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<li id="toc-Saur_Revolution_and_Taraki:_1978–1979" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Saur_Revolution_and_Taraki:_1978–1979"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Saur Revolution and Taraki: 1978–1979</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Saur_Revolution_and_Taraki:_1978–1979-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Amin_and_the_Soviet_intervention:_1979" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Amin_and_the_Soviet_intervention:_1979"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Amin and the Soviet intervention: 1979</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Amin_and_the_Soviet_intervention:_1979-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Karmal_era:_1979–1986" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Karmal_era:_1979–1986"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Karmal era: 1979–1986</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Karmal_era:_1979–1986-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Najibullah_and_Soviet_withdrawal:_1986–1989" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Najibullah_and_Soviet_withdrawal:_1986–1989"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Najibullah and Soviet withdrawal: 1986–1989</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Najibullah_and_Soviet_withdrawal:_1986–1989-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fall:_1989–1992" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fall:_1989–1992"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Fall: 1989–1992</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fall:_1989–1992-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Politics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Politics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Politics</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Politics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Politics subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Politics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Political_system" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_system"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Political system</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Political_system-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-People's_Democratic_Party_of_Afghanistan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#People's_Democratic_Party_of_Afghanistan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.1</span> <span>People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-People's_Democratic_Party_of_Afghanistan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Factions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Factions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.1.1</span> <span>Factions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Factions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-National_Front" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#National_Front"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>National Front</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-National_Front-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Symbols:_flag_and_emblem" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Symbols:_flag_and_emblem"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Symbols: flag and emblem</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Symbols:_flag_and_emblem-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Economy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Military" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Military</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Military-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Military subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Military-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Command_and_officer_corps" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Command_and_officer_corps"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Command and officer corps</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Command_and_officer_corps-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Branches" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Branches"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Branches</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Branches-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Army" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Army"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.1</span> <span>Army</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Army-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Air_Force" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Air_Force"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.2</span> <span>Air Force</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Air_Force-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Paramilitary_and_Militia_forces" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Paramilitary_and_Militia_forces"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.3</span> <span>Paramilitary and Militia forces</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Paramilitary_and_Militia_forces-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Demographics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Demographics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Demographics</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Demographics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Demographics subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Demographics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Education</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Refugees" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Refugees"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Refugees</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Refugees-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Democratic Republic of Afghanistan</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 53 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-53" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">53 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%85%D9%87%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A3%D9%81%D8%BA%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%85%D9%82%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B7%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="جمهورية أفغانستان الديمقراطية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="جمهورية أفغانستان الديمقراطية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rep%C3%BAblica_Democr%C3%A1tica_d%27Afganist%C3%A1n" title="República Democrática d'Afganistán – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="República Democrática d'Afganistán" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C6%8Ffqan%C4%B1stan_Demokratik_Respublikas%C4%B1" title="Əfqanıstan Demokratik Respublikası – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Əfqanıstan Demokratik Respublikası" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%BA%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%AF%D9%85%D9%88%DA%A9%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA%DB%8C%DA%A9_%D8%AC%D9%88%D9%85%D9%87%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AA%DB%8C" title="افغانیستان دموکراتیک جومهوریتی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="افغانیستان دموکراتیک جومهوریتی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%AB%E0%A6%97%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8_%E0%A6%97%E0%A6%A3%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95_%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0" title="আফগানিস্তান গণতান্ত্রিক প্রজাতন্ত্র – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="আফগানিস্তান গণতান্ত্রিক প্রজাতন্ত্র" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghanistan_B%C3%AEn-ch%C3%BA_Ki%C5%8Dng-h%C3%B4-kok" title="Afghanistan Bîn-chú Kiōng-hô-kok – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Afghanistan Bîn-chú Kiōng-hô-kok" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%8D%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%8B%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%A0%D1%8D%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%90%D1%84%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Дэмакратычная Рэспубліка Афганістан – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Дэмакратычная Рэспубліка Афганістан" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%90%D1%84%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Демократична република Афганистан – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Демократична република Афганистан" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rep%C3%BAblica_Democr%C3%A0tica_de_l%27Afganistan" title="República Democràtica de l'Afganistan – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="República Democràtica de l'Afganistan" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afgh%C3%A1nsk%C3%A1_demokratick%C3%A1_republika" title="Afghánská demokratická republika – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Afghánská demokratická republika" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demokratische_Republik_Afghanistan" title="Demokratische Republik Afghanistan – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Demokratische Republik Afghanistan" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9B%CE%B1%CF%8A%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%94%CE%B7%CE%BC%CE%BF%CE%BA%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%AF%CE%B1_%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%85_%CE%91%CF%86%CE%B3%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%B9%CF%83%CF%84%CE%AC%CE%BD" title="Λαϊκή Δημοκρατία του Αφγανιστάν – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Λαϊκή Δημοκρατία του Αφγανιστάν" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rep%C3%BAblica_Democr%C3%A1tica_de_Afganist%C3%A1n" title="República Democrática de Afganistán – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="República Democrática de Afganistán" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%85%D9%87%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D8%AF%D9%85%D9%88%DA%A9%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA%DB%8C%DA%A9_%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%BA%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86" title="جمهوری دموکراتیک افغانستان – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="جمهوری دموکراتیک افغانستان" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9publique_d%C3%A9mocratique_d%27Afghanistan" title="République démocratique d'Afghanistan – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="République démocratique d'Afghanistan" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%95%84%ED%94%84%EA%B0%80%EB%8B%88%EC%8A%A4%ED%83%84_%EB%AF%BC%EC%A3%BC%EA%B3%B5%ED%99%94%EA%B5%AD" title="아프가니스탄 민주공화국 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="아프가니스탄 민주공화국" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D6%86%D5%B2%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%BD%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%AB_%D4%BA%D5%B8%D5%B2%D5%B8%D5%BE%D6%80%D5%A4%D5%A1%D5%BE%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%80%D5%A1%D5%B6%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%BA%D5%A5%D5%BF%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Աֆղանստանի Ժողովրդավարական Հանրապետություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Աֆղանստանի Ժողովրդավարական Հանրապետություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republik_Demokratik_Afganistan" title="Republik Demokratik Afganistan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Republik Demokratik Afganistan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Repubblica_Democratica_dell%27Afghanistan" title="Repubblica Democratica dell'Afghanistan – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Repubblica Democratica dell'Afghanistan" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%AA%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%97%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%A5%E0%BA%B0%E0%BA%99%E0%BA%B0%E0%BA%A5%E0%BA%B1%E0%BA%94_%E0%BA%9B%E0%BA%B0%E0%BA%8A%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%97%E0%BA%B4%E0%BA%9B%E0%BA%B0%E0%BB%84%E0%BA%95_%E0%BA%AD%E0%BA%B1%E0%BA%9F%E0%BA%81%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%99%E0%BA%B4%E0%BA%AA%E0%BA%96%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%99" title="ສາທາລະນະລັດ ປະຊາທິປະໄຕ ອັຟການິສຖານ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ສາທາລະນະລັດ ປະຊາທິປະໄຕ ອັຟການິສຖານ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ລາວ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afganist%C4%81nas_Demokr%C4%81tisk%C4%81_Republika" title="Afganistānas Demokrātiskā Republika – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Afganistānas Demokrātiskā Republika" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afganistano_Demokratin%C4%97_Respublika" title="Afganistano Demokratinė Respublika – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Afganistano Demokratinė Respublika" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%A1%E0%B5%86%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%B1%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AA%E0%B4%AC%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%93%E0%B4%AB%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%85%E0%B4%AB%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%97%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%BE%E0%B5%BB" title="ഡെമോക്രാറ്റിക് റിപ്പബ്ലിക് ഓഫ് അഫ്ഗാനിസ്താൻ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഡെമോക്രാറ്റിക് റിപ്പബ്ലിക് ഓഫ് അഫ്ഗാനിസ്താൻ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%95%E1%83%A6%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%97%E1%83%98%E1%83%A8_%E1%83%93%E1%83%94%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9D%E1%83%99%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98_%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9E%E1%83%A3%E1%83%91%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%90" title="ავღანეთიშ დემოკრატიული რესპუბლიკა – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ავღანეთიშ დემოკრატიული რესპუბლიკა" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%BA%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%AF%D9%85%D9%88%DA%A9%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA%DB%8C%DA%A9_%D8%AC%D9%85%D9%87%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="افغانستان دموکراتیک جمهوری – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="افغانستان دموکراتیک جمهوری" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مازِرونی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republik_Demokratik_Afghanistan" title="Republik Demokratik Afghanistan – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Republik Demokratik Afghanistan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratische_Republiek_Afghanistan" title="Democratische Republiek Afghanistan – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Democratische Republiek Afghanistan" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A2%E3%83%95%E3%82%AC%E3%83%8B%E3%82%B9%E3%82%BF%E3%83%B3%E6%B0%91%E4%B8%BB%E5%85%B1%E5%92%8C%E5%9B%BD" title="アフガニスタン民主共和国 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="アフガニスタン民主共和国" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Den_demokratiske_republikken_Afghanistan" title="Den demokratiske republikken Afghanistan – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Den demokratiske republikken Afghanistan" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%85%DB%81%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D8%AC%D9%85%DB%81%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C%DB%81_%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%BA%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86" title="جمہوری جمہوریہ افغانستان – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="جمہوری جمہوریہ افغانستان" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%BA%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86_%DA%89%D9%8A%D9%85%D9%88%DA%A9%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%BC%D9%8A%DA%A9_%D8%AC%D9%85%D9%87%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AA" title="د افغانستان ډيموکراټيک جمهوريت – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د افغانستان ډيموکراټيک جمهوريت" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demokratyczna_Republika_Afganistanu" title="Demokratyczna Republika Afganistanu – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Demokratyczna Republika Afganistanu" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rep%C3%BAblica_Democr%C3%A1tica_do_Afeganist%C3%A3o" title="República Democrática do Afeganistão – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="República Democrática do Afeganistão" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republica_Democratic%C4%83_Afganistan" title="Republica Democratică Afganistan – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Republica Democratică Afganistan" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%90%D1%84%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Демократическая Республика Афганистан – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Демократическая Республика Афганистан" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republika_Demokratike_e_Afganistanit" title="Republika Demokratike e Afganistanit – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Republika Demokratike e Afganistanit" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_Afghanistan" title="Democratic Republic of Afghanistan – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Democratic Republic of Afghanistan" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%DB%86%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%85%D9%88%DA%A9%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA%DB%8C_%D8%A6%DB%95%D9%81%D8%BA%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86" title="کۆماری دیموکراتی ئەفغانستان – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="کۆماری دیموکراتی ئەفغانستان" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%A0%D0%B5%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%90%D0%B2%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Демократска Република Авганистан – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Демократска Република Авганистан" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demokratska_Republika_Afganistan" title="Demokratska Republika Afganistan – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Demokratska Republika Afganistan" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afganistanin_demokraattinen_tasavalta" title="Afganistanin demokraattinen tasavalta – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Afganistanin demokraattinen tasavalta" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demokratiska_republiken_Afghanistan" title="Demokratiska republiken Afghanistan – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Demokratiska republiken Afghanistan" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demokratikong_Republika_ng_Apganistan" title="Demokratikong Republika ng Apganistan – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Demokratikong Republika ng Apganistan" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%86%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%A8%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%81" title="ஆப்கானித்தான் சனநாயகக் குடியரசு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="ஆப்கானித்தான் சனநாயகக் குடியரசு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%98%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%93%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%90%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%98%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%9B%E0%B9%84%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%9F%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%96%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%99" title="สาธารณรัฐประชาธิปไตยอัฟกานิสถาน – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="สาธารณรัฐประชาธิปไตยอัฟกานิสถาน" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%B6%D1%83%D0%BC%D2%B3%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B8_%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B8_%D0%90%D1%84%D2%93%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Ҷумҳурии Демократии Афғонистон – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Ҷумҳурии Демократии Афғонистон" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afganistan_Demokratik_Cumhuriyeti" title="Afganistan Demokratik Cumhuriyeti – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Afganistan Demokratik Cumhuriyeti" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%90%D1%84%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Демократична Республіка Афганістан – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Демократична Республіка Афганістан" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%85%DB%81%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D8%AC%D9%85%DB%81%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C%DB%81_%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%BA%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86" title="جمہوری جمہوریہ افغانستان – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="جمہوری جمہوریہ افغانستان" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%E1%BB%99ng_h%C3%B2a_D%C3%A2n_ch%E1%BB%A7_Afghanistan" title="Cộng hòa Dân chủ Afghanistan – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Cộng hòa Dân chủ Afghanistan" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a 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i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the state that existed from 1978 to 1992. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Afghanistan (disambiguation)">Afghanistan (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1043282317">.mw-parser-output .ib-country{border-collapse:collapse;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country td,.mw-parser-output .ib-country th{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-header,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-full-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-below{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-full-data{border:0;padding:0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-full-data{border-top:0;border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-header{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-above{font-size:125%;line-height:1.2}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-names{padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-name-style{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-image{padding:0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-anthem{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding-top:0.5em;margin-top:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-largest,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-lang{font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-ethnic,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-religion,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-sovereignty{font-weight:normal;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li{text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li2{text-indent:0.5em;margin-left:1em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-website{line-height:11pt}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption3{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn{text-align:left;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-num{margin-left:1em}</style><table class="infobox ib-country vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above adr"><div class="fn org country-name"><span class="nowrap">Democratic Republic of Afghanistan<br /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><span class="nobold"><span style="font-size:85%;">(1978–1987)</span><br /><span title="Pashto-language text"><span lang="ps" dir="rtl" style="font-style: normal;">د افغانستان ډموکراتيک جمهوريت</span></span> <span class="languageicon" style="font-size:100%; font-weight:normal">(<a href="/wiki/Pashto_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Pashto language">Pashto</a>)</span><br /><span title="Dari-language text"><span lang="prs" dir="rtl" style="font-style: normal;">جمهوری دموکراتیک افغانستان</span></span> <span class="languageicon" style="font-size:100%; font-weight:normal">(<a href="/wiki/Dari_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Dari language">Dari</a>)</span></span><hr />Republic of Afghanistan<br /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><span class="nobold"><span style="font-size:85%;">(1987–1992)</span><br /><span title="Pashto-language text"><span lang="ps" dir="rtl" style="font-style: normal;">د افغانستان جمهوريت</span></span> <span class="languageicon" style="font-size:100%; font-weight:normal">(Pashto)</span><br /><span title="Dari-language text"><span lang="prs" dir="rtl" style="font-style: normal;">جمهوری افغانستان</span></span> <span class="languageicon" style="font-size:100%; font-weight:normal">(Dari)</span></span></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader">1978–1992</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><div class="noresize" style="display:table; width:100%;"> <div style="display:table-cell; vertical-align:middle; padding-left:5px;"> <div style="padding-bottom:3px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Afghanistan_(1978%E2%80%931980).svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Flag of Afghanistan"><img alt="Flag of Afghanistan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281978%E2%80%931980%29.svg/125px-Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281978%E2%80%931980%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="125" height="63" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281978%E2%80%931980%29.svg/188px-Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281978%E2%80%931980%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281978%E2%80%931980%29.svg/250px-Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281978%E2%80%931980%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="500" /></a></span></div><div style="padding: 2px 0px 3px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Afghanistan_(1987%E2%80%931992).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281987%E2%80%931992%29.svg/125px-Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281987%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="125" height="63" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281987%E2%80%931992%29.svg/188px-Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281987%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281987%E2%80%931992%29.svg/250px-Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281987%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></div> <div><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Afghanistan" title="Flag of Afghanistan">Top: Flag<br />(1978–1980)<br />Bottom: Flag<br />(1987–1992)</a></div> </div> <div style="display:table-cell; vertical-align:middle; padding: 0px 5px;"> <div style="padding-bottom:3px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Emblem_of_Afghanistan_(1978-1980).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Emblem_of_Afghanistan_%281978-1980%29.svg/70px-Emblem_of_Afghanistan_%281978-1980%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="70" height="66" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Emblem_of_Afghanistan_%281978-1980%29.svg/105px-Emblem_of_Afghanistan_%281978-1980%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Emblem_of_Afghanistan_%281978-1980%29.svg/140px-Emblem_of_Afghanistan_%281978-1980%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="493" data-file-height="468" /></a></span> <div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Emblem_of_Afghanistan_(1987-1992).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Emblem_of_Afghanistan_%281987-1992%29.svg/70px-Emblem_of_Afghanistan_%281987-1992%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="70" height="65" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Emblem_of_Afghanistan_%281987-1992%29.svg/105px-Emblem_of_Afghanistan_%281987-1992%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Emblem_of_Afghanistan_%281987-1992%29.svg/140px-Emblem_of_Afghanistan_%281987-1992%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="361" data-file-height="333" /></a></span></div> <div><a href="/wiki/Emblem_of_Afghanistan" title="Emblem of Afghanistan"><span class="nowrap">Top: Emblem<br />(1978–1980)<br />Bottom: Emblem<br />(1987–1992)</span></a></div> </div> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data anthem"><b>Anthem:</b> <span title="Pashto-language text"><span lang="ps" style="font-style: normal;"><span class="Nastaliq" dir="rtl" title="Nastaliq" style="font-family: 'Jameel Noori Nastaleeq', 'Urdu Typesetting', 'Noto Nastaliq Urdu', 'Noto Nastaliq Urdu Draft', 'Hussaini Nastaleeq', 'AlQalam Taj Nastaleeq', IranNastaliq, 'Awami Nastaliq', 'Awami Nastaliq Beta3', 'Awami Nastaliq Beta2', 'Awami Nastaliq Beta1', 'Nafees Nastaleeq', 'Nafees Nastaleeq v1.01', 'Pak Nastaleeq', 'PDMS_Jauhar', 'Alvi Lahori Nastaleeq'; font-size: 110%; font-style: normal;">گرم شه, لا گرم شه</span></span></span> <span class="languageicon" style="font-size:100%; font-weight:normal">(Pashto)</span><br /><span title="American Library Association – Library of Congress transliteration"><i lang="ur-Latn">Garam shah lā garam shah</i></span><br />"<a href="/wiki/National_anthem_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_Afghanistan" title="National anthem of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan">Be ardent, be more ardent</a>"<div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File"><span><audio id="mwe_player_0" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" style="width:220px;" data-durationhint="64" data-mwtitle="AfganistanAnthem(1978-1992).ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6e/AfganistanAnthem%281978-1992%29.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/6/6e/AfganistanAnthem%281978-1992%29.ogg/AfganistanAnthem%281978-1992%29.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /></audio></span></span></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Afghanistan_(orthographic_projection).svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Location of Afghanistan"><img alt="Location of Afghanistan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Afghanistan_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/250px-Afghanistan_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Afghanistan_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/375px-Afghanistan_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Afghanistan_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/500px-Afghanistan_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="553" data-file-height="553" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Status</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Satellite_state" title="Satellite state">Satellite state</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (until 1991) <ul><li>under <a href="/wiki/Military_occupations_by_the_Soviet_Union#Afghanistan_(1979–1989)" title="Military occupations by the Soviet Union">Soviet military occupation</a> (1979–1989)</li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Capital<div class="ib-country-largest">and largest city</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Kabul" title="Kabul">Kabul</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Official languages</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pashto" title="Pashto">Pashto</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Dari" title="Dari">Dari</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Religion <div class="ib-country-religion"></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Afghanistan" title="Islam in Afghanistan">Islam</a> (<a href="/wiki/State_religion" title="State religion">official</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Demonym" title="Demonym">Demonym(s)</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Afghans" title="Afghans">Afghan</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Afghanistan" title="Politics of Afghanistan">Government</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Unitary_state" title="Unitary state">Unitary</a> <a href="/wiki/Marxism%E2%80%93Leninism" title="Marxism–Leninism">Marxist–Leninist</a><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/One-party_state" title="One-party state">one-party</a> <a href="/wiki/Socialist_republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Socialist republic">socialist republic</a> under a <a href="/wiki/Totalitarian_state" class="mw-redirect" title="Totalitarian state">totalitarian state</a><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <br />(1978–1987)<br /><a href="/wiki/Unitary_state" title="Unitary state">Unitary</a> <a href="/wiki/Dominant-party_system" title="Dominant-party system">dominant-party</a> <a href="/wiki/Presidential_republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Presidential republic">presidential republic</a><br />(1987–1992)</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Democratic_Party_of_Afghanistan#General_Secretary,_Politburo_and_Secretariat" title="People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan">General Secretary</a></th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1978–1979 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Nur_Muhammad_Taraki" title="Nur Muhammad Taraki">Nur Muhammad Taraki</a></span></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1979 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Hafizullah_Amin" title="Hafizullah Amin">Hafizullah Amin</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1979–1986 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Babrak_Karmal" title="Babrak Karmal">Babrak Karmal</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1986–1992 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Najibullah" title="Mohammad Najibullah">Mohammad Najibullah</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/President_of_Afghanistan" title="President of Afghanistan">Head of State</a></th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1978–1979 (first) </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Nur_Muhammad_Taraki" title="Nur Muhammad Taraki">Nur Muhammad Taraki</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1987–1992 (last) </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Najibullah" title="Mohammad Najibullah">Mohammad Najibullah</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Afghanistan" title="Prime Minister of Afghanistan">Head of Government</a></span></th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1978–1979 (first) </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Nur_Muhammad_Taraki" title="Nur Muhammad Taraki">Nur Muhammad Taraki</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1990–1992 (last) </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Fazal_Haq_Khaliqyar" title="Fazal Haq Khaliqyar">Fazal Haq Khaliqyar</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Legislature</th><td class="infobox-data"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_Council_(Afghanistan)" title="Revolutionary Council (Afghanistan)">Revolutionary Council</a><br />(1978–1987)<br /><a href="/wiki/National_Assembly_(Afghanistan)" title="National Assembly (Afghanistan)">National Assembly</a><br />(from 1987)</span></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• <a href="/wiki/Upper_house" title="Upper house">Upper house</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/House_of_Elders_(Afghanistan)" title="House of Elders (Afghanistan)">House of Elders</a><br />(1988–1992)</td></tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• <a href="/wiki/Lower_house" title="Lower house">Lower house</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/House_of_the_People_(Afghanistan)" title="House of the People (Afghanistan)">House of the People</a><br />(1988–1992)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Historical era</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Saur_Revolution" title="Saur Revolution">Saur Revolution</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">27–28 April 1978</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Proclaimed </div></th><td class="infobox-data">30 April 1978</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War#Soviet_invasion_and_palace_coup" title="Soviet–Afghan War">Soviet invasion </a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">27 December 1979</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1987 <i><a href="/wiki/Loya_jirga" class="mw-redirect" title="Loya jirga">loya jirga</a></i> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">29/30 November 1987</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Soviet_withdrawal_from_Afghanistan" title="Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan">Soviet withdrawal</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">15 February 1989</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Civil_war_in_Afghanistan_(1989%E2%80%931992)#Fall_of_Kabul" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil war in Afghanistan (1989–1992)">Fall of Kabul</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">28 April 1992</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header"><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Afghanistan" title="Demographics of Afghanistan">Population</a></th></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• 1990 estimate</div></th><td class="infobox-data">15,900,000<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Human_Development_Index" title="Human Development Index">HDI</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><span class="nobold">(1992)</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><span typeof="mw:File"><span title="Increase"><img alt="Increase" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Increase2.svg/11px-Increase2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="11" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Increase2.svg/17px-Increase2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Increase2.svg/22px-Increase2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></span></span> 0.316<br /><span class="nowrap"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239334494">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}</style><span class="tmp-color" style="color:red">low</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Currency</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Afghan_afghani" title="Afghan afghani">Afghani</a> <a href="/wiki/ISO_4217" title="ISO 4217">(AFA)</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Telephone_numbers_in_Afghanistan" title="Telephone numbers in Afghanistan">Calling code</a></th><td class="infobox-data">93</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/ISO_3166" title="ISO 3166">ISO 3166 code</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/ISO_3166-2:AF" title="ISO 3166-2:AF">AF</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"> <table style="width:95%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; display:inline-table;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="text-align:center; border:0; padding-bottom:0"><div id="before-after"></div> <b>Preceded by</b></td> <td style="text-align:center;border:0; padding-bottom:0;"><b>Succeeded by</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; border:0;"> <table style="width:100%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281974%E2%80%931978%29.svg/20px-Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281974%E2%80%931978%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281974%E2%80%931978%29.svg/30px-Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281974%E2%80%931978%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281974%E2%80%931978%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281974%E2%80%931978%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Afghanistan_(1973%E2%80%931978)" title="Republic of Afghanistan (1973–1978)"><span class="nowrap">Republic of<br />Afghanistan</span></a> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center;border:0;"> <table style="width:92%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_State_of_Afghanistan" title="Islamic State of Afghanistan"><span class="nowrap">Islamic State of<br />Afghanistan</span></a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281992%E2%80%932001%29.svg/20px-Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281992%E2%80%932001%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281992%E2%80%932001%29.svg/30px-Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281992%E2%80%932001%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281992%E2%80%932001%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281992%E2%80%932001%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="300" /></span></span> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>Democratic Republic of Afghanistan</b>,<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> later known as the <b>Republic of Afghanistan</b>,<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was the Afghan state between <a href="/wiki/History_of_Afghanistan_(1978%E2%80%931992)" title="History of Afghanistan (1978–1992)">1978 and 1992</a>. It was bordered by <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a> to the east and south, by <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a> to the west, by the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> to the north, and by <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> to the northeast. Established by the <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Democratic_Party_of_Afghanistan" title="People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan">People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan</a> (PDPA) following the <a href="/wiki/Saur_Revolution" title="Saur Revolution">Saur Revolution</a> in April 1978, it came to rely heavily on the Soviet Union for financial and military assistance and was therefore widely considered to be a <a href="/wiki/Soviet_empire" title="Soviet empire">Soviet satellite state</a>. The PDPA's rise to power is seen as the beginning of the ongoing <a href="/wiki/Afghan_conflict" title="Afghan conflict">Afghan conflict</a>, and the majority of the country's years in existence were marked by the <a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War" title="Soviet–Afghan War">Soviet–Afghan War</a>. It collapsed by the end of the <a href="/wiki/Afghan_Civil_War_(1989%E2%80%931992)" title="Afghan Civil War (1989–1992)">First Afghan Civil War</a> in April 1992, having lasted only four months after the <a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">dissolution of the Soviet Union</a>. </p><p>The PDPA began ruling Afghanistan after ousting the unelected autocrat <a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Daoud_Khan" title="Mohammad Daoud Khan">Mohammad Daoud Khan</a>, who had become president by leading the <a href="/wiki/1973_Afghan_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1973 Afghan coup d'état">1973 Afghan coup d'état</a>; he was succeeded by <a href="/wiki/Nur_Muhammad_Taraki" title="Nur Muhammad Taraki">Nur Muhammad Taraki</a> as the head of state and government on 30 April 1978.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both Taraki and his successor <a href="/wiki/Hafizullah_Amin" title="Hafizullah Amin">Hafizullah Amin</a>, who had organized the Saur Revolution as the General Secretary of the PDPA, introduced several contentious reforms during their time in office, such as land and marriage reforms and an enforced policy of de-<a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamization</a> vis-à-vis the promotion of <a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">socialism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Amin, in particular, built upon Khan's reforms with even more radical legislation for Afghanistan's conservative Muslim society, such as <a href="/wiki/Universal_access_to_education" title="Universal access to education">universal education</a> and <a href="/wiki/Women_in_Afghanistan" title="Women in Afghanistan">equal rights for women</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Soon afterwards, a power struggle began between two PDPA factions: the hardline <a href="/wiki/Khalq" title="Khalq">Khalq</a>, led by Taraki and Amin; and the moderate <a href="/wiki/Parcham" title="Parcham">Parcham</a>, led by <a href="/wiki/Babrak_Karmal" title="Babrak Karmal">Babrak Karmal</a>. The Khalqists eventually emerged victorious and subsequently purged the bulk of the Parchamite ranks, while also exiling most of the prominent Parcham leaders to the Soviet Union and the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc" title="Eastern Bloc">Eastern Bloc</a>. </p><p>Following the Khalq–Parcham conflict, a power struggle arose within the Khalq faction itself, as Taraki and Amin increasingly contested each other's influence. Amin gained the upper hand among the Khalqists and later had Taraki killed on his orders. Due to his earlier reforms, however, Amin's rule proved to be unpopular throughout most of Afghanistan, with the country's emerging instability prompting the Soviet government to begin planning for a direct military intervention in favour of the Parchamites. On 27 December 1979, the Soviet Union launched <a href="/wiki/Operation_Storm-333" title="Operation Storm-333">Operation Storm-333</a>, assaulting the <a href="/wiki/Tajbeg_Palace" title="Tajbeg Palace">Tajbeg Palace</a> in <a href="/wiki/Kabul" title="Kabul">Kabul</a> and assassinating Amin, who was then replaced by Karmal. The Karmal era, which lasted from 1979 to 1986, was marked by the height of the Soviet–Afghan War. As the Soviet and Afghan militaries fought against the <a href="/wiki/Afghan_mujahideen" title="Afghan mujahideen">Afghan mujahideen</a>, which had been bolstered by military aid from the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">Muslim world</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Western_Bloc" title="Western Bloc">Western Bloc</a>, the country rapidly destabilized, resulting in widespread civilian casualties and the creation of <a href="/wiki/Afghan_refugees" title="Afghan refugees">millions of refugees</a>, most of whom fled to Pakistan and Iran. In April 1980, the "Fundamental Principles" (comprising a constitution) were introduced by Karmal's administration, and several non-PDPA members were allowed into the government to broaden the country's support base. However, these policies ultimately failed to bring peace to Afghanistan, and in 1986, Karmal was succeeded by <a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Najibullah" title="Mohammad Najibullah">Mohammad Najibullah</a>. </p><p>Najibullah pursued a policy known as <a href="/wiki/National_Reconciliation_(Afghanistan)" title="National Reconciliation (Afghanistan)">National Reconciliation</a>: a new constitution was introduced in 1987 and <a href="/wiki/1988_Afghan_parliamentary_election" title="1988 Afghan parliamentary election">democratic elections were held in 1988</a>, though they were boycotted by the mujahideen. After almost a decade of warfare, the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_withdrawal_from_Afghanistan" title="Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan">Soviet Union withdrew from Afghanistan</a> in February 1989, but continued to back the PDPA, which was facing mounting resistance from the opposition. By 1990, another constitution was introduced, stating that Afghanistan's true nature was that of an <a href="/wiki/Islamic_republic" title="Islamic republic">Islamic republic</a> and transforming the PDPA into the <a href="/wiki/Watan_Party_of_Afghanistan" title="Watan Party of Afghanistan">Watan Party</a>. On the military front, the government still proved to be capable of performing in open combat, as demonstrated in the <a href="/wiki/Afghan_Civil_War_(1989%E2%80%931992)#Battle_of_Jalalabad_(1989)" title="Afghan Civil War (1989–1992)">Battle of Jalalabad</a>. However, with growing internal difficulties, such as the <a href="/wiki/1990_Afghan_coup_attempt" title="1990 Afghan coup attempt">1990 Khalqist coup d'état attempt</a>, and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in December 1991, the Najibullah government was unable to sustain itself and ultimately lost the First Afghan Civil War in April 1992, which, in turn, triggered the <a href="/wiki/Afghan_Civil_War_(1992%E2%80%931996)" title="Afghan Civil War (1992–1996)">Second Afghan Civil War</a>. A distinct faction known as the <a href="/wiki/Taliban" title="Taliban">Taliban</a> emerged from among the mujahideen's ranks during this period and eventually seized most of the country, establishing the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Emirate_of_Afghanistan_(1996%E2%80%932001)" title="Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan (1996–2001)">Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan</a>, which fought the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Alliance" title="Northern Alliance">Northern Alliance</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Afghan_Civil_War_(1996%E2%80%932001)" title="Afghan Civil War (1996–2001)">Third Afghan Civil War</a> before collapsing to the <a href="/wiki/United_States_invasion_of_Afghanistan" title="United States invasion of Afghanistan">United States invasion of Afghanistan</a> in October 2001. This <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Islamic Emirate would be re-established</a> after the end of the <a href="/wiki/War_in_Afghanistan_(2001%E2%80%932021)" title="War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)">War in Afghanistan</a> in August 2021. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Democratic_Republic_of_Afghanistan&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Afghanistan_(1978%E2%80%931992)" title="History of Afghanistan (1978–1992)">History of Afghanistan (1978–1992)</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Saur_Revolution_and_Taraki:_1978–1979"><span id="Saur_Revolution_and_Taraki:_1978.E2.80.931979"></span>Saur Revolution and Taraki: 1978–1979</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Democratic_Republic_of_Afghanistan&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Saur Revolution and Taraki: 1978–1979"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Daoud_Khan" title="Mohammad Daoud Khan">Mohammad Daoud Khan</a>, the President of the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Afghanistan_(1973%E2%80%931978)" title="Republic of Afghanistan (1973–1978)">Republic of Afghanistan</a> from 1973 to 1978, was ousted during the <a href="/wiki/Saur_Revolution" title="Saur Revolution">Saur Revolution</a> (April Revolution) following the death of <a href="/wiki/Mir_Akbar_Khyber" title="Mir Akbar Khyber">Mir Akbar Khyber</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Parcham" title="Parcham">Parchamite</a> politician from the <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Democratic_Party_of_Afghanistan" title="People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan">People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan</a> (PDPA), who died under mysterious circumstances.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETomsen2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidzz9_Ve29eL0CpgPA110_110–111]_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETomsen2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidzz9_Ve29eL0CpgPA110_110–111]-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Hafizullah_Amin" title="Hafizullah Amin">Hafizullah Amin</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Khalq" title="Khalq">Khalqist</a>, was the coup's chief architect.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHussain2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTRW_M_xybyYCpgPA95_95]_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHussain2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTRW_M_xybyYCpgPA95_95]-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Nur_Muhammad_Taraki" title="Nur Muhammad Taraki">Nur Muhammad Taraki</a>, the leader of the Khalqists, was elected <a href="/wiki/President_of_Afghanistan" title="President of Afghanistan">Chairman</a> of the Presidium of the <a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_Council_(Afghanistan)" title="Revolutionary Council (Afghanistan)">Revolutionary Council</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Afghanistan" title="Prime Minister of Afghanistan">Chairman</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Ministers_(Afghanistan)" title="Council of Ministers (Afghanistan)">Council of Ministers</a> and retained his post as General Secretary of the <a href="/wiki/Central_Committee_of_the_People%27s_Democratic_Party_of_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Central Committee of the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan">PDPA Central Committee</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGladstone2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidaH_KCWVB6W0CpgPA117_117]_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGladstone2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidaH_KCWVB6W0CpgPA117_117]-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under him was <a href="/wiki/Babrak_Karmal" title="Babrak Karmal">Babrak Karmal</a>, the leader of the Parcham faction, as Deputy Chairman of the Revolutionary Council<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrecherWilkenfeld1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidGjY7aV_6FPwCpgPA356_356]_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrecherWilkenfeld1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidGjY7aV_6FPwCpgPA356_356]-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Deputy Chairman of the Council of Ministers, Amin as Council of Ministers deputy chairman<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAsthanaNirmal2009[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8EqWnqdsgZMCpgPA219_219]_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAsthanaNirmal2009[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8EqWnqdsgZMCpgPA219_219]-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Foreign_Affairs_(Afghanistan)" title="Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Afghanistan)">Minister of Foreign Affairs</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGladstone2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidaH_KCWVB6W0CpgPA117_117]_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGladstone2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidaH_KCWVB6W0CpgPA117_117]-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Aslam_Watanjar" title="Mohammad Aslam Watanjar">Mohammad Aslam Watanjar</a> as Council of Ministers deputy chairman.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERasanayagam2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid5L8CnWkACQkCpgPA70_70]_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERasanayagam2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid5L8CnWkACQkCpgPA70_70]-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The appointment of Karmal, Amin and Watanjar as Council of Ministers deputy chairmen proved unstable, and it led to three different governments being established within the government; the Khalq faction was answerable to Amin, the Parchamites were answerable to Karmal and the military officers (who were Parchamites) were answerable to Watanjar.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERasanayagam2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid5L8CnWkACQkCpgPA70_70–71]_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERasanayagam2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid5L8CnWkACQkCpgPA70_70–71]-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first conflict between the Khalqists and Parchamites arose when the Khalqists wanted to give PDPA Central Committee membership to military officers who participated in the Saur Revolution. Amin, who previously opposed the appointment of military officers to the PDPA leadership, altered his position; he now supported their elevation. The PDPA Politburo voted in favour of giving membership to the military officers; the victors (the Khalqists) portrayed the Parchamites as opportunists (they implied that the Parchamites had ridden the revolutionary wave, but not actually participated in the revolution). To make matters worse for the Parchamites, the term Parcham was, according to Taraki, a word synonymous with factionalism.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERasanayagam2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid5L8CnWkACQkCpgPA71_71]_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERasanayagam2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid5L8CnWkACQkCpgPA71_71]-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 27 June, three months after the revolution, Amin managed to outmaneuver the Parchamites at a Central Committee meeting.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERasanayagam2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid5L8CnWkACQkCpgPA72_72–73]_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERasanayagam2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid5L8CnWkACQkCpgPA72_72–73]-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The meeting decided that the Khalqists had the exclusive right to formulate and decide policy, which left the Parchamites impotent. Karmal was exiled. Later, a coup planned by the Parchamites and led by Karmal was discovered by the Khalqist leadership, prompting a swift reaction; a purge of Parchamites began. Parchamite ambassadors were recalled, but few returned; for instance, Karmal and <a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Najibullah" title="Mohammad Najibullah">Mohammad Najibullah</a> stayed in their respective countries.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERasanayagam2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid5L8CnWkACQkCpgPA73_73]_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERasanayagam2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid5L8CnWkACQkCpgPA73_73]-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During Taraki's rule, an unpopular <a href="/wiki/Land_reform" title="Land reform">land reform</a> was introduced, leading to the requisitioning of land by the government without compensation; it disrupted lines of credit and led to some crop buyers boycotting beneficiaries of the reform, causing agricultural harvests to plummet and rising discontent amongst Afghans.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA315_315]_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA315_315]-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When Taraki realized the degree of popular dissatisfaction with the reform he began to curtail the policy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a315–316_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a315–316-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Afghanistan's long history of resistance to any type of strong centralized governmental control further undermined his authority.<sup id="cite_ref-MERIA_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MERIA-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Consequently, much of the land reform did not get implemented nationwide. In the months following the coup, Taraki and other party leaders initiated other policies that challenged both traditional <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Afghanistan" title="Culture of Afghanistan">Afghan values</a> and well-established traditional power structures in rural areas. Taraki introduced women to political life and legislated an end to forced marriage. The strength of the anti-reform backlash would ultimately lead to the <a href="/wiki/War_in_Afghanistan_(1978%E2%80%93present)" class="mw-redirect" title="War in Afghanistan (1978–present)">Afghan Civil War</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrown2009356_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown2009356-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Amin_and_the_Soviet_intervention:_1979">Amin and the Soviet intervention: 1979</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Democratic_Republic_of_Afghanistan&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Amin and the Soviet intervention: 1979"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>While <a href="/wiki/Hafizullah_Amin" title="Hafizullah Amin">Amin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nur_Muhammad_Taraki" title="Nur Muhammad Taraki">Taraki</a> had a very close relationship at the beginning, the relationship soon deteriorated. Amin, who had helped to create a <a href="/wiki/Personality_cult" class="mw-redirect" title="Personality cult">personality cult</a> centered on Taraki, soon became disgusted with the shape it took and with Taraki, who had begun to believe in his own brilliance. Taraki began dismissing Amin's suggestions, fostering in Amin a deep sense of resentment. As their relationship turned increasingly sour, a power struggle developed between them for control of the Afghan Army.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMisdaq2006122_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMisdaq2006122-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following the <a href="/wiki/1979_Herat_uprising" title="1979 Herat uprising">1979 Herat uprising</a>, the Revolutionary Council and the <a href="/wiki/Politburo_of_the_People%27s_Democratic_Party_of_Afghanistan" title="Politburo of the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan">PDPA Politburo</a> established the Homeland Higher Defence Council. Taraki was elected its chairman, while Amin became its deputy. Amin's appointment, and the acquisition of the premiership (as Chairman of the Council of Ministers), was not a step further up the ladder as one might assume; due to constitutional reforms, Amin's new offices were more or less powerless.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMisdaq2006123_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMisdaq2006123-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There was a failed assassination attempt led by the <a href="/wiki/Gang_of_Four_(Afghanistan)" title="Gang of Four (Afghanistan)">Gang of Four</a>, which consisted of <a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Aslam_Watanjar" title="Mohammad Aslam Watanjar">Watanjar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sayed_Mohammad_Gulabzoy" title="Sayed Mohammad Gulabzoy">Sayed Mohammad Gulabzoy</a>, Sherjan Mazdoryar and <a href="/wiki/Assadullah_Sarwari" title="Assadullah Sarwari">Assadullah Sarwari</a>. This assassination attempt prompted Amin to conspire against Taraki,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMisdaq2006125_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMisdaq2006125-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and when Taraki returned from a trip to <a href="/wiki/Havana" title="Havana">Havana</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMisdaq2006123–124_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMisdaq2006123–124-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> he was ousted, and later suffocated on Amin's orders.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMisdaq2006125_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMisdaq2006125-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During his 104 days in power, Amin became committed to establishing a <a href="/wiki/Collective_leadership" title="Collective leadership">collective leadership</a>. When Taraki was ousted, Amin promised "from now on there will be no <a href="/wiki/Autocracy" title="Autocracy">one-man government</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>...".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMale1982[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid-cYOAAAAQAAJpgPA192_192]_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMale1982[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid-cYOAAAAQAAJpgPA192_192]-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Prior to the <a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War" title="Soviet–Afghan War">Soviet intervention</a>, the PDPA executed between 1,000 and 27,000 people, mostly at <a href="/wiki/Pul-e-Charkhi_prison" title="Pul-e-Charkhi prison">Pul-e-Charkhi prison</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Between 17,000 and 25,000 people were arrested during Taraki's and Amin's rules combined.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA273_273]_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA273_273]-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Amin was not liked by the Afghan people. During his rule, opposition to the <a href="/wiki/Communist_regime" class="mw-redirect" title="Communist regime">communist regime</a> increased, and the government lost control of the countryside. The state of the <a href="/wiki/Armed_Forces_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_Afghanistan" title="Armed Forces of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan">Afghan Armed Forces</a> deteriorated under Amin; due to desertions the number of military personnel in the Afghan Army decreased from 100,000, in the immediate aftermath of the Saur Revolution, to somewhere between 50,000 and 70,000. Another problem was that the KGB had penetrated the PDPA, the military and the government bureaucracy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETomsen2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidzz9_Ve29eL0CpgPA160_160]_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETomsen2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidzz9_Ve29eL0CpgPA160_160]-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While his position in Afghanistan was becoming more perilous by the day, his enemies who were exiled in the Soviet Union and the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc" title="Eastern Bloc">Eastern Bloc</a> were agitating for his removal. <a href="/wiki/Babrak_Karmal" title="Babrak Karmal">Babrak Karmal</a>, the Parchamite leader, met several leading Eastern Bloc figures during this period, and <a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Aslam_Watanjar" title="Mohammad Aslam Watanjar">Mohammad Aslam Watanjar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sayed_Mohammad_Gulabzoy" title="Sayed Mohammad Gulabzoy">Sayed Mohammad Gulabzoy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Assadullah_Sarwari" title="Assadullah Sarwari">Assadullah Sarwari</a> wanted to exact revenge on Amin.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETomsen2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidzz9_Ve29eL0CpgPA160_160–161]_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETomsen2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidzz9_Ve29eL0CpgPA160_160–161]-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid 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.sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile vcard plainlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><div class="sidebar-pretitle" style="margin: -0.2em 0; font-size:69%; font-weight:normal;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Afghanistan" title="Category:History of Afghanistan">a series</a> on the</div></th> </tr><tr> <th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style=""><a href="/wiki/History_of_Afghanistan" title="History of Afghanistan">History of <span class="fn org label">Afghanistan</span></a></th> </tr><tr><td style="padding-bottom: 0.4em; border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Shuja_Shah_Durrani_of_Afghanistan_in_1839.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Shuja_Shah_Durrani_of_Afghanistan_in_1839.jpg/200px-Shuja_Shah_Durrani_of_Afghanistan_in_1839.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Shuja_Shah_Durrani_of_Afghanistan_in_1839.jpg/300px-Shuja_Shah_Durrani_of_Afghanistan_in_1839.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Shuja_Shah_Durrani_of_Afghanistan_in_1839.jpg/400px-Shuja_Shah_Durrani_of_Afghanistan_in_1839.jpg 2x" data-file-width="968" data-file-height="712" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above"> <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Afghan_history" title="Timeline of Afghan history">Timeline</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_history_of_Afghanistan" title="Ancient history of Afghanistan">Ancient</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_civilisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus Valley civilisation">Indus Valley civilisation</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2200–1800 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Bactria%E2%80%93Margiana_Archaeological_Complex" title="Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex">Oxus civilization</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2100–1800 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Gandhara_kingdom" title="Gandhara kingdom">Gandhara kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1500–535 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Medes" title="Medes">Median Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 728–550 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 550–330 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)" title="Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">Macedonian Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 330–312 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 312–150 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Maurya_Empire" title="Maurya Empire">Maurya Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 305–180 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Greco-Bactrian_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Greco-Bactrian kingdom">Greco-Bactrian kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 256–125 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 247 BC–224 AD</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Indo-Greek_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Greek kingdom">Indo-Greek kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 180–90 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Indo-Scythians" title="Indo-Scythians">Indo-Scythian kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 155–80? BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushan Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 135 BC – 248 AD</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Indo-Parthian_kingdom" title="Indo-Parthian kingdom">Indo-Parthian kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 20 BC – 50? AD</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 230–651</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kidarites" title="Kidarites">Kidarite kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 320–465</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Rob" title="Kingdom of Rob">Rob</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Alchon_Huns" title="Alchon Huns">Alchon Huns</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 380–560</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Hephthalite_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Hephthalite Empire">Hephthalite Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 410–557</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Nezak_Huns" title="Nezak Huns">Nezak Huns</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 484–711</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Medieval</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Turk_Shahis" title="Turk Shahis">Kabul Shahi</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 565–879</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Chaghaniyan" title="Principality of Chaghaniyan">Principality of Chaghaniyan</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 7th–8th centuries</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun Caliphate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 652–661</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang China</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 660–669</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Empire" title="Tibetan Empire">Tibetan Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 660–842</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyads</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 661–750</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Zunbils" title="Zunbils">Zunbils</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 680–870</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Lawik_dynasty" title="Lawik dynasty">Lawik</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">750-977</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasids</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 750–821</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Tahirid_dynasty" title="Tahirid dynasty">Tahirids</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 821–873</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Saffarid_dynasty" title="Saffarid dynasty">Saffarids</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 863–900</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Samanid_Empire" title="Samanid Empire">Samanids</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 875–999</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Ghaznavids" title="Ghaznavids">Ghaznavids</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 963–1187</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Ghurid_dynasty" title="Ghurid dynasty">Ghurids</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> before 879–1215</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Seljuk_Empire" title="Seljuk Empire">Seljuks</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1037–1194</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Khwarazmian_Empire" title="Khwarazmian Empire">Khwarezmids</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1215–1231</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_the_Khwarazmian_Empire" title="Mongol invasion of the Khwarazmian Empire">Mongol Invasion</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1219–1226</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Chagatai_Khanate" title="Chagatai Khanate">Chagatai Khanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1226–1245</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Qarlughids" title="Qarlughids">Qarlughids</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1224–1266</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Ilkhanate" title="Ilkhanate">Ilkhanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1256–1335</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kart_dynasty" title="Kart dynasty">Kartids</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1245–1381</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Timurid_Empire" title="Timurid Empire">Timurids</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1370–1507</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Arghun_dynasty" title="Arghun dynasty">Arghuns</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1520–1591</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Modern</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughals</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1501–1738</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Safavid_Iran" title="Safavid Iran">Safavids</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1510–1709</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kunduz_Khanate" title="Kunduz Khanate">Kunduz Khanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> ?–1859</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Hotak_dynasty" title="Hotak dynasty">Hotak dynasty</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1709–1738</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Sadozai_Sultanate_of_Herat" title="Sadozai Sultanate of Herat">Sadozai Sultanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1716–1732</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Afsharid_Iran" title="Afsharid Iran">Afsharid Iran</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1738–1747</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Durrani_Empire" title="Durrani Empire">Durrani Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1747–1823</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Maimana_Khanate" title="Maimana Khanate">Maimana Khanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1747–1892</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Herat_(1793%E2%80%931863)" title="Herat (1793–1863)">Herat</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1793–1863</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Qandahar" class="mw-redirect" title="Principality of Qandahar">Principality of Qandahar</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">1818–1855</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Afghanistan" title="Emirate of Afghanistan">Emirate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1823–1926</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Afghanistan_(1929)" title="Emirate of Afghanistan (1929)">Saqqawist Emirate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1929</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Afghanistan" title="Kingdom of Afghanistan">Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1926–1973</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/1973_Afghan_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1973 Afghan coup d'état">Daoud coup</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1973</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Afghanistan_(1973%E2%80%931978)" title="Republic of Afghanistan (1973–1978)">Republic</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1973–1978</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Saur_Revolution" title="Saur Revolution">Saur Revolution</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1978</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Democratic Republic</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1978–1992</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/1990_Afghan_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat_attempt" class="mw-redirect" title="1990 Afghan coup d'état attempt">Tanai coup attempt</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1990</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Islamic_State_of_Afghanistan" title="Islamic State of Afghanistan">Islamic State</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1992–1996</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Emirate_of_Afghanistan_(1996%E2%80%932001)" title="Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan (1996–2001)">Islamic Emirate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1996–2001</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/United_States_invasion_of_Afghanistan" title="United States invasion of Afghanistan">US invasion</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2001</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Islamic_State_of_Afghanistan" title="Islamic State of Afghanistan">Islamic State</a> (reinstated)</td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2001</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Afghan_Interim_Administration" title="Afghan Interim Administration">Interim</a>/<a href="/wiki/Transitional_Islamic_State_of_Afghanistan" title="Transitional Islamic State of Afghanistan">Transitional Administration</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2001–2004</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Republic_of_Afghanistan" title="Islamic Republic of Afghanistan">Islamic Republic</a> (<a href="/wiki/Politics_of_the_Islamic_Republic_of_Afghanistan" title="Politics of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan">politics</a>)</td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2004–2021</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Islamic Emirate</a> (reinstated)</td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> <span style="font-size:85%;">since</span> 2021</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Related historical regions</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arachosia" title="Arachosia">Arachosia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aria_(region)" title="Aria (region)">Aria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ariana" title="Ariana">Ariana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bactria" title="Bactria">Bactria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gandhara" title="Gandhara">Gandhara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Iran" title="Greater Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kabulistan" title="Kabulistan">Kabulistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kafiristan" title="Kafiristan">Kafiristan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Khorasan" title="Greater Khorasan">Khorasan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kushanshahr" title="Kushanshahr">Kushanshahr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paropamisadae" title="Paropamisadae">Paropamisadae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sistan" title="Sistan">Sistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zabulistan" title="Zabulistan">Zabulistan</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Political_history_of_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Political history of Afghanistan">Political history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_violence_in_Afghanistan" title="Political violence in Afghanistan">Political violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Afghanistan" title="Culture of Afghanistan">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic history of Afghanistan">Economic history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Name_of_Afghanistan" title="Name of Afghanistan">Name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afghan_(ethnonym)" title="Afghan (ethnonym)">Afghan (ethnonym)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_Afghanistan" title="List of years in Afghanistan">List of years</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_heads_of_state_of_Afghanistan" title="List of heads of state of Afghanistan">List of heads of state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wars_in_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Wars in Afghanistan">Wars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wars_involving_Afghanistan" title="List of wars involving Afghanistan">List of wars</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hinduism_in_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Hinduism in Afghanistan">Hinduism history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_and_Buddhist_heritage_of_Afghanistan" title="Hindu and Buddhist heritage of Afghanistan">Hindu and Buddhist heritage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Afghanistan" title="History of the Jews in Afghanistan">Jewish history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquests_of_Afghanistan" title="Muslim conquests of Afghanistan">Muslim conquests</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="font-weight:bold;"> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Afghanistan" title="Category:History of Afghanistan">Category</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_the_Taliban.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_Taliban.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_the_Taliban.svg/48px-Flag_of_the_Taliban.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_the_Taliban.svg/64px-Flag_of_the_Taliban.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Afghanistan" title="Portal:Afghanistan">Afghanistan portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Afghanistan" title="Template:History of Afghanistan"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Afghanistan" title="Template talk:History of Afghanistan"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Afghanistan" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Afghanistan"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Meantime in the Soviet Union, the Special Commission of the Politburo on Afghanistan, which consisted of <a href="/wiki/Yuri_Andropov" title="Yuri Andropov">Yuri Andropov</a>, <a href="/wiki/Andrei_Gromyko" title="Andrei Gromyko">Andrei Gromyko</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dmitriy_Ustinov" class="mw-redirect" title="Dmitriy Ustinov">Dmitriy Ustinov</a> and <a href="/wiki/Boris_Ponomarev" title="Boris Ponomarev">Boris Ponomarev</a>, wanted to end the impression that the Soviet government supported Amin's leadership and policies.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETripathiFalk2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidtDf8p060_JgCpgPA54_54]_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETripathiFalk2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidtDf8p060_JgCpgPA54_54]-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Andropov fought hard for Soviet intervention, telling <a href="/wiki/Leonid_Brezhnev" title="Leonid Brezhnev">Leonid Brezhnev</a> that Amin's policies had destroyed the military and the government's capability to handle the crisis by use of mass repression. The plan, according to Andropov, was to assemble a small force to intervene and remove Amin from power and replace him with Karmal.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETripathiFalk2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidtDf8p060_JgCpgPA55_55]_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETripathiFalk2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidtDf8p060_JgCpgPA55_55]-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Soviet Union declared its plan to intervene in Afghanistan on 12 December 1979, and the Soviet leadership initiated <a href="/wiki/Operation_Storm-333" title="Operation Storm-333">Operation Storm-333</a> (the <a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War#Soviet_invasion_and_palace_coup" title="Soviet–Afghan War">first phase of the intervention</a>) on 27 December 1979.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECamp2012[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidyMmx1m_ZCqECpgPA12_12–13]_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECamp2012[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidyMmx1m_ZCqECpgPA12_12–13]-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Amin remained trustful of the Soviet Union until the very end, despite the deterioration of official relations with the Soviet Union. When the Afghan intelligence service handed Amin a report that the Soviet Union would invade the country and topple him, Amin claimed the report was a product of <a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">imperialism</a>. His view can be explained by the fact that the Soviet Union, after several months, decided to send troops into Afghanistan.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGarthoff1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidmGG-x_tuNUcCpgPA1009_1009]_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGarthoff1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidmGG-x_tuNUcCpgPA1009_1009]-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Contrary to normal Western beliefs, Amin was informed of the Soviet decision to send troops into Afghanistan.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGarthoff1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidmGG-x_tuNUcCpgPA1017_1017]_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGarthoff1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidmGG-x_tuNUcCpgPA1017_1017]-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Amin was killed by Soviet forces on 27 December 1979.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBraithwaite201199_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBraithwaite201199-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Karmal_era:_1979–1986"><span id="Karmal_era:_1979.E2.80.931986"></span>Karmal era: 1979–1986</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Democratic_Republic_of_Afghanistan&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Karmal era: 1979–1986"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Karmal ascended to power following Amin's assassination.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBraithwaite201199_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBraithwaite201199-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 27 December <a href="/wiki/Radio_Kabul" class="mw-redirect" title="Radio Kabul">Radio Kabul</a> broadcast Karmal's pre-recorded speech, which stated "Today the torture machine of Amin has been smashed, his accomplices – the primitive executioners, usurpers and murderers of tens of thousand of our fellow countrymen – fathers, mothers, sisters, brothers, sons and daughters, children and old people<span class="nowrap"> </span>...". On 1 January <a href="/wiki/Leonid_Brezhnev" title="Leonid Brezhnev">Leonid Brezhnev</a>, the <a href="/wiki/General_Secretary_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">General Secretary</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Central_Committee_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Alexei_Kosygin" title="Alexei Kosygin">Alexei Kosygin</a>, the Soviet <a href="/wiki/Premier_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Premier of the Soviet Union">Chairman</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Ministers_(Soviet_Union)" class="mw-redirect" title="Council of Ministers (Soviet Union)">Council of Ministers</a>, congratulated Karmal on his "election" as leader, before any Afghan state or party organ had elected him to anything.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBraithwaite2011103–104_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBraithwaite2011103–104-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When he came to power, Karmal promised an end to executions, the establishment of democratic institutions and free elections, the creation of a constitution, the legalisation of parties other than the PDPA, and respect for individual and personal property. Prisoners incarcerated under the two previous governments would be freed in a general amnesty. He even promised that a coalition government was going to be established that was not going to espouse <a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">socialism</a>. At the same time, he told the Afghan people that he had negotiated with the Soviet Union to give economic, military and political assistance. Even if Karmal indeed wanted all this, it would be impossible to put it into practice in the presence of the Soviet Union.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEH._KakarM._Kakar1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidQyTmFj5tUGsCpgPA71_71]_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEH._KakarM._Kakar1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidQyTmFj5tUGsCpgPA71_71]-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most Afghans mistrusted the government at this time. Many still remembered that Karmal had said he would protect private capital in 1978, a promise later proven to be a lie.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEH._KakarM._Kakar1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidQyTmFj5tUGsCpgPA71_71–72]_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEH._KakarM._Kakar1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidQyTmFj5tUGsCpgPA71_71–72]-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When a political solution failed, the Afghan government and the Soviet military decided to solve the conflict militarily. The change from a political to a military solution came gradually. It began in January 1981: Karmal doubled wages for military personnel, issued several promotions, and one general and thirteen colonels were decorated. The draft age was lowered, the obligatory length of military duty was extended, and the age for reservists was increased to thirty-five years of age. In June, <a href="/wiki/Assadullah_Sarwari" title="Assadullah Sarwari">Assadullah Sarwari</a> lost his seat in the PDPA Politburo, and in his place were appointed <a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Aslam_Watanjar" title="Mohammad Aslam Watanjar">Mohammad Aslam Watanjar</a>, a former tank commander and the then <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Communications_(Afghanistan)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ministry of Communications (Afghanistan)">Minister of Communications</a>, <a href="/wiki/Major_General" class="mw-redirect" title="Major General">Major General</a> <a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Rafi_(politician)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mohammad Rafi (politician)">Mohammad Rafi</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Defence_(Afghanistan)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ministry of Defence (Afghanistan)">Minister of Defence</a> and <a href="/wiki/KHAD" title="KHAD">KHAD</a> Chairman <a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Najibullah" title="Mohammad Najibullah">Mohammad Najibullah</a>. These measures were introduced due to the collapse of the army; before the invasion the army could field 100,000 troops, after the invasion only 25,000. Desertion was pandemic, and the recruitment campaigns for young people often led them to flee to the opposition.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeinerBanuazizi1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTmMJnaMVN6oCpgPA47_47]_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeinerBanuazizi1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTmMJnaMVN6oCpgPA47_47]-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To better organise the military, seven military zones were established, each with its own Defence Council. The Defence Council was established at the national, provincial and district level to devolve powers to the local PDPA.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeinerBanuazizi1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTmMJnaMVN6oCpgPA48_48]_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeinerBanuazizi1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTmMJnaMVN6oCpgPA48_48]-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is estimated that the Afghan government spent as much as 40 percent of government revenue on defence.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStaff_writer2002[httpsbooksgooglecombookside5Az1lGCJwQCpgPA86_86]_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStaff_writer2002[httpsbooksgooglecombookside5Az1lGCJwQCpgPA86_86]-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Karmal was forced to resign from his post as PDPA General Secretary in May 1986, due to increasing pressure from the Soviet leadership, and was succeeded by Najibullah, the former <a href="/wiki/KHAD" title="KHAD">Minister of State Security</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKalinovsky2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidrf1Yg2SGLQgCpgPA97_97]_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKalinovsky2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidrf1Yg2SGLQgCpgPA97_97]-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He continued to have influence in the upper echelons of the party and state until he was forced to resign from his post of Revolutionary Council Chairman in November 1986, being succeeded by <a href="/wiki/Haji_Mohammad_Chamkani" title="Haji Mohammad Chamkani">Haji Mohammad Chamkani</a>, who was not a PDPA member.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994b[httpsbooksgooglecombooksida0Mp1AHpp0gCpgPA152_151–152]_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994b[httpsbooksgooglecombooksida0Mp1AHpp0gCpgPA152_151–152]-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Najibullah_and_Soviet_withdrawal:_1986–1989"><span id="Najibullah_and_Soviet_withdrawal:_1986.E2.80.931989"></span>Najibullah and Soviet withdrawal: 1986–1989</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Democratic_Republic_of_Afghanistan&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Najibullah and Soviet withdrawal: 1986–1989"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In September 1986 the National Compromise Commission (NCC) was established on the orders of Najibullah. The NCC's goal was to contact <a href="/wiki/Counter-revolutionaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Counter-revolutionaries">counter-revolutionaries</a> "in order to complete the <a href="/wiki/Saur_Revolution" title="Saur Revolution">Saur Revolution</a> in its new phase." An estimated 40,000 rebels were contacted by the government. At the end of 1986, Najibullah called for a six-month ceasefire and talks between the various opposition forces, as part of his policy of <a href="/wiki/National_Reconciliation_(Afghanistan)" title="National Reconciliation (Afghanistan)">National Reconciliation</a>. The discussions, if fruitful, would have led to the establishment of a coalition government and be the end of the PDPA's monopoly on power. The programme failed, but the government was able to recruit disillusioned mujahideen fighters as government militias.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994b[httpsbooksgooglecombooksida0Mp1AHpp0gCpgPA152_152]_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994b[httpsbooksgooglecombooksida0Mp1AHpp0gCpgPA152_152]-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The National Reconciliation did lead an increasing number of urban dwellers to support his rule, and to the stabilisation of the Afghan defence forces.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994b[httpsbooksgooglecombooksida0Mp1AHpp0gCpgPA153_153]_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994b[httpsbooksgooglecombooksida0Mp1AHpp0gCpgPA153_153]-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:RIAN_archive_12070_Najibullah_giving_decorations.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/RIAN_archive_12070_Najibullah_giving_decorations.jpg/220px-RIAN_archive_12070_Najibullah_giving_decorations.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/RIAN_archive_12070_Najibullah_giving_decorations.jpg/330px-RIAN_archive_12070_Najibullah_giving_decorations.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/RIAN_archive_12070_Najibullah_giving_decorations.jpg/440px-RIAN_archive_12070_Najibullah_giving_decorations.jpg 2x" data-file-width="901" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption>Najibullah giving a decoration to a Soviet serviceman</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:RIAN_archive_476785_Soviet_Army_soldiers_return_from_Afghanistan.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/RIAN_archive_476785_Soviet_Army_soldiers_return_from_Afghanistan.jpg/220px-RIAN_archive_476785_Soviet_Army_soldiers_return_from_Afghanistan.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/RIAN_archive_476785_Soviet_Army_soldiers_return_from_Afghanistan.jpg/330px-RIAN_archive_476785_Soviet_Army_soldiers_return_from_Afghanistan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/RIAN_archive_476785_Soviet_Army_soldiers_return_from_Afghanistan.jpg/440px-RIAN_archive_476785_Soviet_Army_soldiers_return_from_Afghanistan.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="676" /></a><figcaption>Soviet soldiers returning from <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a>. 20 October 1986, Kushka, Turkmenia.</figcaption></figure> <p>While Najibullah may have been the <i><a href="/wiki/De_jure" title="De jure">de jure</a></i> leader of Afghanistan, Soviet advisers still did most of the work after Najibullah took power. As Gorbachev remarked "We're still doing everything ourselves<span class="nowrap"> </span>... That's all our people know how to do. They've tied Najibullah hand and foot."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBraithwaite2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidguQQKejG3qUCpgPA276_276]_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBraithwaite2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidguQQKejG3qUCpgPA276_276]-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fikryat Tabeev, the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_ambassador_to_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet ambassador to Afghanistan">Soviet ambassador to Afghanistan</a>, was accused of acting like a Governor General by Gorbachev, and he was recalled from Afghanistan in July 1986. But while Gorbachev called for the end of Soviet management of Afghanistan, he could not resist doing some managing himself. At a Soviet Politburo meeting, Gorbachev said, "It's difficult to build a new building out of old material<span class="nowrap"> </span>... I hope to God that we haven't made a mistake with Najibullah."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBraithwaite2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidguQQKejG3qUCpgPA276_276]_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBraithwaite2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidguQQKejG3qUCpgPA276_276]-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As time would prove, Najibullah's aims were the opposite of the Soviet Union's; Najibullah was opposed to a Soviet withdrawal, the Soviet Union wanted a withdrawal. This was understandable, since it was thought that the Afghan military was on the brink of dissolution. Najibullah thought his only means of survival was to retain the Soviet presence.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBraithwaite2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidguQQKejG3qUCpgPA276_276]_54-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBraithwaite2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidguQQKejG3qUCpgPA276_276]-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In July 1986 six Soviet regiments, up to 15,000 troops, were withdrawn from Afghanistan. The aim of this early withdrawal was, according to Gorbachev, to show the world that the Soviet leadership was serious about leaving Afghanistan.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBraithwaite2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidguQQKejG3qUCpgPA277_277]_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBraithwaite2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidguQQKejG3qUCpgPA277_277]-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Soviets told the United States Government that they were planning to withdraw, but the United States Government didn't believe it. When Gorbachev met with <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan</a> during his visit the United States, Reagan called, bizarrely, for the dissolution of the <a href="/wiki/Armed_Forces_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_Afghanistan" title="Armed Forces of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan">Afghan Military</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBraithwaite2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidguQQKejG3qUCpgPA280_280]_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBraithwaite2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidguQQKejG3qUCpgPA280_280]-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 14 April the Afghan and Pakistani governments signed the 1988 <a href="/wiki/Geneva_Accords_(1988)" title="Geneva Accords (1988)">Geneva Accords</a>, and the Soviet Union and the United States signed as guarantors; the treaty specifically stated that the Soviet military had to withdraw from Afghanistan by 15 February 1989.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBraithwaite2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidguQQKejG3qUCpgPA281_281]_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBraithwaite2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidguQQKejG3qUCpgPA281_281]-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During a Politburo meeting <a href="/wiki/Eduard_Shevardnadze" title="Eduard Shevardnadze">Eduard Shevardnadze</a> said "We will leave the country in a deplorable situation",<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBraithwaite2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidguQQKejG3qUCpgPA282_282]_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBraithwaite2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidguQQKejG3qUCpgPA282_282]-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and talked further about economic collapse, and the need to keep at least 10,000 to 15,000 troops in Afghanistan. <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Kryuchkov" title="Vladimir Kryuchkov">Vladimir Kryuchkov</a>, the <a href="/wiki/KGB_Chairman" class="mw-redirect" title="KGB Chairman">KGB Chairman</a>, supported this position. This stance, if implemented, would be a betrayal of the Geneva Accords just signed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBraithwaite2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidguQQKejG3qUCpgPA282_282]_58-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBraithwaite2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidguQQKejG3qUCpgPA282_282]-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Najibullah was against any type of Soviet withdrawal.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBraithwaite2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidguQQKejG3qUCpgPA286_286]_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBraithwaite2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidguQQKejG3qUCpgPA286_286]-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A few Soviet troops remained after the Soviet withdrawal; for instance, parachutists who protected the Soviet embassy staff, military advisors and <a href="/wiki/Special_forces" title="Special forces">special forces</a> and reconnaissance troops still operated in the "outlying provinces", especially along the Afghan–Soviet border.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBraithwaite2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidguQQKejG3qUCpgPA294_294]_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBraithwaite2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidguQQKejG3qUCpgPA294_294]-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fall:_1989–1992"><span id="Fall:_1989.E2.80.931992"></span>Fall: 1989–1992</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Democratic_Republic_of_Afghanistan&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Fall: 1989–1992"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Watan_Party_Remastered.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Watan_Party_Remastered.png/220px-Watan_Party_Remastered.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Watan_Party_Remastered.png/330px-Watan_Party_Remastered.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Watan_Party_Remastered.png/440px-Watan_Party_Remastered.png 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2448" /></a><figcaption>The Emblem of the Homeland Party</figcaption></figure> <p>Pakistan, under <a href="/wiki/Zia_ul-Haq" class="mw-redirect" title="Zia ul-Haq">Zia ul-Haq</a>, continued to support the <a href="/wiki/Afghan_mujahideen" title="Afghan mujahideen">Afghan mujahideen</a> even though it was a contravention of the Geneva Accords. At the beginning most observers expected the Najibullah government to collapse immediately, and to be replaced with an Islamic fundamentalist government. Following the Soviet withdrawal the morale of the Afghan Military was said to have actually increased.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">Central Intelligence Agency</a> stated in a report, that the new government would be ambivalent, or even worse hostile, towards the United States. Almost immediately after the Soviet withdrawal, the <a href="/wiki/Civil_war_in_Afghanistan_(1989%E2%80%931992)#Battle_of_Jalalabad" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil war in Afghanistan (1989–1992)">Battle of Jalalabad</a> was fought between Afghan government forces and the <a href="/wiki/Mujahideen" title="Mujahideen">mujahideen</a>; the government forces, to the surprise of many, repulsed the attack and won the battle.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBraithwaite2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidguQQKejG3qUCpgPA296_296]_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBraithwaite2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidguQQKejG3qUCpgPA296_296]-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This trend would not continue, and by the summer of 1990, the Afghan government forces were on the defensive again. By the beginning of 1991, the government controlled only 10 percent of Afghanistan, the eleven-year <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Khost" title="Siege of Khost">Siege of Khost</a> had ended in a mujahideen victory and the morale of the Afghan military slumped. In 1991 a coup led by members of the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Communist Party of the Soviet Union</a> to remove <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Mikhail Gorbachev">Gorbachev</a> failed resulting in the removal of many Soviet politicians and military officers that favored continuing aid to the <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Democratic_Party_of_Afghanistan" title="People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan">Homeland Party</a> government in Kabul. The last Soviet aid came in October, with all Russian aid being cut by the new President of the Russian Federation <a href="/wiki/Boris_Yeltsin" title="Boris Yeltsin">Boris Yeltsin</a> in January 1992.<sup id="cite_ref-jstor.org_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jstor.org-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Correctly fearing that a Mujahedeen victory could lead to the new government backing Islamists against the former Soviet Central Asian republics, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan provided food aid to the Najibullah government. The end of weapon exports however led to a inability to equip the estimated 170 thousand strong militias Najibullah set up through his reconciliation policies.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In March 1992, Najibullah offered his government's immediate resignation, and following an agreement with the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> (UN), his government was replaced by an interim government. In mid-April Najibullah accepted a UN plan to hand power to a seven-man council. A few days later, on 14 April, Najibullah was forced to resign by 4 of his generals, because of the loss of Bagram airbase and the town of <a href="/wiki/Charikar" title="Charikar">Charikar</a>. <a href="/wiki/Abdul_Rahim_Hatef" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdul Rahim Hatef">Abdul Rahim Hatef</a> became acting head of state following Najibullah's resignation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStaff_writer2002[httpsbooksgooglecombookside5Az1lGCJwQCpgPA66_66]_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStaff_writer2002[httpsbooksgooglecombookside5Az1lGCJwQCpgPA66_66]-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Najibullah, not long before Kabul's fall, appealed to the UN for amnesty, which he was granted. But Najibullah was hindered by <a href="/wiki/Abdul_Rashid_Dostum" title="Abdul Rashid Dostum">Abdul Rashid Dostum</a> from escaping; instead, Najibullah sought haven in the local UN headquarters in Kabul.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBraithwaite2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidguQQKejG3qUCpgPA301_301]_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBraithwaite2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidguQQKejG3qUCpgPA301_301]-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/War_in_Afghanistan_(1978%E2%80%93present)" class="mw-redirect" title="War in Afghanistan (1978–present)">war in Afghanistan</a> did not end with Najibullah's ouster, and continued until the final fall of Kabul to the <a href="/wiki/Taliban" title="Taliban">Taliban</a> in August 2021.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBraithwaite2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidguQQKejG3qUCpgPA302_302–303]_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBraithwaite2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidguQQKejG3qUCpgPA302_302–303]-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kabul would suffer destruction following Najibullah's resignation as <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kabul_(1992%E2%80%931996)" title="Battle of Kabul (1992–1996)">many factions fought for control</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Politics">Politics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Democratic_Republic_of_Afghanistan&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Politics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Political_system">Political system</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Democratic_Republic_of_Afghanistan&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Political system"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan described the <a href="/wiki/Saur_Revolution" title="Saur Revolution">Saur Revolution</a> as a democratic revolution signifying "a victory of the honourable working people of Afghanistan" and the "manifestation of the real will and interests of workers, peasants and toilers."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamali1985[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidksC-BL2WivUCpgPA62_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamali1985[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidksC-BL2WivUCpgPA62-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While the idea of moving Afghanistan toward socialism was proclaimed, completing the task was seen as an arduous road. Thus, Afghanistan's foreign minister commented that Afghanistan was a democratic but not yet socialist republic, while a member of the <a href="/wiki/Politburo_of_the_People%27s_Democratic_Party_of_Afghanistan" title="Politburo of the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan">Politburo of the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan</a> predicted that "Afghanistan will not see socialism in my lifetime" in an interview with a <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">British</a> journalist in 1981.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA63_63]_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA63_63]-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Afghanistan was considered by the Soviet Union as a state with a socialist orientation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESaikalMaley1989[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKWsqVYSBTYICpgPA106_106]_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESaikalMaley1989[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKWsqVYSBTYICpgPA106_106]-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Soviets, in mid-1979, initially proclaimed Afghanistan as not merely a progressive ally, but a fully fledged member of the socialist community of nations. In contrast, later Soviet rhetoric invariably referred to the Saur Revolution as a democratic turn, but stopped short of recognizing a socialist society.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnold1983[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcd85ioPsz6cCpgPA105_105]_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnold1983[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcd85ioPsz6cCpgPA105_105]-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Under <a href="/wiki/Hafizullah_Amin" title="Hafizullah Amin">Hafizullah Amin</a>, a commission working on a new constitution was established. There were 65 members of this commission, and they came from all walks of life.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnold1983[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcd85ioPsz6cCpgPA94_94]_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnold1983[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcd85ioPsz6cCpgPA94_94]-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Due to his death, his constitution was never finished. In April 1980, under <a href="/wiki/Babrak_Karmal" title="Babrak Karmal">Babrak Karmal</a>, the Fundamental Principles of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan were made law.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnold1983[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcd85ioPsz6cCpgPA107_107–108]_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnold1983[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcd85ioPsz6cCpgPA107_107–108]-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The constitution was devoid of any references to <a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">socialism</a> or <a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">communism</a>, and instead laid emphasis on independence, <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> and <a href="/wiki/Liberal_democracy" title="Liberal democracy">liberal democracy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Religion was to be respected, the exception being when religion threatened the security of society. The Fundamental Principles were, in many ways, similar to <a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Daoud_Khan" title="Mohammad Daoud Khan">Mohammad Daoud Khan</a>'s 1977 constitution. While official ideology was de-emphasized, the PDPA did not lose its monopoly on power, and the <a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_Council_(Afghanistan)" title="Revolutionary Council (Afghanistan)">Revolutionary Council</a> continued to be ruled through its Presidium, the majority of Presidium members were from the PDPA Politburo. The Karmal government was "a new evolutionary phase of the great <a href="/wiki/Saur_Revolution" title="Saur Revolution">Saur Revolution</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnold1983[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcd85ioPsz6cCpgPA108_108]_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnold1983[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcd85ioPsz6cCpgPA108_108]-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Fundamental Principles was not implemented in practice, and it was replaced by the 1987 constitution<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in a <i><a href="/wiki/Loya_jirga" class="mw-redirect" title="Loya jirga">loya jirga</a></i> under <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Najibullah" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad Najibullah">Muhammad Najibullah</a> but did not have support of opposition parties.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Islamic principles were embedded in the 1987 constitution. For instance, Article 2 of the constitution stated that <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> was the <a href="/wiki/State_religion" title="State religion">state religion</a>, and Article 73 stated that the head of state had to be born into a Muslim Afghan family. In 1990, the 1987 constitution was amended to state that Afghanistan was an <a href="/wiki/Islamic_republic" title="Islamic republic">Islamic republic</a>, and the last references to <a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">communism</a> were removed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYassari2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidCMGfLzYWeW4CpgPA15_15]_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYassari2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidCMGfLzYWeW4CpgPA15_15]-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Article 1 of the amended constitution said that Afghanistan was an "independent, unitary and Islamic state."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOtto2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8ep7cX3ma0sCpgPA289_289]_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOtto2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8ep7cX3ma0sCpgPA289_289]-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The 1987 constitution liberalized the political landscape in areas under government control. Political parties could be established as long as they opposed <a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">colonialism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">imperialism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neo-colonialism" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-colonialism">neo-colonialism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zionism" title="Zionism">Zionism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Racial_discrimination" title="Racial discrimination">racial discrimination</a>, <a href="/wiki/Apartheid" title="Apartheid">apartheid</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">fascism</a>. The Revolutionary Council was abolished, and replaced by the <a href="/wiki/National_Assembly_of_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect" title="National Assembly of Afghanistan">National Assembly of Afghanistan</a>, a democratically elected parliament.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiustozzi2000[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidHz5NzJtg48kCpgPA161_161]_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiustozzi2000[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidHz5NzJtg48kCpgPA161_161]-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The government announced its willingness to share power, and form a coalition government. The new parliament was <a href="/wiki/Bicameral" class="mw-redirect" title="Bicameral">bicameral</a>, and consisted of a Senate (Sena) and a House of Representatives (<a href="/wiki/Wolesi_Jirga" class="mw-redirect" title="Wolesi Jirga">Wolesi Jirga</a>). The president was to be indirectly elected to a 7-year term.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStaff_writer2002[httpsbooksgooglecombookside5Az1lGCJwQCpgPA65_65]_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStaff_writer2002[httpsbooksgooglecombookside5Az1lGCJwQCpgPA65_65]-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A <a href="/wiki/Afghan_parliamentary_election,_1988" class="mw-redirect" title="Afghan parliamentary election, 1988">parliamentary election was held in 1988</a>. The PDPA won 46 seats in the House of Representatives and controlled the government with support from the <a href="/wiki/National_Front_(Afghanistan)" title="National Front (Afghanistan)">National Front</a>, which won 45 seats, and from various newly recognized left-wing parties, which had won a total of 24 seats. Although the election was boycotted by the <a href="/wiki/Mujahideen" title="Mujahideen">Mujahideen</a>, the government left 50 of the 234 seats in the House of Representatives, as well as a small number of seats in the Senate, vacant in the hope that the guerrillas would end their armed struggle and participate in the government. The only armed opposition party to make peace with the government was Hizbollah, a small <a href="/wiki/Shi%27a" class="mw-redirect" title="Shi'a">Shi'a</a> party not to be confused with the bigger party in Iran.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiustozzi2000[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidHz5NzJtg48kCpgPA161_161]_80-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiustozzi2000[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidHz5NzJtg48kCpgPA161_161]-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Ministers_(Afghanistan)" title="Council of Ministers (Afghanistan)">Council of Ministers</a> was the Afghan cabinet, and its chairman was the head of government. It was the most important government body in PDPA Afghanistan, and it ran the governmental ministries.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a58_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a58-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Council of Ministers was responsible to the Presidium of the Revolutionary Council, and after the adoption of the 1987 constitution, to the President and House of Representatives. There seems to have been a deliberate power-sharing between the two bodies; few Presidium members were ministers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a59_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a59-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was the PDPA (perhaps with the involvement of the Soviets) which appointed and decided the membership of the Council of Ministers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a60–61_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a60–61-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An Afghan dissident who had previously worked in the office of the Chairman of the Council of Ministers reported that all topics up for discussion in the Council of Ministers had to be approved by the Soviets.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a288_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a288-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under Karmal, the Khalqist's were purged and replaced by the Parcham majority in the Council of Ministers. Of the 24 members of the Council of Ministers under Karmal's chairmanship, only four were Khalqists.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a65–66_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a65–66-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="People's_Democratic_Party_of_Afghanistan"><span id="People.27s_Democratic_Party_of_Afghanistan"></span>People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Democratic_Republic_of_Afghanistan&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Democratic_Party_of_Afghanistan" title="People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan">People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Emblem_of_the_People%27s_Democratic_Party_of_Afghanistan.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Emblem_of_the_People%27s_Democratic_Party_of_Afghanistan.svg/220px-Emblem_of_the_People%27s_Democratic_Party_of_Afghanistan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="224" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Emblem_of_the_People%27s_Democratic_Party_of_Afghanistan.svg/330px-Emblem_of_the_People%27s_Democratic_Party_of_Afghanistan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Emblem_of_the_People%27s_Democratic_Party_of_Afghanistan.svg/440px-Emblem_of_the_People%27s_Democratic_Party_of_Afghanistan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="522" /></a><figcaption>Emblem of the PDPA</figcaption></figure> <p>The PDPA constitution was written during the party's First Congress in 1965. The constitution regulated all party activities and modelled itself after the <a href="/wiki/Leninist" class="mw-redirect" title="Leninist">Leninist</a> party model; the party was based on the principles of <a href="/wiki/Democratic_centralism" title="Democratic centralism">democratic centralism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marxism%E2%80%93Leninism" title="Marxism–Leninism">Marxism–Leninism</a> was the party's official ideology.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnold1983[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcd85ioPsz6cCpgPA170_170]_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnold1983[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcd85ioPsz6cCpgPA170_170]-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In theory, the <a href="/wiki/Central_Committee_of_the_PDPA" class="mw-redirect" title="Central Committee of the PDPA">Central Committee of the PDPA</a> ruled Afghanistan by electing the members to the <a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_Council_(Afghanistan)" title="Revolutionary Council (Afghanistan)">Revolutionary Council</a>, Secretariat, and the <a href="/wiki/Politburo_of_the_People%27s_Democratic_Party_of_Afghanistan" title="Politburo of the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan">Politburo of the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan</a>, the key decision-making bodies of state and party.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnold1983[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcd85ioPsz6cCpgPA62_62]_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnold1983[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcd85ioPsz6cCpgPA62_62]-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the Soviet intervention, the powers of the PDPA decreased because of the government's increased unpopularity amongst the masses. Soviet advisers took over nearly all aspects of Afghan administration; according to critics, the Afghans became the advisors and the Soviet became the advised. The Soviet intervention had forced Karmal upon the party and state. While trying to portray the new government as a <a href="/wiki/Khalq" title="Khalq">Khalq</a>–<a href="/wiki/Parcham" title="Parcham">Parcham</a> coalition, most members (the majority of whom were Khalqists), saw through the lies.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnold1983[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcd85ioPsz6cCpgPA99_99–100]_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnold1983[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcd85ioPsz6cCpgPA99_99–100]-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the time of the Parchamite takeover of the state and party, an estimated 80 percent of military officers were Khalqists.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnold1983[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcd85ioPsz6cCpgPA100_100]_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnold1983[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcd85ioPsz6cCpgPA100_100]-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the party's history, only two congresses were held; the founding congress in 1965 and the Second Congress in June 1990, which transformed the PDPA into the Watan Party,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERaciopi1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidjiUic1s7djMCpgPA161_161]_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERaciopi1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidjiUic1s7djMCpgPA161_161]-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which has survived to this today in the shape of the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Watan_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="Democratic Watan Party">Democratic Watan Party</a>. The Second Congress renamed the party and tried to revitalise it by admitting to past mistakes and evolving ideologically. The policy of <a href="/wiki/National_Reconciliation_(Afghanistan)" title="National Reconciliation (Afghanistan)">national reconciliation</a> was given a major ideologically role, since the party now looked for a peaceful solution to the conflict; <a href="/wiki/Class_struggle" class="mw-redirect" title="Class struggle">class struggle</a> was still emphasised. The party also decided to support and further develop the <a href="/wiki/Market_economy" title="Market economy">market economy</a> in Afghanistan.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERaciopi1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidjiUic1s7djMCpgPA161_161–162]_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERaciopi1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidjiUic1s7djMCpgPA161_161–162]-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Factions">Factions</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Democratic_Republic_of_Afghanistan&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Factions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Khalq" title="Khalq">Khalq</a> faction was the more militant of the two. It was more revolutionary and believed in a purer form of Marxism–Leninism than did the Parcham.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnold1983[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcd85ioPsz6cCpgPA38_38]_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnold1983[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcd85ioPsz6cCpgPA38_38]-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following the Soviet intervention, the Khalqi leadership of Taraki and Amin had been all but driven out. Several low and middle level functionaries were still present in the PDPA, and they still formed a majority within the armed forces; the Khalq faction still managed to create a sense of cohesion. While still believing in Marxism–Leninism, many of them were infuriated at the Soviet intervention, and the Soviets' pro-Parchamite policies.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnold1983[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcd85ioPsz6cCpgPA111_111]_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnold1983[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcd85ioPsz6cCpgPA111_111]-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Taraki, in a speech, said "We will defend our non-aligned policy and independence with all valour. We will not give even an inch of soil to anyone and we will not be dictated in our foreign policy [nor] will we accept anybody's orders in this regard." While it was not clear, who Taraki was pointing at, the Soviet Union was the only country which Afghanistan neighbored which had the strength to occupy the country.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnold1983[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcd85ioPsz6cCpgPA85_85]_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnold1983[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcd85ioPsz6cCpgPA85_85]-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_People%27s_Democratic_Party_of_Afghanistan.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Democratic_Party_of_Afghanistan.svg/220px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Democratic_Party_of_Afghanistan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Democratic_Party_of_Afghanistan.svg/330px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Democratic_Party_of_Afghanistan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Democratic_Party_of_Afghanistan.svg/440px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Democratic_Party_of_Afghanistan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="500" /></a><figcaption>Flag of the PDPA</figcaption></figure> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Parcham" title="Parcham">Parcham</a> faction was the more moderate of the two and was steadfastly pro-Soviet. This position would hurt its popularity when it came to power following the Soviet intervention. Before the <a href="/wiki/Saur_Revolution" title="Saur Revolution">Saur Revolution</a>, the Parcham faction had been the Soviets' favored faction.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnold1983[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcd85ioPsz6cCpgPA55_55]_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnold1983[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcd85ioPsz6cCpgPA55_55]-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following the Parchamites' seizure of power with Soviet assistance, party discipline was breaking down because of the Khalq–Parcham feud. After the PDPA government had ordered the replacement of seven Khalqist officers with Parchamites, the seven officers sent the intended replacements back. While the Parchamite government gave up trying to take over the armed forces, it did announce the execution of 13 officials who had worked for Amin. These executions led to three failed Khalqist coups in June, July and October 1980.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnold1983[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcd85ioPsz6cCpgPA112_112]_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnold1983[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcd85ioPsz6cCpgPA112_112]-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Western press, during the anti-Parchamite purge of 1979, referred to the Parcham faction as "moderate socialist intellectuals".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnold1983[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcd85ioPsz6cCpgPA86_86]_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnold1983[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcd85ioPsz6cCpgPA86_86]-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>Throughout PDPA history there were also other factions, such as the <a href="/wiki/Kar_faction" class="mw-redirect" title="Kar faction">Kar faction</a> led by <a href="/wiki/Dastagir_Panjsheri" class="mw-redirect" title="Dastagir Panjsheri">Dastagir Panjsheri</a>, who later became a Khalqist, and <a href="/wiki/Settam-e-Melli" title="Settam-e-Melli">Settam-e-Melli</a> formed and led by <a href="/wiki/Tahir_Badakhshi" title="Tahir Badakhshi">Tahir Badakhshi</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnold1983[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcd85ioPsz6cCpgPA39_39–40]_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnold1983[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcd85ioPsz6cCpgPA39_39–40]-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Settam-e-Melli was a part of the insurgency against the PDPA government. In 1979, a Settam-e-Melli group killed <a href="/wiki/Adolph_Dubs" title="Adolph Dubs">Adolph Dubs</a>, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Ambassador_to_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Ambassador to Afghanistan">United States Ambassador to Afghanistan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGirardet1985[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1c0OAAAAQAAJpgPA114_114]_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGirardet1985[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1c0OAAAAQAAJpgPA114_114]-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ideologically Settam-e-Melli was very close to the Khalqist faction, but Settam-e-Melli opposed what they saw as the Khalq faction's "Pashtun chauvinism."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeinerBanuazizi1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTmMJnaMVN6oCpgPA71_71]_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeinerBanuazizi1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTmMJnaMVN6oCpgPA71_71]-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Settam-e-Melli followed the ideology of <a href="/wiki/Maoism" title="Maoism">Maoism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChristensen1995[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid7LKS93lbSM0CpgPA24_24]_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChristensen1995[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid7LKS93lbSM0CpgPA24_24]-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When Karmal ascended to power, the Settamites relationship with the government improved, mostly due to Karmal's former good relationship with Badakhshi,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDorronsoro2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid3DOuOSYR4PcCpgPA185_185]_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDorronsoro2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid3DOuOSYR4PcCpgPA185_185]-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who was killed by government forces in 1979.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEH._KakarM._Kakar1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidQyTmFj5tUGsCpgPA305_305–306]_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEH._KakarM._Kakar1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidQyTmFj5tUGsCpgPA305_305–306]-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1983, <a href="/wiki/Bashir_Baghlani" title="Bashir Baghlani">Bashir Baghlani</a>, a Settam-e-Melli member, was appointed <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Justice_(Afghanistan)" title="Ministry of Justice (Afghanistan)">Minister of Justice</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a120_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a120-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="National_Front">National Front</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Democratic_Republic_of_Afghanistan&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: National Front"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/National_Front_(Afghanistan)" title="National Front (Afghanistan)">National Front (Afghanistan)</a></div> <p>Karmal had first mentioned the possibility of establishing a "broad national front" in March 1980, but given the situation the country was in, the campaign for the establishment of such an organisation began only in January 1981. A "spontaneous" demonstration in support of establishing such an organisation was held that month. The first pre-front institution to be established was a tribal jirga in May 1981 by the Ministry of Tribal Affairs.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiustozzi2000[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidHz5NzJtg48kCpgPA142_142]_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiustozzi2000[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidHz5NzJtg48kCpgPA142_142]-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This jirga later became a member of the front.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiustozzi2000[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidHz5NzJtg48kCpgPA142_142–143]_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiustozzi2000[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidHz5NzJtg48kCpgPA142_142–143]-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The National Fatherland Front (NFF) held its founding congress in June 1981,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeinerBanuazizi1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTmMJnaMVN6oCpgPA46_46]_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeinerBanuazizi1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTmMJnaMVN6oCpgPA46_46]-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> after being postponed on several occasions. The founding congress, which was planned to last four days, lasted only one.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiustozzi2000[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidHz5NzJtg48kCpgPA143_143]_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiustozzi2000[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidHz5NzJtg48kCpgPA143_143]-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Within one month of its founding, 27 senior members had been assassinated by the <a href="/wiki/Mujahideen" title="Mujahideen">mujahideen</a>. Due to this, the organisation took time to establish itself; its first Provincial Committee was established in November, and its first jirga in December. It was not until 1983 that the NFF became an active, and important organisation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiustozzi2000[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidHz5NzJtg48kCpgPA143_143]_109-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiustozzi2000[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidHz5NzJtg48kCpgPA143_143]-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The aim of the NFF was to establish a pro-PDPA organisation for those who did not support the PDPA ideologically.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiustozzi2000[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidHz5NzJtg48kCpgPA142_142]_106-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiustozzi2000[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidHz5NzJtg48kCpgPA142_142]-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Its first leader was Salah Mohammad Zeary, a prominent politician within the PDPA. Zeary's selection had wider implications: the PDPA dominated all NFF activities. Officially, the NFF had amassed 700,000 members after its founding, which later increased to one million. The majority of its members were already members of affiliated organisations, such as the <a href="/wiki/Afghan_Women%27s_Council" title="Afghan Women's Council">Women's Council</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Youth_Organisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Democratic Youth Organisation">Democratic Youth Organisation</a> and the trade unions, all of which were controlled by the PDPA. The membership numbers were in any case inflated<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>. In 1984 the NFF had 67,000 members, and in 1986 its membership peaked at 112,209.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In 1985 Zeary stepped down as NFF leader, and was succeeded by <a href="/wiki/Abdul_Rahim_Hatef" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdul Rahim Hatef">Abdul Rahim Hatef</a>, who was not a member of the PDPA.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiustozzi2000[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidHz5NzJtg48kCpgPA143_143]_109-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiustozzi2000[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidHz5NzJtg48kCpgPA143_143]-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ascension of Hatef proved more successful, and in 1985–86 the NFF succeeded in recruiting several "good Muslims".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiustozzi2000[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidHz5NzJtg48kCpgPA143_143–144]_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiustozzi2000[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidHz5NzJtg48kCpgPA143_143–144]-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The NFF was renamed the National Front in 1987.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdamec2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidtp5IrLhWbTkCpgPT528_528]_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdamec2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidtp5IrLhWbTkCpgPT528_528]-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Symbols:_flag_and_emblem">Symbols: flag and emblem</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Democratic_Republic_of_Afghanistan&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Symbols: flag and emblem"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:581px;max-width:581px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader" style="text-align:center">The flags of Afghanistan during PDPA rule</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:117px;max-width:117px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Afghanistan_(1978).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281978%29.svg/115px-Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281978%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="115" height="77" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281978%29.svg/173px-Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281978%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281978%29.svg/230px-Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281978%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">1978</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:152px;max-width:152px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Afghanistan_(1978%E2%80%931980).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281978%E2%80%931980%29.svg/150px-Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281978%E2%80%931980%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="75" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281978%E2%80%931980%29.svg/225px-Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281978%E2%80%931980%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281978%E2%80%931980%29.svg/300px-Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281978%E2%80%931980%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="500" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">1978–1980</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:152px;max-width:152px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Afghanistan_(1980%E2%80%931987).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281980%E2%80%931987%29.svg/150px-Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281980%E2%80%931987%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="75" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281980%E2%80%931987%29.svg/225px-Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281980%E2%80%931987%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281980%E2%80%931987%29.svg/300px-Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281980%E2%80%931987%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">1980–1987</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:152px;max-width:152px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Afghanistan_(1987%E2%80%931992).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281987%E2%80%931992%29.svg/150px-Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281987%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="75" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281987%E2%80%931992%29.svg/225px-Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281987%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281987%E2%80%931992%29.svg/300px-Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281987%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">1987–1992</div></div></div></div></div> <p>On 19 October 1978 the PDPA government introduced a new flag, a red flag with a yellow seal, and it was similar to the flags of the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Central_Asia" title="Soviet Central Asia">Soviet Central Asian</a> republics.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEdwards2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidbiOdjgEO-IcCpgPA30_30]_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdwards2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidbiOdjgEO-IcCpgPA30_30]-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The new flag stirred popular resentment, as many Afghans saw it as proof of the PDPA government's attempt to introduce <a href="/wiki/State_atheism" title="State atheism">state atheism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETomsen2011p._[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidzz9_Ve29eL0CpgPA133_133]:_"...<span_class="nowrap">&nbsp;</span>the_introduction_of_a_new_flag<span_class="nowrap">&nbsp;</span>..._stirred_popular_resentment_that_the_Afghan_communists_were_attempting_to_foist_Soviet_atheism_on_the_country."_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETomsen2011p._[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidzz9_Ve29eL0CpgPA133_133]:_"...<span_class="nowrap">&nbsp;</span>the_introduction_of_a_new_flag<span_class="nowrap">&nbsp;</span>..._stirred_popular_resentment_that_the_Afghan_communists_were_attempting_to_foist_Soviet_atheism_on_the_country."-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was shown to the public for the first time in an official rally in Kabul.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERunion2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidaZk9XzqCFGUCpgPA106_106]_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERunion2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidaZk9XzqCFGUCpgPA106_106]-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The red flag introduced under Taraki was replaced in 1980, shortly after the Soviet intervention, to the more traditional colours black, red and green. The PDPA flag, which was red with a yellow seal, was retained to emphasise the difference between the party and state to the Afghan people.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMale1982[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid-cYOAAAAQAAJpgPA212_212]_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMale1982[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid-cYOAAAAQAAJpgPA212_212]-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The red star, the book and communist symbols in general, were removed from the flag in 1987 under Najibullah.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYassari2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidCMGfLzYWeW4CpgPA15_15]_78-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYassari2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidCMGfLzYWeW4CpgPA15_15]-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"> The new emblem, which replaced Daoud's eagle emblem, was introduced together with the flag in 1978.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMisdaq2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidZvm9dxavH-ICpgPA119_119]_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMisdaq2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidZvm9dxavH-ICpgPA119_119]-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When Karmal introduced a new emblem in 1980, he said "it is from the pulpit that thousands of the faithful are led to the right path."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEdwards2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidbiOdjgEO-IcCpgPA91_91]_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdwards2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidbiOdjgEO-IcCpgPA91_91]-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The book depicted in the emblem (and the flag) was generally considered to be <i><a href="/wiki/Das_Kapital" title="Das Kapital">Das Kapital</a></i>, a work by <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a>, and not the <i><a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a></i>, the central Islamic text.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamali1985[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidksC-BL2WivUCpgPA33_33]_118-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamali1985[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidksC-BL2WivUCpgPA33_33]-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The last emblem was introduced in 1987 by the Najibullah government. This emblem was, in contrast to the previous ones, influenced by <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAchcar2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8FNIchn0jJMCpgPA103_103]_119-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAchcar2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8FNIchn0jJMCpgPA103_103]-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Red Star and <i>Das Kapital</i> were removed from the emblem (and the flag).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYassari2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidCMGfLzYWeW4CpgPA15_15]_78-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYassari2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidCMGfLzYWeW4CpgPA15_15]-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The emblem depicted the <a href="/wiki/Mihrab" title="Mihrab">mihrab</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Minbar" title="Minbar">minbar</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Shahada" title="Shahada">shahada</a>, an Islamic creed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEnde2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid-dM4hPlxMw8CpgPA268_268]_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEnde2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid-dM4hPlxMw8CpgPA268_268]-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Economy">Economy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Democratic_Republic_of_Afghanistan&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Economy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" width="60%" style="float:right; margin:0 15px;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="9" align="center">Economic growth </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" width="30%">Indicators </th> <th width="1%">1978 </th> <th width="1%">1979 </th> <th width="1%">1980 </th> <th width="1%">1981 </th> <th width="1%">1982 </th> <th width="1%">1986 </th> <th width="1%">1988 </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="3">Expenditure </th> <td>Total (millions of Afghanis) </td> <td>26,397 </td> <td>30,173 </td> <td>31,692 </td> <td>40,751 </td> <td>42,112 </td> <td>88,700 </td> <td>129,900 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Ordinary (in percent) </td> <td>47 </td> <td>56 </td> <td>62 </td> <td>66 </td> <td>69 </td> <td>74 </td> <td>84 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Development (in percent) </td> <td>53 </td> <td>44 </td> <td>38 </td> <td>34 </td> <td>31 </td> <td>26 </td> <td>16 </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="5">Sources of Finances </th> <td>Domestic revenue: excluding gas (in percent) </td> <td>54 </td> <td>40 </td> <td>50 </td> <td>40 </td> <td>37 </td> <td>31 </td> <td>24 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Sales of <a href="/wiki/Natural_gas" title="Natural gas">natural gas</a> (in percent) </td> <td>9 </td> <td>13 </td> <td>33 </td> <td>34 </td> <td>34 </td> <td>17 </td> <td>6 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Foreign aid (in percent) </td> <td>34 </td> <td>36 </td> <td>28 </td> <td>26 </td> <td>28 </td> <td>29 </td> <td>26 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Rentier income (in percent) </td> <td>43 </td> <td>48 </td> <td>61 </td> <td>59 </td> <td>62 </td> <td>48 </td> <td>32 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Domestic borrowing (in percent) </td> <td>4 </td> <td>12 </td> <td>−11 </td> <td>1 </td> <td>0 </td> <td>23 </td> <td>44 </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Taraki's Government initiated a <a href="/wiki/Land_reform" title="Land reform">land reform</a> on 1 January 1979, which attempted to limit the amount of land a family could own. Those whose landholdings exceeded the limit saw their property requisitioned by the government without compensation. The Afghan leadership believed the reform would meet with popular approval among the rural population while weakening the power of the <a href="/wiki/Bourgeoisie" title="Bourgeoisie">bourgeoisie</a>. The reform was declared complete in mid-1979 and the government proclaimed that 665,000 hectares (approximately 1,632,500 acres) had been redistributed. The government also declared that only 40,000 families, or 4 percent of the population, had been negatively affected by the land reform.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA315_315]_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA315_315]-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Contrary to government expectations the reform was neither popular nor productive. Agricultural harvests plummeted and the reform itself led to rising discontent amongst Afghans.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA315_315]_22-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA315_315]-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When Taraki realized the degree of popular dissatisfaction with the reform he quickly abandoned the policy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a315–316_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a315–316-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the land reform was gradually implemented under the later Karmal administration, although the proportion of land area affected by the reform is unclear.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a316_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a316-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the civil war, and the ensuing <a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War" title="Soviet–Afghan War">Soviet–Afghan War</a>, most of the country's infrastructure was destroyed, and normal patterns of economic activity were disrupted.<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Gross_national_product" class="mw-redirect" title="Gross national product">gross national product</a> (GNP) fell substantially during Karmal's rule because of the conflict; trade and transport were disrupted along with the loss of labor and capital. In 1981 the Afghan GDP stood at 154.3 billion <a href="/wiki/Afghan_afghani" title="Afghan afghani">Afghan afghanis</a>, a drop from 159,7 billion in 1978. <a href="/wiki/GNP_per_capita" class="mw-redirect" title="GNP per capita">GNP per capita</a> decreased from 7,370 in 1978 to 6,852 in 1981. The most dominant form of economic activity was the <a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Agriculture in Afghanistan">agricultural sector</a>. Agriculture accounted for 63 percent of <a href="/wiki/Gross_domestic_product" title="Gross domestic product">gross domestic product</a> (GDP) in 1981; 56 percent of the labour force worked in agriculture in 1982. Industry accounted for 21 percent of GDP in 1982, and employed 10 percent of the labour force. All industrial enterprises were <a href="/wiki/Government-owned" class="mw-redirect" title="Government-owned">government-owned</a>. The service sector, the smallest of the three, accounted for 10 percent of GDP in 1981, and employed an estimated one-third of the labour force. The <a href="/wiki/Balance_of_payments" title="Balance of payments">balance of payments</a>, which had improved in the pre-communist administration of <a href="/wiki/Mohammed_Daoud_Khan" class="mw-redirect" title="Mohammed Daoud Khan">Mohammed Daoud Khan</a>; the surplus decreased and became a deficit by 1982, which reached minus $US70.3 million. The only economic activity that grew substantially during Karmal's rule was <a href="/wiki/Export" title="Export">export</a> and <a href="/wiki/Import" title="Import">import</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Najibullah continued Karmal's economic policies. The augmenting of links with the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc" title="Eastern Bloc">Eastern Bloc</a> and the Soviet Union continued, as did bilateral trade. He also encouraged the development of the private sector in industry. The Five-Year Economic and Social Development Plan, which was introduced in January 1986, continued until March 1991, one year before the government's fall. According to the plan, the economy, which had grown less than 2 percent annually until 1985, would grow 25 percent under the plan. Industry would grow 28 percent, agriculture 14–16 percent, domestic trade by 150 percent and foreign trade by 15 percent. None of these predictions were successful, and economic growth continued at 2%. <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStaff_writer2002[httpsbooksgooglecombookside5Az1lGCJwQCpgPA83_83]_124-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStaff_writer2002[httpsbooksgooglecombookside5Az1lGCJwQCpgPA83_83]-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The 1990 constitution gave attention to the <a href="/wiki/Private_sector" title="Private sector">private sector</a>. Article 20 covered the establishment of private firms, and Article 25 encouraged <a href="/wiki/Foreign_direct_investment" title="Foreign direct investment">foreign investment</a> in the private sector.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOtto2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8ep7cX3ma0sCpgPA289_289]_79-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOtto2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8ep7cX3ma0sCpgPA289_289]-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Military">Military</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Democratic_Republic_of_Afghanistan&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Military"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Armed_Forces_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_Afghanistan" title="Armed Forces of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan">Armed Forces of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_equipment_of_the_Armed_Forces_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_Afghanistan" title="List of equipment of the Armed Forces of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan">Equipment used by the Afghan Military during the DRA</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Command_and_officer_corps">Command and officer corps</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Democratic_Republic_of_Afghanistan&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Command and officer corps"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Afghan_Armed_Forces" title="Afghan Armed Forces">military</a>'s chain of command began with the Supreme Commander, who also held the posts of PDPA General Secretary and head of state. The <a href="/wiki/Order_of_precedence" title="Order of precedence">order of precedence</a> continued with the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Defense_(Afghanistan)" title="Ministry of Defense (Afghanistan)">Minister of National Defense</a>, the Deputy Minister of National Defence, <a href="/wiki/Chief_of_General_Staff_(Afghanistan)" title="Chief of General Staff (Afghanistan)">Chief of General Staff</a>, Chief of Army Operations, Air and Air Defence Commander and ended with the Chief of Intelligence.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA187_187]_125-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA187_187]-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Of the 8,000 strong <a href="/wiki/Officer_(armed_forces)" title="Officer (armed forces)">officer</a> corps in 1978, between 600 and 800 were <a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">communists</a>. An estimated 40 to 45 percent of these officers were educated in the Soviet Union, and of them, between 5 and 10 percent were members of the PDPA or communists.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA181_181]_126-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA181_181]-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the time of the Soviet intervention, the officer corps had decreased to 1,100 members. This decrease can be explained by the number of purges centered on the armed forces. The purge of the military began immediately after the PDPA took power. According to Mohammad Ayub Osmani, an officer who defected to the enemy, of the 282 Afghan officers who attended the <a href="/wiki/Malinovsky_Military_Armored_Forces_Academy" title="Malinovsky Military Armored Forces Academy">Malinovsky Military Armored Forces Academy</a> in Moscow, an estimated 126 were executed by the authorities. Most of the officer corps, during the Soviet war and the ensuing civil war, were new recruits.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA182_182]_127-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA182_182]-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The majority of officers were Khalqists, but after the Parchamites' ascension to power, Khalqists held no position of significance. The Parchamites, who were the minority, held the positions of power. Of the 1,100 large officer corps, only an estimated 200 were party members. According to <a href="/wiki/Abdul_Qadir_(Afghan_communist)" title="Abdul Qadir (Afghan communist)">Abdul Qadir</a>, one-fifth of military personnel were party members, which meant that, if the military stood at 47,000, 9,000 were members of the PDPA. This number was, according to J. Bruce Amtstutz, an exaggeration.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA182_182]_127-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA182_182]-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Branches">Branches</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Democratic_Republic_of_Afghanistan&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Branches"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Army">Army</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Democratic_Republic_of_Afghanistan&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Army"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Roundel_of_Afghanistan_(1978%E2%80%931980).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Roundel_of_Afghanistan_%281978%E2%80%931980%29.svg/220px-Roundel_of_Afghanistan_%281978%E2%80%931980%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Roundel_of_Afghanistan_%281978%E2%80%931980%29.svg/330px-Roundel_of_Afghanistan_%281978%E2%80%931980%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Roundel_of_Afghanistan_%281978%E2%80%931980%29.svg/440px-Roundel_of_Afghanistan_%281978%E2%80%931980%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="142" data-file-height="142" /></a><figcaption>Emblem of the <a href="/wiki/Afghan_Army" title="Afghan Army">Afghan Army</a> from 1978 to 1979</figcaption></figure> <p>The strength of the Afghan Army was greatly weakened during the early stages of PDPA rule. One of the main reasons for the small size was that the Soviet military were afraid the Afghan army would defect <i><a href="/wiki/En_masse" class="mw-redirect" title="En masse">en masse</a></i> to the enemy if total personnel increased. There were several sympathisers of the <a href="/wiki/Afghan_mujahideen" title="Afghan mujahideen">mujahideen</a> within the <a href="/wiki/Armed_Forces_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_Afghanistan" title="Armed Forces of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan">Afghan Armed Forces</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsby1986[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidk86jifnA3oYCpgPA18_18]_128-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsby1986[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidk86jifnA3oYCpgPA18_18]-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even so, there were several elite units under the command of the Afghan army,<sup id="cite_ref-warspot.ru_129-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-warspot.ru-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> such as the 37th, 38th, 444th, 466th, 666th, 84th, 85th Commando Brigades.<sup id="cite_ref-warspot.ru_129-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-warspot.ru-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, there could have also been a possible 344th Commando Brigade in 1980. </p><p>The 26th Airborne Battalion was created from the 242nd and 455th Commando Battalions after the Saur Revolution. They were deemed politically unreliable, and on 5 August 1979, they (along with soldiers from the 444th Commando Brigade) initiated a rebellion against the PDPA government, the <a href="/wiki/Bala_Hissar_uprising" title="Bala Hissar uprising">Bala Hissar uprising</a>. As a result of the rebellion, the 26th Airborne Battalion was transformed into the 37th Commando Brigade. The Commando Brigades were, in contrast, considered reliable and were used as mobile strike forces until they sustained excessive casualties. After sustaining these casualties, the Commando Brigades were turned into battalions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsby1986[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidk86jifnA3oYCpgPA19_19]_130-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsby1986[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidk86jifnA3oYCpgPA19_19]-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The airborne capabilities of the Afghan commando brigades would cease in 1988, during the Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan, and the 666th Commando Brigade would be entirely decimated during the Battle of Khost in 1991. </p><p>In 1980, the DRA also introduced three <a href="/wiki/Special_forces" title="Special forces">special forces</a> battalions, one for each of the army corps. The 203rd Special Purpose Battalion was tied to the 1st Central Army Corps in <a href="/wiki/Kabul" title="Kabul">Kabul</a>, the 213th Special Purpose Battalion was tied to the 2nd Army Corps in <a href="/wiki/Kandahar" title="Kandahar">Kandahar</a> and the 230th Special Purpose Battalion was tied to the 3rd Army Corps in Gardez.<sup id="cite_ref-warspot.ru_129-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-warspot.ru-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Most soldiers were recruited for a three-year term, later extended to four-year terms in 1984. Each year, the Afghan army lost an estimated 15,000 soldiers, 10,000 from desertion and 5,000 from casualties sustained in battle.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA181_181]_126-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA181_181]-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Everyone between 19 and 39 was eligible for conscription, the only exceptions were certain party members, or party members in certain tasks, Afghans who studied abroad, mostly in the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc" title="Eastern Bloc">Eastern Bloc</a> and the Soviet Union, and one-child families or low earners. Unfortunately for the government, most people tried to evade conscription. So the government was forced to send army or police gangs to <a href="/wiki/Impressment" title="Impressment">recruit</a> civilians to service. Even so, some people carried fake papers so they could evade conscription.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA183_183]_132-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA183_183]-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A side effect of the lack of recruits was that veterans were forced into longer service, or re-recruited. Of the 60 people who graduated from <a href="/wiki/Kabul_University" title="Kabul University">Kabul University</a> in 1982, (few male Afghans attended Kabul University between 1980 and 1983), 15 of them fled to Pakistan or began working for the mujahideen.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA183_183–184]_133-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA183_183–184]-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The army's approach to conscription was <a href="/wiki/Carrot-and-stick" class="mw-redirect" title="Carrot-and-stick">carrot-and-stick</a>. This policy was partially successful, and each year the government managed to induce 10,000 to 18,000 into the army. A general amnesty was announced in 1980 to army draft deserters from previous administrations. In 1982, students who served in the military, and graduated 10th grade in high school, would pass 11th and 12th grade and be given a scholarship. People who were conscripted after the 12th grade, could, after military service, attend whichever higher education facility they wanted. To stop army desertions, soldiers were quickly promoted to higher ranks.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA183_183]_132-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA183_183]-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The army consisted of 14 divisions, of these 11 were infantry and another three were armored, which were part of three military corps. While an infantry division was supposed to be composed of 4,000 to 8,000 men, between 1980 and 1983 a division normally mustered between 2,000 and 2,500. The strength of armored divisions in contrast were maintained, and stood at 4,000. During the Soviet war, the Afghan army used light weapons, and used neglected equipment. During the counter-insurgency, heavy equipment, tanks and artillery were most of the time, but not always, used and fired by Soviet soldiers. A problem faced the Afghan government, and the Soviet military—the degeneration of training for new military recruits; new recruits were being rushed into service, because the Afghan government and the Soviet military feared a total collapse of the government.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA188_188]_134-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA188_188]-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Western analysts expected the Afghan Army to lose the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Jalalabad_(1989)" title="Battle of Jalalabad (1989)">Battle of Jalalabad</a>, but contrary to their expectations, managed to repel the Mujahideen and Pakistani forces (who had the intention of establishing an interim government in Nangarhar Province<sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) and maintain control of the city. In April 1990, the <a href="/wiki/Armed_Forces_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_Afghanistan" title="Armed Forces of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan">DRA Armed Forces</a> further proved their ability to fight without direct Soviet assistance when they successfully assaulted a fortified complex in <a href="/wiki/Paghman" title="Paghman">Paghman</a>. The Afghan Army, spearheaded by <a href="/wiki/Junbish-i-Milli" class="mw-redirect" title="Junbish-i-Milli">Junbish-i-Mili</a>, the militia led by <a href="/wiki/Abdul_Rashid_Dostum" title="Abdul Rashid Dostum">Abdul Rashid Dostum</a>, were able to clear mujahideen entrenchments with constant assaults and heavy bombardment from the <a href="/wiki/Afghan_Air_Force_(1978-1992)" class="mw-redirect" title="Afghan Air Force (1978-1992)">Afghan Air Force</a> and <a href="/wiki/Heavy_artillery" class="mw-redirect" title="Heavy artillery">heavy artillery</a> regiments that lasted until June.<sup id="cite_ref-137" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable" width="60%"> <caption><b>Troop levels</b> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Army</th> <th>Air Force</th> <th>Paramilitary</th> <th>Total</th> <th>As of </th></tr> <tr> <td>110,000<sup id="cite_ref-138" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>10,000<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA181_181]_126-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA181_181]-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>1978 </td></tr> <tr> <td>50,000–100,000<sup id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>5,000<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA53_53]_140-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA53_53]-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>1979 </td></tr> <tr> <td>20,000–25,000<sup id="cite_ref-141" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>1980 </td></tr> <tr> <td>25,000–35,000<sup id="cite_ref-142" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>1981 </td></tr> <tr> <td>25,000–40,000<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA180_180–181]_143-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA180_180–181]-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>1982 </td></tr> <tr> <td>35,000–40,000<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA180_180–181]_143-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA180_180–181]-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>5,000–7,000<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA181_181]_126-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA181_181]-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>1983 </td></tr> <tr> <td>35,000–40,000<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBonosky2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkZ7E6S02Gq0CpgPA261_261]_144-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBonosky2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkZ7E6S02Gq0CpgPA261_261]-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>1984 </td></tr> <tr> <td>35,000–40,000<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA155_155]_145-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA155_155]-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>7,000<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA155_155]_145-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA155_155]-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>50,000<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA155_155]_145-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA155_155]-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>87,000<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA155_155]_145-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA155_155]-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>1985 </td></tr> <tr> <td>40,000<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReese2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidauPxtd_--TYCpgPA167_167]_146-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReese2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidauPxtd_--TYCpgPA167_167]-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>19,400<sup id="cite_ref-НЕГ3_147-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-НЕГ3-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>1986 </td></tr> <tr> <td>30,000–40,000<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKanet1987[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidZ8flG503_48CpgPA51_51]_148-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKanet1987[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidZ8flG503_48CpgPA51_51]-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>1987 </td></tr> <tr> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>300,000<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBraithwaite2011298_149-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBraithwaite2011298-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>1988 </td></tr> <tr> <td>150,000<sup id="cite_ref-150" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td> </td> <td>100,000<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBraithwaite2011298_149-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBraithwaite2011298-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>400,000<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJefferson2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidfqRFCkpTdUcCpgPA245_245]_151-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJefferson2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidfqRFCkpTdUcCpgPA245_245]-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>1989 </td></tr> <tr> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>200,000<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBraithwaite2011298_149-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBraithwaite2011298-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>Around 515,000 (1990)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJefferson2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidfqRFCkpTdUcCpgPA245_245]_151-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJefferson2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidfqRFCkpTdUcCpgPA245_245]-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-mepc.org_152-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mepc.org-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>1990 </td></tr> <tr> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>160,000<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJefferson2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidfqRFCkpTdUcCpgPA245_245]_151-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJefferson2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidfqRFCkpTdUcCpgPA245_245]-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>1991 </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="5"><sup id="cite_ref-153" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Air_Force">Air Force</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Democratic_Republic_of_Afghanistan&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Air Force"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Afghan_Air_Force_(1978-1992)" class="mw-redirect" title="Afghan Air Force (1978-1992)">Democratic Republic of Afghanistan Air Force</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_equipment_of_the_Armed_Forces_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_Afghanistan#Aircraft" title="List of equipment of the Armed Forces of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan">List of Aircraft used by the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan Air Force</a></div><p>As with the army, the majority of officers in the <a href="/wiki/Afghan_Air_Force_(1978-1992)" class="mw-redirect" title="Afghan Air Force (1978-1992)">Afghan Air Force</a> were <a href="/wiki/Khalq" title="Khalq">Khalqists</a>, but <a href="/wiki/Parcham" title="Parcham">Parchamites</a> held all the senior positions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA182_182]_127-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA182_182]-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many in the Air Force were given education and training in the Soviet Union.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA312_312]_154-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA312_312]-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Air Force had throughout its history always been smaller than the Army.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA181_181]_126-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA181_181]-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Afghan Air Force was considered the most loyal element of the Communist regime.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_155-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-155"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following the Soviet intervention, the Soviets grounded the Air Force. Afghans were not allowed in security zones at Afghan airports by the Soviets. Afghans were generally not allowed to fly the airplanes of the Afghan Air Force, but the Soviets could.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA184_184]_156-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA184_184]-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Afghan helicopters were assigned to tasks considered non-sensitive by the Soviets, and the majority of Air Force personnel were not told about missions beforehand, because the Soviets were afraid that they would contact the enemy. In Afghan helicopter flights a Soviet adviser was always present, and commanded the Afghan pilot who flew the helicopter.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA184_184–185]_157-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA184_184–185]-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Among the fixed-wing aircraft in use were <a href="/wiki/Mikoyan-Gurevich_MiG-17" title="Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-17">MiG-17</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mikoyan-Gurevich_MiG-21" title="Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21">MiG-21</a> fighters, <a href="/wiki/Sukhoi_Su-7" title="Sukhoi Su-7">Su-7</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sukhoi_Su-17" title="Sukhoi Su-17">Su-17</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sukhoi_Su-17" title="Sukhoi Su-17">Su-22</a> fighter-bombers, <a href="/wiki/Ilyushin_Il-28" title="Ilyushin Il-28">IL-28</a> bombers and <a href="/wiki/Antonov_An-2" title="Antonov An-2">An-2</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antonov_An-24" title="Antonov An-24">An-24</a> and <a href="/wiki/Antonov_An-26" title="Antonov An-26">An-26</a> transport aircraft. <a href="/wiki/Mil_Mi-2" title="Mil Mi-2">MI-2</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mil_Mi-4" title="Mil Mi-4">MI-4</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mil_Mi-8" title="Mil Mi-8">MI-8</a>, <a href="/wiki/MI-24" class="mw-redirect" title="MI-24">MI-24</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mi-35_Hind-E" class="mw-redirect" title="Mi-35 Hind-E">MI-35</a> helicopters were used by the Air Force. Other Soviet equipment and weapons were used by the government. The Czech <a href="/wiki/Aero_L-39_Albatros" title="Aero L-39 Albatros">L-39</a> jet trainers were the only non-Soviet equipment.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA186_186]_158-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA186_186]-158"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>155<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Ilyushin_Il-28" title="Ilyushin Il-28">IL-28</a> bombers remained in very limited service, with their roles mostly being replaced by the <a href="/wiki/Sukhoi_Su-17" title="Sukhoi Su-17">Su-17</a> and <a href="/wiki/Su-22" class="mw-redirect" title="Su-22">Su-22</a><sup id="cite_ref-:33_159-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:33-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> MiG-17s remained grounded by the end of the 1980s with the more modern MiG-21s taking on the mantle.<sup id="cite_ref-:33_159-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:33-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Emblem_of_the_KHAD_(1980-1987).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Emblem_of_the_KHAD_%281980-1987%29.svg/100px-Emblem_of_the_KHAD_%281980-1987%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="208" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Emblem_of_the_KHAD_%281980-1987%29.svg/150px-Emblem_of_the_KHAD_%281980-1987%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Emblem_of_the_KHAD_%281980-1987%29.svg/200px-Emblem_of_the_KHAD_%281980-1987%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="150" data-file-height="312" /></a><figcaption>KhAD Emblem</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Paramilitary_and_Militia_forces">Paramilitary and Militia forces</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Democratic_Republic_of_Afghanistan&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Paramilitary and Militia forces"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Interior_Affairs_(Afghanistan)" title="Ministry of Interior Affairs (Afghanistan)">Ministry of Interior Affairs</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Khalq" title="Khalq">Khalqist</a> stronghold, controlled the <a href="/wiki/Sarandoy" title="Sarandoy">Sarandoy</a>, or officially, the "Defenders of the Revolution", which was a militarized <a href="/wiki/Gendarmerie" title="Gendarmerie">Gendarmerie</a> force. The Ministry of Tribes and Frontiers controlled, until 1983 under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Defence, the frontier troops and the tribal militia.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsby1986[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidk86jifnA3oYCpgPA20_20]_160-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsby1986[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidk86jifnA3oYCpgPA20_20]-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the Afghan government, the Sarandoy mustered an estimated 115,000 males at its peak. Those who worked in the Sarandoy were paid 162 dollars a month, a wage which was higher than that of Deputy Minister of National Defence before the <a href="/wiki/Saur_Revolution" title="Saur Revolution">Saur Revolution</a>. However, the militia was less disciplined than the regular <a href="/wiki/Afghan_Army" title="Afghan Army">Afghan Army</a> and were sometimes described as ruthless thugs.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGaleotti202119_161-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGaleotti202119-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>158<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/KHAD" title="KHAD">KhAD</a> also had their own paramilitary forces and elite units.<sup id="cite_ref-162" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-162"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-163" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-163"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> KhAD ran a program of creating tribal militias.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_164-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-164"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>161<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Notable militias include that of General <a href="/wiki/Abdul_Jabar_Qahraman" title="Abdul Jabar Qahraman">Abdul Jabar Qahraman</a>'s Helmand and Paktia militia, General <a href="/wiki/Ismatullah_Muslim" title="Ismatullah Muslim">Ismatullah Muslim Achakzai</a> Kandahar Militia and General <a href="/wiki/Abdul_Rashid_Dostum" title="Abdul Rashid Dostum">Abdul Rashid Dostum</a>'s <a href="/wiki/National_Islamic_Movement_of_Afghanistan" title="National Islamic Movement of Afghanistan">Junbish Militia</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Demographics">Demographics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Democratic_Republic_of_Afghanistan&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Demographics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Education">Education</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Democratic_Republic_of_Afghanistan&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Education"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Education_in_Afghanistan" title="Education in Afghanistan">Education in Afghanistan</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Democratic_Youth_Organisation_of_Afghanistan.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Flag_of_the_Democratic_Youth_Organisation_of_Afghanistan.svg/220px-Flag_of_the_Democratic_Youth_Organisation_of_Afghanistan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="102" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Flag_of_the_Democratic_Youth_Organisation_of_Afghanistan.svg/330px-Flag_of_the_Democratic_Youth_Organisation_of_Afghanistan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Flag_of_the_Democratic_Youth_Organisation_of_Afghanistan.svg/440px-Flag_of_the_Democratic_Youth_Organisation_of_Afghanistan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="921" data-file-height="425" /></a><figcaption>Flag of the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Youth_Organisation_of_Afghanistan" title="Democratic Youth Organisation of Afghanistan">Democratic Youth Organization of Afghanistan</a></figcaption></figure> <p>During communist rule, the PDPA government reformed the education system; education was stressed for both sexes, and widespread literacy programmes were set up.<sup id="cite_ref-165" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-165"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>162<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1988, women made up 40 percent of the doctors and 60 percent of the teachers at Kabul University; 440,000 female students were enrolled in different educational institutions and 80,000 more in literacy programs.<sup id="cite_ref-166" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-166"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>163<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition to introducing mass literacy campaigns for women and men, the PDPA agenda included: massive land reform program; the abolition of bride price; and raising the marriage age to 16 for girls and to 18 for boys. <sup id="cite_ref-women-in-afghanistan_167-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-women-in-afghanistan-167"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>164<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, the mullahs and tribal chiefs in the interiors viewed compulsory education, especially for women, as going against the grain of tradition, as anti-religious, and as a challenge to male authority.<sup id="cite_ref-women-in-afghanistan_167-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-women-in-afghanistan-167"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>164<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This resulted in an increase in shootings of women in <a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">Western</a> clothes, killing of PDPA reformers in rural areas, and general harassment of women social workers.<sup id="cite_ref-women-in-afghanistan_167-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-women-in-afghanistan-167"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>164<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite improvements, a large percentage of the population remained illiterate.<sup id="cite_ref-cp_168-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cp-168"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>165<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Beginning with the Soviet intervention in 1979, successive wars virtually destroyed the nation's education system.<sup id="cite_ref-cp_168-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cp-168"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>165<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most teachers fled during the wars to neighboring countries.<sup id="cite_ref-cp_168-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cp-168"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>165<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Refugees">Refugees</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Democratic_Republic_of_Afghanistan&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Refugees"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Afghan_refugees" title="Afghan refugees">Afghan refugees</a></div> <p>Afghan refugees are Afghan nationals who have fled their country as a result of the ongoing <a href="/wiki/War_in_Afghanistan_(1978%E2%80%93present)" class="mw-redirect" title="War in Afghanistan (1978–present)">Afghan conflict</a>. An estimated 6 million people have fled the country, most to neighbouring Pakistan and Iran, making it the largest producer of refugees in the world.<sup id="cite_ref-BBC_News_p._169-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BBC_News_p.-169"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>166<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many of these refugees would later be the basis for the <a href="/wiki/Taliban" title="Taliban">Taliban</a> movement.<sup id="cite_ref-Matinuddin,_Kamal_1999_pp.25_170-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Matinuddin,_Kamal_1999_pp.25-170"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>167<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Democratic_Republic_of_Afghanistan&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Soviet_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet Empire">Soviet Empire</a>", a political term used to describe Soviet influence during the Cold War</li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Democratic_Party_of_Afghanistan" title="People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan">People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan</a>, the Ruling party of the DRA</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khalq" title="Khalq">Khalq</a>, the Stalinist faction of the PDPA</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parcham" title="Parcham">Parcham</a>, the Islamic Socialist faction of the PDPA</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://issuu.com/andreamagara/docs/fundamental_principles_of_the_democratic_republic_">Fundamental Principals of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan</a>, The Constitution of the DRA as of April 20, 1980</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armed_Forces_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_Afghanistan" title="Armed Forces of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan">Armed Forces of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afghan_Civil_War_(1989%E2%80%931992)" title="Afghan Civil War (1989–1992)">Afghan Civil War (1989-1992)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_Afghanistan" title="Vice President of Afghanistan">List of Vice Presidents of Afghanistan (1978-1992)</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Democratic_Republic_of_Afghanistan&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><div><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pashto_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Pashto language">Pashto</a>: <span lang="ps" dir="rtl">دافغانستان دمکراتی جمهوریت</span>, <span title="Pashto-language romanization"><i lang="ps-Latn">Dǝ Afġānistān Dimukratī Jumhūriyat</i></span></li><li><a href="/wiki/Dari_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Dari language">Dari</a>: <span lang="prs" dir="rtl">جمهوری دمکراتی افغانستان</span>, <span title="Dari-language romanization"><i lang="prs-Latn">Jumhūri-ye Dimukrātī-ye Afġānistān</i></span></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><div><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pashto_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Pashto language">Pashto</a>: <span lang="ps" dir="rtl">د افغانستان جمهوریت</span>, <span title="Pashto-language romanization"><i lang="ps-Latn">Dǝ Afġānistān Jumhūriyat</i></span></li><li><a href="/wiki/Dari_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Dari language">Dari</a>: <span lang="prs" dir="rtl">جمهوری افغانستان</span>, <span title="Dari-language romanization"><i lang="prs-Latn">Jumhūrī-ye Afġānistān</i></span></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The total varies, it depends if the source include militias who collaborated, but were not under the direct control of the central government. For instance, in 1991 the total militia force numbered 170,000, but the armed forces under direct control of the central government numbered 160,000.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJefferson2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidfqRFCkpTdUcCpgPA245_245]_151-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJefferson2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidfqRFCkpTdUcCpgPA245_245]-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Democratic_Republic_of_Afghanistan&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFAzmi1986" class="citation journal cs1">Azmi, Muhammad R. (Spring 1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/45304853">"Soviet Politico-Military Penetration in Afghanistan, 1955 to 1979"</a>. <i>Armed Forces & Society</i>. <b>12</b> (3). Sage Publishing: 343, 344. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0095327X8601200301">10.1177/0095327X8601200301</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/45304853">45304853</a> – via JSTOR.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Armed+Forces+%26+Society&rft.atitle=Soviet+Politico-Military+Penetration+in+Afghanistan%2C+1955+to+1979&rft.ssn=spring&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=343%2C+344&rft.date=1986&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0095327X8601200301&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F45304853%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Azmi&rft.aufirst=Muhammad+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F45304853&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADemocratic+Republic+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmstutz1994" class="citation book cs1">Amstutz, J. Bruce (1 July 1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RUSNyMH1aFQC"><i>Afghanistan: The First Five Years of Soviet Occupation</i></a>. DIANE Publishing. pp. 52, 59, 190, 343. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780788111112" title="Special:BookSources/9780788111112"><bdi>9780788111112</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Afghanistan%3A+The+First+Five+Years+of+Soviet+Occupation&rft.pages=52%2C+59%2C+190%2C+343&rft.pub=DIANE+Publishing&rft.date=1994-07-01&rft.isbn=9780788111112&rft.aulast=Amstutz&rft.aufirst=J.+Bruce&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRUSNyMH1aFQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADemocratic+Republic+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHussain" class="citation book cs1">Hussain, Rizwan. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/print/opr/t236/e0748">"Socialism and Islam"</a>. <i>The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World</i>. Oxford University Press<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 December</span> 2021</span> – via Oxford Islamic Studies Online. <q>The leaders of the DRA emphasized the similarity between Islam and socialism and retained Islam as the state religion.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Socialism+and+Islam&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Encyclopedia+of+the+Islamic+World&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.aulast=Hussain&rft.aufirst=Rizwan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordislamicstudies.com%2Fprint%2Fopr%2Ft236%2Fe0748&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADemocratic+Republic+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sources describing the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan as a Marxist-Leninist state: <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoy2018" class="citation book cs1">Roy, Olivier (2018). "3: The Sovietization of Afghanistan". In Hauner, Milan; L. Canfield, Robert (eds.). <i>Afghanistan and the Soviet Union: Collision and Transformation</i>. New York, NY: Routledge. p. 49. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-367-01216-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-367-01216-8"><bdi>978-0-367-01216-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=3%3A+The+Sovietization+of+Afghanistan&rft.btitle=Afghanistan+and+the+Soviet+Union%3A+Collision+and+Transformation&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pages=49&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-0-367-01216-8&rft.aulast=Roy&rft.aufirst=Olivier&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADemocratic+Republic+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCordovezS._Harrison1995" class="citation book cs1">Cordovez, Deigo; S. Harrison, Selig (1995). <i>Out of Afghanistan: The Inside Story of the Soviet Withdrawal</i>. New York, USA: Oxford University Press. p. 59. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-506294-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-506294-9"><bdi>0-19-506294-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Out+of+Afghanistan%3A+The+Inside+Story+of+the+Soviet+Withdrawal&rft.place=New+York%2C+USA&rft.pages=59&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=0-19-506294-9&rft.aulast=Cordovez&rft.aufirst=Deigo&rft.au=S.+Harrison%2C+Selig&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADemocratic+Republic+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGirardet2011" class="citation book cs1">Girardet, Edward (2011). "Introduction". <i>Afghanistan: The Soviet war</i>. New York, NY: Routledge. p. 4. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-68480-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-68480-4"><bdi>978-0-415-68480-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.btitle=Afghanistan%3A+The+Soviet+war&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pages=4&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-415-68480-4&rft.aulast=Girardet&rft.aufirst=Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADemocratic+Republic+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sources describing the DRA regime as a totalitarian state: <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTucker2019" class="citation book cs1">Tucker, Ernest (2019). "21: Middle East at the End of the Cold War, 1979–1993". <i>The Middle East in Modern World History</i> (Second ed.). New York, NY: Routledge. p. 303. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-138-49190-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-138-49190-8"><bdi>978-1-138-49190-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2018043096">2018043096</a>. <q>During their first few months in power, the Communists remade Afghanistan into a Soviet-style totalitarian state, collectivizing land holdings and abolishing Islamic law entirely. The new government tolerated no opposition to these changes.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=21%3A+Middle+East+at+the+End+of+the+Cold+War%2C+1979%E2%80%931993&rft.btitle=The+Middle+East+in+Modern+World+History&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pages=303&rft.edition=Second&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2018043096&rft.isbn=978-1-138-49190-8&rft.aulast=Tucker&rft.aufirst=Ernest&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADemocratic+Republic+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKamrany1982" class="citation journal cs1">Kamrany, Nake M (1982). "Afghanistan Under Soviet Occupation". <i>Current History</i>. <b>81</b> (475): 219–222. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Fcurh.1982.81.475.219">10.1525/curh.1982.81.475.219</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/45317401">45317401</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:73677693">73677693</a>. <q>...the Communists violently seized power in Kabul and, with the help of growing numbers of Soviet "advisers," began forcibly to impose upon the people of Afghanistan a foreign ideology and a totalitarian system.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Current+History&rft.atitle=Afghanistan+Under+Soviet+Occupation&rft.volume=81&rft.issue=475&rft.pages=219-222&rft.date=1982&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A73677693%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F45317401%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1525%2Fcurh.1982.81.475.219&rft.aulast=Kamrany&rft.aufirst=Nake+M&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADemocratic+Republic+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKirkpatrick1981" class="citation journal cs1">Kirkpatrick, Jeane J (1981). "Afghanistan: Implications for Peace and Security". <i>World Affairs</i>. <b>144</b> (3): 243. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20671902">20671902</a>. <q>No sector of Afghan society has been spared the consequences of the Soviet occupation and the ruthless effort to impose upon the Afghan people a Communist totalitarian system-an effort that began in 1978 with the initial Communist coup overthrowing the Daoud government.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=World+Affairs&rft.atitle=Afghanistan%3A+Implications+for+Peace+and+Security&rft.volume=144&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=243&rft.date=1981&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20671902%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Kirkpatrick&rft.aufirst=Jeane+J&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADemocratic+Republic+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoy2018" class="citation book cs1">Roy, Olivier (2018). "3: The Sovietization of Afghanistan". In Hauner, Milan; L. Canfield, Robert (eds.). <i>Afghanistan and the Soviet Union: Collision and Transformation</i>. New York, NY: Routledge. p. 51. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-367-01216-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-367-01216-8"><bdi>978-0-367-01216-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=3%3A+The+Sovietization+of+Afghanistan&rft.btitle=Afghanistan+and+the+Soviet+Union%3A+Collision+and+Transformation&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pages=51&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-0-367-01216-8&rft.aulast=Roy&rft.aufirst=Olivier&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADemocratic+Republic+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFS.Margolis2001" class="citation book cs1">S.Margolis, Eric (2001). "2: The Bravest Men on Earth". <i>War at the top of the World: The struggle for Afghanistan, Kashmir, and Tibet</i>. New York, NY: Routledge. p. 15. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-92712-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-92712-9"><bdi>0-415-92712-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=2%3A+The+Bravest+Men+on+Earth&rft.btitle=War+at+the+top+of+the+World%3A+The+struggle+for+Afghanistan%2C+Kashmir%2C+and+Tibet&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pages=15&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-415-92712-9&rft.aulast=S.Margolis&rft.aufirst=Eric&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADemocratic+Republic+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://freedomhouse.org/sites/default/files/2020-02/Freedom_in_the_World_1990-1991_complete_book.pdf">Freedom in the World 1990–1991</a> Freedom House</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMark_Urban1990" class="citation book cs1">Mark Urban (1990). <i>War in Afghanistan: Second Edition</i>. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 10. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-312-04255-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-312-04255-4"><bdi>978-0-312-04255-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=War+in+Afghanistan%3A+Second+Edition&rft.pages=10&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-312-04255-4&rft.au=Mark+Urban&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADemocratic+Republic+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.csmonitor.com/1985/0806/olam.html">"In Afghanistan, Soviets find replacing Islam with communism isn't easy"</a>. <i>Christian Science Monitor</i>. 6 August 1985. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0882-7729">0882-7729</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 March</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Christian+Science+Monitor&rft.atitle=In+Afghanistan%2C+Soviets+find+replacing+Islam+with+communism+isn%27t+easy&rft.date=1985-08-06&rft.issn=0882-7729&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.csmonitor.com%2F1985%2F0806%2Folam.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADemocratic+Republic+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:0_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/Chapter-1-3.pdf">"THE AFGHAN COMMUNISTS"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=THE+AFGHAN+COMMUNISTS&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.brookings.edu%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2016%2F07%2FChapter-1-3.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADemocratic+Republic+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETomsen2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidzz9_Ve29eL0CpgPA110_110–111]-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETomsen2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidzz9_Ve29eL0CpgPA110_110–111]_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTomsen2011">Tomsen 2011</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zz9_Ve29eL0C&pg=PA110">110–111</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHussain2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTRW_M_xybyYCpgPA95_95]-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHussain2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTRW_M_xybyYCpgPA95_95]_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHussain2005">Hussain 2005</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TRW_M_xybyYC&pg=PA95">95</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGladstone2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidaH_KCWVB6W0CpgPA117_117]-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGladstone2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidaH_KCWVB6W0CpgPA117_117]_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGladstone2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidaH_KCWVB6W0CpgPA117_117]_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGladstone2001">Gladstone 2001</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aH_KCWVB6W0C&pg=PA117">117</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrecherWilkenfeld1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidGjY7aV_6FPwCpgPA356_356]-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrecherWilkenfeld1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidGjY7aV_6FPwCpgPA356_356]_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrecherWilkenfeld1997">Brecher & Wilkenfeld 1997</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GjY7aV_6FPwC&pg=PA356">356</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAsthanaNirmal2009[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8EqWnqdsgZMCpgPA219_219]-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAsthanaNirmal2009[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8EqWnqdsgZMCpgPA219_219]_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAsthanaNirmal2009">Asthana & Nirmal 2009</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8EqWnqdsgZMC&pg=PA219">219</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERasanayagam2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid5L8CnWkACQkCpgPA70_70]-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERasanayagam2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid5L8CnWkACQkCpgPA70_70]_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRasanayagam2005">Rasanayagam 2005</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5L8CnWkACQkC&pg=PA70">70</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERasanayagam2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid5L8CnWkACQkCpgPA70_70–71]-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERasanayagam2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid5L8CnWkACQkCpgPA70_70–71]_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRasanayagam2005">Rasanayagam 2005</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5L8CnWkACQkC&pg=PA70">70–71</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERasanayagam2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid5L8CnWkACQkCpgPA71_71]-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERasanayagam2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid5L8CnWkACQkCpgPA71_71]_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRasanayagam2005">Rasanayagam 2005</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5L8CnWkACQkC&pg=PA71">71</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERasanayagam2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid5L8CnWkACQkCpgPA72_72–73]-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERasanayagam2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid5L8CnWkACQkCpgPA72_72–73]_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRasanayagam2005">Rasanayagam 2005</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5L8CnWkACQkC&pg=PA72">72–73</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERasanayagam2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid5L8CnWkACQkCpgPA73_73]-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERasanayagam2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid5L8CnWkACQkCpgPA73_73]_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRasanayagam2005">Rasanayagam 2005</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5L8CnWkACQkC&pg=PA73">73</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA315_315]-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA315_315]_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA315_315]_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA315_315]_22-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAmtstutz1994a">Amtstutz 1994a</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RUSNyMH1aFQC&pg=PA315">315</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a315–316-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a315–316_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a315–316_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAmtstutz1994a">Amtstutz 1994a</a>, pp. 315–316.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-MERIA-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-MERIA_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIshiyama,_John2005" class="citation journal cs1">Ishiyama, John (March 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110611115415/http://meria.idc.ac.il/journal/2005/issue1/jv9no1a2.html">"The Sickle and the Minaret: Communist Successor Parties in Yemen and Afghanistan after the Cold War"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Middle_East_Review_of_International_Affairs" title="Middle East Review of International Affairs">Middle East Review of International Affairs</a></i>. <b>19</b> (1). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://meria.idc.ac.il/journal/2005/issue1/jv9no1a2.html">the original</a> on 11 June 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 April</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Middle+East+Review+of+International+Affairs&rft.atitle=The+Sickle+and+the+Minaret%3A+Communist+Successor+Parties+in+Yemen+and+Afghanistan+after+the+Cold+War&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=1&rft.date=2005-03&rft.au=Ishiyama%2C+John&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmeria.idc.ac.il%2Fjournal%2F2005%2Fissue1%2Fjv9no1a2.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADemocratic+Republic+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown2009356-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrown2009356_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrown2009">Brown 2009</a>, p. 356.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMisdaq2006122-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMisdaq2006122_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMisdaq2006">Misdaq 2006</a>, p. 122.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMisdaq2006123-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMisdaq2006123_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMisdaq2006">Misdaq 2006</a>, p. 123.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMisdaq2006125-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMisdaq2006125_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMisdaq2006125_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMisdaq2006">Misdaq 2006</a>, p. 125.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMisdaq2006123–124-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMisdaq2006123–124_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMisdaq2006">Misdaq 2006</a>, p. 123–124.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMale1982[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid-cYOAAAAQAAJpgPA192_192]-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMale1982[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid-cYOAAAAQAAJpgPA192_192]_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMale1982">Male 1982</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-cYOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA192">192</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://newleftreview.org/issues/I119/articles/fred-halliday-the-war-and-revolution-in-afghanistan">https://newleftreview.org/issues/I119/articles/fred-halliday-the-war-and-revolution-in-afghanistan</a> The War and Revolution in Afghanistan</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Valentino2005FinalSolutions">Valentino (2005) <i>Final solutions</i></a> p. 219.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kaplan, Robert D., <i>Soldiers of God: With Islamic Warriors in Afghanistan and Pakistan</i>, New York, Vintage Departures, (2001), p.115</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4756480.stm">Kabul's prison of death</a> <a href="/wiki/BBC" title="BBC">BBC</a>, 27 February 2006</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA273_273]-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA273_273]_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAmtstutz1994a">Amtstutz 1994a</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RUSNyMH1aFQC&pg=PA273">273</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETomsen2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidzz9_Ve29eL0CpgPA160_160]-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETomsen2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidzz9_Ve29eL0CpgPA160_160]_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTomsen2011">Tomsen 2011</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zz9_Ve29eL0C&pg=PA160">160</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETomsen2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidzz9_Ve29eL0CpgPA160_160–161]-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETomsen2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidzz9_Ve29eL0CpgPA160_160–161]_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTomsen2011">Tomsen 2011</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zz9_Ve29eL0C&pg=PA160">160–161</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETripathiFalk2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidtDf8p060_JgCpgPA54_54]-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETripathiFalk2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidtDf8p060_JgCpgPA54_54]_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTripathiFalk2010">Tripathi & Falk 2010</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tDf8p060_JgC&pg=PA54">54</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETripathiFalk2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidtDf8p060_JgCpgPA55_55]-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETripathiFalk2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidtDf8p060_JgCpgPA55_55]_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTripathiFalk2010">Tripathi & Falk 2010</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tDf8p060_JgC&pg=PA55">55</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECamp2012[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidyMmx1m_ZCqECpgPA12_12–13]-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECamp2012[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidyMmx1m_ZCqECpgPA12_12–13]_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCamp2012">Camp 2012</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yMmx1m_ZCqEC&pg=PA12">12–13</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGarthoff1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidmGG-x_tuNUcCpgPA1009_1009]-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGarthoff1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidmGG-x_tuNUcCpgPA1009_1009]_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGarthoff1994">Garthoff 1994</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mGG-x_tuNUcC&pg=PA1009">1009</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGarthoff1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidmGG-x_tuNUcCpgPA1017_1017]-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGarthoff1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidmGG-x_tuNUcCpgPA1017_1017]_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGarthoff1994">Garthoff 1994</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mGG-x_tuNUcC&pg=PA1017">1017</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBraithwaite201199-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBraithwaite201199_43-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBraithwaite201199_43-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBraithwaite2011">Braithwaite 2011</a>, p. 99.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBraithwaite2011103–104-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBraithwaite2011103–104_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBraithwaite2011">Braithwaite 2011</a>, pp. 103–104.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEH._KakarM._Kakar1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidQyTmFj5tUGsCpgPA71_71]-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEH._KakarM._Kakar1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidQyTmFj5tUGsCpgPA71_71]_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFH._KakarM._Kakar1997">H. Kakar & M. Kakar 1997</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QyTmFj5tUGsC&pg=PA71">71</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEH._KakarM._Kakar1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidQyTmFj5tUGsCpgPA71_71–72]-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEH._KakarM._Kakar1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidQyTmFj5tUGsCpgPA71_71–72]_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFH._KakarM._Kakar1997">H. Kakar & M. Kakar 1997</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QyTmFj5tUGsC&pg=PA71">71–72</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeinerBanuazizi1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTmMJnaMVN6oCpgPA47_47]-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeinerBanuazizi1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTmMJnaMVN6oCpgPA47_47]_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWeinerBanuazizi1994">Weiner & Banuazizi 1994</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TmMJnaMVN6oC&pg=PA47">47</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeinerBanuazizi1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTmMJnaMVN6oCpgPA48_48]-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeinerBanuazizi1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTmMJnaMVN6oCpgPA48_48]_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWeinerBanuazizi1994">Weiner & Banuazizi 1994</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TmMJnaMVN6oC&pg=PA48">48</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStaff_writer2002[httpsbooksgooglecombookside5Az1lGCJwQCpgPA86_86]-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStaff_writer2002[httpsbooksgooglecombookside5Az1lGCJwQCpgPA86_86]_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStaff_writer2002">Staff writer 2002</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=e5Az1lGCJwQC&pg=PA86">86</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKalinovsky2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidrf1Yg2SGLQgCpgPA97_97]-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKalinovsky2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidrf1Yg2SGLQgCpgPA97_97]_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKalinovsky2011">Kalinovsky 2011</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rf1Yg2SGLQgC&pg=PA97">97</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994b[httpsbooksgooglecombooksida0Mp1AHpp0gCpgPA152_151–152]-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994b[httpsbooksgooglecombooksida0Mp1AHpp0gCpgPA152_151–152]_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAmtstutz1994b">Amtstutz 1994b</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=a0Mp1AHpp0gC&pg=PA152">151–152</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994b[httpsbooksgooglecombooksida0Mp1AHpp0gCpgPA152_152]-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994b[httpsbooksgooglecombooksida0Mp1AHpp0gCpgPA152_152]_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAmtstutz1994b">Amtstutz 1994b</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=a0Mp1AHpp0gC&pg=PA152">152</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994b[httpsbooksgooglecombooksida0Mp1AHpp0gCpgPA153_153]-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994b[httpsbooksgooglecombooksida0Mp1AHpp0gCpgPA153_153]_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAmtstutz1994b">Amtstutz 1994b</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=a0Mp1AHpp0gC&pg=PA153">153</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBraithwaite2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidguQQKejG3qUCpgPA276_276]-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBraithwaite2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidguQQKejG3qUCpgPA276_276]_54-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBraithwaite2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidguQQKejG3qUCpgPA276_276]_54-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBraithwaite2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidguQQKejG3qUCpgPA276_276]_54-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBraithwaite2011">Braithwaite 2011</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=guQQKejG3qUC&pg=PA276">276</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBraithwaite2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidguQQKejG3qUCpgPA277_277]-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBraithwaite2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidguQQKejG3qUCpgPA277_277]_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBraithwaite2011">Braithwaite 2011</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=guQQKejG3qUC&pg=PA277">277</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBraithwaite2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidguQQKejG3qUCpgPA280_280]-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBraithwaite2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidguQQKejG3qUCpgPA280_280]_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBraithwaite2011">Braithwaite 2011</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=guQQKejG3qUC&pg=PA280">280</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBraithwaite2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidguQQKejG3qUCpgPA281_281]-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBraithwaite2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidguQQKejG3qUCpgPA281_281]_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBraithwaite2011">Braithwaite 2011</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=guQQKejG3qUC&pg=PA281">281</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBraithwaite2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidguQQKejG3qUCpgPA282_282]-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBraithwaite2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidguQQKejG3qUCpgPA282_282]_58-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBraithwaite2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidguQQKejG3qUCpgPA282_282]_58-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 November</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Third+World+Quarterly&rft.atitle=The+Third+World+and+the+Dissolution+of+the+USSR&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=691-713&rft.date=1992&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F01436599208420305&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3992384%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Webber&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3992384&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADemocratic+Republic+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGibson2015" class="citation thesis cs1">Gibson, Joshua James (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=osu1429894687"><i>An Unsustainable Arrangement: The Collapse of the Republic of Afghanistan in 1992</i></a> (MA thesis). 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 November</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=An+Unsustainable+Arrangement%3A+The+Collapse+of+the+Republic+of+Afghanistan+in+1992&rft.inst=Ohio+State+University&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Gibson&rft.aufirst=Joshua+James&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Frave.ohiolink.edu%2Fetdc%2Fview%3Facc_num%3Dosu1429894687&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADemocratic+Republic+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStaff_writer2002[httpsbooksgooglecombookside5Az1lGCJwQCpgPA66_66]-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStaff_writer2002[httpsbooksgooglecombookside5Az1lGCJwQCpgPA66_66]_65-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStaff_writer2002">Staff writer 2002</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=e5Az1lGCJwQC&pg=PA66">66</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBraithwaite2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidguQQKejG3qUCpgPA301_301]-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBraithwaite2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidguQQKejG3qUCpgPA301_301]_66-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBraithwaite2011">Braithwaite 2011</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=guQQKejG3qUC&pg=PA301">301</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBraithwaite2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidguQQKejG3qUCpgPA302_302–303]-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBraithwaite2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidguQQKejG3qUCpgPA302_302–303]_67-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBraithwaite2011">Braithwaite 2011</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=guQQKejG3qUC&pg=PA302">302–303</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamali1985[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidksC-BL2WivUCpgPA62-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamali1985[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidksC-BL2WivUCpgPA62_68-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKamali1985">Kamali 1985</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ksC-BL2WivUC&pg=PA62">[1]</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA63_63]-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA63_63]_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAmtstutz1994a">Amtstutz 1994a</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RUSNyMH1aFQC&pg=PA63">63</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESaikalMaley1989[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKWsqVYSBTYICpgPA106_106]-70"><span 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href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnold1983[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcd85ioPsz6cCpgPA94_94]_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFArnold1983">Arnold 1983</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cd85ioPsz6cC&pg=PA94">94</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnold1983[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcd85ioPsz6cCpgPA107_107–108]-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnold1983[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcd85ioPsz6cCpgPA107_107–108]_73-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFArnold1983">Arnold 1983</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cd85ioPsz6cC&pg=PA107">107–108</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/fundamental-principles-of-the-democratic-republic-of-afghanistan_202109">"Fundamental Principles of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan"</a>. 24 February 1980.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Fundamental+Principles+of+the+Democratic+Republic+of+Afghanistan&rft.date=1980-02-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffundamental-principles-of-the-democratic-republic-of-afghanistan_202109&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADemocratic+Republic+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnold1983[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcd85ioPsz6cCpgPA108_108]-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnold1983[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcd85ioPsz6cCpgPA108_108]_75-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFArnold1983">Arnold 1983</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cd85ioPsz6cC&pg=PA108">108</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.afghan-web.com/history/afghanistan-constitution-of-1987/">"Afghanistan's 1987 Constitution"</a>. 26 March 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Afghanistan%27s+1987+Constitution&rft.date=2018-03-26&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.afghan-web.com%2Fhistory%2Fafghanistan-constitution-of-1987%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADemocratic+Republic+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2002/jun/14/afghanistan.qanda">"Loya jirga"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>. 14 June 2002.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Loya+jirga&rft.date=2002-06-14&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2002%2Fjun%2F14%2Fafghanistan.qanda&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADemocratic+Republic+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYassari2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidCMGfLzYWeW4CpgPA15_15]-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYassari2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidCMGfLzYWeW4CpgPA15_15]_78-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYassari2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidCMGfLzYWeW4CpgPA15_15]_78-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYassari2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidCMGfLzYWeW4CpgPA15_15]_78-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFYassari2005">Yassari 2005</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CMGfLzYWeW4C&pg=PA15">15</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOtto2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8ep7cX3ma0sCpgPA289_289]-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOtto2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8ep7cX3ma0sCpgPA289_289]_79-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOtto2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8ep7cX3ma0sCpgPA289_289]_79-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOtto2010">Otto 2010</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8ep7cX3ma0sC&pg=PA289">289</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiustozzi2000[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidHz5NzJtg48kCpgPA161_161]-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiustozzi2000[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidHz5NzJtg48kCpgPA161_161]_80-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiustozzi2000[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidHz5NzJtg48kCpgPA161_161]_80-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGiustozzi2000">Giustozzi 2000</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Hz5NzJtg48kC&pg=PA161">161</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStaff_writer2002[httpsbooksgooglecombookside5Az1lGCJwQCpgPA65_65]-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStaff_writer2002[httpsbooksgooglecombookside5Az1lGCJwQCpgPA65_65]_81-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStaff_writer2002">Staff writer 2002</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=e5Az1lGCJwQC&pg=PA65">65</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a58-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a58_82-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAmtstutz1994a">Amtstutz 1994a</a>, p. 58.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a59-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a59_83-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAmtstutz1994a">Amtstutz 1994a</a>, p. 59.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a60–61-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a60–61_84-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAmtstutz1994a">Amtstutz 1994a</a>, pp. 60–61.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a288-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a288_85-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAmtstutz1994a">Amtstutz 1994a</a>, p. 288.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a65–66-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a65–66_86-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAmtstutz1994a">Amtstutz 1994a</a>, pp. 65–66.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnold1983[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcd85ioPsz6cCpgPA170_170]-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnold1983[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcd85ioPsz6cCpgPA170_170]_87-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFArnold1983">Arnold 1983</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cd85ioPsz6cC&pg=PA170">170</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnold1983[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcd85ioPsz6cCpgPA62_62]-88"><span 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href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnold1983[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcd85ioPsz6cCpgPA100_100]_90-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFArnold1983">Arnold 1983</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cd85ioPsz6cC&pg=PA100">100</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERaciopi1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidjiUic1s7djMCpgPA161_161]-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERaciopi1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidjiUic1s7djMCpgPA161_161]_91-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRaciopi1994">Raciopi 1994</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jiUic1s7djMC&pg=PA161">161</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERaciopi1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidjiUic1s7djMCpgPA161_161–162]-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a 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<span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFArnold1983">Arnold 1983</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cd85ioPsz6cC&pg=PA111">111</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnold1983[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcd85ioPsz6cCpgPA85_85]-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnold1983[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcd85ioPsz6cCpgPA85_85]_95-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFArnold1983">Arnold 1983</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cd85ioPsz6cC&pg=PA85">85</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnold1983[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcd85ioPsz6cCpgPA55_55]-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnold1983[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcd85ioPsz6cCpgPA55_55]_96-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFArnold1983">Arnold 1983</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cd85ioPsz6cC&pg=PA55">55</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnold1983[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcd85ioPsz6cCpgPA112_112]-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnold1983[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcd85ioPsz6cCpgPA112_112]_97-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFArnold1983">Arnold 1983</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cd85ioPsz6cC&pg=PA112">112</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnold1983[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcd85ioPsz6cCpgPA86_86]-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnold1983[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcd85ioPsz6cCpgPA86_86]_98-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFArnold1983">Arnold 1983</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cd85ioPsz6cC&pg=PA86">86</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnold1983[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcd85ioPsz6cCpgPA39_39–40]-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnold1983[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidcd85ioPsz6cCpgPA39_39–40]_99-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFArnold1983">Arnold 1983</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cd85ioPsz6cC&pg=PA39">39–40</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGirardet1985[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1c0OAAAAQAAJpgPA114_114]-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGirardet1985[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1c0OAAAAQAAJpgPA114_114]_100-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGirardet1985">Girardet 1985</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1c0OAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA114">114</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeinerBanuazizi1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTmMJnaMVN6oCpgPA71_71]-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeinerBanuazizi1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTmMJnaMVN6oCpgPA71_71]_101-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWeinerBanuazizi1994">Weiner & Banuazizi 1994</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TmMJnaMVN6oC&pg=PA71">71</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChristensen1995[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid7LKS93lbSM0CpgPA24_24]-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChristensen1995[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid7LKS93lbSM0CpgPA24_24]_102-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChristensen1995">Christensen 1995</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7LKS93lbSM0C&pg=PA24">24</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDorronsoro2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid3DOuOSYR4PcCpgPA185_185]-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDorronsoro2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid3DOuOSYR4PcCpgPA185_185]_103-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDorronsoro2005">Dorronsoro 2005</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3DOuOSYR4PcC&pg=PA185">185</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEH._KakarM._Kakar1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidQyTmFj5tUGsCpgPA305_305–306]-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEH._KakarM._Kakar1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidQyTmFj5tUGsCpgPA305_305–306]_104-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFH._KakarM._Kakar1997">H. Kakar & M. Kakar 1997</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QyTmFj5tUGsC&pg=PA305">305–306</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a120-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a120_105-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAmtstutz1994a">Amtstutz 1994a</a>, p. 120.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiustozzi2000[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidHz5NzJtg48kCpgPA142_142]-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiustozzi2000[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidHz5NzJtg48kCpgPA142_142]_106-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiustozzi2000[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidHz5NzJtg48kCpgPA142_142]_106-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGiustozzi2000">Giustozzi 2000</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Hz5NzJtg48kC&pg=PA142">142</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiustozzi2000[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidHz5NzJtg48kCpgPA142_142–143]-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiustozzi2000[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidHz5NzJtg48kCpgPA142_142–143]_107-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGiustozzi2000">Giustozzi 2000</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Hz5NzJtg48kC&pg=PA142">142–143</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeinerBanuazizi1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTmMJnaMVN6oCpgPA46_46]-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeinerBanuazizi1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTmMJnaMVN6oCpgPA46_46]_108-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWeinerBanuazizi1994">Weiner & Banuazizi 1994</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TmMJnaMVN6oC&pg=PA46">46</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiustozzi2000[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidHz5NzJtg48kCpgPA143_143]-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiustozzi2000[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidHz5NzJtg48kCpgPA143_143]_109-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiustozzi2000[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidHz5NzJtg48kCpgPA143_143]_109-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiustozzi2000[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidHz5NzJtg48kCpgPA143_143]_109-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGiustozzi2000">Giustozzi 2000</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Hz5NzJtg48kC&pg=PA143">143</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiustozzi2000[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidHz5NzJtg48kCpgPA143_143–144]-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiustozzi2000[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidHz5NzJtg48kCpgPA143_143–144]_110-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGiustozzi2000">Giustozzi 2000</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Hz5NzJtg48kC&pg=PA143">143–144</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdamec2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidtp5IrLhWbTkCpgPT528_528]-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdamec2011[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidtp5IrLhWbTkCpgPT528_528]_111-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAdamec2011">Adamec 2011</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tp5IrLhWbTkC&pg=PT528">528</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdwards2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidbiOdjgEO-IcCpgPA30_30]-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEdwards2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidbiOdjgEO-IcCpgPA30_30]_112-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEdwards2002">Edwards 2002</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=biOdjgEO-IcC&pg=PA30">30</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETomsen2011p._[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidzz9_Ve29eL0CpgPA133_133]:_"...<span_class="nowrap">&nbsp;</span>the_introduction_of_a_new_flag<span_class="nowrap">&nbsp;</span>..._stirred_popular_resentment_that_the_Afghan_communists_were_attempting_to_foist_Soviet_atheism_on_the_country."-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETomsen2011p._[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidzz9_Ve29eL0CpgPA133_133]:_"...<span_class="nowrap">&nbsp;</span>the_introduction_of_a_new_flag<span_class="nowrap">&nbsp;</span>..._stirred_popular_resentment_that_the_Afghan_communists_were_attempting_to_foist_Soviet_atheism_on_the_country."_113-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTomsen2011">Tomsen 2011</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zz9_Ve29eL0C&pg=PA133">133</a>: "...<span class="nowrap"> </span>the introduction of a new flag<span class="nowrap"> </span>... stirred popular resentment that the Afghan communists were attempting to foist Soviet atheism on the country.".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERunion2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidaZk9XzqCFGUCpgPA106_106]-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERunion2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidaZk9XzqCFGUCpgPA106_106]_114-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRunion2007">Runion 2007</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aZk9XzqCFGUC&pg=PA106">106</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMale1982[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid-cYOAAAAQAAJpgPA212_212]-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMale1982[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid-cYOAAAAQAAJpgPA212_212]_115-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMale1982">Male 1982</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-cYOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA212">212</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMisdaq2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidZvm9dxavH-ICpgPA119_119]-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMisdaq2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidZvm9dxavH-ICpgPA119_119]_116-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMisdaq2006">Misdaq 2006</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Zvm9dxavH-IC&pg=PA119">119</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdwards2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidbiOdjgEO-IcCpgPA91_91]-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEdwards2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidbiOdjgEO-IcCpgPA91_91]_117-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEdwards2002">Edwards 2002</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=biOdjgEO-IcC&pg=PA91">91</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamali1985[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidksC-BL2WivUCpgPA33_33]-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamali1985[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidksC-BL2WivUCpgPA33_33]_118-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKamali1985">Kamali 1985</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ksC-BL2WivUC&pg=PA33">33</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAchcar2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8FNIchn0jJMCpgPA103_103]-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAchcar2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid8FNIchn0jJMCpgPA103_103]_119-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAchcar2004">Achcar 2004</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8FNIchn0jJMC&pg=PA103">103</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEnde2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid-dM4hPlxMw8CpgPA268_268]-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEnde2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid-dM4hPlxMw8CpgPA268_268]_120-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEnde2010">Ende 2010</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-dM4hPlxMw8C&pg=PA268">268</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a316-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a316_121-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAmtstutz1994a">Amtstutz 1994a</a>, p. 316.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120205010307/http://www.afghanistans.com/information/Economy/default.htm">"Economy"</a>. Afghanistan.com. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.afghanistans.com/Information/Economy/default.htm">the original</a> on 5 February 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 February</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Economy&rft.pub=Afghanistan.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.afghanistans.com%2FInformation%2FEconomy%2Fdefault.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADemocratic+Republic+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20011106230711/http://www.gl.iit.edu/govdocs/afghanistan/country.html">"Country Profile: Afghanistan"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Illinois_Institute_of_Technology" title="Illinois Institute of Technology">Illinois Institute of Technology</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gl.iit.edu/govdocs/afghanistan/country.html">the original</a> on 6 November 2001<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 February</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Country+Profile%3A+Afghanistan&rft.pub=Illinois+Institute+of+Technology&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gl.iit.edu%2Fgovdocs%2Fafghanistan%2Fcountry.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADemocratic+Republic+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStaff_writer2002[httpsbooksgooglecombookside5Az1lGCJwQCpgPA83_83]-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStaff_writer2002[httpsbooksgooglecombookside5Az1lGCJwQCpgPA83_83]_124-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStaff_writer2002">Staff writer 2002</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=e5Az1lGCJwQC&pg=PA83">83</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA187_187]-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA187_187]_125-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAmtstutz1994a">Amtstutz 1994a</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RUSNyMH1aFQC&pg=PA187">187</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA181_181]-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA181_181]_126-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA181_181]_126-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA181_181]_126-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA181_181]_126-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA181_181]_126-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAmtstutz1994a">Amtstutz 1994a</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RUSNyMH1aFQC&pg=PA181">181</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA182_182]-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA182_182]_127-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA182_182]_127-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA182_182]_127-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAmtstutz1994a">Amtstutz 1994a</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RUSNyMH1aFQC&pg=PA182">182</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsby1986[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidk86jifnA3oYCpgPA18_18]-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsby1986[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidk86jifnA3oYCpgPA18_18]_128-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIsby1986">Isby 1986</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=k86jifnA3oYC&pg=PA18">18</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-warspot.ru-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-warspot.ru_129-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-warspot.ru_129-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-warspot.ru_129-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://warspot.ru/21620-pozharnaya-komanda-kabula">"«Пожарная команда» Кабула"</a>. <i>Warspot.ru</i>. 30 November 2022. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221130074403/https://warspot.ru/21620-pozharnaya-komanda-kabula">Archived</a> from the original on 30 November 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 January</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Warspot.ru&rft.atitle=%C2%AB%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%B6%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F+%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0%C2%BB+%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B0&rft.date=2022-11-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwarspot.ru%2F21620-pozharnaya-komanda-kabula&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADemocratic+Republic+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsby1986[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidk86jifnA3oYCpgPA19_19]-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsby1986[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidk86jifnA3oYCpgPA19_19]_130-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIsby1986">Isby 1986</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=k86jifnA3oYC&pg=PA19">19</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUrban1988" class="citation book cs1">Urban, Mark (1988). <i>War in Afghanistan</i>. Houndsmill, Basingstoke, Hampshire: Macmillan Press. pp. 12–14. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-333-43263-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-333-43263-1"><bdi>978-0-333-43263-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=War+in+Afghanistan&rft.place=Houndsmill%2C+Basingstoke%2C+Hampshire&rft.pages=12-14&rft.pub=Macmillan+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-333-43263-1&rft.aulast=Urban&rft.aufirst=Mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADemocratic+Republic+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA183_183]-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA183_183]_132-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA183_183]_132-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAmtstutz1994a">Amtstutz 1994a</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RUSNyMH1aFQC&pg=PA183">183</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA183_183–184]-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA183_183–184]_133-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAmtstutz1994a">Amtstutz 1994a</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RUSNyMH1aFQC&pg=PA183">183–184</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA188_188]-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA188_188]_134-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAmtstutz1994a">Amtstutz 1994a</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RUSNyMH1aFQC&pg=PA188">188</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wRsU76LEJNM"><i>Battle of Jalalabad - Operation Jalalabad - Pak-Afg war, 1989</i></a>, 13 October 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 February</span> 2024</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Battle+of+Jalalabad+-+Operation+Jalalabad+-+Pak-Afg+war%2C+1989&rft.date=2021-10-13&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DwRsU76LEJNM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADemocratic+Republic+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QgAsk1LeT1s">"- YouTube"</a>. <i>www.youtube.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 February</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.youtube.com&rft.atitle=-+YouTube&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DQgAsk1LeT1s&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADemocratic+Republic+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Marshall, p. 7</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIsby,_David1986" class="citation book cs1">Isby, David (1986). <i>Russia's War in Afghanistan</i>. <a href="/wiki/Osprey_Publishing" title="Osprey Publishing">Osprey Publishing</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=k86jifnA3oYC&pg=PA18">18</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85045-691-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85045-691-2"><bdi>978-0-85045-691-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Russia%27s+War+in+Afghanistan&rft.pages=18&rft.pub=Osprey+Publishing&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-85045-691-2&rft.au=Isby%2C+David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADemocratic+Republic+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEur2002" class="citation book cs1">Eur (2002). <i>The Far East and Australasia 2003</i>. <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=e5Az1lGCJwQC&pg=PA63">63</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85743-133-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85743-133-9"><bdi>978-1-85743-133-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Far+East+and+Australasia+2003&rft.pages=63&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-1-85743-133-9&rft.au=Eur&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADemocratic+Republic+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArnold,_Anthony1983" class="citation book cs1">Arnold, Anthony (1983). <i>Afghanistan's Two-party Communism: Parcham and Khalq</i>. <a href="/wiki/Hoover_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Hoover Press">Hoover Press</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cd85ioPsz6cC&pg=PA111">111</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8179-7792-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8179-7792-4"><bdi>978-0-8179-7792-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Afghanistan%27s+Two-party+Communism%3A+Parcham+and+Khalq&rft.pages=111&rft.pub=Hoover+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-0-8179-7792-4&rft.au=Arnold%2C+Anthony&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADemocratic+Republic+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmtstutz,_J._Bruce1994" class="citation book cs1">Amtstutz, J. Bruce (1994). <i>Afghanistan: The First Five Years of Soviet Occupation</i>. DIANE Publishing. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RUSNyMH1aFQC&pg=PA180">180</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0788111112" title="Special:BookSources/978-0788111112"><bdi>978-0788111112</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Afghanistan%3A+The+First+Five+Years+of+Soviet+Occupation&rft.pages=180&rft.pub=DIANE+Publishing&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0788111112&rft.au=Amtstutz%2C+J.+Bruce&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADemocratic+Republic+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA53_53]-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA53_53]_140-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAmtstutz1994a">Amtstutz 1994a</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RUSNyMH1aFQC&pg=PA53">53</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIsby,_David1986" class="citation book cs1">Isby, David (1986). <i>Russia's War in Afghanistan</i>. <a href="/wiki/Osprey_Publishing" title="Osprey Publishing">Osprey Publishing</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=k86jifnA3oYC&pg=PA18">18</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85045-691-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85045-691-2"><bdi>978-0-85045-691-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Russia%27s+War+in+Afghanistan&rft.pages=18&rft.pub=Osprey+Publishing&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-85045-691-2&rft.au=Isby%2C+David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADemocratic+Republic+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArnold,_Anthony1983" class="citation book cs1">Arnold, Anthony (1983). <i>Afghanistan's Two-party Communism: Parcham and Khalq</i>. <a href="/wiki/Hoover_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Hoover Press">Hoover Press</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cd85ioPsz6cC&pg=PA111">111</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8179-7792-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8179-7792-4"><bdi>978-0-8179-7792-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Afghanistan%27s+Two-party+Communism%3A+Parcham+and+Khalq&rft.pages=111&rft.pub=Hoover+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-0-8179-7792-4&rft.au=Arnold%2C+Anthony&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADemocratic+Republic+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmtstutz,_J._Bruce1994" class="citation book cs1">Amtstutz, J. Bruce (1994). <i>Afghanistan: The First Five Years of Soviet Occupation</i>. DIANE Publishing. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RUSNyMH1aFQC&pg=PA180">180</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0788111112" title="Special:BookSources/978-0788111112"><bdi>978-0788111112</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Afghanistan%3A+The+First+Five+Years+of+Soviet+Occupation&rft.pages=180&rft.pub=DIANE+Publishing&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0788111112&rft.au=Amtstutz%2C+J.+Bruce&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADemocratic+Republic+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEur2002" class="citation book cs1">Eur (2002). <i>The Far East and Australasia 2003</i>. <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=e5Az1lGCJwQC&pg=PA63">63</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85743-133-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85743-133-9"><bdi>978-1-85743-133-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Far+East+and+Australasia+2003&rft.pages=63&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-1-85743-133-9&rft.au=Eur&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADemocratic+Republic+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA180_180–181]-143"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA180_180–181]_143-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA180_180–181]_143-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAmtstutz1994a">Amtstutz 1994a</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RUSNyMH1aFQC&pg=PA180">180–181</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBonosky2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkZ7E6S02Gq0CpgPA261_261]-144"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBonosky2001[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkZ7E6S02Gq0CpgPA261_261]_144-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBonosky2001">Bonosky 2001</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kZ7E6S02Gq0C&pg=PA261">261</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA155_155]-145"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA155_155]_145-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA155_155]_145-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA155_155]_145-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA155_155]_145-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAmtstutz1994a">Amtstutz 1994a</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RUSNyMH1aFQC&pg=PA155">155</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEReese2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidauPxtd_--TYCpgPA167_167]-146"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReese2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidauPxtd_--TYCpgPA167_167]_146-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFReese2002">Reese 2002</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=auPxtd_--TYC&pg=PA167">167</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-НЕГ3-147"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-НЕГ3_147-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFНикитенко_Е._Г.2004" class="citation book cs1">Никитенко Е. Г. (2004). <i>Афганистан: От войны 80-х до прогноза новых войн</i> (<span class="nowrap">10000 экз</span> ed.). <a href="/w/index.php?title=%D0%91%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%B0&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Балашиха (page does not exist)">Балашиха</a>: <a href="/w/index.php?title=%D0%90%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Астрель (page does not exist)">Астрель</a>. pp. 130–134. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/5-271-07363-7" title="Special:BookSources/5-271-07363-7"><bdi>5-271-07363-7</bdi></a> – via под ред. Захаровой Л.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%D0%90%D1%84%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%3A+%D0%9E%D1%82+%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%BD%D1%8B+80-%D1%85+%D0%B4%D0%BE+%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B0+%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%8B%D1%85+%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%BD&rft.place=%D0%91%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%B0&rft.pages=130-134&rft.edition=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E10000+%D1%8D%D0%BA%D0%B7%3C%2Fspan%3E&rft.pub=%D0%90%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=5-271-07363-7&rft.au=%D0%9D%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%BE+%D0%95.+%D0%93.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADemocratic+Republic+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKanet1987[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidZ8flG503_48CpgPA51_51]-148"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKanet1987[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidZ8flG503_48CpgPA51_51]_148-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKanet1987">Kanet 1987</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Z8flG503_48C&pg=PA51">51</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBraithwaite2011298-149"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBraithwaite2011298_149-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBraithwaite2011298_149-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBraithwaite2011298_149-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBraithwaite2011">Braithwaite 2011</a>, p. 298.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBraithwaite,_Rodric2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Rodric_Braithwaite" title="Rodric Braithwaite">Braithwaite, Rodric</a> (2011). <i>Afgantsy: The Russians in Afghanistan, 1979–1989</i>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9FjkLLEyh1UC&pg=PA135">135</a> & <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9FjkLLEyh1UC&pg=PA137">137</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-983265-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-983265-1"><bdi>978-0-19-983265-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Afgantsy%3A+The+Russians+in+Afghanistan%2C+1979%E2%80%931989&rft.pages=135+%26+137&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-19-983265-1&rft.au=Braithwaite%2C+Rodric&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADemocratic+Republic+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnson,_Robert2011" class="citation book cs1">Johnson, Robert (2011). <i>The Afghan Way of War: How and Why They Fight</i>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lNuH5YQJr6UC&pg=PA214">214</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-979856-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-979856-8"><bdi>978-0-19-979856-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Afghan+Way+of+War%3A+How+and+Why+They+Fight&rft.pages=214&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-19-979856-8&rft.au=Johnson%2C+Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADemocratic+Republic+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJefferson2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidfqRFCkpTdUcCpgPA245_245]-151"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJefferson2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidfqRFCkpTdUcCpgPA245_245]_151-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJefferson2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidfqRFCkpTdUcCpgPA245_245]_151-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJefferson2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidfqRFCkpTdUcCpgPA245_245]_151-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJefferson2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidfqRFCkpTdUcCpgPA245_245]_151-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJefferson2010">Jefferson 2010</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fqRFCkpTdUcC&pg=PA245">245</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-mepc.org-152"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-mepc.org_152-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mepc.org/articles-commentary/commentary/lessons-soviet-withdrawal-afghanistan">"Lessons of the Soviet Withdrawal from Afghanistan - Middle East Policy Council"</a>. <i>www.MEPC.org</i>. 9 March 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 May</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.MEPC.org&rft.atitle=Lessons+of+the+Soviet+Withdrawal+from+Afghanistan+-+Middle+East+Policy+Council&rft.date=2011-03-09&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mepc.org%2Farticles-commentary%2Fcommentary%2Flessons-soviet-withdrawal-afghanistan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADemocratic+Republic+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA312_312]-154"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA312_312]_154-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAmtstutz1994a">Amtstutz 1994a</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RUSNyMH1aFQC&pg=PA312">312</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-155"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:3_155-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMüller2020" class="citation book cs1">Müller, Lukas (2020). <i>Wings over the Hindu Kush: Air Forces, Aircraft and Air Warfare of Afghanistan, 1989-2001</i>. Helion and Company. p. 9. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1913118662" title="Special:BookSources/978-1913118662"><bdi>978-1913118662</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Wings+over+the+Hindu+Kush%3A+Air+Forces%2C+Aircraft+and+Air+Warfare+of+Afghanistan%2C+1989-2001&rft.pages=9&rft.pub=Helion+and+Company&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-1913118662&rft.aulast=M%C3%BCller&rft.aufirst=Lukas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADemocratic+Republic+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA184_184]-156"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA184_184]_156-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAmtstutz1994a">Amtstutz 1994a</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RUSNyMH1aFQC&pg=PA184">184</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA184_184–185]-157"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA184_184–185]_157-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAmtstutz1994a">Amtstutz 1994a</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RUSNyMH1aFQC&pg=PA184">184–185</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA186_186]-158"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmtstutz1994a[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidRUSNyMH1aFQCpgPA186_186]_158-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAmtstutz1994a">Amtstutz 1994a</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RUSNyMH1aFQC&pg=PA186">186</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:33-159"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:33_159-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:33_159-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMüller2020" class="citation book cs1">Müller, Lukas (2020). <i>Wings over the Hindu Kush: Air Forces, Aircraft and Air Warfare of Afghanistan, 1989-2001</i>. Helion and Company. p. 10. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1913118662" title="Special:BookSources/978-1913118662"><bdi>978-1913118662</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Wings+over+the+Hindu+Kush%3A+Air+Forces%2C+Aircraft+and+Air+Warfare+of+Afghanistan%2C+1989-2001&rft.pages=10&rft.pub=Helion+and+Company&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-1913118662&rft.aulast=M%C3%BCller&rft.aufirst=Lukas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADemocratic+Republic+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsby1986[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidk86jifnA3oYCpgPA20_20]-160"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIsby1986[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidk86jifnA3oYCpgPA20_20]_160-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIsby1986">Isby 1986</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=k86jifnA3oYC&pg=PA20">20</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGaleotti202119-161"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGaleotti202119_161-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGaleotti2021">Galeotti 2021</a>, p. 19.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210304123123/https://sofrep.com/news/russia-guerilla-sof-kaskad/">"Russian Guerilla SOF: KASKAD - Putin's Foreign Legion of Hybrid Warfighters"</a>. 4 May 2016. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sofrep.com/news/russia-guerilla-sof-kaskad/">the original</a> on 4 March 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Russian+Guerilla+SOF%3A+KASKAD+-+Putin%27s+Foreign+Legion+of+Hybrid+Warfighters&rft.date=2016-05-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsofrep.com%2Fnews%2Frussia-guerilla-sof-kaskad%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADemocratic+Republic+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOliker2011" class="citation report cs1">Oliker, Olga (13 October 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rand.org/pubs/monographs/MG1078.html">Building Afghanistan's Security Forces in Wartime: The Soviet Experience</a> (Report).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Building+Afghanistan%27s+Security+Forces+in+Wartime%3A+The+Soviet+Experience&rft.date=2011-10-13&rft.aulast=Oliker&rft.aufirst=Olga&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.rand.org%2Fpubs%2Fmonographs%2FMG1078.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADemocratic+Republic+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-164"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:2_164-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.afghanistan-analysts.org/en/reports/political-landscape/the-ghost-of-najibullah-hezb-e-watan-announces-another-relaunch/">"The Ghost of Najibullah: Hezb-e Watan announces (another) relaunch"</a>. <i>Afghanistan Analysts Network – English</i> (in Pashto). 21 August 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 July</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Afghanistan+Analysts+Network+%E2%80%93+English&rft.atitle=The+Ghost+of+Najibullah%3A+Hezb-e+Watan+announces+%28another%29+relaunch&rft.date=2017-08-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.afghanistan-analysts.org%2Fen%2Freports%2Fpolitical-landscape%2Fthe-ghost-of-najibullah-hezb-e-watan-announces-another-relaunch%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADemocratic+Republic+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amnesty.org/en/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/asa110111999en.pdf">"Afghanistan: Women in Afghanistan: Pawns in men's power struggles"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Amnesty International</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Amnesty+International&rft.atitle=Afghanistan%3A+Women+in+Afghanistan%3A+Pawns+in+men%27s+power+struggles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.amnesty.org%2Fen%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2021%2F06%2Fasa110111999en.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADemocratic+Republic+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.marxists.org/history/etol/newspape/spartacist-canada/165_2010_Summer-SpartCan.pdf">"Racist Scapegoating of Muslim Women – Down with Quebec's Niqab Ban!, Spartacist Canada, p.23, Summer 2010, No. 165"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Racist+Scapegoating+of+Muslim+Women+%E2%80%93+Down+with+Quebec%27s+Niqab+Ban%21%2C+Spartacist+Canada%2C+p.23%2C+Summer+2010%2C+No.+165&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.marxists.org%2Fhistory%2Fetol%2Fnewspape%2Fspartacist-canada%2F165_2010_Summer-SpartCan.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADemocratic+Republic+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-women-in-afghanistan-167"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-women-in-afghanistan_167-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-women-in-afghanistan_167-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-women-in-afghanistan_167-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAhmed-Ghosh2003" class="citation journal cs1">Ahmed-Ghosh, Huma (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://vc.bridgew.edu/jiws/vol4/iss3/1">"A History of Women in Afghanistan: Lessons Learnt for the Future or Yesterdays and Tomorrow: Women in Afghanistan (page 6: The Second Era of Change)"</a>. <i>Journal of International Women's Studies</i>. <b>4</b> (6): 1–14<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 August</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+International+Women%27s+Studies&rft.atitle=A+History+of+Women+in+Afghanistan%3A+Lessons+Learnt+for+the+Future+or+Yesterdays+and+Tomorrow%3A+Women+in+Afghanistan+%28page+6%3A+The+Second+Era+of+Change%29&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=1-14&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Ahmed-Ghosh&rft.aufirst=Huma&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fvc.bridgew.edu%2Fjiws%2Fvol4%2Fiss3%2F1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADemocratic+Republic+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-cp-168"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-cp_168-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cp_168-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cp_168-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/rr/frd/cs/profiles/Afghanistan.pdf">Afghanistan country profile</a>. <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a> <a href="/wiki/Federal_Research_Division" title="Federal Research Division">Federal Research Division</a> (August 2008). This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BBC_News_p.-169"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-BBC_News_p._169-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-22963060">"More than seven million refugees displaced in 2012 - UN"</a>. <i>BBC News</i>. 19 June 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=More+than+seven+million+refugees+displaced+in+2012+-+UN&rft.date=2013-06-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fworld-22963060&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADemocratic+Republic+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Matinuddin,_Kamal_1999_pp.25-170"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Matinuddin,_Kamal_1999_pp.25_170-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Matinuddin, Kamal, <i>The Taliban Phenomenon, Afghanistan 1994–1997</i>, <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>, (1999), pp. 25–26</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Democratic_Republic_of_Afghanistan&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAchcar2004" class="citation book cs1">Achcar, Gilbert (2004). <i>Eastern Cauldron: Islam, Afghanistan and Palestine in the Mirror of Marxism</i>. <a href="/wiki/Pluto_Press" title="Pluto Press">Pluto Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7453-2203-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7453-2203-2"><bdi>978-0-7453-2203-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Eastern+Cauldron%3A+Islam%2C+Afghanistan+and+Palestine+in+the+Mirror+of+Marxism&rft.pub=Pluto+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-7453-2203-2&rft.au=Achcar%2C+Gilbert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADemocratic+Republic+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdamec2011" class="citation book cs1">Adamec, Ludwig (2011). <i>Historical Dictionary of Afghanistan</i>. <a href="/wiki/Rowman_%26_Littlefield" title="Rowman & Littlefield">Scarecrow Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-7815-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-7815-0"><bdi>978-0-8108-7815-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+Dictionary+of+Afghanistan&rft.pub=Scarecrow+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-8108-7815-0&rft.au=Adamec%2C+Ludwig&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADemocratic+Republic+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmtstutz1994a" class="citation book cs1">Amtstutz, J. 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DIANE Publishing.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Afghanistan%3A+Past+and+Present&rft.pub=DIANE+Publishing&rft.date=1994&rft.aulast=Amtstutz&rft.aufirst=J.+Bruce&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADemocratic+Republic+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArnold1983" class="citation book cs1">Arnold, Anthony (1983). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/afghanistanstwop00anth_0"><i>Afghanistan's Two-party Communism: Parcham and Khalq</i></a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Hoover_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Hoover Press">Hoover Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8179-7792-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8179-7792-4"><bdi>978-0-8179-7792-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Afghanistan%27s+Two-party+Communism%3A+Parcham+and+Khalq&rft.pub=Hoover+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-0-8179-7792-4&rft.au=Arnold%2C+Anthony&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fafghanistanstwop00anth_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADemocratic+Republic+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAsthanaNirmal2009" class="citation book cs1">Asthana, N.C.; Nirmal, A. (2009). <i>Urban Terrorism: Myths and Realities</i>. Pointer Publishers. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8EqWnqdsgZMC&pg=PA219">219</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-7132-598-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-7132-598-6"><bdi>978-81-7132-598-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Urban+Terrorism%3A+Myths+and+Realities&rft.pages=219&rft.pub=Pointer+Publishers&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-81-7132-598-6&rft.aulast=Asthana&rft.aufirst=N.C.&rft.au=Nirmal%2C+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADemocratic+Republic+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBonosky2001" class="citation book cs1">Bonosky, Phillip (2001). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/afghanistanwashi00bono"><i>Afghanistan–Washington's Secret War</i></a></span>. <a href="/wiki/International_Publishers" title="International Publishers">International Publishers</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7178-0732-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7178-0732-1"><bdi>978-0-7178-0732-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Afghanistan%E2%80%93Washington%27s+Secret+War&rft.pub=International+Publishers&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-7178-0732-1&rft.au=Bonosky%2C+Phillip&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fafghanistanwashi00bono&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADemocratic+Republic+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBraithwaite2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Rodric_Braithwaite" title="Rodric Braithwaite">Braithwaite, Rodric</a> (2011). <i>Afgantsy: The Russians in Afghanistan, 1979–1989</i>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-983265-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-983265-1"><bdi>978-0-19-983265-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Afgantsy%3A+The+Russians+in+Afghanistan%2C+1979%E2%80%931989&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-19-983265-1&rft.au=Braithwaite%2C+Rodric&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADemocratic+Republic+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrecherWilkenfeld1997" class="citation book cs1">Brecher, Michael; Wilkenfeld, Jonathan (1997). <i>A Study of Crisis</i>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Michigan_Press" title="University of Michigan Press">University of Michigan Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-472-10806-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-472-10806-0"><bdi>978-0-472-10806-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Study+of+Crisis&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-472-10806-0&rft.au=Brecher%2C+Michael&rft.au=Wilkenfeld%2C+Jonathan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADemocratic+Republic+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrown2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Archie_Brown_(historian)" title="Archie Brown (historian)">Brown, Archie</a> (2009). <i>The Rise & Fall of Communism</i>. London: <a href="/wiki/Bodley_Head" class="mw-redirect" title="Bodley Head">Bodley Head</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-224-07879-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-224-07879-5"><bdi>978-0-224-07879-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rise+%26+Fall+of+Communism&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Bodley+Head&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-224-07879-5&rft.au=Brown%2C+Archie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADemocratic+Republic+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCamp2012" class="citation book cs1">Camp, Dick (2012). <i>Boots on the Ground: The Fight to Liberate Afghanistan from Al-Qaeda and the Taliban, 2001–2002</i>. <a href="/wiki/Quarto_Group" class="mw-redirect" title="Quarto Group">Zenith Imprint</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7603-4111-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7603-4111-7"><bdi>978-0-7603-4111-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Boots+on+the+Ground%3A+The+Fight+to+Liberate+Afghanistan+from+Al-Qaeda+and+the+Taliban%2C+2001%E2%80%932002&rft.pub=Zenith+Imprint&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-7603-4111-7&rft.au=Camp%2C+Dick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADemocratic+Republic+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChristensen1995" class="citation book cs1">Christensen, Asger (1995). <i>Aiding Afghanistan: The Background and Prospects for Reconstruction in a Fragmented Society</i>. Vol. 25. NIAS Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-87-87062-44-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-87-87062-44-2"><bdi>978-87-87062-44-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aiding+Afghanistan%3A+The+Background+and+Prospects+for+Reconstruction+in+a+Fragmented+Society&rft.pub=NIAS+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-87-87062-44-2&rft.au=Christensen%2C+Asger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADemocratic+Republic+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDorronsoro2005" class="citation book cs1">Dorronsoro, Gilles (2005). <i>Revolution Unending: Afghanistan, 1979 to the Present</i>. <a href="/wiki/C._Hurst_%26_Co" class="mw-redirect" title="C. Hurst & Co">C. Hurst & Co Publishers</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85065-703-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85065-703-3"><bdi>978-1-85065-703-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Revolution+Unending%3A+Afghanistan%2C+1979+to+the+Present&rft.pub=C.+Hurst+%26+Co+Publishers&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-85065-703-3&rft.au=Dorronsoro%2C+Gilles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADemocratic+Republic+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdwards2002" class="citation book cs1">Edwards, David (2002). <i>Before Taliban: Genealogies of the Afghan Jihad</i>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_California_Press" title="University of California Press">University of California Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-22861-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-22861-0"><bdi>978-0-520-22861-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Before+Taliban%3A+Genealogies+of+the+Afghan+Jihad&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-520-22861-0&rft.au=Edwards%2C+David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADemocratic+Republic+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEnde2010" class="citation book cs1">Ende, Werner; Steinbach, Udo (2010). <i>Islam in the World Today: a Handbook of Politics, Religion, Culture, and Society</i>. <a href="/wiki/Cornell_University_Press" title="Cornell University Press">Cornell University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-4571-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-4571-2"><bdi>978-0-8014-4571-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islam+in+the+World+Today%3A+a+Handbook+of+Politics%2C+Religion%2C+Culture%2C+and+Society&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-8014-4571-2&rft.au=Ende%2C+Werner&rft.au=Steinbach%2C+Udo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADemocratic+Republic+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGarthoff1994" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Garthoff" class="mw-redirect" title="Raymond Garthoff">Garthoff, Raymond</a> (1994). <i>Détente and Confrontation: American–Soviet relations from Nixon to Reagan</i>. <a href="/wiki/Brookings_Institution_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Brookings Institution Press">Brookings Institution Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8157-3041-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8157-3041-5"><bdi>978-0-8157-3041-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=D%C3%A9tente+and+Confrontation%3A+American%E2%80%93Soviet+relations+from+Nixon+to+Reagan&rft.pub=Brookings+Institution+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-8157-3041-5&rft.au=Garthoff%2C+Raymond&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADemocratic+Republic+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGaleotti2021" class="citation book cs1">Galeotti, Mark (2021). <i>Storm‑333: KGB and Spetsnaz seize Kabul, Soviet–Afghan War 1979</i>. UK: Osprey Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781472841872" title="Special:BookSources/9781472841872"><bdi>9781472841872</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Storm%E2%80%91333%3A+KGB+and+Spetsnaz+seize+Kabul%2C+Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan+War+1979&rft.place=UK&rft.pub=Osprey+Publishing&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=9781472841872&rft.aulast=Galeotti&rft.aufirst=Mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADemocratic+Republic+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGirardet1985" class="citation book cs1">Girardet, Edward (1985). <i>Afghanistan: The Soviet War</i>. <a href="/wiki/Taylor_%26_Francis" title="Taylor & Francis">Taylor & Francis</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7099-3802-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7099-3802-6"><bdi>978-0-7099-3802-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Afghanistan%3A+The+Soviet+War&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0-7099-3802-6&rft.au=Girardet%2C+Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADemocratic+Republic+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGiustozzi2000" class="citation book cs1">Giustozzi, Antonio (2000). <i>War, Politics and Society in Afghanistan, 1978–1992</i>. <a href="/wiki/C._Hurst_%26_Co." title="C. Hurst & Co.">C. Hurst & Co. Publishers</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85065-396-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85065-396-7"><bdi>978-1-85065-396-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=War%2C+Politics+and+Society+in+Afghanistan%2C+1978%E2%80%931992&rft.pub=C.+Hurst+%26+Co.+Publishers&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-1-85065-396-7&rft.au=Giustozzi%2C+Antonio&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADemocratic+Republic+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGladstone2001" class="citation book cs1">Gladstone, Cary (2001). <i>Afghanistan Revisited</i>. <a href="/wiki/Nova_Publishers" class="mw-redirect" title="Nova Publishers">Nova Publishers</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1590334218" title="Special:BookSources/978-1590334218"><bdi>978-1590334218</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Afghanistan+Revisited&rft.pub=Nova+Publishers&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-1590334218&rft.au=Gladstone%2C+Cary&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADemocratic+Republic+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHussain2005" class="citation book cs1">Hussain, Rizwan (2005). <i>Pakistan and the Emergence of Islamic militancy in Afghanistan</i>. <a href="/wiki/Ashgate_Publishing" title="Ashgate Publishing">Ashgate Publishing</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-4434-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-4434-7"><bdi>978-0-7546-4434-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pakistan+and+the+Emergence+of+Islamic+militancy+in+Afghanistan&rft.pub=Ashgate+Publishing&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-7546-4434-7&rft.au=Hussain%2C+Rizwan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADemocratic+Republic+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIsby1986" class="citation book cs1">Isby, David (1986). <i>Russia's War in Afghanistan</i>. <a href="/wiki/Osprey_Publishing" title="Osprey Publishing">Osprey Publishing</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85045-691-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85045-691-2"><bdi>978-0-85045-691-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Russia%27s+War+in+Afghanistan&rft.pub=Osprey+Publishing&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-85045-691-2&rft.au=Isby%2C+David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADemocratic+Republic+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJefferson2010" class="citation book cs1">Jefferson, Thomas (2010). <i>Afghanistan: a Cultural and Political History</i>. <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-14568-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-14568-6"><bdi>978-0-691-14568-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Afghanistan%3A+a+Cultural+and+Political+History&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-691-14568-6&rft.au=Jefferson%2C+Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADemocratic+Republic+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFH._KakarM._Kakar1997" class="citation book cs1">Kakar, Hassan; Kakar, Mohammed (1997). <i>Afghanistan: The Soviet Invasion and the Afghan Response, 1979–1982</i>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_California_Press" title="University of California Press">University of California Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-20893-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-20893-3"><bdi>978-0-520-20893-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Afghanistan%3A+The+Soviet+Invasion+and+the+Afghan+Response%2C+1979%E2%80%931982&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-520-20893-3&rft.au=Kakar%2C+Hassan&rft.au=Kakar%2C+Mohammed&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADemocratic+Republic+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKalinovsky2011" class="citation book cs1">Kalinovsky, Artemy (2011). <i>A Long Goodbye: The Soviet Withdrawal from Afghanistan</i>. <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-05866-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-05866-8"><bdi>978-0-674-05866-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Long+Goodbye%3A+The+Soviet+Withdrawal+from+Afghanistan&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-674-05866-8&rft.au=Kalinovsky%2C+Artemy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADemocratic+Republic+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKamali1985" class="citation book cs1">Kamali, Mohammad Hashim (1985). <i>Law in Afghanistan: a Study of the Constitutions, Matrimonial law and the Judiciary</i>. <a href="/wiki/BRILL_Publishers" class="mw-redirect" title="BRILL Publishers">BRILL Publishers</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-07128-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-07128-5"><bdi>978-90-04-07128-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Law+in+Afghanistan%3A+a+Study+of+the+Constitutions%2C+Matrimonial+law+and+the+Judiciary&rft.pub=BRILL+Publishers&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-90-04-07128-5&rft.au=Kamali%2C+Mohammad+Hashim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADemocratic+Republic+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKanet1987" class="citation book cs1">Kanet, Roger (1987). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sovietunionparty0000worl"><i>The Soviet Union, Eastern Europe, and the Third World</i></a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-34459-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-34459-3"><bdi>978-0-521-34459-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Soviet+Union%2C+Eastern+Europe%2C+and+the+Third+World&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-521-34459-3&rft.au=Kanet%2C+Roger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsovietunionparty0000worl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADemocratic+Republic+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMale1982" class="citation book cs1">Male, Beverley (1982). <i>Revolutionary Afghanistan: A Reappraisal</i>. <a href="/wiki/Taylor_%26_Francis" title="Taylor & Francis">Taylor & Francis</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7099-1716-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7099-1716-8"><bdi>978-0-7099-1716-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Revolutionary+Afghanistan%3A+A+Reappraisal&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=978-0-7099-1716-8&rft.au=Male%2C+Beverley&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADemocratic+Republic+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMisdaq2006" class="citation book cs1">Misdaq, Nabi (2006). <i>Afghanistan: Political Frailty and External Interference</i>. <a href="/wiki/Taylor_%26_Francis" title="Taylor & Francis">Taylor & Francis</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0415702058" title="Special:BookSources/978-0415702058"><bdi>978-0415702058</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Afghanistan%3A+Political+Frailty+and+External+Interference&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0415702058&rft.au=Misdaq%2C+Nabi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADemocratic+Republic+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOtto2010" class="citation book cs1">Otto, Jan Michiel (2010). <i>Sharia Incorporated: A Comparative Overview of the Legal Systems of Twelve Muslim Countries in Past and Present</i>. <a href="/wiki/Amsterdam_University_Press" title="Amsterdam University Press">Amsterdam University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-8728-057-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-8728-057-4"><bdi>978-90-8728-057-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sharia+Incorporated%3A+A+Comparative+Overview+of+the+Legal+Systems+of+Twelve+Muslim+Countries+in+Past+and+Present&rft.pub=Amsterdam+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-90-8728-057-4&rft.au=Otto%2C+Jan+Michiel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADemocratic+Republic+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTomsen2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Tomsen" title="Peter Tomsen">Tomsen, Peter</a> (2011). <i>The Wars of Afghanistan: Messianic Terrorism, Tribal Conflicts, and the Failures of Great Powers</i>. <a href="/wiki/PublicAffairs" title="PublicAffairs">PublicAffairs</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58648-763-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58648-763-8"><bdi>978-1-58648-763-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Wars+of+Afghanistan%3A+Messianic+Terrorism%2C+Tribal+Conflicts%2C+and+the+Failures+of+Great+Powers&rft.pub=PublicAffairs&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-58648-763-8&rft.au=Tomsen%2C+Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADemocratic+Republic+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRaciopi1994" class="citation book cs1">Raciopi, Linda (1994). <i>Soviet policy towards South Asia since 1970</i>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-41457-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-41457-9"><bdi>978-0-521-41457-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Soviet+policy+towards+South+Asia+since+1970&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-521-41457-9&rft.au=Raciopi%2C+Linda&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADemocratic+Republic+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRasanayagam2005" class="citation book cs1">Rasanayagam, Angelo (2005). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/afghanistan00ange"><i>Afghanistan: A Modern History</i></a></span>. <a href="/wiki/I.B.Tauris" class="mw-redirect" title="I.B.Tauris">I.B.Tauris</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1850438571" title="Special:BookSources/978-1850438571"><bdi>978-1850438571</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Afghanistan%3A+A+Modern+History&rft.pub=I.B.Tauris&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1850438571&rft.au=Rasanayagam%2C+Angelo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fafghanistan00ange&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADemocratic+Republic+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReese2002" class="citation book cs1">Reese, Roger (2002). <i>The Soviet Military Experience: A History of the Soviet Army, 1917–1991</i>. <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-203-01185-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-203-01185-0"><bdi>978-0-203-01185-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Soviet+Military+Experience%3A+A+History+of+the+Soviet+Army%2C+1917%E2%80%931991&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-203-01185-0&rft.au=Reese%2C+Roger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADemocratic+Republic+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRunion2007" class="citation book cs1">Runion, Meredith (2007). <i>The History of Afghanistan</i>. <a href="/wiki/Greenwood_Publishing_Group" title="Greenwood Publishing Group">Greenwood Publishing Group</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-33798-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-33798-7"><bdi>978-0-313-33798-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+Afghanistan&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-313-33798-7&rft.au=Runion%2C+Meredith&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADemocratic+Republic+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSaikalMaley1989" class="citation book cs1">Saikal, Amin; Maley, William (1989). <i>The Soviet Withdrawal from Afghanistan</i>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-37588-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-37588-7"><bdi>978-0-521-37588-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Soviet+Withdrawal+from+Afghanistan&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-521-37588-7&rft.au=Saikal%2C+Amin&rft.au=Maley%2C+William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADemocratic+Republic+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStaff_writer2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Staff_writer" title="Staff writer">Staff writers</a> (2002). <i>Regional Surveys of the World: Far East and Australasia 2003</i>. <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85743-133-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85743-133-9"><bdi>978-1-85743-133-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Regional+Surveys+of+the+World%3A+Far+East+and+Australasia+2003&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-1-85743-133-9&rft.au=Staff+writers&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADemocratic+Republic+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTripathiFalk2010" class="citation book cs1">Tripathi, Deepak; Falk, Richard (2010). <i>Breeding Ground: Afghanistan and the Origins of Islamist Terrorism</i>. Potomac Books, Inc. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59797-530-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59797-530-8"><bdi>978-1-59797-530-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Breeding+Ground%3A+Afghanistan+and+the+Origins+of+Islamist+Terrorism&rft.pub=Potomac+Books%2C+Inc&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-59797-530-8&rft.au=Tripathi%2C+Deepak&rft.au=Falk%2C+Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADemocratic+Republic+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeinerBanuazizi1994" class="citation book cs1">Weiner, Myron; Banuazizi, Ali (1994). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/politicsofsocial00myro"><i>The Politics of Social Transformation in Afghanistan, Iran, and Pakistan</i></a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Syracuse_University_Press" title="Syracuse University Press">Syracuse University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8156-2608-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8156-2608-4"><bdi>978-0-8156-2608-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Politics+of+Social+Transformation+in+Afghanistan%2C+Iran%2C+and+Pakistan&rft.pub=Syracuse+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-8156-2608-4&rft.au=Weiner%2C+Myron&rft.au=Banuazizi%2C+Ali&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpoliticsofsocial00myro&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADemocratic+Republic+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYassari2005" class="citation book cs1">Yassari, Nadjma (2005). <i>The Sharīʻa in the Constitutions of Afghanistan, Iran, and Egypt: Implications for Private Law</i>. Mohr Siebeck. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-16-148787-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-16-148787-3"><bdi>978-3-16-148787-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Shar%C4%AB%CA%BBa+in+the+Constitutions+of+Afghanistan%2C+Iran%2C+and+Egypt%3A+Implications+for+Private+Law&rft.pub=Mohr+Siebeck&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-3-16-148787-3&rft.au=Yassari%2C+Nadjma&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADemocratic+Republic+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLavigne1992" class="citation book cs1">Lavigne, Marie (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pTgnfXMlE6kC"><i>The Soviet Union and Eastern Europe in the Global Economy</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521414173" title="Special:BookSources/9780521414173"><bdi>9780521414173</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Soviet+Union+and+Eastern+Europe+in+the+Global+Economy&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=9780521414173&rft.aulast=Lavigne&rft.aufirst=Marie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpTgnfXMlE6kC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADemocratic+Republic+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Democratic_Republic_of_Afghanistan&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090121085728/http://www.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/airchronicles/aureview/1985/jan-feb/nelson.html">Soviet Air Power: Tactics and Weapons Used in Afghanistan</a> by Lieutenant Colonel Denny R. Nelson</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130515025611/http://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552516">Video on Afghan-Soviet War</a> from the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160115205405/https://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552494">Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/aftoc.html">Library of Congress Country Study — Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wilsoncenter.org/program/cold-war-international-history-project">Soviet Documents</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nongnu.org/afghancalendar">Online Afghan Calendar with Historical dates</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lhJbiGyl_ao"><span class="plainlinks">Red Army in Afghanistan</span></a> on <a href="/wiki/YouTube_video_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="YouTube video (identifier)">YouTube</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output 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.portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Democratic_Republic_of_Afghanistan" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="background:#DA121A; color:#FCDD09;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:DRA_topics" title="Template:DRA topics"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:#FCDD09">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:DRA_topics" title="Template talk:DRA topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:#FCDD09">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:DRA_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:DRA topics"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:#FCDD09">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Democratic_Republic_of_Afghanistan" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:#FCDD09">Democratic Republic of Afghanistan</span></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#DA121A; color:#FCDD09;;width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_Afghanistan" title="History of Afghanistan">Timeline</a></b></li> <li>1978: <a href="/wiki/Saur_Revolution" title="Saur Revolution">Saur Revolution</a></li> <li>1979: <a href="/wiki/1979_Herat_uprising" title="1979 Herat uprising">Herat uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War" title="Soviet–Afghan War">Soviet control and deployment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Storm-333" title="Operation Storm-333">Assassination of Amin</a></li> <li>1981: <a href="/wiki/Pakistan_International_Airlines_Flight_326" title="Pakistan International Airlines Flight 326">PIA hijacking</a></li> <li>1982: <a href="/wiki/1982_Salang_Tunnel_fire" title="1982 Salang Tunnel fire">Salang Tunnel fire</a></li> <li>1983–84: <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Urgun" title="Siege of Urgun">Siege of Urgun</a></li> <li>1985: <a href="/wiki/1985_Bakhtar_Afghan_Airlines_Antonov_An-26_shootdown" title="1985 Bakhtar Afghan Airlines Antonov An-26 shootdown">Afghan Airlines shootdown</a></li> <li>1986: <a href="/wiki/Battles_of_Zhawar" title="Battles of Zhawar">Battles of Zhawar</a></li> <li>1987: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Arghandab_(1987)" title="Battle of Arghandab (1987)">Battle of Arghandab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Reconciliation_(Afghanistan)" title="National Reconciliation (Afghanistan)">National Reconciliation</a></li> <li>1988: <a href="/wiki/Battle_for_Hill_3234" title="Battle for Hill 3234">Battle for Hill 3234</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1988_Afghan_parliamentary_election" title="1988 Afghan parliamentary election">Parliamentary election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geneva_Accords_(1988)" title="Geneva Accords (1988)">Geneva Accords</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Arrow" title="Operation Arrow">Operation Arrow</a></li> <li>1989: <a href="/wiki/Soviet_withdrawal_from_Afghanistan" title="Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan">Soviet withdrawal</a></li> <li>1990–1992: <a href="/wiki/Afghan_Civil_War_(1989%E2%80%931992)" title="Afghan Civil War (1989–1992)">Civil War: 1989–1992</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Khost" title="Siege of Khost">Siege of Khost</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="2" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_the_Taliban.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_Taliban.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_the_Taliban.svg/48px-Flag_of_the_Taliban.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_the_Taliban.svg/64px-Flag_of_the_Taliban.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="500" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Afghanistan" title="Portal:Afghanistan">Afghanistan portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Symbol-hammer-and-sickle.svg/28px-Symbol-hammer-and-sickle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Symbol-hammer-and-sickle.svg/42px-Symbol-hammer-and-sickle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Symbol-hammer-and-sickle.svg/56px-Symbol-hammer-and-sickle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Communism" title="Portal:Communism">Communism portal</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#DA121A; color:#FCDD09;;width:1%">Politics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Ministers_(Afghanistan)" title="Council of Ministers (Afghanistan)">Council of Ministers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Committee_of_the_People%27s_Democratic_Party_of_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Central Committee of the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan">Central Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Youth_Organisation_of_Afghanistan" title="Democratic Youth Organisation of Afghanistan">Democratic Youth Organisation</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constitutions_of_Communist_Afghanistan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Constitutions of Communist Afghanistan (page does not exist)">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Government_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_Afghanistan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Government of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan (page does not exist)">Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Front_(Afghanistan)" title="National Front (Afghanistan)">National Front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Democratic_Party_of_Afghanistan" title="People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan">People's Democratic Party</a> <ul><li>Factions: <a href="/wiki/Parcham" title="Parcham">Parcham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guruh-i_Kar" title="Guruh-i Kar">Kar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khalq" title="Khalq">Khalq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Settam-e-Melli" title="Settam-e-Melli">Settam-e-Melli</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politburo_of_the_People%27s_Democratic_Party_of_Afghanistan" title="Politburo of the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan">Politburo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_heads_of_state_of_Afghanistan#Non-monarchs" title="List of heads of state of Afghanistan">Heads of state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Afghanistan" title="Prime Minister of Afghanistan">Heads of government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_Council_(Afghanistan)" title="Revolutionary Council (Afghanistan)">Revolutionary Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Women%27s_Organisation_of_Afghanistan" title="Democratic Women's Organisation of Afghanistan">Democratic Women's Organisation of Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afghan_Women%27s_Council" title="Afghan Women's Council">Women's Council</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="background:#DA121A; color:#FCDD09;"><div> <ul><li><b><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Afghanistan" title="Category:Afghanistan"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:#FCDD09">Category</span></a></b></li> <li><b><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="WikiProject"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Afghanistan" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Afghanistan"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:#FCDD09">WikiProject</span></a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Eastern_Bloc" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Eastern_Bloc" title="Template:Eastern Bloc"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Eastern_Bloc" title="Template talk:Eastern Bloc"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Eastern_Bloc" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Eastern Bloc"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Eastern_Bloc" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc" title="Eastern Bloc">Eastern Bloc</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li></ul></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Formation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yalta_Conference" title="Yalta Conference">Yalta Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_occupations_by_the_Soviet_Union" title="Military occupations by the Soviet Union">Soviet occupations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_occupation_of_Bessarabia_and_Northern_Bukovina" title="Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina">Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_the_Baltic_states" title="Occupation of the Baltic states">Baltic states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungary%E2%80%93Soviet_Union_relations" title="Hungary–Soviet Union relations">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_occupation_of_Romania" title="Soviet occupation of Romania">Romania</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_Czechoslovak_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état">1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Blockade" title="Berlin Blockade">Berlin Blockade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marshall_Plan#Rejection_by_Stalin" title="Marshall Plan">Soviet response to the Marshall Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tito%E2%80%93Stalin_split" title="Tito–Stalin split">Tito–Stalin split</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Soviet-allied states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Socialist_Republic_of_Albania" title="People's Socialist Republic of Albania">People's Republic of Albania <span style="font-size:85%;">(to 1961)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Bulgaria" title="People's Republic of Bulgaria">People's Republic of Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czechoslovak_Socialist_Republic" title="Czechoslovak Socialist Republic">Czechoslovak Socialist Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Germany" title="East Germany">German Democratic Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_People%27s_Republic" title="Hungarian People's Republic">Hungarian People's Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_People%27s_Republic" title="Polish People's Republic">Polish People's Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_Republic_of_Romania" title="Socialist Republic of Romania">Socialist Republic of Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_Federal_Republic_of_Yugoslavia" title="Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia">Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia <span style="font-size:85%;">(to 1948)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cominform" title="Cominform">Cominform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comecon" title="Comecon">COMECON</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact" title="Warsaw Pact">Warsaw Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Federation_of_Trade_Unions" title="World Federation of Trade Unions">World Federation of Trade Unions <span style="font-size:85%;">(WFTU)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Federation_of_Democratic_Youth" title="World Federation of Democratic Youth">World Federation of Democratic Youth <span style="font-size:85%;">(WFDY)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Revolts and<br />opposition</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Goryani" title="Goryani">Goryani Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1949_East_German_State_Railway_strike" title="1949 East German State Railway strike">1949 East German State Railway strike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cazin_rebellion" title="Cazin rebellion">Rebellion of Cazin 1950</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1953_Plze%C5%88_uprising" title="1953 Plzeň uprising">1953 Plzeň uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_German_uprising_of_1953" title="East German uprising of 1953">1953 East German uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1956_Pozna%C5%84_protests" title="1956 Poznań protests">1956 Poznań protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Revolution_of_1956" title="Hungarian Revolution of 1956">1956 Hungarian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prague_Spring" title="Prague Spring">Prague Spring</a> / <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact_invasion_of_Czechoslovakia" title="Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia">Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1970_Polish_protests" title="1970 Polish protests">1970 Polish protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Croatian_Spring" title="Croatian Spring">Croatian Spring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/June_1976_protests" title="June 1976 protests">June 1976 protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solidarity_(Polish_trade_union)" title="Solidarity (Polish trade union)">Solidarity</a> / <a href="/wiki/Soviet_reaction_to_the_Polish_crisis_of_1980%E2%80%931981" title="Soviet reaction to the Polish crisis of 1980–1981">Soviet reaction</a> / <a href="/wiki/Martial_law_in_Poland" title="Martial law in Poland">Martial law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1981_protests_in_Kosovo" title="1981 protests in Kosovo">1981 protests in Kosovo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Conditions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emigration_from_the_Eastern_Bloc" title="Emigration from the Eastern Bloc">Emigration and defection</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_Soviet_and_Eastern_Bloc_defectors" title="List of Soviet and Eastern Bloc defectors">list of defectors</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovietization_of_the_Baltic_states" title="Sovietization of the Baltic states">Sovietization of the Baltic states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc_media_and_propaganda" title="Eastern Bloc media and propaganda">Information dissemination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc_politics" title="Eastern Bloc politics">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc_economies" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Bloc economies">Economies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telephone_tapping_in_the_Eastern_Bloc" title="Telephone tapping in the Eastern Bloc">Telephone tapping</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dissolution</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1989" title="Revolutions of 1989">Revolutions of 1989</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Peaceful_Revolution" title="Peaceful Revolution">Die Wende</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Berlin_Wall" title="Fall of the Berlin Wall">Fall of the Berlin Wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/End_of_communism_in_Hungary" title="End of communism in Hungary">End of communism in Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velvet_Revolution" title="Velvet Revolution">Velvet Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_revolution" title="Romanian revolution">Romanian revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_communism_in_Albania" title="Fall of communism in Albania">Fall of communism in Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singing_Revolution" title="Singing Revolution">Singing Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">Collapse of the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_Czechoslovakia" title="Dissolution of Czechoslovakia">Dissolution of Czechoslovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/January_Events" title="January Events">January 1991 events in Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Barricades" title="The Barricades">January 1991 events in Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breakup_of_Yugoslavia" title="Breakup of Yugoslavia">Breakup of Yugoslavia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yugoslav_Wars" title="Yugoslav Wars">Yugoslav Wars</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Articles_related_to_Democratic_Republic_of_Afghanistan" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#e8e8ff;"><div id="Articles_related_to_Democratic_Republic_of_Afghanistan" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Articles related to Democratic Republic of Afghanistan</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-size:114%"><div style="padding:0px"> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Afghanistan_articles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Afghanistan_topics" title="Template:Afghanistan topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Afghanistan_topics" title="Template talk:Afghanistan topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Afghanistan_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Afghanistan topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Afghanistan_articles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Afghanistan" title="Outline of Afghanistan">articles</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Afghanistan" title="History of Afghanistan">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_history_of_Afghanistan" title="Ancient history of Afghanistan">Pre-Islamic period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilisation" title="Indus Valley Civilisation">Indus Valley civilisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurya_Empire" title="Maurya Empire">Maurya Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Khorasan" title="Greater Khorasan">Greater Khorasan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tokhara_Yabghus" title="Tokhara Yabghus">Yabghus of Tokharistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turk_Shahis" title="Turk Shahis">Turk Shahis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_Shahis" title="Hindu Shahis">Hindu Shahis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquests_of_Afghanistan" title="Muslim conquests of Afghanistan">Islamic conquest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_Central_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongol conquest of Central Asia">Mongol invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hotak_dynasty" title="Hotak dynasty">Hotak dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Kandahar" title="Siege of Kandahar">Siege of Kandahar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Durrani_Empire" title="Durrani Empire">Durrani Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Battle_of_Panipat" title="Third Battle of Panipat">Third Battle of Panipat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dost_Mohammad_Khan" title="Dost Mohammad Khan">Dost Mohammad Khan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Afghanistan" title="Emirate of Afghanistan">Emirate of Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Jamrud" title="Battle of Jamrud">Battle of Jamrud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afghan%E2%80%93Sikh_Wars" title="Afghan–Sikh Wars">Afghan–Sikh Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Anglo-Afghan_War" title="First Anglo-Afghan War">First Anglo-Afghan War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Anglo-Afghan_War" title="Second Anglo-Afghan War">Second Anglo-Afghan War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Anglo-Afghan_War" title="Third Anglo-Afghan War">Third Anglo-Afghan War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Afghanistan" title="Kingdom of Afghanistan">Kingdom of Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afghan_Civil_War_(1928%E2%80%931929)" title="Afghan Civil War (1928–1929)">Reforms of Amānullāh Khān and civil war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saqqawists" title="Saqqawists">Saqqawists</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Afghanistan_(1929)" title="Emirate of Afghanistan (1929)">Emirate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Afghanistan_(1973%E2%80%931978)" title="Republic of Afghanistan (1973–1978)">Daoud's Republic</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Democratic Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War" title="Soviet–Afghan War">Soviet war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Afghanistan_(1992%E2%80%93present)" title="History of Afghanistan (1992–present)">since 1992</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_State_of_Afghanistan" title="Islamic State of Afghanistan">Islamic State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_Emirate_of_Afghanistan_(1996%E2%80%932001)" title="Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan (1996–2001)">First Islamic Emirate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_invasion_of_Afghanistan" title="United States invasion of Afghanistan">2001 invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Afghanistan_(2001%E2%80%932021)" title="War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)">War (2001–2021)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_Republic_of_Afghanistan" title="Islamic Republic of Afghanistan">Islamic Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Second Islamic Emirate</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="By_topic" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">By topic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Afghan_history" title="Timeline of Afghan history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Arabs_in_Afghanistan" title="History of Arabs in Afghanistan">Arabs in Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_influence_in_Afghanistan" title="European influence in Afghanistan">European influence</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Graveyard_of_empires" title="Graveyard of empires">Graveyard of empires</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Afghanistan" title="War in Afghanistan">Wars in Afghanistan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Afghanistan" title="Geography of Afghanistan">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Subdivisions_of_Afghanistan" title="Subdivisions of Afghanistan">Administrative divisions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Borders_of_Afghanistan" title="Template:Borders of Afghanistan">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Afghanistan" title="Climate change in Afghanistan">Climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_earthquakes_in_Afghanistan" title="List of earthquakes in Afghanistan">Earthquakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_Afghanistan" title="Environmental issues in Afghanistan">Environmental issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extreme_points_of_Afghanistan" title="Extreme points of Afghanistan">Extreme points</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_volcanoes_in_Afghanistan" title="List of volcanoes in Afghanistan">Volcanoes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_of_Afghanistan" title="Wildlife of Afghanistan">Wildlife</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Afghanistan" title="Demographics of Afghanistan">Demographics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_Afghanistan" title="Ethnic groups in Afghanistan">Ethnic groups in Afghanistan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Arabs_in_Afghanistan" title="History of Arabs in Afghanistan">Arabs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baloch_people" title="Baloch people">Baloch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farsiwan" title="Farsiwan">Farsiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gurjar" title="Gurjar">Gurjar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazaras" title="Hazaras">Hazaras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kho_people" title="Kho people">Kho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuristanis" title="Nuristanis">Nuristanis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pashtuns" title="Pashtuns">Pashtuns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qizilbash" title="Qizilbash">Qizilbash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tajiks" title="Tajiks">Tajiks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkmens" title="Turkmens">Turkmens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uzbeks" title="Uzbeks">Uzbeks</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_in_Afghanistan" title="Health in Afghanistan">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Afghanistan" title="Languages of Afghanistan">Languages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dari" title="Dari">Persian (Dari)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Afghanistan" title="Women in Afghanistan">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Afghanistan" title="Politics of Afghanistan">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taliban" title="Taliban">Taliban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1964_Constitution_of_Afghanistan" title="1964 Constitution of Afghanistan">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jirga" title="Jirga">Loya jirga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leadership_Council_of_Afghanistan" title="Leadership Council of Afghanistan">Leadership Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Leader_of_Afghanistan" title="Supreme Leader of Afghanistan">Supreme Leader</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Afghanistan" title="Prime Minister of Afghanistan">Prime Minister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deputy_Leader_of_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Deputy Leader of Afghanistan">Deputy Leader</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cabinet_of_Afghanistan" title="Cabinet of Afghanistan">Cabinet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_provincial_governors_in_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect" title="List of current provincial governors in Afghanistan">Current provincial governors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Afghanistan" title="Foreign relations of Afghanistan">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Afghanistan" title="Human rights in Afghanistan">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in Afghanistan">LGBT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_women_by_the_Taliban" title="Treatment of women by the Taliban">women</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Afghanistan" title="Supreme Court of Afghanistan">Supreme Court</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_Afghanistan" title="Chief Justice of Afghanistan">Chief Justice</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Afghanistan" title="Economy of Afghanistan">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afghan_afghani" title="Afghan afghani">Afghani (currency)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communications_in_Afghanistan" title="Communications in Afghanistan">Communications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_Afghanistan" title="Energy in Afghanistan">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining_in_Afghanistan" title="Mining in Afghanistan">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opium_production_in_Afghanistan" title="Opium production in Afghanistan">Opium production in Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_Afghanistan" title="Taxation in Afghanistan">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Telecommunications in Afghanistan">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Afghanistan" title="Tourism in Afghanistan">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkmenistan%E2%80%93Afghanistan%E2%80%93Pakistan%E2%80%93India_Pipeline" title="Turkmenistan–Afghanistan–Pakistan–India Pipeline">Trans-Afghanistan Pipeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Afghanistan" title="Transport in Afghanistan">Transport</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Afghanistan" title="Culture of Afghanistan">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afghan_cuisine" title="Afghan cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Afghanistan" title="Education in Afghanistan">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Afghanistan" title="Flag of Afghanistan">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Afghanistan" title="Music of Afghanistan">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_Afghanistan" title="Cinema of Afghanistan">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afghanistan_at_the_Olympics" title="Afghanistan at the Olympics">Olympics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pashtunwali" title="Pashtunwali">Pashtunwali (Pashtun life)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poetry_of_Afghanistan" title="Poetry of Afghanistan">Poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Afghanistan" title="Religion in Afghanistan">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_rugs" class="mw-redirect" title="War rugs">War rugs</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div><div style="margin-bottom:-0.4em;"><ul><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Afghanistan" title="Outline of Afghanistan">Outline</a></span></li><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Afghanistan" title="Outline of Afghanistan">Index</a></span></li><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_Afghanistan" title="Bibliography of Afghanistan">Bibliography</a></span></li></ul></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Afghanistan" title="Category:Afghanistan">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Afghanistan" title="Portal:Afghanistan">Portal</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Soviet–Afghan_War" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War" title="Template:Soviet–Afghan War"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War" title="Template talk:Soviet–Afghan War"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Soviet–Afghan War"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Soviet–Afghan_War" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War" title="Soviet–Afghan War">Soviet–Afghan War</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li>Part of the <a href="/wiki/Afghan_conflict" title="Afghan conflict">Afghan conflict</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Belligerents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Alliance</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Democratic Republic of Afghanistan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mujahideen</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_Unity_of_Afghanistan_Mujahideen" title="Islamic Unity of Afghanistan Mujahideen">Islamic Unity of Afghanistan Mujahideen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamiat-e_Islami" class="mw-redirect" title="Jamiat-e Islami">Jamiat-e Islami</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shura-e_Nazar" title="Shura-e Nazar">Shura-e Nazar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hezb-e_Islami_Gulbuddin" title="Hezb-e Islami Gulbuddin">Hezb-e Islami Gulbuddin</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maktab_al-Khidamat" title="Maktab al-Khidamat">Maktab al-Khidamat</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hezb-e_Islami_Khalis" class="mw-redirect" title="Hezb-e Islami Khalis">Hezb-e Islami Khalis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unity_Party_of_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Unity Party of Afghanistan">Hezb-e Wahdat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_Dawah_Organisation_of_Afghanistan" title="Islamic Dawah Organisation of Afghanistan">Ittehad i-Islami</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Leaders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Alliance</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leonid_Brezhnev" title="Leonid Brezhnev">Leonid Brezhnev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuri_Andropov" title="Yuri Andropov">Yuri Andropov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Chernenko" title="Konstantin Chernenko">Konstantin Chernenko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Mikhail Gorbachev">Mikhail Gorbachev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babrak_Karmal" title="Babrak Karmal">Babrak Karmal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Najibullah" title="Mohammad Najibullah">Mohammad Najibullah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdul_Rashid_Dostum" title="Abdul Rashid Dostum">Abdul Rashid Dostum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mujahideen</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Shah_Massoud" title="Ahmad Shah Massoud">Ahmad Shah Massoud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdul_Ali_Mazari" title="Abdul Ali Mazari">Abdul Ali Mazari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdullah_Yusuf_Azzam" title="Abdullah Yusuf Azzam">Abdullah Yusuf Azzam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulbuddin_Hekmatyar" title="Gulbuddin Hekmatyar">Gulbuddin Hekmatyar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdul_Haq_(Afghan_leader)" title="Abdul Haq (Afghan leader)">Abdul Haq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdul_Rahim_Wardak" title="Abdul Rahim Wardak">Abdul Rahim Wardak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burhanuddin_Rabbani" title="Burhanuddin Rabbani">Burhanuddin Rabbani</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Events by year</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1979_in_Afghanistan" title="1979 in Afghanistan">1979</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1980_in_Afghanistan" title="1980 in Afghanistan">1980</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1981_in_Afghanistan" title="1981 in Afghanistan">1981</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1982_in_Afghanistan" title="1982 in Afghanistan">1982</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1983_in_Afghanistan" title="1983 in Afghanistan">1983</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1984_in_Afghanistan" title="1984 in Afghanistan">1984</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1985_in_Afghanistan" title="1985 in Afghanistan">1985</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1986_in_Afghanistan" title="1986 in Afghanistan">1986</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1987_in_Afghanistan" title="1987 in Afghanistan">1987</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1988_in_Afghanistan" title="1988 in Afghanistan">1988</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1989_in_Afghanistan" title="1989 in Afghanistan">1989</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Military operations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Storm-333" title="Operation Storm-333">Operation Storm-333</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Khost" title="Siege of Khost">Siege of Khost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panjshir_offensives" class="mw-redirect" title="Panjshir offensives">Panjshir offensives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Urgun" title="Siege of Urgun">Siege of Urgun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Maravar_Pass" title="Battle of Maravar Pass">Battle of Maravar Pass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Badaber_uprising" title="Badaber uprising">Badaber uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battles_of_Zhawar" title="Battles of Zhawar">Battles of Zhawar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Jaji" title="Battle of Jaji">Battle of Jaji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Arghandab_(1987)" title="Battle of Arghandab (1987)">Battle of Arghandab (1987)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Magistral" title="Operation Magistral">Operation Magistral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_for_Hill_3234" title="Battle for Hill 3234">Battle for Hill 3234</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Arrow" title="Operation Arrow">Operation Arrow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_withdrawal_from_Afghanistan" title="Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan">Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Civilian protests</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/3_Hoot_uprising" title="3 Hoot uprising">3 Hoot uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1980_student_protests_in_Kabul" title="1980 student protests in Kabul">Kabul students' uprising</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Soviet_aircraft_losses_during_the_Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War" title="List of Soviet aircraft losses during the Soviet–Afghan War">Soviet aircraft losses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War_in_popular_culture" title="Soviet–Afghan War in popular culture">War in popular culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_equipment_used_by_Mujahideen_during_Soviet-Afghan_War" class="mw-redirect" title="List of military equipment used by Mujahideen during Soviet-Afghan War">Military equipment used by Mujahideen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afghanistan_War_Memorial,_Kyiv" title="Afghanistan War Memorial, Kyiv">Afghanistan War Memorial, Kyiv</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Films about war</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War_films" title="List of Soviet–Afghan War films">List of films</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_9th_Company" title="The 9th Company">The 9th Company</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Afghan_Breakdown" title="Afghan Breakdown">Afghan Breakdown</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Afghantsi" title="Afghantsi">Afghantsi</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/All_Costs_Paid" title="All Costs Paid">All Costs Paid</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Beast_(1988_film)" title="The Beast (1988 film)">The Beast</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cargo_200_(film)" title="Cargo 200 (film)">Cargo 200</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Charlie_Wilson%27s_War_(film)" title="Charlie Wilson's War (film)">Charlie Wilson's War</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Kite_Runner_(film)" title="The Kite Runner (film)">The Kite Runner</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Living_Daylights" title="The Living Daylights">The Living Daylights</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Magic_Mountain_(2015_film)" title="The Magic Mountain (2015 film)">The Magic Mountain</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Peshavar_Waltz" title="Peshavar Waltz">Peshavar Waltz</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rambo_III" title="Rambo III">Rambo III</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pictures_from_Afghanistan" title="Pictures from Afghanistan">Pictures from Afghanistan (documentary)</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bitter_Lake_(film)" title="Bitter Lake (film)">Bitter Lake (documentary)</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_the_Taliban.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_Taliban.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_the_Taliban.svg/48px-Flag_of_the_Taliban.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_the_Taliban.svg/64px-Flag_of_the_Taliban.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Afghanistan" title="Portal:Afghanistan">Afghanistan portal</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War" title="Category:Soviet–Afghan War">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Soviet–Afghan War">Multimedia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Socialism_by_country" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Socialism_by_state" title="Template:Socialism by state"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Socialism_by_state" title="Template talk:Socialism by state"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Socialism_by_state" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Socialism by state"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Socialism_by_country" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a> by country</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By country</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Socialism_in_Argentina" title="Socialism in Argentina">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism_in_Australia" title="Socialism in Australia">Australia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Australia" title="New Australia">New Australia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism_in_Bangladesh" title="Socialism in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism_in_Brazil" title="Socialism in Brazil">Brazil</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lulism" title="Lulism">Lulism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism_in_Canada" title="Socialism in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li>China <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ideology_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Ideology of the Chinese Communist Party">Communist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Socialism_with_Chinese_characteristics" title="Socialism with Chinese characteristics">since 1978</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_ideology_of_the_Kuomintang" title="Socialist ideology of the Kuomintang">Kuomintang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism_in_Hong_Kong" title="Socialism in Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism_in_Estonia" title="Socialism in Estonia">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism_in_Finland" title="Socialism in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Left" title="French Left">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism_in_Greece" title="Socialism in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism_in_India" title="Socialism in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism_in_Iran" title="Socialism in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism_in_Italy" title="Socialism in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism_in_the_Netherlands" title="Socialism in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism_in_New_Zealand" title="Socialism in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism_in_Pakistan" title="Socialism in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism_in_Sri_Lanka" title="Socialism in Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism_in_Tunisia" title="Socialism in Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_left" title="British left">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Left" title="American Left">United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_socialism" title="African-American socialism">African-American</a></li></ul></li> <li>Venezuela <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chavismo" title="Chavismo">Chavismo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism_in_Vietnam" title="Socialism in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_socialist_movement_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="History of the socialist movement in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_socialist_movement_in_the_United_States" title="History of the socialist movement in the United States">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regional variants</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_socialism" title="African socialism">African</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_socialism" title="Arab socialism">Arab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Britain%27s_Road_to_Socialism" title="Britain's Road to Socialism">British</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_Way_to_Socialism" title="Burmese Way to Socialism">Burmese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism_with_Chinese_characteristics" title="Socialism with Chinese characteristics">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">European</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_Zionism" title="Labor Zionism">Israeli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melanesian_socialism" title="Melanesian socialism">Melanesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandinista_ideology" title="Sandinista ideology">Nicaraguan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ujamaa" title="Ujamaa">Tanzanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bolivarian_Revolution" title="Bolivarian Revolution">Venezuelan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist-oriented_market_economy" title="Socialist-oriented market economy">Vietnamese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Current and historical<br /><a href="/wiki/Socialist_state" title="Socialist state">socialist states</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Angola" title="People's Republic of Angola">Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Benin" title="People's Republic of Benin">Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Burkina_Faso#Burkina_Faso" title="History of Burkina Faso">Burkina Faso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="People's Republic of the Congo">Congo-Brazzaville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Egypt_under_Gamal_Abdel_Nasser" title="History of Egypt under Gamal Abdel Nasser">Egypt</a></li> <li>Ethiopia <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Derg" title="Derg">1974–1987</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Democratic_Republic_of_Ethiopia" title="People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia">1987–1991</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Guinea#Sékou_Touré's_rule_(1958–1984)" title="History of Guinea">Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Libya_under_Muammar_Gaddafi" title="History of Libya under Muammar Gaddafi">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_Madagascar" title="Democratic Republic of Madagascar">Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Mozambique" title="People's Republic of Mozambique">Mozambique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One-party_rule_in_Seychelles" title="One-party rule in Seychelles">Seychelles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_Democratic_Republic" title="Somali Democratic Republic">Somalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_Sudan" title="Democratic Republic of Sudan">Sudan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Americas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cuba" title="Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Revolutionary_Government_(Grenada)" title="People's Revolutionary Government (Grenada)">Grenada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_Republic_of_Chile" title="Socialist Republic of Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Junta_of_National_Reconstruction" title="Junta of National Reconstruction">Nicaragua</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_Republic_of_the_Union_of_Burma" title="Socialist Republic of the Union of Burma">Burma</a></li> <li>Cambodia <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Kampuchea" title="Democratic Kampuchea">1975–1979</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Kampuchea" title="People's Republic of Kampuchea">1979–1992</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coalition_Government_of_Democratic_Kampuchea" title="Coalition Government of Democratic Kampuchea">1982–1992</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ba%27athist_Iraq" title="Ba'athist Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Korea" title="North Korea">North Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laos" title="Laos">Laos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_People%27s_Republic" title="Mongolian People's Republic">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Yemen" title="South Yemen">South Yemen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuvan_People%27s_Republic" title="Tuvan People's Republic">Tuva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnam" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/North_Vietnam" title="North Vietnam">North Vietnam</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Short-lived</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan_People%27s_Government" title="Azerbaijan People's Government">Azerbaijan People's Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_East_Turkestan_Republic" title="Second East Turkestan Republic">East Turkestan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Far_Eastern_Republic" title="Far Eastern Republic">Far East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fujian_People%27s_Government" title="Fujian People's Government">Fujian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Socialist_Soviet_Republic" title="Persian Socialist Soviet Republic">Gilan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inner_Mongolian_People%27s_Republic" title="Inner Mongolian People's Republic">Inner Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Soviet_Republic" title="Chinese Soviet Republic">Jiangxi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Kuwait" title="Republic of Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Mahabad" title="Republic of Mahabad">Kurdish Republic of Mahabad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provisional_People%27s_Committee_of_North_Korea" title="Provisional People's Committee of North Korea">North Korea (1946–1947)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Committee_of_North_Korea" title="People's Committee of North Korea">North Korea (1947–1948)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provisional_Revolutionary_Government_of_the_Republic_of_South_Vietnam" title="Provisional Revolutionary Government of the Republic of South Vietnam">South Vietnam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Socialist_Republic_of_Albania" title="People's Socialist Republic of Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Bulgaria" title="People's Republic of Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czechoslovak_Socialist_Republic" title="Czechoslovak Socialist Republic">Czechoslovakia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Czech_Socialist_Republic" title="Czech Socialist Republic">Czech Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovak_Socialist_Republic" title="Slovak Socialist Republic">Slovakia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Germany" title="East Germany">East Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_People%27s_Republic" title="Hungarian People's Republic">Hungary (1949–1989)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_People%27s_Republic" title="Polish People's Republic">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_Republic_of_Romania" title="Socialist Republic of Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_Federal_Republic_of_Yugoslavia" title="Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia">Yugoslavia</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Short-lived</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/November_1918_insurgency_in_Alsace-Lorraine" class="mw-redirect" title="November 1918 insurgency in Alsace-Lorraine">Alsace-Lorraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banat_Republic" title="Banat Republic">Banat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian%E2%80%93Hungarian_Baranya%E2%80%93Baja_Republic" title="Serbian–Hungarian Baranya–Baja Republic">Baranya–Baja</a></li> <li>Bavaria <ul><li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_State_of_Bavaria" title="People's State of Bavaria">1918–1919</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bavarian_Soviet_Republic" title="Bavarian Soviet Republic">1919</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bessarabian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Bessarabian Soviet Socialist Republic">Bessarabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_Soviet_Republic_of_Byelorussia" title="Socialist Soviet Republic of Byelorussia">Byelorussia (1919)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bremen_Soviet_Republic" title="Bremen Soviet Republic">Bremen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biha%C4%87_Republic" title="Bihać Republic">Bihać</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimean_Socialist_Soviet_Republic" title="Crimean Socialist Soviet Republic">Crimea (1919)</a></li> <li>Finland <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_Socialist_Workers%27_Republic" title="Finnish Socialist Workers' Republic">1918</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_Democratic_Republic" title="Finnish Democratic Republic">1939–1940</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commune_of_the_Working_People_of_Estonia" title="Commune of the Working People of Estonia">Estonia (1918–1919)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galician_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Galician Soviet Socialist Republic">Galicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Soviet_Republic" title="Hungarian Soviet Republic">Hungary (1919)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_soviets" title="Irish soviets">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naissaar#History" title="Naissaar">Naissaar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saxony_in_the_German_Revolution_(1918%E2%80%931919)" title="Saxony in the German Revolution (1918–1919)">Saxony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovak_Soviet_Republic" title="Slovak Soviet Republic">Slovakia (1919)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Tarnobrzeg" title="Republic of Tarnobrzeg">Tarnobrzeg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_U%C5%BEice" title="Republic of Užice">Užice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W%C3%BCrzburg_Soviet_Republic" title="Würzburg Soviet Republic">Würzburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brussels_Soldiers%27_Council" title="Brussels Soldiers' Council">Brussels Soldiers' Council</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/History_of_socialism" title="History of socialism">History of socialism</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q476757#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q476757#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q476757#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/301400160">VIAF</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJvXjMfwKkFGkxKHQJ7vHC">WorldCat</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&useformat=desktop" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Democratic_Republic_of_Afghanistan&oldid=1257413382">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Democratic_Republic_of_Afghanistan&oldid=1257413382</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a 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[\"CITEREFChristensen1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCordovezS._Harrison1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDorronsoro2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEdwards2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEnde2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEur2002\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFGaleotti2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGarthoff1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGibson2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGirardet1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGirardet2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGiustozzi2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGladstone2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFH._KakarM._Kakar1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHussain\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHussain2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIsby,_David1986\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFIsby1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIshiyama,_John2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJefferson2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohnson,_Robert2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKalinovsky2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKamali1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKamrany1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKanet1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKirkpatrick1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLavigne1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMale1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMark_Urban1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMisdaq2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMüller2020\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFOliker2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOtto2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRaciopi1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRasanayagam2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReese2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoy2018\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFRunion2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFS.Margolis2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSaikalMaley1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStaff_writer2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTomsen2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTripathiFalk2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTucker2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUrban1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWebber1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeinerBanuazizi1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYassari2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFНикитенко_Е._Г.2004\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 2,\n [\"About\"] = 1,\n [\"Afghanistan topics\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Bulleted list\"] = 2,\n [\"Center\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation\"] = 2,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 64,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 6,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite report\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite thesis\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 14,\n [\"Clear\"] = 1,\n [\"DEFAULTSORT:Democratic Republic Of Afghanistan\"] = 1,\n [\"DRA topics\"] = 1,\n [\"Eastern Bloc\"] = 1,\n [\"Efn\"] = 3,\n [\"Further\"] = 1,\n [\"History of Afghanistan\"] = 1,\n [\"Hlist\"] = 1,\n [\"Hr\"] = 1,\n [\"Infobox country\"] = 1,\n [\"Langx\"] = 4,\n [\"Main\"] = 6,\n [\"Multiple image\"] = 2,\n [\"Nastaliq\"] = 1,\n [\"Native name\"] = 4,\n [\"Native phrase\"] = 1,\n [\"Navboxes\"] = 1,\n [\"Nbsp\"] = 6,\n [\"No bold\"] = 2,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"Nowrap\"] = 8,\n [\"Parabr\"] = 2,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Refend\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 154,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Small\"] = 2,\n [\"Socialist states\"] = 1,\n [\"Soviet-Afghan War\"] = 1,\n [\"Transliteration\"] = 5,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"YouTube\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\ntable#1 {\n}\ntable#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["?","360","22.0"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","280","17.1"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","200","12.2"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","120","7.3"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","100","6.1"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getAllExpandedArguments","80","4.9"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::plain","60","3.7"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::find","60","3.7"],["(for generator)","40","2.4"],["\u003Cmw.lua:194\u003E","40","2.4"],["[others]","300","18.3"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-5c59558b9d-7mn78","timestamp":"20241130110450","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script 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