms. A diode can also perform these nonlinear functions but the transistor provides more circuit flexibility. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Avalanche_pulse_generators">Avalanche pulse generators</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bipolar_junction_transistor&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Avalanche pulse generators"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Transistors may be deliberately made with a lower collector to emitter breakdown voltage than the collector to base breakdown voltage. If the emitter–base junction is reverse biased the collector emitter voltage may be maintained at a voltage just below breakdown. As soon as the base voltage is allowed to rise, and current flows <a href="/wiki/Avalanche_breakdown" title="Avalanche breakdown">avalanche</a> occurs and impact ionization in the collector base depletion region rapidly floods the base with carriers and turns the transistor fully on. So long as the pulses are short enough and infrequent enough that the device is not damaged, this effect can be used to create very sharp falling edges. </p><p>Special <a href="/wiki/Avalanche_transistor" title="Avalanche transistor">avalanche transistor</a> devices are made for this application. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Vulnerabilities">Vulnerabilities</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bipolar_junction_transistor&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Vulnerabilities"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Bipolar_junction_transistor" title="Special:EditPage/Bipolar junction transistor">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">June 2023</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Exposure of the transistor to <a href="/wiki/Ionizing_radiation" title="Ionizing radiation">ionizing radiation</a> causes <a href="/wiki/Radiation_hardening" title="Radiation hardening">radiation damage</a>. Radiation causes a buildup of 'defects' in the base region that act as recombination centers. The resulting reduction in minority carrier lifetime causes gradual loss of gain of the transistor. </p><p>Transistors have "maximum ratings", including <a href="/wiki/Power_rating" title="Power rating">power ratings</a> (essentially limited by self-heating), maximum collector and base currents (both continuous/DC ratings and peak), and <a href="/wiki/Breakdown_voltage" title="Breakdown voltage">breakdown voltage</a> ratings, beyond which the device may fail or at least perform badly. </p><p>In addition to normal breakdown ratings of the device, power BJTs are subject to a failure mode called <a href="/wiki/Secondary_breakdown" class="mw-redirect" title="Secondary breakdown">secondary breakdown</a>, in which excessive current and normal imperfections in the silicon die cause portions of the silicon inside the device to become disproportionately hotter than the others. The electrical resistivity of doped silicon, like other semiconductors, has a negative <a href="/wiki/Temperature_coefficient" title="Temperature coefficient">temperature coefficient</a>, meaning that it conducts more current at higher temperatures. Thus, the hottest part of the die conducts the most current, causing its conductivity to increase, which then causes it to become progressively hotter again, until the device fails internally. The thermal runaway process associated with secondary breakdown, once triggered, occurs almost instantly and may catastrophically damage the transistor package. </p><p>If the emitter–base junction is reverse biased into avalanche or <a href="/wiki/Zener_breakdown" class="mw-redirect" title="Zener breakdown">Zener</a> mode and charge flows for a short period of time, the current gain of the BJT may be permanently degraded, as the emitter is smaller than the collector and cannot dissipate significant power. This is a common <a href="/wiki/Electrostatic-sensitive_device" title="Electrostatic-sensitive device">ESD</a> failure mechanism in low-voltage devices. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bipolar_junction_transistor&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_ksim.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Nuvola_apps_ksim.png/28px-Nuvola_apps_ksim.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Nuvola_apps_ksim.png/42px-Nuvola_apps_ksim.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Nuvola_apps_ksim.png/56px-Nuvola_apps_ksim.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Electronics" title="Portal:Electronics">Electronics portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bipolar_transistor_biasing" title="Bipolar transistor biasing">Bipolar transistor biasing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gummel_plot" title="Gummel plot">Gummel plot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insulated_gate_bipolar_transistor" class="mw-redirect" title="Insulated gate bipolar transistor">Insulated gate bipolar transistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiple-emitter_transistor" title="Multiple-emitter transistor">Multiple-emitter transistor</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bipolar_junction_transistor&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Some metals, such as <a href="/wiki/Aluminium" title="Aluminium">aluminium</a> have significant hole bands.<sup id="cite_ref-ashcroftandmermin_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ashcroftandmermin-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <a href="/wiki/Point-contact_transistor" title="Point-contact transistor">Point-contact transistor</a> for the historical origin of these names.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bipolar_junction_transistor&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-ashcroftandmermin-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ashcroftandmermin_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFAshcroftMermin1976" class="citation book cs1">Ashcroft; Mermin (1976). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/solidstatephysic00ashc/page/299"><i>Solid State Physics</i></a> (1st ed.). Holt, Rinehart, and Winston. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/solidstatephysic00ashc/page/299">299–302</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0030839931" title="Special:BookSources/978-0030839931"><bdi>978-0030839931</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Solid+State+Physics&rft.pages=299-302&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Holt%2C+Rinehart%2C+and+Winston&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=978-0030839931&rft.au=Ashcroft&rft.au=Mermin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsolidstatephysic00ashc%2Fpage%2F299&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABipolar+junction+transistor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-hu-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-hu_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChenming_Calvin_Hu2010" class="citation book cs1">Chenming Calvin Hu (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://people.eecs.berkeley.edu/~hu/Book-Chapters-and-Lecture-Slides-download.html"><i>Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits</i></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+Semiconductor+Devices+for+Integrated+Circuits&rft.date=2010&rft.au=Chenming+Calvin+Hu&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpeople.eecs.berkeley.edu%2F~hu%2FBook-Chapters-and-Lecture-Slides-download.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABipolar+junction+transistor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Horowitz_1989-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Horowitz_1989_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Horowitz_1989_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Horowitz_1989_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Horowitz_1989_5-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHorowitzHill1989" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Horowitz" title="Paul Horowitz">Horowitz, Paul</a>; <a href="/wiki/Winfield_Hill" title="Winfield Hill">Hill, Winfield</a> (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bkOMDgwFA28C"><i>The Art of Electronics</i></a> (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-37095-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-37095-0"><bdi>978-0-521-37095-0</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-06-22</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Art+of+Electronics&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-521-37095-0&rft.aulast=Horowitz&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft.au=Hill%2C+Winfield&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbkOMDgwFA28C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABipolar+junction+transistor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiouYuan1998" class="citation book cs1">Liou, Juin Jei; Yuan, Jiann S. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=y343FTN1TU0C&q=charge-controlled+bjt+physics&pg=PA166"><i>Semiconductor Device Physics and Simulation</i></a>. Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-306-45724-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-306-45724-1"><bdi>978-0-306-45724-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Semiconductor+Device+Physics+and+Simulation&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-306-45724-1&rft.aulast=Liou&rft.aufirst=Juin+Jei&rft.au=Yuan%2C+Jiann+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dy343FTN1TU0C%26q%3Dcharge-controlled%2Bbjt%2Bphysics%26pg%3DPA166&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABipolar+junction+transistor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGeneral_Electric1962" class="citation book cs1">General Electric (1962). <i>Transistor Manual</i> (6th ed.). p. 12. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1964trma.book.....C">1964trma.book.....C</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Transistor+Manual&rft.pages=12&rft.edition=6th&rft.date=1962&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1964trma.book.....C&rft.au=General+Electric&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABipolar+junction+transistor" class="Z3988"></span> "If the principle of space charge neutrality is used in the analysis of the transistor, it is evident that the collector current is controlled by means of the positive charge (hole concentration) in the base region. ... When a transistor is used at higher frequencies, the fundamental limitation is the time it takes the carriers to diffuse across the base region..." (same in 4th and 5th editions).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAntognettiMassobrio1993" class="citation book cs1">Antognetti, Paolo; Massobrio, Giuseppe (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5IBYU9xrGaIC&q=gummel-poon+charge+model&pg=PA96"><i>Semiconductor Device Modeling with Spice</i></a>. McGraw–Hill Professional. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-134955-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-07-134955-0"><bdi>978-0-07-134955-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Semiconductor+Device+Modeling+with+Spice&rft.pub=McGraw%E2%80%93Hill+Professional&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-07-134955-0&rft.aulast=Antognetti&rft.aufirst=Paolo&rft.au=Massobrio%2C+Giuseppe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5IBYU9xrGaIC%26q%3Dgummel-poon%2Bcharge%2Bmodel%26pg%3DPA96&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABipolar+junction+transistor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorganWilliams1991" class="citation book cs1">Morgan, D.V.; Williams, Robin H., eds. (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=C98iH7UDtzwC&q=%22SIGe+heterojunction%22&pg=PA210"><i>Physics and Technology of Heterojunction Devices</i></a>. London: Institution of Electrical Engineers (Peter Peregrinus Ltd.). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-86341-204-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-86341-204-2"><bdi>978-0-86341-204-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Physics+and+Technology+of+Heterojunction+Devices&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Institution+of+Electrical+Engineers+%28Peter+Peregrinus+Ltd.%29&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-86341-204-2&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DC98iH7UDtzwC%26q%3D%2522SIGe%2Bheterojunction%2522%26pg%3DPA210&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABipolar+junction+transistor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ashburn-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ashburn_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAshburn2003" class="citation book cs1">Ashburn, Peter (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/isbn/0470848383"><i>SiGe Heterojunction Bipolar Transistors</i></a>. New York: Wiley. Chapter 10. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-84838-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-470-84838-8"><bdi>978-0-470-84838-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=SiGe+Heterojunction+Bipolar+Transistors&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=Chapter+10&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-470-84838-8&rft.aulast=Ashburn&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fworldcat.org%2Fisbn%2F0470848383&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABipolar+junction+transistor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJIMBLOM" class="citation web cs1">JIMBLOM. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://learn.sparkfun.com/tutorials/transistors/operation-modes">"Transistors: Operation Modes"</a>. <a href="/wiki/SparkFun_Electronics" title="SparkFun Electronics">SparkFun Electronics</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-06-22</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Transistors%3A+Operation+Modes&rft.pub=SparkFun+Electronics&rft.au=JIMBLOM&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flearn.sparkfun.com%2Ftutorials%2Ftransistors%2Foperation-modes&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABipolar+junction+transistor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web.mit.edu/6.012/www/SP07-L18.pdf">"Lecture 18 Outline: The Bipolar Junction Transistor (II) – Regimes of Operation"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Spring 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-06-22</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Lecture+18+Outline%3A+The+Bipolar+Junction+Transistor+%28II%29+%E2%80%93+Regimes+of+Operation&rft.date=2007&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fweb.mit.edu%2F6.012%2Fwww%2FSP07-L18.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABipolar+junction+transistor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.computerhistory.org/semiconductor/timeline/1947-invention.html">"1947: Invention of the Point-Contact Transistor"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Computer_History_Museum" title="Computer History Museum">Computer History Museum</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 10,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=1947%3A+Invention+of+the+Point-Contact+Transistor&rft.pub=Computer+History+Museum&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.computerhistory.org%2Fsemiconductor%2Ftimeline%2F1947-invention.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABipolar+junction+transistor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.computerhistory.org/semiconductor/timeline/1948-conception.html">"1948: Conception of the Junction Transistor"</a>. Computer History Museum<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 10,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=1948%3A+Conception+of+the+Junction+Transistor&rft.pub=Computer+History+Museum&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.computerhistory.org%2Fsemiconductor%2Ftimeline%2F1948-conception.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABipolar+junction+transistor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hm-treasury.gov.uk/media/B/C/queen_mary_ip_research_institute_p5_043_762kb.pdf">Third case study – the solid state advent</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070927032750/http://hm-treasury.gov.uk/media/B/C/queen_mary_ip_research_institute_p5_043_762kb.pdf">Archived</a> September 27, 2007, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (PDF)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://semiconductormuseum.com/PhotoGallery/PhotoGallery_M1752.htm">"Transistor Museum, Historic Transistor Photo Gallery, Bell Labs Type M1752"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Transistor+Museum%2C+Historic+Transistor+Photo+Gallery%2C+Bell+Labs+Type+M1752&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsemiconductormuseum.com%2FPhotoGallery%2FPhotoGallery_M1752.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABipolar+junction+transistor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorris1990" class="citation book cs1">Morris, Peter Robin (1990). "4.2". <i>A History of the World Semiconductor Industry</i>. IEE History of Technology Series 12. London: Peter Peregrinus Ltd. p. 29. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-86341-227-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-86341-227-1"><bdi>978-0-86341-227-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=4.2&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+World+Semiconductor+Industry&rft.place=London&rft.series=IEE+History+of+Technology+Series+12&rft.pages=29&rft.pub=Peter+Peregrinus+Ltd.&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-86341-227-1&rft.aulast=Morris&rft.aufirst=Peter+Robin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABipolar+junction+transistor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://semiconductormuseum.com/PhotoGallery/PhotoGallery_TA153.htm">"Transistor Museum Photo Gallery RCA TA153"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 10,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Transistor+Museum+Photo+Gallery+RCA+TA153&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsemiconductormuseum.com%2FPhotoGallery%2FPhotoGallery_TA153.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABipolar+junction+transistor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>High Speed Switching Transistor Handbook</i> (2nd ed.). Motorola. 1963. p. 17.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=High+Speed+Switching+Transistor+Handbook&rft.pages=17&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Motorola&rft.date=1963&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABipolar+junction+transistor" class="Z3988"></span><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://groups.google.com/group/sci.electronics.components/tree/browse_frm/month/2003-04/c97c04dc783ab61e?rnum=21&_done=%2Fgroup%2Fsci.electronics.components%2Fbrowse_frm%2Fmonth%2F2003-04%3F">[1]</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://semiconductormuseum.com/PhotoGallery/PhotoGallery_3N22.htm">Transistor Museum, Historic Transistor Photo Gallery, Western Electric 3N22</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaupin1957" class="citation journal cs1">Maupin, J.T. (1957). 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 10,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Transistor+Museum+Photo+Gallery+Philco+A01+Germanium+Surface+Barrier+Transistor&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsemiconductormuseum.com%2FPhotoGallery%2FPhotoGallery_A01.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABipolar+junction+transistor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://semiconductormuseum.com/PhotoGallery/PhotoGallery_SurfaceBarrier.htm">"Transistor Museum Photo Gallery Germanium Surface Barrier Transistor"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 10,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Transistor+Museum+Photo+Gallery+Fairchild+2N1613+Early+Silicon+Planar+Transistor&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsemiconductormuseum.com%2FPhotoGallery%2FPhotoGallery_2N1613.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABipolar+junction+transistor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.computerhistory.org/semiconductor/timeline/1960-Epitaxial.html">"1960: Epitaxial Deposition Process Enhances Transistor Performance"</a>. Computer History Museum<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Silvaco. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.silvaco.com/content/kbase/smartspice_device_models.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2016-03-05<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2015-01-15</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=SmartSpice+Analog+Circuit+Simulator&rft.pub=Silvaco&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.silvaco.com%2Fcontent%2Fkbase%2Fsmartspice_device_models.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABipolar+junction+transistor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gildenblat2010-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gildenblat2010_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGennady_Gildenblat2010" class="citation book cs1">Gennady Gildenblat, ed. (2010). <i>Compact Modeling: Principles, Techniques and Applications</i>. Springer Science & Business Media. Part II: Compact Models of Bipolar Junction Transistors, pp. 167–267 cover Mextram and HiCuM in-depth. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-481-8614-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-481-8614-3"><bdi>978-90-481-8614-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Compact+Modeling%3A+Principles%2C+Techniques+and+Applications&rft.pages=Part-II%3A+Compact+Models+of+Bipolar+Junction+Transistors%2C+pp.+167-267+cover+Mextram+and+HiCuM+in-depth&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-90-481-8614-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABipolar+junction+transistor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Schröter2010-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Schröter2010_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchröter2010" class="citation book cs1">Schröter, Michael (2010). <i>Compact Hierarchical Bipolar Transistor Modeling with Hicum</i>. World Scientific. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-981-4273-21-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-981-4273-21-3"><bdi>978-981-4273-21-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Compact+Hierarchical+Bipolar+Transistor+Modeling+with+Hicum&rft.pub=World+Scientific&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-981-4273-21-3&rft.aulast=Schr%C3%B6ter&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABipolar+junction+transistor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150116091931/http://joerg-berkner.de/Fachartikel/pdf/2002_ICCAP_UM_Berkner_Compact_Models_4_BJTs.pdf">"Compact Models for Bipolar Transistors, Berkner"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://joerg-berkner.de/Fachartikel/pdf/2002_ICCAP_UM_Berkner_Compact_Models_4_BJTs.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2015-01-16<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2015-01-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Compact+Models+for+Bipolar+Transistors%2C+Berkner&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjoerg-berkner.de%2FFachartikel%2Fpdf%2F2002_ICCAP_UM_Berkner_Compact_Models_4_BJTs.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABipolar+junction+transistor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.maxim-ic.com/appnotes.cfm/appnote_number/689">"IC Temperature Sensors Find the Hot Spots - Application Note"</a>. <i>maxim-ic.com</i>. February 21, 2002<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 10,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=maxim-ic.com&rft.atitle=IC+Temperature+Sensors+Find+the+Hot+Spots+-+Application+Note&rft.date=2002-02-21&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.maxim-ic.com%2Fappnotes.cfm%2Fappnote_number%2F689&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABipolar+junction+transistor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bipolar_junction_transistor&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" 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href="/wiki/Template:Transistor_amplifiers" title="Template:Transistor amplifiers"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Transistor_amplifiers" title="Template talk:Transistor amplifiers"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Transistor_amplifiers" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Transistor amplifiers"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Transistor_amplifiers" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">Transistor</a> <a href="/wiki/Amplifier" title="Amplifier">amplifiers</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="3" style="width:1px;padding:0 2px 0 0"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:IEEE_315-1975_(1993)_8.6.10.1.b.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/IEEE_315-1975_%281993%29_8.6.10.1.b.svg/90px-IEEE_315-1975_%281993%29_8.6.10.1.b.svg.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/IEEE_315-1975_%281993%29_8.6.10.1.b.svg/135px-IEEE_315-1975_%281993%29_8.6.10.1.b.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/IEEE_315-1975_%281993%29_8.6.10.1.b.svg/180px-IEEE_315-1975_%281993%29_8.6.10.1.b.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></a></span></div></td><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Bipolar junction transistor</a>:</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Common_emitter" title="Common emitter">Common emitter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_collector" title="Common collector">Common collector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_base" title="Common base">Common base</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="3" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:IEEE_315-1975_(1993)_8.6.1.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/IEEE_315-1975_%281993%29_8.6.1.svg/90px-IEEE_315-1975_%281993%29_8.6.1.svg.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/IEEE_315-1975_%281993%29_8.6.1.svg/135px-IEEE_315-1975_%281993%29_8.6.1.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/IEEE_315-1975_%281993%29_8.6.1.svg/180px-IEEE_315-1975_%281993%29_8.6.1.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Field-effect_transistor" title="Field-effect transistor">Field-effect transistor</a>:</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Common_source" title="Common source">Common source</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_drain" title="Common drain">Common drain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_gate" title="Common gate">Common gate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Multiple transistors:</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Darlington_transistor" title="Darlington transistor">Darlington transistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Complementary_feedback_pair" class="mw-redirect" title="Complementary feedback pair">Complementary feedback pair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cascode" title="Cascode">Cascode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Differential_amplifier#Long-tailed_pair" title="Differential amplifier">Long-tailed pair</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Electronic_components" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Electronic_components" title="Template:Electronic components"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a 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title="MOSFET">MOS <br />transistors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">Transistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NMOS_logic" title="NMOS logic">NMOS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PMOS_logic" title="PMOS logic">PMOS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BiCMOS" title="BiCMOS">BiCMOS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bio-FET" title="Bio-FET">BioFET</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_field-effect_transistor" title="Chemical field-effect transistor">Chemical field-effect transistor</a> (ChemFET)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/CMOS" title="CMOS">Complementary MOS</a> (CMOS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depletion-load_NMOS_logic" title="Depletion-load NMOS logic">Depletion-load NMOS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FinFET" class="mw-redirect" title="FinFET">Fin field-effect transistor</a> (FinFET)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floating-gate_MOSFET" title="Floating-gate MOSFET">Floating-gate MOSFET</a> (FGMOS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insulated-gate_bipolar_transistor" title="Insulated-gate bipolar transistor">Insulated-gate bipolar transistor</a> (IGBT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISFET" title="ISFET">ISFET</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LDMOS" title="LDMOS">LDMOS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MOSFET" title="MOSFET">MOS field-effect transistor</a> (MOSFET)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multigate_device" title="Multigate device">Multi-gate field-effect transistor</a> (MuGFET)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_MOSFET" title="Power MOSFET">Power MOSFET</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thin-film_transistor" title="Thin-film transistor">Thin-film transistor</a> (TFT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/VMOS" title="VMOS">VMOS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_MOSFET#UMOS" title="Power MOSFET">UMOS</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">Other <br />transistors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Bipolar junction transistor</a> (BJT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darlington_transistor" title="Darlington transistor">Darlington transistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diffused_junction_transistor" title="Diffused junction transistor">Diffused junction transistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field-effect_transistor" title="Field-effect transistor">Field-effect transistor</a> (FET) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/JFET" title="JFET">Junction Gate FET (JFET)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_field-effect_transistor" title="Organic field-effect transistor">Organic FET (OFET)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Light-emitting_transistor" title="Light-emitting transistor">Light-emitting transistor</a> (LET) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Organic_light-emitting_transistor" title="Organic light-emitting transistor">Organic LET (OLET)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pentode_transistor" title="Pentode transistor">Pentode transistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Point-contact_transistor" title="Point-contact transistor">Point-contact transistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programmable_unijunction_transistor" title="Programmable unijunction transistor">Programmable unijunction transistor</a> (PUT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Static_induction_transistor" title="Static induction transistor">Static induction transistor</a> (SIT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetrode_transistor" title="Tetrode transistor">Tetrode transistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unijunction_transistor" title="Unijunction transistor">Unijunction transistor</a> (UJT)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Diode" title="Diode">Diodes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avalanche_diode" title="Avalanche diode">Avalanche diode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constant-current_diode" title="Constant-current diode">Constant-current diode</a> (CLD, CRD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunn_diode" title="Gunn diode">Gunn diode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laser_diode" title="Laser diode">Laser diode</a> (LD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Light-emitting_diode" title="Light-emitting diode">Light-emitting diode</a> (LED)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/OLED" title="OLED">Organic light-emitting diode</a> (OLED)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photodiode" title="Photodiode">Photodiode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PIN_diode" title="PIN diode">PIN diode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schottky_diode" title="Schottky diode">Schottky diode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Step_recovery_diode" title="Step recovery diode">Step recovery diode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zener_diode" title="Zener diode">Zener diode</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other <br />devices</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Printed_electronics" title="Printed electronics">Printed electronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Printed_circuit_board" title="Printed circuit board">Printed circuit board</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DIAC" title="DIAC">DIAC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterostructure_barrier_varactor" title="Heterostructure barrier varactor">Heterostructure barrier varactor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">Integrated circuit</a> (IC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hybrid_integrated_circuit" title="Hybrid integrated circuit">Hybrid integrated circuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Light_emitting_capacitor" class="mw-redirect" title="Light emitting capacitor">Light emitting capacitor</a> (LEC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memistor" title="Memistor">Memistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memristor" title="Memristor">Memristor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memtransistor" title="Memtransistor">Memtransistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_cell_(computing)" title="Memory cell (computing)">Memory cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metal-oxide_varistor" class="mw-redirect" title="Metal-oxide varistor">Metal-oxide varistor</a> (MOV)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixed-signal_integrated_circuit" title="Mixed-signal integrated circuit">Mixed-signal integrated circuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MOS_integrated_circuit" class="mw-redirect" title="MOS integrated circuit">MOS integrated circuit</a> (MOS IC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_semiconductor" title="Organic semiconductor">Organic semiconductor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photodetector" title="Photodetector">Photodetector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_circuit" title="Quantum circuit">Quantum circuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RF_CMOS" title="RF CMOS">RF CMOS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silicon_controlled_rectifier" title="Silicon controlled rectifier">Silicon controlled rectifier</a> (SCR)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solaristor" title="Solaristor">Solaristor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Static_induction_thyristor" title="Static induction thyristor">Static induction thyristor</a> (SITh)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-dimensional_integrated_circuit" title="Three-dimensional integrated circuit">Three-dimensional integrated circuit</a> (3D IC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thyristor" title="Thyristor">Thyristor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trancitor" title="Trancitor">Trancitor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TRIAC" title="TRIAC">TRIAC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varicap" title="Varicap">Varicap</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Voltage_regulator" title="Voltage regulator">Voltage regulators</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Linear_regulator" title="Linear regulator">Linear regulator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low-dropout_regulator" title="Low-dropout regulator">Low-dropout regulator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Switching_regulator" class="mw-redirect" title="Switching regulator">Switching regulator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buck_converter" title="Buck converter">Buck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boost_converter" title="Boost converter">Boost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buck%E2%80%93boost_converter" title="Buck–boost converter">Buck–boost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Split-pi_topology" title="Split-pi topology">Split-pi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%86uk_converter" title="Ćuk converter">Ćuk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single-ended_primary-inductor_converter" title="Single-ended primary-inductor converter">SEPIC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charge_pump" title="Charge pump">Charge pump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Switched_capacitor" title="Switched capacitor">Switched capacitor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Vacuum_tube" title="Vacuum tube">Vacuum tubes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acorn_tube" title="Acorn tube">Acorn tube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Audion" title="Audion">Audion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beam_tetrode" title="Beam tetrode">Beam tetrode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hot-wire_barretter" title="Hot-wire barretter">Barretter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compactron" title="Compactron">Compactron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vacuum_diode" class="mw-redirect" title="Vacuum diode">Diode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fleming_valve" title="Fleming valve">Fleming valve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_generator" title="Neutron generator">Neutron tube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonode" title="Nonode">Nonode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuvistor" title="Nuvistor">Nuvistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pentagrid_converter" title="Pentagrid converter">Pentagrid</a> (Hexode, Heptode, Octode)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pentode" title="Pentode">Pentode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photomultiplier_tube" title="Photomultiplier tube">Photomultiplier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phototube" title="Phototube">Phototube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetrode" title="Tetrode">Tetrode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triode" title="Triode">Triode</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Vacuum_tube" title="Vacuum tube">Vacuum tubes</a> (<a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation" title="Electromagnetic radiation">RF</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Backward-wave_oscillator" title="Backward-wave oscillator">Backward-wave oscillator</a> (BWO)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cavity_magnetron" title="Cavity magnetron">Cavity magnetron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crossed-field_amplifier" title="Crossed-field amplifier">Crossed-field amplifier</a> (CFA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gyrotron" title="Gyrotron">Gyrotron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductive_output_tube" title="Inductive output tube">Inductive output tube</a> (IOT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Klystron" title="Klystron">Klystron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maser" title="Maser">Maser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sutton_tube" title="Sutton tube">Sutton tube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traveling-wave_tube" title="Traveling-wave tube">Traveling-wave tube</a> (TWT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/X-ray_tube" title="X-ray tube">X-ray tube</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Cathode-ray_tube" title="Cathode-ray tube">Cathode-ray tubes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beam_deflection_tube" title="Beam deflection tube">Beam deflection tube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charactron" title="Charactron">Charactron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iconoscope" title="Iconoscope">Iconoscope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magic_eye_tube" title="Magic eye tube">Magic eye tube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monoscope" title="Monoscope">Monoscope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selectron_tube" title="Selectron tube">Selectron tube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storage_tube" title="Storage tube">Storage tube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trochotron" class="mw-redirect" title="Trochotron">Trochotron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_camera_tube" title="Video camera tube">Video camera tube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Williams_tube" title="Williams tube">Williams tube</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Gas-filled_tube" title="Gas-filled tube">Gas-filled tubes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cold_cathode" title="Cold cathode">Cold cathode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crossatron" title="Crossatron">Crossatron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dekatron" title="Dekatron">Dekatron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignitron" title="Ignitron">Ignitron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krytron" title="Krytron">Krytron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercury-arc_valve" title="Mercury-arc valve">Mercury-arc valve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neon_lamp" title="Neon lamp">Neon lamp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nixie_tube" title="Nixie tube">Nixie tube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thyratron" title="Thyratron">Thyratron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trigatron" title="Trigatron">Trigatron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltage-regulator_tube" title="Voltage-regulator tube">Voltage-regulator tube</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Adjustable</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Potentiometer" title="Potentiometer">Potentiometer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Digital_potentiometer" title="Digital potentiometer">digital</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variable_capacitor" title="Variable capacitor">Variable capacitor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varicap" title="Varicap">Varicap</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Passive</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Connector <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Audio_and_video_interfaces_and_connectors" title="Audio and video interfaces and connectors">audio and video</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AC_power_plugs_and_sockets" title="AC power plugs and sockets">electrical power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RF_connector" title="RF connector">RF</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrolytic_detector" title="Electrolytic detector">Electrolytic detector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferrite_core" title="Ferrite core">Ferrite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antifuse" title="Antifuse">Antifuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuse_(electrical)" title="Fuse (electrical)">Fuse</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Resettable_fuse" title="Resettable fuse">resettable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EFUSE" class="mw-redirect" title="EFUSE">eFUSE</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resistor" title="Resistor">Resistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Switch" title="Switch">Switch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermistor" title="Thermistor">Thermistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transformer" title="Transformer">Transformer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varistor" title="Varistor">Varistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wire" title="Wire">Wire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wollaston_wire" title="Wollaston wire">Wollaston wire</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Electrical_reactance" title="Electrical reactance">Reactive</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Capacitor" title="Capacitor">Capacitor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Capacitor_types" title="Capacitor types">types</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceramic_resonator" title="Ceramic resonator">Ceramic resonator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crystal_oscillator" title="Crystal oscillator">Crystal oscillator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductor" title="Inductor">Inductor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parametron" title="Parametron">Parametron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relay" title="Relay">Relay</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reed_relay" 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