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class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Conflict of laws within a federation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conflict_of_laws_within_a_federation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>United States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Meaning" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Meaning"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.1</span> <span>Meaning</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Meaning-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Internal_and_external_consistency" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Internal_and_external_consistency"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span 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mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Canons subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Canons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Textual_canons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Textual_canons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Textual canons</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Textual_canons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Substantive_canons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Substantive_canons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Substantive canons</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Substantive_canons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Deference" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Deference"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Deference</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Deference-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criticism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Criticism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Criticism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-U.S._courts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#U.S._courts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>U.S. courts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-U.S._courts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-European_perceptions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#European_perceptions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>European perceptions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-European_perceptions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-International_treaties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#International_treaties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>International treaties</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-International_treaties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philosophies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philosophies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Philosophies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philosophies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Statutory_interpretation_methods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Statutory_interpretation_methods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Statutory interpretation methods</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Statutory_interpretation_methods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" 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class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%8A%D0%BB%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B5_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE" title="Тълкуване на правото – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Тълкуване на правото" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%BDklad_pr%C3%A1va" title="Výklad práva – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Výklad práva" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dehongliad_statudol" title="Dehongliad statudol – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Dehongliad statudol" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retskildefortolkning" title="Retskildefortolkning – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Retskildefortolkning" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auslegung_(Recht)" title="Auslegung (Recht) – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Auslegung (Recht)" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interpretaci%C3%B3n_de_la_ley" title="Interpretación de la ley – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Interpretación de la ley" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%81%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%B1_%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%D9%86_%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B6%D9%88%D8%B9%D9%87" title="تفسیر قانون موضوعه – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تفسیر قانون موضوعه" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interpr%C3%A9tation_des_lois" title="Interprétation des lois – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Interprétation des lois" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D2%A3%D0%B4%D1%8B_%D1%82%D2%AF%D1%81%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%96%D1%80%D1%83" title="Заңды түсіндіру – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Заңды түсіндіру" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teis%C4%97s_ai%C5%A1kinimas" title="Teisės aiškinimas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Teisės aiškinimas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B3%95%E8%A7%A3%E9%87%88" title="法解釈 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="法解釈" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wyk%C5%82adnia_prawa" title="Wykładnia prawa – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Wykładnia prawa" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interpreta%C3%A7%C3%A3o_da_lei" title="Interpretação da lei – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Interpretação da lei" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Толкование права – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Толкование права" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%BDklad_pr%C3%A1va" title="Výklad práva – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Výklad práva" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laintulkinta" title="Laintulkinta – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Laintulkinta" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%8E%E0%AE%B4%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%99%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B3%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B3%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="எழுத்துருச் சட்டங்களின் பொருள்விளக்கம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="எழுத்துருச் சட்டங்களின் பொருள்விளக்கம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BB%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Тлумачення права – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Тлумачення права" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B3%95%E5%BE%8B%E8%A7%A3%E9%87%8B" title="法律解釋 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="法律解釋" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q779439#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul 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Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Statutory+interpretation%22">"Statutory interpretation"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Statutory+interpretation%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Statutory+interpretation%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Statutory+interpretation%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Statutory+interpretation%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Statutory+interpretation%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">March 2016</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Globalize plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-globalize" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Globe icon." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/48px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png" decoding="async" width="48" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/73px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/97px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="290" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">The examples and perspective in this article <b>deal primarily with the United States and do not represent a <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Countering_systemic_bias" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Countering systemic bias">worldwide view</a> of the subject</b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> You may <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Statutory_interpretation&action=edit">improve this article</a>, discuss the issue on the <a href="/wiki/Talk:Statutory_interpretation" title="Talk:Statutory interpretation">talk page</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Article_wizard" title="Wikipedia:Article 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.mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1202158006">.mw-parser-output .law-sidebar .sidebar-heading{background:#aaddff;color:#000}.mw-parser-output .law-sidebar .sidebar-above{font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .law-sidebar .sidebar-below{padding:0.4em;border-top:1px #aaa solid;font-weight:normal;font-size:smaller}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist law-sidebar"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/Judicial_interpretation" title="Judicial interpretation">Judicial interpretation</a></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Forms</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_interpretation" title="Judicial interpretation">Constitutional interpretation</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Statutory interpretation</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> General rules of interpretation</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plain_meaning_rule" title="Plain meaning rule">Plain meaning rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mischief_rule" title="Mischief rule">Mischief rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_rule_(law)" title="Golden rule (law)">Golden rule</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> General theories of interpretation</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Living_Constitution" title="Living Constitution">Living Constitution</a> / <a href="/wiki/Living_tree_doctrine" title="Living tree doctrine">Living tree</a> / <a href="/wiki/Living_instrument_doctrine" title="Living instrument doctrine">Living instrument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Originalism" title="Originalism">Originalism</a> (<a href="/wiki/Original_meaning" class="mw-redirect" title="Original meaning">original meaning</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Original_intent" title="Original intent">Original intent</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Legislative_intent" title="Legislative intent">legislative intent</a>, <a href="/wiki/Legislative_history" title="Legislative history">legislative history</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strict_constructionism" title="Strict constructionism">Strict constructionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Textualism" title="Textualism">Textualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purposive_approach" title="Purposive approach">Purposive approach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_good_constitutionalism" title="Common good constitutionalism">Common good constitutionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_realism" title="Legal realism">Legal realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_process_(jurisprudence)" title="Legal process (jurisprudence)">Legal process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_formalism" title="Legal formalism">Legal formalism</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Judicial_interpretation" title="Template:Judicial interpretation"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Judicial_interpretation" title="Template talk:Judicial interpretation"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Judicial_interpretation" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Judicial interpretation"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Statutory interpretation</b> is the process by which courts interpret and apply <a href="/wiki/Legislation" title="Legislation">legislation</a>. Some amount of interpretation is often necessary when a case involves a <a href="/wiki/Statute" title="Statute">statute</a>. Sometimes the words of a statute have a plain and a straightforward meaning. But in many cases, there is some <a href="/wiki/Ambiguity" title="Ambiguity">ambiguity</a> in the words of the statute that must be resolved by the judge. To find the meanings of statutes, judges use various tools and methods of statutory interpretation, including traditional canons of statutory interpretation, legislative history, and purpose. In <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a> jurisdictions, the <a href="/wiki/Judiciary" title="Judiciary">judiciary</a> may apply rules of statutory interpretation both to legislation enacted by the <a href="/wiki/Legislature" title="Legislature">legislature</a> and to <a href="/wiki/Delegated_legislation" class="mw-redirect" title="Delegated legislation">delegated legislation</a> such as administrative agency <a href="/wiki/Regulation" title="Regulation">regulations</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Statutory_interpretation&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Statutory interpretation first became significant in common law systems, of which historically <a href="/wiki/English_law#Common_law" title="English law">England</a> is the exemplar. In Roman and civil law, a statute (or code) guides the magistrate, but there is no judicial precedent. In England, Parliament historically failed to enact a comprehensive code of legislation, which is why it was left to the courts to develop the common law; and having decided a case and given <a href="/wiki/Ratio_decidendi" title="Ratio decidendi">reasons for the decision</a>, the decision would become binding on later courts. </p><p>Accordingly, a particular interpretation of a statute would also become binding, and it became necessary to introduce a consistent framework for statutory interpretation. In the construction (interpretation) of statutes, the principal aim of the court must be to carry out the "intention of Parliament", and the English courts developed three main rules (plus some minor ones) to assist them in the task. These were: the <a href="/wiki/Mischief_rule" title="Mischief rule">mischief rule</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Literal_rule" class="mw-redirect" title="Literal rule">literal rule</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Golden_rule_(law)" title="Golden rule (law)">golden rule</a>. </p><p>Statutes may be presumed to incorporate certain components, as Parliament is "presumed" to have intended their inclusion.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example: </p> <ul><li>Offences defined in criminal statutes are presumed to require <i><a href="/wiki/Mens_rea" title="Mens rea">mens rea</a></i> (a guilty intention by the accused): <i><a href="/wiki/Sweet_v_Parsley" title="Sweet v Parsley">Sweet v Parsley</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>A statute is presumed to make no changes in the common law.</li> <li>A statute is presumed not to remove an individual's liberty, vested rights, or property.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>A statute is presumed not to apply to the Crown.</li> <li>A statute is presumed not to empower a person to commit a criminal offence.</li> <li>A statute is presumed not to apply retrospectively (whereas the common law is "declaratory": <i><a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_(criminal)#Conspiracy_to_corrupt_public_morals_and_conspiracy_to_outrage_public_decency" class="mw-redirect" title="Conspiracy (criminal)">Shaw v DPP</a></i>).<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>A statute is to be interpreted so as to uphold international treaties to which the UK is a party. In the case of EU law, any statutory provision which contravenes the principle embodied in the EU treaties that EU law is supreme is effectively void: <i><a href="/wiki/R_(Factortame_Ltd)_v_Secretary_of_State_for_Transport" title="R (Factortame Ltd) v Secretary of State for Transport">Factortame</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>It is presumed that a statute will be interpreted <i><a href="/wiki/Ejusdem_generis" class="mw-redirect" title="Ejusdem generis">ejusdem generis</a></i> ("of the same kind"), so that words are to be construed in sympathy with their immediate context.</li></ul> <p>Where legislation and <a href="/wiki/Case_law" title="Case law">case law</a> are in conflict, there is a presumption that legislation takes precedence insofar as there is any inconsistency. In the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> this principle is known as <a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_sovereignty" title="Parliamentary sovereignty">parliamentary sovereignty</a>; but while Parliament has exclusive competence to legislate, the courts (mindful of their historic role of having developed the entire system of common law) retain sole competence to <i>interpret</i> statutes. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="General_principles">General principles</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Statutory_interpretation&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: General principles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The age old process of application of the enacted law has led to the formulation of certain rules of interpretation. According to Cross, "Interpretation is the process by which the courts determine the meaning of a statutory provision for the purpose of applying it to the situation before them",<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while Salmond calls it "the process by which the courts seek to ascertain the meaning of the legislature through the medium of authoritative forms in which it is expressed".<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Interpretation of a particular statute depends upon the degree of creativity applied by the judges or the court in the reading of it, employed to achieve some stated end. It is often mentioned that common law statutes can be interpreted by using the Golden Rule, the Mischief Rule or the Literal Rule. However, according to <a href="/wiki/Francis_Bennion" title="Francis Bennion">Francis Bennion</a>, author of texts on statutory interpretation,<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> there are no such simple devices to elucidate complex statutes, "[i]nstead there are a thousand and one interpretative <i>criteria</i>".<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Intention_of_the_legislature">Intention of the legislature</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Statutory_interpretation&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Intention of the legislature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A statute is an edict of a legislature,<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the conventional way of interpreting a statute is to seek the "intention" of its maker. It is the judicature's duty to act upon the true intention of the legislature or the mens or sentential legis. The courts have to objectively determine the interpretation with guidance furnished by the accepted principles.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If a statutory provision is open to more than one interpretation the court has to choose that interpretation which represents the true intention of the legislature.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The function of the courts is only to expound and not to legislate.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Conflict_of_laws_within_a_federation">Conflict of laws within a federation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Statutory_interpretation&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Conflict of laws within a federation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Statutory_interpretation" title="Special:EditPage/Statutory interpretation">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">March 2016</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><a href="/wiki/Federal_republic" title="Federal republic">Federal</a> jurisdictions may presume that either federal or local government authority prevails in the absence of a defined rule. In <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a>, there are areas of law where provincial governments and the federal government have concurrent jurisdiction. In these cases the federal law is held to be paramount. However, in areas where the Canadian constitution is silent, the federal government does not necessarily have superior jurisdiction. Rather, an area of law that is not expressly mentioned in Canada's Constitution will have to be interpreted to fall under either the federal residual jurisdiction found in the preamble of s. 91—known as the Peace, Order and Good Government clause—or the provinces residual jurisdiction of "Property and Civil Rights" under s. 92(13A) of the 1867 Constitution Act. This contrasts with other federal jurisdictions, notably the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> and <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a>, where it is presumed that if legislation is not enacted pursuant to a specific provision of the federal <a href="/wiki/Constitution" title="Constitution">Constitution</a>, the states will have authority over the relevant matter in their respective jurisdictions, unless the state's definitions of their statutes conflicts with federally established or recognized rights </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States">United States</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Statutory_interpretation&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Meaning">Meaning</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Statutory_interpretation&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Meaning"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Statutory_interpretation" title="Special:EditPage/Statutory interpretation">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">March 2016</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Judiciary" title="Judiciary">judiciary</a> interprets how legislation should apply in a particular case as no legislation unambiguously and specifically addresses all matters. Legislation may contain uncertainties for a variety of reasons: </p> <ul><li>Words are imperfect symbols to communicate intent. They are ambiguous and change in meaning over time. The word "let" used to mean 'prevent' or 'hinder'<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and now means 'allow'. The word "peculiar" is used to mean <i>both</i> specific <i>and</i> unusual, e.g. "kangaroos are peculiar to Australia", and "it's very peculiar to see a kangaroo outside Australia".<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Unforeseen situations are inevitable, and new technologies and cultures make application of existing laws difficult. (e.g. does the use of a new cloning technique create an embryo within the meaning of statute enacted when embryos could only be created by fertilisation?)<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Uncertainties may be added to the statute in the course of enactment, such as the need for compromise or catering to special <a href="/wiki/Interest_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Interest group">interest groups</a>.</li></ul> <p>Therefore, the court must try to determine how a statute should be enforced. This requires <b>statutory construction</b>. It is a tenet of statutory construction that the legislature is supreme (assuming constitutionality) when creating law and that the court is merely an interpreter of the law. Nevertheless, in practice, by performing the construction the court can make sweeping changes in the operation of the law. </p><p>Moreover, courts must also often view a case's <b>statutory context</b>. While cases occasionally focus on a few key words or phrases, judges may occasionally turn to viewing a case in its whole in order to gain deeper understanding. The totality of the language of a particular case allows the Justices presiding to better consider their rulings when it comes to these key words and phrases.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Statutory interpretation is the process by which a court looks at a statute and determines what it means. A statute, which is a bill or law passed by the legislature, imposes obligations and rules on the people. Although legislature makes the Statute, it may be open to interpretation and have ambiguities. Statutory interpretation is the process of resolving those ambiguities and deciding how a particular bill or law will apply in a particular case. </p><p>Assume, for example, that a statute mandates that all motor vehicles travelling on a public roadway must be registered with the Department of Motor Vehicles (DMV). If the statute does not define the term "motor vehicles", then that term will have to be interpreted if questions arise in a court of law. A person driving a motorcycle might be pulled over and the police may try to fine him if his motorcycle is not registered with the DMV. If that individual argued to the court that a motorcycle is not a "motor vehicle", then the court would have to interpret the statute to determine what the legislature meant by "motor vehicle" and whether or not the motorcycle fell within that definition and was covered by the statute. </p><p>There are numerous rules of statutory interpretation. The first and most important rule is the rule dealing with the statute's plain language. This rule essentially states that the statute means what it says. If, for example, the statute says "motor vehicles", then the court is most likely to construe that the legislation is referring to the broad range of motorised vehicles normally required to travel along roadways and not "aeroplanes" or "bicycles" even though aeroplanes are vehicles propelled by a motor and bicycles may be used on a roadway. </p><p>In Australia and in the United States, the courts have consistently stated that the text of the statute is used first, and it is read as it is written, using the ordinary meaning of the words of the statute. </p><p>Below are various quotes on this topic from US courts: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/U.S._Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Supreme Court">U.S. Supreme Court</a>: "We begin with the familiar canon of statutory construction that the starting point for interpreting a statute is the language of the statute itself. Absent a clearly expressed legislative intention to the contrary, that language must ordinarily be regarded as conclusive." <i>Consumer Product Safety Commission et al. v. GTE Sylvania, Inc. et al.</i>, 447 U.S. 102 (1980). "[I]n interpreting a statute a court should always turn to one cardinal canon before all others. ... [C]ourts must presume that a legislature says in a statute what it means and means in a statute what it says there." <i>Connecticut National Bank v. Germain</i>, <a href="/wiki/Case_citation" title="Case citation">112 S. Ct. 1146, 1149</a> (1992). Indeed, "when the words of a statute are unambiguous, then, this first canon is also the last: 'judicial inquiry is complete.<span style="padding-right:.15em;">'</span>" 503 U.S. 249, 254.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/9th_Circuit_Court_of_Appeals" class="mw-redirect" title="9th Circuit Court of Appeals">9th Circuit Court of Appeals</a>: In the dissent from <i>en banc</i> rehearing of <i><a href="/wiki/Silveira_v._Lockyer" title="Silveira v. Lockyer">Silveira v. Lockyer</a></i> 312 F.3rd 1052 (2002), dissent at 328 F.3d 567 (2003) at 575, Judge Kleinfeld stated "it is 'a cardinal principle of statutory construction that we must give effect, if possible, to every clause and word of a statute.' <i><a href="/wiki/Williams_v._Taylor_(Terry_Williams)" title="Williams v. Taylor (Terry Williams)">Williams v. Taylor</a></i>, 529 U.S. 362, 404, 120 S.Ct. 1495, 146 L.Ed.2d 389 (2000)."</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Virginia" title="Supreme Court of Virginia">Supreme Court of Virginia</a>: "Every part of an act is presumed to be of some effect and is not to be treated as meaningless unless absolutely necessary." <i>Red Ash Coal Corp. v. Absher</i>, <a href="/wiki/Case_citation" title="Case citation">153 Va. 332, 335</a>, 149 S.E. 541, 542 (1929). This is known as the rule against surplusage.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Alaska" class="mw-redirect" title="Supreme Court of Alaska">Supreme Court of Alaska</a>: "In assessing statutory language, unless words have acquired a peculiar meaning, by virtue of statutory definition or judicial construction, they are to be construed in accordance with their common usage." <i>Muller v. BP Exploration (Alaska) Inc.</i>, 923 P.2d 783, 787-88 (Alaska 1996);</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arkansas_Supreme_Court" title="Arkansas Supreme Court">Arkansas Supreme Court</a>: "When reviewing issues of statutory interpretation, we keep in mind that the first rule in considering the meaning and effect of a statute is to construe it just as it reads, giving the words their ordinary and usually accepted meaning in common language. When the language of a statute is plain and unambiguous, there is no need to resort to rules of statutory construction. A statute is ambiguous only where it is open to two or more constructions, or where it is of such obscure or doubtful meaning that reasonable minds might disagree or be uncertain as to its meaning. When a statute is clear, however, it is given its plain meaning, and this court will not search for legislative intent; rather, that intent must be gathered from the plain meaning of the language used. This court is very hesitant to interpret a legislative act in a manner contrary to its express language, unless it is clear that a drafting error or omission has circumvented legislative intent." <i>Farrell v. Farrell</i>, 365 Ark. 465, 231 S.W.3d 619. (2006)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Mexico_Supreme_Court" title="New Mexico Supreme Court">New Mexico Supreme Court</a>: "The principal command of statutory construction is that the court should determine and effectuate the intent of the legislature using the plain language of the statute as the primary indicator of legislative intent." <i>State v. Ogden</i>, 118 N.M. 234, 242, 880 P.2d 845, 853 (1994) "The words of a statute ... should be given their ordinary meaning, absent clear and express legislative intention to the contrary", as long as the ordinary meaning does "not render the statute's application absurd, unreasonable, or unjust." <i>State v. Rowell</i>, 121 N.M. 111, 114, 908 P.2d 1379, 1382 (1995) When the meaning of a statute is unclear or ambiguous, we have recognized that it is "the high duty and responsibility of the judicial branch of government to facilitate and promote the legislature's accomplishment of its purpose." <i>State ex rel. Helman v. Gallegos</i>, 117 N.M. 346, 353, 871 P.2d 1352, 1359 (1994); <i>New Mexico v. Juan</i>, 2010-NMSC-041, August 9, 2010</li> <li><a href="/wiki/California_Court_of_Appeals" class="mw-redirect" title="California Court of Appeals">California Court of Appeals</a>, 4th District: "Our role in construing a statute is to ascertain the intent of the Legislature so as to effectuate the purpose of the law. (<i>People v. Jefferson</i> (1999) 21 Cal.4th 86, 94 [86 Cal.Rptr.2d 893, 980 P.2d 441].) Because the statutory language is generally the most reliable indicator of that intent, we look first at the words themselves, giving them their usual and ordinary meaning. (<i>People v. Lawrence</i> (2000) 24 Cal.4th 219, 230 [99 Cal.Rptr.2d 570, 6 P.3d 228].) We do not, however, consider the statutory language in isolation, but rather examine the entire substance of the statute in order to determine the scope and purpose of the provision, construing its words in context and harmonizing its various parts. (<i>People v. Acosta</i> (2002) 29 Cal.4th 105, 112 [124 Cal.Rptr.2d 435, 52 P.3d 624].)" <i>Alford v. Superior Court</i> (People) (2003) 29 Cal.4th 1033, 1040</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Second_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit">United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit</a>: "As in all statutory construction cases, we begin with the language of the statute. The first step is to determine whether the language at issue has a plain and unambiguous meaning with regard to the particular dispute in the case." <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Barnhart_v._Sigmon_Coal_Co.&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Barnhart v. Sigmon Coal Co. (page does not exist)">Barnhart v. Sigmon Coal Co.</a></i>, 534 U.S. 438, 450 (2002); "[U]nless otherwise defined, statutory words will be interpreted as taking their ordinary, contemporary, common meaning." <i>United States v. Piervinanzi</i>, 23 F.3d 670, 677 (2nd Cir. 1994).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maryland_Court_of_Appeals" class="mw-redirect" title="Maryland Court of Appeals">Maryland Court of Appeals</a>: "[W]e begin our analysis by reviewing the pertinent rules of [statutory construction]. Of course, the cardinal rule is to ascertain and effectuate legislative intent. To this end, we begin our inquiry with the words of the statute and, ordinarily, when the words of the statute are clear and unambiguous, according to their commonly understood meaning, we end our inquiry there also." <i>Chesapeake and Potomac Telephone Co. of Maryland v. Director of Finance for Mayor and City Council of Baltimore</i>, 343 Md. 567, 683 A.2d 512 (1996)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indiana_Court_of_Appeals" title="Indiana Court of Appeals">Indiana Court of Appeals</a>: "The first and often last step in interpreting a statute is to examine the language of the statute. We will not, however, interpret a statute that is clear and unambiguous on its face." <i>Ashley v. State</i>, 757 N.E.2d 1037, 1039, 1040 (2001).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Internal_and_external_consistency">Internal and external consistency</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Statutory_interpretation&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Internal and external consistency"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>It is presumed that a statute will be interpreted so as to be internally consistent. A particular section of the statute shall not be divorced from the rest of the act. The <i><b>ejusdem generis</b></i> (or <i>eiusdem generis</i>, Latin for "of the same kind") rule applies to resolve the problem of giving meaning to groups of words where one of the words is ambiguous or inherently unclear. The rule states that where "general words follow enumerations of particular classes or persons or things, the general words shall be construed as applicable only to persons or things of the same general nature or kind as those enumerated".<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A statute shall not be interpreted so as to be inconsistent with other statutes. Where there is an apparent inconsistency, the judiciary will attempt to provide a harmonious interpretation.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:AUDIENCE" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:AUDIENCE"><span title="An editor has requested that an example be provided. (November 2022)">example needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Statements_of_the_legislature">Statements of the legislature</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Statutory_interpretation&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Statements of the legislature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Legislative bodies themselves may try to influence or assist the courts in interpreting their laws by placing into the legislation itself statements to that effect. These provisions have many different names, but are typically noted as: </p> <ul><li><i>Recitals</i>;<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i>Findings</i>;</li> <li><i>Declarations</i>, sometimes suffixed with <i>of Policy</i> or <i>of Intent</i>; or</li> <li><i>Sense of Congress</i>, or of either house in multi-chamber bodies.</li></ul> <p>In most legislatures internationally, these provisions of the bill simply give the legislature's goals and desired effects of the law, and are considered non-substantive and non-enforceable in and of themselves.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However in the case of the European Union, a supranational body, the recitals in Union legislation must specify the reasons the operative provisions were adopted, and if they do not, the legislation is void.<sup id="cite_ref-Klimas_&_Vaiciukaite_2008_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Klimas_&_Vaiciukaite_2008-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This has been interpreted by the courts as giving them a role in statutory interpretation with Klimas, Tadas and Vaiciukaite explaining "recitals in EC law are not considered to have independent legal value, but they can expand an ambiguous provision's scope. They cannot, however, restrict an unambiguous provision's scope, but they can be used to determine the nature of a provision, and this can have a restrictive effect."<sup id="cite_ref-Klimas_&_Vaiciukaite_2008_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Klimas_&_Vaiciukaite_2008-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Canons">Canons</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Statutory_interpretation&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Canons"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Also known as canons of construction, canons give common sense guidance to courts in interpreting the meaning of statutes. Most canons emerge from the <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a> process through the choices of judges. Critics<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too-vague attribution or weasel words. (February 2022)">who?</span></a></i>]</sup> of the use of canons argue that the canons constrain judges and limit the ability of the courts to <a href="/wiki/Judicial_activism" title="Judicial activism">legislate from the bench</a>. Proponents<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too-vague attribution or weasel words. (February 2022)">who?</span></a></i>]</sup> argue that a judge always has a choice between competing canons that lead to different results, so judicial discretion is only hidden through the use of canons, not reduced. These canons can be divided into two major groups: </p> <ol><li>Textual canons</li> <li>Substantive canons</li></ol> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-notice" role="presentation" style="width: auto;"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1d/Information_icon4.svg/20px-Information_icon4.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1d/Information_icon4.svg/30px-Information_icon4.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1d/Information_icon4.svg/40px-Information_icon4.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="620" data-file-height="620" /></span></span></td><td class="mbox-text" style="width: auto;"><div class="mbox-text-span">This list is <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Lists#Incomplete_lists" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Lists">incomplete</a>; you can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Statutory_interpretation&action=edit">adding missing items</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">February 2021</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Textual_canons">Textual canons</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Statutory_interpretation&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Textual canons"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Textual canons are rules of thumb for understanding the words of the text. Some of the canons are still known by their traditional <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> names. </p> <dl><dt>Plain meaning</dt> <dd>When writing statutes, the legislature intends to use ordinary English words in their ordinary senses. The United States Supreme Court discussed the <a href="/wiki/Plain_meaning_rule" title="Plain meaning rule">plain meaning rule</a> in <i>Caminetti v. United States</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> reasoning "[i]t is elementary that the meaning of a statute must, in the first instance, be sought in the language in which the act is framed, and if that is plain ... the sole function of the courts is to enforce it according to its terms." And if a statute's language is plain and clear, the Court further warned that "the duty of interpretation does not arise, and the rules which are to aid doubtful meanings need no discussion". This means that the plain meaning rule (and statutory interpretation as a whole) should only be applied when there is an ambiguity. Because the meaning of words can change over time, scholars and judges typically will recommend using a dictionary to define a term that was published or written around the time the statute was enacted.</dd> <dt>Technical meaning</dt> <dd>As opposed to the plain meaning rule, the technical meaning rule applies the specific context and rules of grammar that are applied if the term is well defined and understood in an industry setting. To determine if there is a technical meaning, judges will look at whether the surrounding words are technical, and whether the act was directed to a technical audience.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They can also look to the title, the purpose, or the legislative history to indicate whether there is technical meaning implied in the statute.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This concept is most easily defined in the case <i>Frigaliment Importing Co. v. B.N.S. Int'l Sales Corp.</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-frigaliment_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-frigaliment-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> where the term "chicken" was disputed as either a technical word or if plain meaning applied.<sup id="cite_ref-frigaliment_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-frigaliment-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd> <dt><span class="anchor" id="surplusage"></span> Rule against surplusage</dt> <dd>Where one reading of a statute would make one or more parts of the statute redundant and another reading would avoid the redundancy, the other reading is preferred.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>:</dd> <dt><i>In Pari Materia</i> ("part of the same material")</dt> <dd>There is a presumption that when similar statutory provisions are found in comparable statutory schemes, interpreters should presumptively apply the same way.</dd> <dt><i>Ejusdem generis</i> ("of the same kinds, class, or nature")</dt> <dd>When a list of two or more specific descriptors is followed by more general descriptors, the otherwise wide meaning of the general descriptors must be restricted to the same class, if any, of the specific words that precede them. For example, where "cars, motor bikes, motor powered vehicles" are mentioned, the word "vehicles" would be interpreted in a limited sense (therefore vehicles cannot be interpreted as including airplanes). The rule can also be applied when the general words precede the more specific ones, with the general term limited to things similar to those specifically listed. While some scholars see <i>Ejusdem generis</i> as a subset of <i>Noscitur a sociis</i>, however most judges do not hold this belief.</dd> <dt><i>Expressio unius est exclusio alterius</i> ("the express mention of one thing excludes all others" or "the expression of one is the exclusion of others")</dt> <dd>Items not on the list are impliedly assumed not to be covered by the statute or a contract term.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, sometimes a list in a statute is illustrative, not exclusionary. This is usually indicated by a word such as "includes" or "such as". This canon, <i>Expressio unius</i> for short, may exclude everything listed of the same type as the things listed, without excluding things of a different type.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In order to properly execute this canon, you must find the normative baseline, and determine whether the gap runs through the normative basis, or falls outside of it. This canon is not favored by most scholars, lawyers, or judges.</dd> <dt><i>Noscitur a sociis</i> ("a word is known by its associates")</dt> <dd>When a word is ambiguous, its meaning may be determined by reference to the rest of the statute. This canon is often used to narrow the interpretation of terms in a list. We understand words in an act, particularly listed in words, by considering the words surrounding them. If two or more words grouped together have similar meaning, but are not equally comprehensive, a more general word will be limited and qualified by a more specific one. There is almost a gravitational pull on one another.</dd> <dt><i>Reddendo singula singulis</i> ("rendering each to each")</dt> <dd>"When a will says "I devise and bequeath all my real and personal property to A", the principle of reddendo singula singulis would apply as if it read "I devise all my real property, and bequeath all my personal property, to A", since the word devise is appropriate only to real property and the term bequeath is appropriate only to personal property."<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd> <dt><i>Generalia specialibus non derogant</i> ("the general does not derogate from the specific")</dt> <dd><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Lex_specialis" title="Lex specialis">lex specialis</a></div> Described in <i>The Vera Cruz</i><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as: "Now if anything be certain it is this, that where there are general words in a later Act capable of reasonable and sensible application without extending them to subjects specially dealt with by earlier legislation, you are not to hold that earlier legislation indirectly repealed, altered, or derogated from merely by force of such general words, without any evidence of a particular intention to do so." This means that if a later law and an earlier law are potentially—but not necessarily—in conflict, courts will adopt the reading that does not result in an implied repeal of the earlier statute. Lawmaking bodies usually need to be explicit if they intend to repeal an earlier law.</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Substantive_canons">Substantive canons</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Statutory_interpretation&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Substantive canons"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Substantive canons instruct the court to favor interpretations that promote certain values or policy results. </p> <dl><dt><i>Charming Betsy</i> canon</dt> <dd>National statute must be construed so as not to conflict with international law. See <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://constitutionallawreporter.com/2015/10/06/historical-charming-betsy-and-constitutional-law-2/"><i>Murray v. The Charming Betsy</i></a>, <a href="/wiki/Case_citation" title="Case citation">6 U.S. (2 Cranch) 64</a> (1804): "It has also been observed that an act of Congress ought never to be construed to violate the law of nations if any other possible construction remains ..."</dd> <dt>Interpretation in light of fundamental values</dt> <dd>Statute does not violate fundamental societal values. See, for example, <i><a href="/wiki/Holy_Trinity_Church_v._United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Holy Trinity Church v. United States">Holy Trinity Church v. United States</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or <i>Coco v The Queen</i> (Australia).<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, legislation that is intended to be consistent with fundamental rights can be overridden by clear and unambiguous language.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd> <dt><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_lenity" title="Rule of lenity">Rule of lenity</a></dt> <dd>In construing an ambiguous criminal statute, the court should resolve the ambiguity in favor of the defendant.<sup id="cite_ref-Rule_of_Lenity_-_Economist_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rule_of_Lenity_-_Economist-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 296–302">: 296–302 </span></sup> See <i>McNally v. United States</i>;<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Muscarello v. U.S.</i><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (declining to apply the rule of lenity); <i>Evans v. U.S.</i>;<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Scarborough v. U.S.</i>;<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>United States v. Santos</i> (2008). This is almost a junior version of the vagueness doctrine, and can be used for both criminal or civil penalty.</dd> <dt>Avoidance of abrogation of state sovereignty (United States)</dt> <dd>See <i><a href="/wiki/Gregory_v._Ashcroft" title="Gregory v. Ashcroft">Gregory v. Ashcroft</a></i>;<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> see also <i>Gonzales v. Oregon</i>;<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> see also <i><a href="/wiki/Nevada_Department_of_Human_Resources_v._Hibbs" title="Nevada Department of Human Resources v. Hibbs">Nevada Department of Human Resources v. Hibbs</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> except where such would deprive the defendant of bedrock, foundational rights that the federal government intended to be the minimum floor that the states were not allowed to fall beneath: <i>Dombrowski v Pfister</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd> <dt>'Indian' canon (United States)</dt> <dd>National statute must be construed in favor of Native Americans. See <i><a href="/wiki/Chickasaw_Nation_v._United_States" title="Chickasaw Nation v. United States">Chickasaw Nation v. United States</a></i>:<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "statutes are to be construed liberally in favor of Indians with ambiguous provisions interpreted to their benefit." This canon can be likened to the doctrine of <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Contra_proferentem" title="Contra proferentem">contra proferentem</a></i></span> in contract law.</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Deference">Deference</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Statutory_interpretation&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Deference"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Deference canons instruct the court to defer to the interpretation of another institution, such as an administrative agency or Congress. These canons reflect an understanding that the judiciary is not the only branch of government entrusted with constitutional responsibility. </p> <dl><dt>Deference to administrative interpretations (US <i>Chevron</i> deference)</dt> <dd>If a statute administered by an agency is ambiguous with respect to the specific issue, the courts will defer to the agency's reasonable interpretation of the statute. This rule of deference was formulated by the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">United States Supreme Court</a> in <a href="/wiki/Chevron_U.S.A.,_Inc._v._Natural_Resources_Defense_Council,_Inc." title="Chevron U.S.A., Inc. v. Natural Resources Defense Council, Inc."><i>Chevron v. Natural Resources Defense Council</i></a>.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On June 28, 2024, in the landmark case <a href="/wiki/Loper_Bright_Enterprises_v._Raimondo" title="Loper Bright Enterprises v. Raimondo">Loper Bright Enterprises v. Raimondo</a>, the United States Supreme Court explicitly overturned the doctrine of Chevron deference. The case was cited as precedent in a federal case (Tennessee v. Becerra) the very next week. Loper says, in part, "Chevron is overruled. Courts must exercise their independent judgment in deciding whether an agency has acted within its statutory authority, as the APA [Administrative Procedures Act] requires."</dd></dl> <dl><dt>Avoidance canon (canon of constitutional avoidance)</dt> <dd>If a statute is susceptible to more than one reasonable construction, courts should choose an interpretation that avoids raising constitutional problems. In the US, this canon has grown stronger in recent history. The traditional avoidance canon required the court to choose a different interpretation only when one interpretation was actually unconstitutional. The modern avoidance canon tells the court to choose a different interpretation when another interpretation merely raises constitutional doubts.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <p>The avoidance canon was discussed in <i>Bond v. United States</i> when the defendant placed toxic chemicals on frequently touched surfaces of a friend.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The statute in question made using a chemical weapon a crime; however, the separation of power between states and the federal government would be infringed upon if the Supreme Court interpreted the statute to extend to local crimes.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Therefore, the Court utilized the canon of constitutional avoidance and decided to "read the statute more narrowly, to exclude the defendant's conduct".<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dt><span class="anchor" id="absurdity"></span> Avoiding absurdity</dt> <dd>The legislature did not intend an absurd or manifestly unjust result.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <p>The application of this rule in the United Kingdom is not entirely clear. The literal meaning rule – that if "Parliament's meaning is clear, that meaning is binding no matter how absurd the result may seem"<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> – has a tension with the "golden rule", permitting courts to avoid absurd results in cases of ambiguity. At times, courts are not "concerned with what parliament intended, but simply with what it has said in the statute".<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Different judges have different views. In <i>Nothman v. London Borough of Barnet</i>, Lord Denning of the Court of Appeals attacked "those who adopt the strict literal and grammatical construction of the words" and saying that the "[t]he literal method is now completely out-of-date [and] replaced by the ... 'purposive' approach".<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On appeal, however, against Denning's decision, Lord Russell in the House of Lords "disclaim[ed] the sweeping comments of Lord Denning".<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For jurisprudence in the United States, "an absurdity is not mere oddity. The absurdity bar is high, as it should be. The result must be preposterous, one that 'no reasonable person could intend<span style="padding-right:.15em;">'</span>".<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moreover, the avoidance applies only when "it is quite impossible that Congress could have intended the result ... and where the alleged absurdity is so clear as to be obvious to most anyone".<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "To justify a departure from the letter of the law upon that ground, the absurdity must be so gross as to shock the general moral or common sense",<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with an outcome "so contrary to perceived social values that Congress could not have 'intended' it".<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Clear_statement_rule" title="Clear statement rule">Clear statement rule</a></dt> <dd>When a statute may be interpreted to abridge long-held rights of individuals or states, or make a large policy change, courts will not interpret the statute to make the change unless the legislature clearly stated it. This rule is based on the assumption that the legislature would not make major changes in a vague or unclear way, and to ensure that voters are able to hold the appropriate legislators responsible for the modification.</dd> <dt><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Leges posteriores priores contrarias abrogant</i></span> (Subsequent laws repeal those before enacted to the contrary, aka "Last in Time")</dt> <dd>When two statutes conflict, the one enacted last prevails. See <a href="/wiki/Implied_repeal" title="Implied repeal">implied repeal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Derogation" title="Derogation">derogation</a>.</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Criticism">Criticism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Statutory_interpretation&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Criticism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Critics of the use of canons argue that canons impute some sort of "omniscience" to the legislature, suggesting that it is aware of the canons when constructing the laws. In addition, it is argued that the canons give a credence to judges who want to construct the law a certain way, imparting a false sense of justification to their otherwise arbitrary process. In a classic article, <a href="/wiki/Karl_Llewellyn" title="Karl Llewellyn">Karl Llewellyn</a> argued that every canon had a "counter-canon" that would lead to the opposite interpretation of the statute.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some scholars argue that interpretive canons should be understood as an open set, despite conventional assumptions that traditional canons capture all relevant language generalizations. Empirical evidence, for example, suggests that ordinary people readily incorporate a "nonbinary gender canon" and "quantifier domain restriction canon" in the interpretation of legal rules.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other scholars argue that the canons should be reformulated as "canonical" or archetypical queries helping to direct genuine inquiry rather than purporting to somehow help provide answers in themselves. <sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="U.S._courts">U.S. courts</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Statutory_interpretation&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: U.S. courts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The common textual canons of statutory construction employed in American jurisprudence are: </p> <ol><li><i>Ejusdem generis</i> – "of the same kinds, class, or nature"<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i>Expressio unius est exclusio alterius</i> – "the express mention of one thing excludes all others"<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i>Noscitur a sociis</i> – "a word is known by its associates"<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i>In pari materia</i> – "upon the same matter or subject"</li> <li>Common, technical, legal, or trade definition.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="European_perceptions">European perceptions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Statutory_interpretation&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: European perceptions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><span class="anchor" id="European_perception"></span> The French philosopher <a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a> (1689–1755) believed that courts should act as "the mouth of the law", but soon it was found that some interpretation is inevitable. Following the German scholar <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Carl_von_Savigny" title="Friedrich Carl von Savigny">Friedrich Carl von Savigny</a> (1779–1861) the four main interpretation methods are: </p> <ul><li>Grammatical interpretation: using the literal meaning of the statutory text.</li> <li>Historical interpretation: using the legislative history, to reveal the intent of the legislator.</li> <li>Systematic interpretation: considering the context of provisions, if only by acknowledging in which chapter a provision is listed.</li> <li>Teleological interpretation: considering the <i>purpose</i> of the statute (<a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: <i lang="la">ratio legis</i>), as it appears from legislative history, or other observations.</li></ul> <p>It is controversial<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> whether there is a hierarchy between interpretation methods. Germans prefer a "grammatical" (literal) interpretation, because the statutory text has a democratic legitimation, and "sensible" interpretations are risky, in particular in view of German history. "Sensible" means different things to different people. The modern, common-law perception that courts actually <i>make</i> law is very different. In a German perception, courts can only <i>further</i> develop law (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Rechtsfortbildung</i></span>). </p><p>All of the above methods may seem reasonable: </p> <ul><li>It may be considered undemocratic<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> to ignore the literal text, because only that text was passed through democratic processes. Indeed, there may be no single legislative "intent" other than the literal text that was enacted by the legislature, because different legislators may have different views about the meaning of an enacted statute. It may also be considered unfair to depart from the literal text because a citizen reading the literal text may not have fair notice that a court would depart from its literal meaning, nor fair notice as to what meaning the court would adopt. It may also be unwise<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> to depart from the literal text if judges are generally less likely than legislatures to enact wise policies.</li> <li>But it may also seem unfair<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> to ignore the intent of the legislators, or the system of the statutes. So for instance in Dutch law, no general priority sequence for the above methods is recognized.</li></ul> <p>The freedom of interpretation varies by area of law. Criminal law and tax law must be interpreted very strictly, and never to the disadvantage of citizens,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> but liability law requires more elaborate interpretation, because here (usually) both parties are citizens. Here the statute may even be interpreted <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">contra legem</i></span> in exceptional cases, if otherwise a patently unreasonable result would follow. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="International_treaties">International treaties</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Statutory_interpretation&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: International treaties"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The interpretation of international treaties is governed by another treaty, the <a href="/wiki/Vienna_Convention_on_the_Law_of_Treaties" title="Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties">Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties</a>, notably Articles 31–33. Some states (such as the United States) are not a parties to the treaty, but recognize that the Convention is, at least in part, merely a codification of customary international law. </p><p>The rule set out in the Convention is essentially that the text of a treaty is decisive unless it either leaves the meaning ambiguous, or obscure, or leads to a result that is manifestly absurd or unreasonable. Recourse to "supplementary means of interpretation" is allowed only in that case, like the preparatory works, also known by the French designation of <i><a href="/wiki/Travaux_pr%C3%A9paratoires" title="Travaux préparatoires">travaux préparatoires</a></i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Philosophies">Philosophies</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Statutory_interpretation&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Philosophies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Over time, various methods of statutory construction have fallen in and out of favor. Some of the better-known rules of construction methods are: </p> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Golden_rule_(law)" title="Golden rule (law)">golden rule</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Literal_rule" class="mw-redirect" title="Literal rule">literal rule</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Mischief_rule" title="Mischief rule">mischief rule</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Purposive_approach" title="Purposive approach">purposive approach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Textualism" title="Textualism">Textualism</a> vs. consideration of <a href="/wiki/Legislative_intent" title="Legislative intent">legislative intent</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Statutory_interpretation_methods">Statutory interpretation methods</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Statutory_interpretation&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Statutory interpretation methods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Within the United States, <a href="/wiki/Purposivism" class="mw-redirect" title="Purposivism">purposivism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Textualism" title="Textualism">textualism</a> are the two most prevalent methods of statutory interpretation.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also recognized is the theory of intentionalists, which is to prioritize and consider sources beyond the text. </p><p>"Purposivists often focus on the legislative process, taking into account the problem that Congress was trying to solve by enacting the disputed law and asking how the statute accomplished that goal."<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Purposivists believe in reviewing the processes surrounding the power of the legislative body as stated in the constitution as well as the rationale that a "reasonable person conversant with the circumstances underlying enactment would suppress the mischief and advance the remedy"<sup id="cite_ref-What_Divides_Textualists_from_Purpo_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-What_Divides_Textualists_from_Purpo-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Purposivists would understand statutes by examining "how Congress makes its purposes known, through text and reliable accompanying materials constituting legislative history."<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>"In contrast to purposivists, textualists focus on the words of a statute, emphasizing text over any unstated purpose."<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Textualists believe that everything which the courts need in deciding on cases are enumerated in the text of legislative statutes. In other words, if any other purpose was intended by the legislature then it would have been written within the statutes and since it is not written, it implies that no other purpose or meaning was intended. By looking at the statutory structure and hearing the words as they would sound in the mind of a skilled, objectively reasonable user of words,<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> textualists believe that they would respect the constitutional separation of power and best respect <a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_sovereignty" title="Parliamentary sovereignty">legislative supremacy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-What_Divides_Textualists_from_Purpo_74-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-What_Divides_Textualists_from_Purpo-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Critiques of modern textualism on the United States Supreme Court abound.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Intentionalists refer to the specific intent of the enacting legislature on a specific issue. Intentionalists can also focus on general intent. It is important to note that private motives do not eliminate the common goal that the legislature carries. This theory differs from others mainly on the types of sources that will be considered. Intentional theory seeks to refer to as many different sources as possible to consider the meaning or interpretation of a given statute. This theory is adjacent to a contextualist theory, which prioritizes the use of context to determine why a legislature enacted any given statute. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Statutory_interpretation&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Interpretation_Act" title="Interpretation Act">Interpretation Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_activism" title="Judicial activism">Judicial activism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_interpretation" title="Judicial interpretation">Judicial interpretation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indeterminacy_debate_in_legal_theory" title="Indeterminacy debate in legal theory">Indeterminacy debate in legal theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_interpretation_in_South_Africa" title="Legal interpretation in South Africa">Legal interpretation in South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Original_intent" title="Original intent">Original intent</a> — <a href="/wiki/Original_meaning" class="mw-redirect" title="Original meaning">Original meaning</a> — <a href="/wiki/Textualism" title="Textualism">Textualism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pepper_v._Hart" class="mw-redirect" title="Pepper v. Hart">Pepper v. Hart</a></i> [1993] <a href="/wiki/Appeal_Cases_Law_Reports" class="mw-redirect" title="Appeal Cases Law Reports">AC</a> 573</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">Rule of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statutory_term_analysis" title="Statutory term analysis">Statutory term analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sui_generis#Statutory" title="Sui generis">Sui generis § Statutory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interpretation_Act_1850" title="Interpretation Act 1850">UK Interpretation Act (1850)</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Statutory_interpretation&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Trevor Lyons (2016), <i>Notes on the English Legal System</i>, Liverpool John Mores University</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sweet v Parsley [1970] <a href="/wiki/Appeal_Cases_Law_Reports" class="mw-redirect" title="Appeal Cases Law Reports">AC</a> 132, [1969] 2 <a href="/wiki/Weekly_Law_Reports" class="mw-redirect" title="Weekly Law Reports">WLR</a> 470, 53 Cr App R 221, [1969] 1 All ER 347, HL, reversing [1968] 2 QB 418</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">As with <a href="/wiki/EU_law" class="mw-redirect" title="EU law">EU law</a>, so in the UK an individual who is specifically targeted by a statute will normally have standing to bring a challenge by way of <a href="/wiki/Judicial_review" title="Judicial review">judicial review</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Shaw v DPP</i> [1962] <a href="/wiki/Appeal_Cases_Law_Reports" class="mw-redirect" title="Appeal Cases Law Reports">AC</a> 220</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>R (Factortame Ltd) v Secretary of State for Transport (No 2)</i> [1991] 1 <a href="/wiki/Appeal_Cases_Law_Reports" class="mw-redirect" title="Appeal Cases Law Reports">AC</a> 603</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rupert Cross, Statutory interpretation, 3rd Edition, p.34 <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output 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United States</i> <a href="/wiki/Case_citation" title="Case citation">143 U.S. 457</a> (1892)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Coco v The Queen</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/1994/15.html">[1994] HCA 15</a>, (1994) 179 <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Law_Reports" title="Commonwealth Law Reports">CLR</a> 427, <a href="/wiki/High_Court_of_Australia" title="High Court of Australia">High Court</a> (Australia).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Electrolux Home Products Pty Ltd v Australian Workers' Union</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/2004/40.html">[2004] HCA 40</a>, (2004) 221 <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Law_Reports" title="Commonwealth Law Reports">CLR</a> 309 (2 September 2004), <a href="/wiki/High_Court_of_Australia" title="High Court of Australia">High Court</a> (Australia).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rule_of_Lenity_-_Economist-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Rule_of_Lenity_-_Economist_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.economist.com/blogs/democracyinamerica/2015/11/child-pornography-and-law">"A man's jail term turns on a comma"</a>. <i>The Economist</i>. November 4, 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 9,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Economist&rft.atitle=A+man%27s+jail+term+turns+on+a+comma&rft.date=2015-11-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.economist.com%2Fblogs%2Fdemocracyinamerica%2F2015%2F11%2Fchild-pornography-and-law&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStatutory+interpretation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScaliaGarne2012" class="citation book cs1">Scalia, Antonin; Garne, Bryan A. (2012). <i>Reading Law: The Interpretation of Legal Texts</i>. Thomson/West. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780314275554" title="Special:BookSources/9780314275554"><bdi>9780314275554</bdi></a>. <q>Blurred signposts to criminality will not suffice to create it.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reading+Law%3A+The+Interpretation+of+Legal+Texts&rft.pub=Thomson%2FWest&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9780314275554&rft.aulast=Scalia&rft.aufirst=Antonin&rft.au=Garne%2C+Bryan+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStatutory+interpretation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>McNally v. United States</i>, 483 U.S. 350 (1987)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Muscarello v. U.S.</i> , 524 U.S. 125 (1998)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Evans v. U.S.</i>, 504 U.S. 255 (1992) (Thomas, J., dissenting)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Scarborough v. U.S.</i>, 431 U.S. 563 (1977) (Stewart, J., dissenting);</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Gregory v. Ashcroft</i> 501 U.S. 452 (1991)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Gonzales v. Oregon</i> 546 U.S. 243 (2006)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Nevada Department of Human Resources v. Hibbs</i> 538 U.S. 721 (2003)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Dombrowski v Pfister</i>, 380 U.S. 479 (1965).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/00-507.ZS.html"><i>Chickasaw Nation v. United States</i></a>, <a href="/wiki/Case_citation" title="Case citation">534 U.S. 84</a> (2001)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Chevron v. Natural Resources Defense Council</i>, <a href="/wiki/Case_citation" title="Case citation">467 U.S. 837 (1984)</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Einer Elhauge (2008). <i>Statutory Default Rules: How to Interpret Unclear Legislation</i>. <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=l4A0BVUeYHsC&pg=PA237">pp. 237–239</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-02460-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-02460-1">978-0-674-02460-1</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>United States v. Jin Fuey Moy</i>, 241 U.S. 394, 401 (1916).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Bond v. US</i>, 134 S. Ct. 2077, 2085 (2014) (quoting 18 U.S.C. 229(a)(1)(2014). Cited in Brannon, V. C. (2018). <i>Statutory Interpretation: Theories, Tools, and Trends</i> (CRS Report No. R45153). Congressional Research Service. 29–30.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:0_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Bond v. US</i>, 134 S. Ct. 2077, 2088-2090 (2014) (quoting 18 U.S.C. 229(a)(1)(2014). Cited in Brannon, V. C. (2018). <i>Statutory Interpretation: Theories, Tools, and Trends</i> (CRS Report No. R45153). Congressional Research Service. 30.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Bond v. US</i>, 134 S. Ct. 2077, 2093 (2014) (quoting 18 U.S.C. 229(a)(1)(2014). Cited in Brannon, V. C. (2018). <i>Statutory Interpretation: Theories, Tools, and Trends</i> (CRS Report No. R45153). 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Bock Laundry Machine Co.</i>, 490 U.S. 504 (1989).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">William S Jordan III (1994), <i>Legislative History and Statutory Interpretation: The Relevance of English Practice</i>, 29 USF L Rev 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>R v Hertford College</i> [1878] 3 QBD 693, 707 (CA).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Nothman v London Borough of Barnet</i> [1978] 1 All E.R. 1243, 1246.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">[1979] 1 All ER 142, 143 (HL). 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"What Divides Textualists from Purposivists?". <i>SSRN Electronic Journal</i>. <b>106</b> (70). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2139%2Fssrn.2849247">10.2139/ssrn.2849247</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=SSRN+Electronic+Journal&rft.atitle=What+Divides+Textualists+from+Purposivists%3F&rft.volume=106&rft.issue=70&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2139%2Fssrn.2849247&rft.aulast=Manning&rft.aufirst=John+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStatutory+interpretation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKatzmann2014" class="citation book cs1">Katzmann, Robert A. (2014). <i>Judging statutes</i> (1st ed.). Oxford: Oxford university press. p. 104. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199362134" title="Special:BookSources/9780199362134"><bdi>9780199362134</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Judging+statutes&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=104&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Oxford+university+press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9780199362134&rft.aulast=Katzmann&rft.aufirst=Robert+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStatutory+interpretation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNourse2012" class="citation journal cs1">Nourse, Victoria F. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.yalelawjournal.org/pdf/1104_6t1o52ma.pdf">"A Decision Theory of Statutory Interpretation: Legislative History by the Rules"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Yale Law Journal</i>. <b>122</b> (1).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Yale+Law+Journal&rft.atitle=A+Decision+Theory+of+Statutory+Interpretation%3A+Legislative+History+by+the+Rules&rft.volume=122&rft.issue=1&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Nourse&rft.aufirst=Victoria+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.yalelawjournal.org%2Fpdf%2F1104_6t1o52ma.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStatutory+interpretation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylor1995" class="citation journal cs1">Taylor, George H. (1995). "Structural Textualism". <i>B.U. L. Rev.</i>: 321, 327.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=B.U.+L.+Rev.&rft.atitle=Structural+Textualism&rft.pages=321%2C+327&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=George+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStatutory+interpretation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEasterbrook1988" class="citation journal cs1">Easterbrook, Frank (January 1, 1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://chicagounbound.uchicago.edu/journal_articles/1155/">"The Role of Original Intent in Statutory Construction"</a>. <i>Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy</i>. <b>11</b>: 59.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Harvard+Journal+of+Law+and+Public+Policy&rft.atitle=The+Role+of+Original+Intent+in+Statutory+Construction&rft.volume=11&rft.pages=59&rft.date=1988-01-01&rft.aulast=Easterbrook&rft.aufirst=Frank&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fchicagounbound.uchicago.edu%2Fjournal_articles%2F1155%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStatutory+interpretation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEskridgeNourse2021" class="citation journal cs1">Eskridge, William N.; Nourse, Victoria F. (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://perma-archives.org/warc/20220308180331/https://www.nyulawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/EskridgeNourse-ONLINE.pdf">"Textual Gerrymandering: The Eclipse of Republican Government in an Era of Statutory Populism"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>New York University Law Review</i>. <b>96</b>. Archived from the original on March 8, 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 5,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+York+University+Law+Review&rft.atitle=Textual+Gerrymandering%3A+The+Eclipse+of+Republican+Government+in+an+Era+of+Statutory+Populism&rft.volume=96&rft.date=2021&rft.aulast=Eskridge&rft.aufirst=William+N.&rft.au=Nourse%2C+Victoria+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nyulawreview.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2021%2F12%2FEskridgeNourse-ONLINE.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStatutory+interpretation" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_bot:_original_URL_status_unknown" title="Category:CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNourse2019" class="citation journal cs1">Nourse, Victoria F. (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://perma-archives.org/warc/20200902130911/https://www.law.ua.edu/lawreview/files/2019/05/2-Nourse-FINAL.pdf">"Textualism 3.0: Statutory Interpretation After Justice Scalia"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Alabama Law Review</i>. <b>70</b> (3). Archived from the original on September 2, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 5,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Alabama+Law+Review&rft.atitle=Textualism+3.0%3A+Statutory+Interpretation+After+Justice+Scalia&rft.volume=70&rft.issue=3&rft.date=2019&rft.aulast=Nourse&rft.aufirst=Victoria+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.law.ua.edu%2Flawreview%2Ffiles%2F2019%2F05%2F2-Nourse-FINAL.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStatutory+interpretation" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_bot:_original_URL_status_unknown" title="Category:CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown">link</a>)</span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Statutory_interpretation&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/97-589.pdf">CRS Report for Congress: "Statutory interpretation: General Principles and Recent Trends"</a> (public domain - can be copied into article with citations)</li> <li>The multi-volume <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sutherland_Statutory_Construction&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sutherland Statutory Construction (page does not exist)">Sutherland Statutory Construction</a> is the authoritative text on the rules of statutory construction.</li> <li>Karl Llewellyn, <i>Remarks on the Theory of Appellate Decisions and the Rules or Canons About How Statutes Are to Be Construed 3 Vand. L. Rev. 395</i> (1950).</li> <li><i>United States of America v. William C. Scrimgeour</i> 636 F.2d 1019 (5th Cir. 1981) discusses most aspects of statutory construction.</li> <li>Brudney & Ditslear, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060425170626/http://lawweb.usc.edu/cslp/papers/cslp-wp-028.pdf">Canons of Construction and the Elusive Quest for Neutral Reasoning</a></li> <li>Sinclair, Michael, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ssrn.com/abstract=780424">"Llewellyn's Dueling Canons, One to Seven: A Critique"</a>. New York Law School Law Review, Vol. 51, Fall 2006.</li> <li>Jon May, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nacdl.org/public.nsf/698c98dd101a846085256eb400500c01/891b0643641b999c85257124006f9178">"Statutory Construction: Not For The Timid"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110629185544/http://www.nacdl.org/public.nsf/698c98dd101a846085256eb400500c01/891b0643641b999c85257124006f9178">Archived</a> June 29, 2011, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, The Champion Magazine (NACDL), January/February 2006.</li> <li>Corrigan & Thomas, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.law.nyu.edu/sites/default/files/ecm_pro_065012.pdf">"Dice Loading" Rules Of Statutory Interpretation</a>, 59 NYU Annual Survey Of American Law 231, 238 (2003).</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.virginia1774.org/Statutory.html">The Rules of Statutory Construction (Virginia)</a></li> <li><i>Statutory Interpretation</i>, by Ruth Sullivan, 1997. Canadian examples and explanations.</li> <li>Menahem Pasternak, Christophe Rico, Tax Interpretation, Planning, and Avoidance: Some Linguistic Analysis, 23 Akron Tax Journal, 33 (2008) (<a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.uakron.edu/law/lawreview/taxjournal/atj23/docs/Pasternak08.pdf">http://www.uakron.edu/law/lawreview/taxjournal/atj23/docs/Pasternak08.pdf</a>).</li> <li>Victoria F. Nourse, Misreading Law Misreading Democracy (2016).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Statutory_interpretation&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output 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