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and development of the term</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Origin_and_development_of_the_term-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Origin and development of the term subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Origin_and_development_of_the_term-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Through_the_19th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Through_the_19th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Through the 19th century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Through_the_19th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-20th_and_21st_centuries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#20th_and_21st_centuries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>20th and 21st centuries</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-20th_and_21st_centuries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fields" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fields"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Fields</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Fields-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Fields subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Fields-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sociocultural" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sociocultural"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Sociocultural</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sociocultural-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biological" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biological"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Biological</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biological-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Archaeological" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Archaeological"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Archaeological</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Archaeological-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Linguistic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Linguistic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Linguistic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Linguistic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ethnography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ethnography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Ethnography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ethnography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Key_topics_by_field:_sociocultural" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Key_topics_by_field:_sociocultural"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Key topics by field: sociocultural</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Key_topics_by_field:_sociocultural-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Key topics by field: sociocultural subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Key_topics_by_field:_sociocultural-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Art,_media,_music,_dance_and_film" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Art,_media,_music,_dance_and_film"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Art, media, music, dance and film</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Art,_media,_music,_dance_and_film-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Art" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Art"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.1</span> <span>Art</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Art-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Media" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Media"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.2</span> <span>Media</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Media-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Music" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Music"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.3</span> <span>Music</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Music-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Visual" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Visual"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.4</span> <span>Visual</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Visual-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economic,_political_economic,_applied_and_development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economic,_political_economic,_applied_and_development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Economic, political economic, applied and development</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economic,_political_economic,_applied_and_development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Economic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.1</span> <span>Economic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Political_economy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_economy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.2</span> <span>Political economy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Political_economy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Applied" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Applied"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.3</span> <span>Applied</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Applied-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.4</span> <span>Development</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kinship,_feminism,_gender_and_sexuality" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kinship,_feminism,_gender_and_sexuality"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Kinship, feminism, gender and sexuality</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kinship,_feminism,_gender_and_sexuality-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Kinship" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kinship"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.1</span> <span>Kinship</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kinship-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Feminist" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Feminist"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.2</span> <span>Feminist</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Feminist-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medical,_nutritional,_psychological,_cognitive_and_transpersonal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medical,_nutritional,_psychological,_cognitive_and_transpersonal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Medical, nutritional, psychological, cognitive and transpersonal</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medical,_nutritional,_psychological,_cognitive_and_transpersonal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Medical" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medical"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4.1</span> <span>Medical</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medical-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nutritional" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nutritional"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4.2</span> <span>Nutritional</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nutritional-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Psychological" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Psychological"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4.3</span> <span>Psychological</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Psychological-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cognitive" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cognitive"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4.4</span> <span>Cognitive</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cognitive-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transpersonal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transpersonal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4.5</span> <span>Transpersonal</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transpersonal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Political_and_legal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_and_legal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Political and legal</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Political_and_legal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Political" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5.1</span> <span>Political</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Political-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5.2</span> <span>Legal</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Public" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Public"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5.3</span> <span>Public</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Public-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nature,_science,_and_technology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nature,_science,_and_technology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6</span> <span>Nature, science, and technology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nature,_science,_and_technology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cyborg" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cyborg"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6.1</span> <span>Cyborg</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cyborg-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Digital" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Digital"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6.2</span> <span>Digital</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Digital-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ecological" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ecological"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6.3</span> <span>Ecological</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ecological-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Environment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Environment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6.4</span> <span>Environment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Environment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historical" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historical"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.7</span> <span>Historical</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historical-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.8</span> <span>Religion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Urban" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Urban"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.9</span> <span>Urban</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Urban-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Key_topics_by_field:_archaeological_and_biological" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Key_topics_by_field:_archaeological_and_biological"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Key topics by field: archaeological and biological</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Key_topics_by_field:_archaeological_and_biological-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Key topics by field: archaeological and biological subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Key_topics_by_field:_archaeological_and_biological-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Anthrozoology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anthrozoology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Anthrozoology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anthrozoology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biocultural" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biocultural"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Biocultural</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biocultural-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evolutionary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evolutionary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Evolutionary</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evolutionary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Forensic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Forensic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Forensic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Forensic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Palaeoanthropology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Palaeoanthropology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>Palaeoanthropology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Palaeoanthropology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Organizations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Organizations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Organizations</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Organizations-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Organizations subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Organizations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-List_of_major_organizations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#List_of_major_organizations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>List of major organizations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-List_of_major_organizations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ethics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ethics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Ethics</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Ethics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Ethics subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Ethics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cultural_relativism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cultural_relativism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Cultural relativism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cultural_relativism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Military_involvement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military_involvement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Military involvement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Military_involvement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Post-World_War_II_developments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Post-World_War_II_developments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Post-World War II developments</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Post-World_War_II_developments-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Post-World War II developments subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Post-World_War_II_developments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Basic_trends" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Basic_trends"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Basic trends</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Basic_trends-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Commonalities_between_fields" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Commonalities_between_fields"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Commonalities between fields</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Commonalities_between_fields-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-See_also-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle See also subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Lists" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lists"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Lists</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lists-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Works_cited" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Works_cited"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.1</span> <span>Works cited</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Works_cited-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Further reading subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Dictionaries_and_encyclopedias" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dictionaries_and_encyclopedias"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.1</span> <span>Dictionaries and encyclopedias</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dictionaries_and_encyclopedias-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fieldnotes_and_memoirs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fieldnotes_and_memoirs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.2</span> <span>Fieldnotes and memoirs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fieldnotes_and_memoirs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Histories" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Histories"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.3</span> <span>Histories</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Histories-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Textbooks_and_key_theoretical_works" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Textbooks_and_key_theoretical_works"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.4</span> <span>Textbooks and key theoretical works</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Textbooks_and_key_theoretical_works-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Anthropology</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 174 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-174" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">174 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropologie" title="Antropologie – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Antropologie" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropologie" title="Anthropologie – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Anthropologie" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8B%A8%E1%88%B0%E1%8B%8D_%E1%88%8D%E1%8C%85_%E1%8C%A5%E1%8A%93%E1%89%B5" title="የሰው ልጅ ጥናት – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="የሰው ልጅ ጥናት" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>አማርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86" title="علم الإنسان – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="علم الإنسان" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropoloch%C3%ADa" title="Antropolochía – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Antropolochía" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A4%D5%A1%D5%A2%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%AB%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Մարդաբանութիւն – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Մարդաբանութիւն" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Արեւմտահայերէն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frp mw-list-item"><a href="https://frp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropologia" title="Antropologia – Arpitan" lang="frp" hreflang="frp" data-title="Antropologia" data-language-autonym="Arpetan" data-language-local-name="Arpitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Arpetan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropolox%C3%ADa" title="Antropoloxía – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Antropoloxía" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-awa mw-list-item"><a href="https://awa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="मानवशास्त्र – Awadhi" lang="awa" hreflang="awa" data-title="मानवशास्त्र" data-language-autonym="अवधी" data-language-local-name="Awadhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>अवधी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avakuaaty" title="Avakuaaty – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Avakuaaty" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Avañe'ẽ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropologiya" title="Antropologiya – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Antropologiya" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D9%86%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%84%D9%88%DA%98%DB%8C" title="آنتروپولوژی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="آنتروپولوژی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bm mw-list-item"><a href="https://bm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropoloji" title="Antropoloji – Bambara" lang="bm" hreflang="bm" data-title="Antropoloji" data-language-autonym="Bamanankan" data-language-local-name="Bambara" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bamanankan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%83%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="নৃবিজ্ঞান – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="নৃবিজ্ঞান" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bjn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bjn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropologi" title="Antropologi – Banjar" lang="bjn" hreflang="bjn" data-title="Antropologi" data-language-autonym="Banjar" data-language-local-name="Banjar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Banjar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%AEn-l%C5%ABi-ha%CC%8Dk" title="Jîn-lūi-ha̍k – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Jîn-lūi-ha̍k" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Антропология – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Антропология" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Антрапалогія – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Антрапалогія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%91%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Антрапалёгія – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Антрапалёгія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="मनुष्य विज्ञान – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="मनुष्य विज्ञान" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropolohiya" title="Antropolohiya – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Antropolohiya" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Антропология – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Антропология" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%98%E0%BD%B2%E0%BD%A0%E0%BD%B2%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A2%E0%BD%B2%E0%BD%82%E0%BD%A6%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%91%E0%BD%94%E0%BE%B1%E0%BD%91%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%94%E0%BD%A0%E0%BD%B2%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A2%E0%BD%B2%E0%BD%82%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%94%E0%BC%8D" title="མིའི་རིགས་དཔྱད་པའི་རིག་པ། – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="མིའི་རིགས་དཔྱད་པའི་རིག་པ།" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>བོད་ཡིག</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropologija" title="Antropologija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Antropologija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropologiezh" title="Antropologiezh – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Antropologiezh" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropologia" title="Antropologia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Antropologia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8" title="Антропологи – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Антропологи" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropolohiya" title="Antropolohiya – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Antropolohiya" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cebuano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropologie" title="Antropologie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Antropologie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-co mw-list-item"><a href="https://co.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropolugia" title="Antropolugia – Corsican" lang="co" hreflang="co" data-title="Antropolugia" data-language-autonym="Corsu" data-language-local-name="Corsican" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Corsu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropoleg" title="Anthropoleg – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Anthropoleg" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropologi" title="Antropologi – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Antropologi" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropologie" title="Anthropologie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Anthropologie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropoloogia" title="Antropoloogia – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Antropoloogia" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CE%BD%CE%B8%CF%81%CF%89%CF%80%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Ανθρωπολογία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ανθρωπολογία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropolog%C3%ADa" title="Antropología – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Antropología" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropologio" title="Antropologio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Antropologio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropolog%C3%ADa" title="Antropología – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Antropología" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Estremeñu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropologia" title="Antropologia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Antropologia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86%E2%80%8C%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="انسان‌شناسی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="انسان‌شناسی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropologie" title="Anthropologie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Anthropologie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropology" title="Antropology – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Antropology" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropologjie" title="Antropologjie – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Antropologjie" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friulian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Furlan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antraipeola%C3%ADocht" title="Antraipeolaíocht – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Antraipeolaíocht" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antrapoaylleeaght" title="Antrapoaylleeaght – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Antrapoaylleeaght" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaelg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corp-e%C3%B2las" title="Corp-eòlas – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Corp-eòlas" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropolox%C3%ADa" title="Antropoloxía – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Antropoloxía" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%AE%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%A8%E0%AA%B5%E0%AA%B6%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%B8%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%A4%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%B0" title="માનવશાસ્ત્ર – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="માનવશાસ્ત્ર" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ગુજરાતી</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ng%C3%ACn-lui-ho%CC%8Dk" title="Ngìn-lui-ho̍k – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Ngìn-lui-ho̍k" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9D%B8%EB%A5%98%ED%95%99" title="인류학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="인류학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilimin_%C9%97an_adam" title="Ilimin ɗan adam – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Ilimin ɗan adam" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A4%D5%A1%D5%A2%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Մարդաբանություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Մարդաբանություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="मानवशास्त्र – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="मानवशास्त्र" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropologija" title="Antropologija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Antropologija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropologio" title="Antropologio – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Antropologio" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropologi" title="Antropologi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Antropologi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropologia" title="Anthropologia – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Anthropologia" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropologie" title="Antropologie – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Antropologie" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingue</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8" title="Антропологи – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Антропологи" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Ossetic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ирон</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umchazabuntu" title="Umchazabuntu – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="Umchazabuntu" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiZulu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mannfr%C3%A6%C3%B0i" title="Mannfræði – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Mannfræði" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropologia" title="Antropologia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Antropologia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%AA%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%92%D7%99%D7%94" title="אנתרופולוגיה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אנתרופולוגיה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropologi" title="Antropologi – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Antropologi" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C6%90y%C9%A9t%CA%8A_kp%C9%9Bl%C9%9Bk%CA%8A%CA%8A_t%CA%8Am%C9%A9y%C9%9B" title="Ɛyɩtʊ kpɛlɛkʊʊ tʊmɩyɛ – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Ɛyɩtʊ kpɛlɛkʊʊ tʊmɩyɛ" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kabɩyɛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kl mw-list-item"><a href="https://kl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inuup_ineriartorneranik_ilisimatusarneq" title="Inuup ineriartorneranik ilisimatusarneq – Kalaallisut" lang="kl" hreflang="kl" data-title="Inuup ineriartorneranik ilisimatusarneq" data-language-autonym="Kalaallisut" data-language-local-name="Kalaallisut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kalaallisut</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AE%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%A8%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%B6%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0" title="ಮಾನವಶಾಸ್ತ್ರ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಮಾನವಶಾಸ್ತ್ರ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%97%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9E%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%92%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ანთროპოლოგია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ანთროპოლოგია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ks mw-list-item"><a href="https://ks.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%8E%D8%B4%D8%B1%D9%90%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="بَشرِیات – Kashmiri" lang="ks" hreflang="ks" data-title="بَشرِیات" data-language-autonym="कॉशुर / کٲشُر" data-language-local-name="Kashmiri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>कॉशुर / کٲشُر</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-csb mw-list-item"><a href="https://csb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antrop%C3%B2logij%C3%B4" title="Antropòlogijô – Kashubian" lang="csb" hreflang="csb" data-title="Antropòlogijô" data-language-autonym="Kaszëbsczi" data-language-local-name="Kashubian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kaszëbsczi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Антропология – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Антропология" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropolojia" title="Anthropolojia – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Anthropolojia" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antwopoloji" title="Antwopoloji – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Antwopoloji" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lantropoloji" title="Lantropoloji – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Lantropoloji" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mirovnas%C3%AE" title="Mirovnasî – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Mirovnasî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Антропология – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Антропология" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropologia" title="Antropologia – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Antropologia" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ladin</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad mw-list-item"><a href="https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropolojiya" title="Antropolojiya – Ladino" lang="lad" hreflang="lad" data-title="Antropolojiya" data-language-autonym="Ladino" data-language-local-name="Ladino" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ladino</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%A1%E0%BA%B0%E0%BA%99%E0%BA%B8%E0%BA%94%E0%BA%AA%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%94" title="ມະນຸດສາດ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ມະນຸດສາດ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ລາວ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropologia" title="Anthropologia – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Anthropologia" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropolo%C4%A3ija" title="Antropoloģija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Antropoloģija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropologie" title="Anthropologie – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Anthropologie" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropologija" title="Antropologija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Antropologija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropologia" title="Antropologia – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Antropologia" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ligure</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropologie" title="Antropologie – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Antropologie" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropolojia" title="Antropolojia – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Antropolojia" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo mw-list-item"><a href="https://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/remske" title="remske – Lojban" lang="jbo" hreflang="jbo" data-title="remske" data-language-autonym="La .lojban." data-language-local-name="Lojban" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>La .lojban.</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropol%C3%B3gia" title="Antropológia – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Antropológia" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai mw-list-item"><a href="https://mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="मानवशास्त्र – Maithili" lang="mai" hreflang="mai" data-title="मानवशास्त्र" data-language-autonym="मैथिली" data-language-local-name="Maithili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मैथिली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Антропологија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Антропологија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antr%C3%B4p%C3%B4l%C3%B4jia" title="Antrôpôlôjia – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Antrôpôlôjia" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%82%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82" title="നരവംശശാസ്ത്രം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="നരവംശശാസ്ത്രം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropolo%C4%A1ija" title="Antropoloġija – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Antropoloġija" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="मानववंशशास्त्र – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="मानववंशशास्त्र" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%97%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9E%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%92%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ანთროპოლოგია – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ანთროპოლოგია" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AB%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%84%D9%88%D8%AC%D9%8A%D8%A7" title="انثروبولوجيا – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="انثروبولوجيا" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropologi" title="Antropologi – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Antropologi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropologie" title="Antropologie – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Antropologie" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Mirandés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D2%AF%D0%BD_%D1%81%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BB" title="Хүн судлал – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Хүн судлал" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%99%E1%80%94%E1%80%AF%E1%80%BF%E1%80%97%E1%80%B1%E1%80%92" title="မနုဿဗေဒ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="မနုဿဗေဒ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropologie" title="Antropologie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Antropologie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropologie" title="Antropologie – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Antropologie" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nedersaksies</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="मानवशास्त्र – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="मानवशास्त्र" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="मानवशास्त्र – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="मानवशास्त्र" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BA%BA%E9%A1%9E%E5%AD%A6" title="人類学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="人類学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropologii" title="Antropologii – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Antropologii" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropologi" title="Antropologi – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Antropologi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropologi" title="Antropologi – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Antropologi" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nrm mw-list-item"><a href="https://nrm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropologie" title="Anthropologie – Norman" lang="nrf" hreflang="nrf" data-title="Anthropologie" data-language-autonym="Nouormand" data-language-local-name="Norman" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nouormand</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nov mw-list-item"><a href="https://nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropologia" title="Antropologia – Novial" lang="nov" hreflang="nov" data-title="Antropologia" data-language-autonym="Novial" data-language-local-name="Novial" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Novial</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropologia" title="Antropologia – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Antropologia" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mhr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Антропологий – Eastern Mari" lang="mhr" hreflang="mhr" data-title="Антропологий" data-language-autonym="Олык марий" data-language-local-name="Eastern Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Олык марий</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%A8%E0%AD%83%E0%AC%A4%E0%AC%A4%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%A4%E0%AD%8D%E0%AD%B1_%E0%AC%AC%E0%AC%BF%E0%AC%9C%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%9E%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%A8" title="ନୃତତ୍ତ୍ୱ ବିଜ୍ଞାନ – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ନୃତତ୍ତ୍ୱ ବିଜ୍ଞାନ" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ଓଡ଼ିଆ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiroppooloojii" title="Antiroppooloojii – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Antiroppooloojii" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oromoo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropologiya" title="Antropologiya – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Antropologiya" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%A8%E0%A9%81%E0%A9%B1%E0%A8%96%E0%A9%80_%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%97%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%86%E0%A8%A8" title="ਮਨੁੱਖੀ ਵਿਗਿਆਨ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਮਨੁੱਖੀ ਵਿਗਿਆਨ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B4%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="بشریات – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="بشریات" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-blk mw-list-item"><a href="https://blk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%99%E1%80%94%E1%80%AF%E1%80%BF%E1%80%97%E1%80%B1%E1%82%8F%E1%80%92" title="မနုဿဗေႏဒ – Pa'O" lang="blk" hreflang="blk" data-title="မနုဿဗေႏဒ" data-language-autonym="ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ" data-language-local-name="Pa'O" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropologia" title="Antropologia – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Antropologia" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Papiamentu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86_%D9%BE%D9%8A%DA%98%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%86%D9%87" title="انسان پيژندنه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="انسان پيژندنه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anchopalaji" title="Anchopalaji – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Anchopalaji" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%98%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%BB%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%8F" title="មនុស្សសាស្រ្ត – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="មនុស្សសាស្រ្ត" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ភាសាខ្មែរ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tpi mw-list-item"><a href="https://tpi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropolosi" title="Antropolosi – Tok Pisin" lang="tpi" hreflang="tpi" data-title="Antropolosi" data-language-autonym="Tok Pisin" data-language-local-name="Tok Pisin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tok Pisin</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropologia" title="Antropologia – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Antropologia" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropologia" title="Antropologia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Antropologia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropologiya" title="Antropologiya – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Antropologiya" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Qaraqalpaqsha</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropologie" title="Antropologie – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Antropologie" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D2%91%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Антрополоґія – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Антрополоґія" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Антропология – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Антропология" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Антропология – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Антропология" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D" title="मानवविज्ञानम् – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="मानवविज्ञानम्" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>संस्कृतम्</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%A2%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%B1%E1%B1%A3%E1%B1%9F_%E1%B1%A5%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%AC%E1%B1%AE%E1%B1%A5" title="ᱢᱟᱱᱣᱟ ᱥᱟᱬᱮᱥ – Santali" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱢᱟᱱᱣᱟ ᱥᱟᱬᱮᱥ" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="Santali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-skr mw-list-item"><a href="https://skr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%86%D8%AA%DA%BE%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%84%D9%88%D8%AC%DB%8C/_%D8%A8%D8%B4%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="اینتھروپولوجی/ بشریات – Saraiki" lang="skr" hreflang="skr" data-title="اینتھروپولوجی/ بشریات" data-language-autonym="سرائیکی" data-language-local-name="Saraiki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سرائیکی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropologia" title="Antropologia – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Antropologia" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sardu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropologie" title="Antropologie – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Antropologie" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropologjia" title="Antropologjia – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Antropologjia" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropolugg%C3%ACa" title="Antropoluggìa – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Antropoluggìa" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B8%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%9A%E0%B6%AF%E0%B6%BA" title="මානවවේදය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="මානවවේදය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Anthropology" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%86%D9%BF%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%BE%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AC%D9%8A" title="ائنٿراپالاجي – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="ائنٿراپالاجي" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropol%C3%B3gia" title="Antropológia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Antropológia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropologija" title="Antropologija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Antropologija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthroboloji" title="Anthroboloji – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Anthroboloji" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Soomaaliga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B1%DB%86%DA%A4%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="مرۆڤناسی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="مرۆڤناسی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Антропологија – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Антропологија" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropologija" title="Antropologija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Antropologija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropologi" title="Antropologi – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Antropologi" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropologia" title="Antropologia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Antropologia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropologi" title="Antropologi – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Antropologi" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropolohiya" title="Antropolohiya – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Antropolohiya" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="மானிடவியல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="மானிடவியல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tasnamdant" title="Tasnamdant – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Tasnamdant" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taqbaylit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Антропология – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Антропология" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AE%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%A8%E0%B0%B5_%E0%B0%B6%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%A4%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%82" title="మానవ శాస్త్రం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="మానవ శాస్త్రం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%A9%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B2" title="มานุษยวิทยา – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="มานุษยวิทยา" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-din mw-list-item"><a href="https://din.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pi%C3%B6cemanhraan" title="Piöcemanhraan – Dinka" lang="din" hreflang="din" data-title="Piöcemanhraan" data-language-autonym="Thuɔŋjäŋ" data-language-local-name="Dinka" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Thuɔŋjäŋ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D3%A3" title="Инсоншиносӣ – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Инсоншиносӣ" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropoloji" title="Antropoloji – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Antropoloji" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropologi%C3%BDa" title="Antropologiýa – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Antropologiýa" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="Turkmen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkmençe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Антропологія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Антропологія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B4%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="بشریات – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="بشریات" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Studio_de_l%27omo" title="Studio de l'omo – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Studio de l'omo" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nh%C3%A2n_lo%E1%BA%A1i_h%E1%BB%8Dc" title="Nhân loại học – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Nhân loại học" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropoloogia" title="Antropoloogia – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Antropoloogia" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Võro</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vls mw-list-item"><a href="https://vls.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropologie" title="Antropologie – West Flemish" lang="vls" hreflang="vls" data-title="Antropologie" data-language-autonym="West-Vlams" data-language-local-name="West Flemish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>West-Vlams</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropolohiya" title="Antropolohiya – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Antropolohiya" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BA%BA%E7%B1%BB%E5%AD%A6" title="人类学 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="人类学" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%98%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%A4%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%90%D7%92%D7%99%D7%A2" title="אנטראפאלאגיע – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="אנטראפאלאגיע" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BA%BA%E9%A1%9E%E5%AD%B8" title="人類學 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="人類學" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropolociye" title="Antropolociye – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Antropolociye" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zazaki</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zea mw-list-item"><a href="https://zea.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropolohie" title="Antropolohie – Zeelandic" lang="zea" hreflang="zea" data-title="Antropolohie" data-language-autonym="Zeêuws" data-language-local-name="Zeelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zeêuws</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropoluog%C4%97j%C4%97" title="Antropoluogėjė – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Antropoluogėjė" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Žemaitėška</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BA%BA%E7%B1%BB%E5%AD%A6" title="人类学 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="人类学" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zgh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zgh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E2%B4%B0%E2%B5%A1%E2%B5%A1%E2%B5%93%E2%B5%94:%E2%B5%9C%E2%B4%B0%E2%B5%99%E2%B5%8F%E2%B4%BC%E2%B4%B3%E2%B4%B0%E2%B5%8F%E2%B5%9C" title="ⴰⵡⵡⵓⵔ:ⵜⴰⵙⵏⴼⴳⴰⵏⵜ – Standard Moroccan Tamazight" lang="zgh" hreflang="zgh" data-title="ⴰⵡⵡⵓⵔ:ⵜⴰⵙⵏⴼⴳⴰⵏⵜ" data-language-autonym="ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ" data-language-local-name="Standard Moroccan Tamazight" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q23404#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div 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a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Anthropology" title="Category:Anthropology">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#efefef;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Anthropology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Queue.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Queue.svg/100px-Queue.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Queue.svg/150px-Queue.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Queue.svg/200px-Queue.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="border:none;padding-bottom:0.5em;"> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_anthropology" title="Outline of anthropology">Outline</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_anthropology" title="History of anthropology">History</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Types</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.75em;padding-right:0.75em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">Archaeological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_anthropology" title="Biological anthropology">Biological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">Cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_anthropology" title="Linguistic anthropology">Linguistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_anthropology" title="Social anthropology">Social</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">Archaeological</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aerial_archaeology" title="Aerial archaeology">Aerial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aviation_archaeology" title="Aviation archaeology">Aviation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battlefield_archaeology" title="Battlefield archaeology">Battlefield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_archaeology" title="Biblical archaeology">Biblical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioarchaeology" title="Bioarchaeology">Bioarchaeological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_archaeology" title="Environmental archaeology">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnoarchaeology" title="Ethnoarchaeology">Ethnoarchaeological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_archaeology" title="Experimental archaeology">Experiential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_archaeology" title="Feminist archaeology">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_anthropology" title="Forensic anthropology">Forensic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_archaeology" title="Maritime archaeology">Maritime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleoethnobotany" title="Paleoethnobotany">Paleoethnobotanical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zooarchaeology" title="Zooarchaeology">Zooarchaeological</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Biological_anthropology" title="Biological anthropology">Biological</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthrozoology" title="Anthrozoology">Anthrozoological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biocultural_anthropology" title="Biocultural anthropology">Biocultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_anthropology" title="Evolutionary anthropology">Evolutionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_anthropology" title="Forensic anthropology">Forensic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_anthropology" title="Molecular anthropology">Molecular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroanthropology" title="Neuroanthropology"> Neurological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutritional_anthropology" title="Nutritional anthropology">Nutritional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleoanthropology" title="Paleoanthropology">Paleoanthropological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primatology" title="Primatology">Primatological</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_anthropology" title="Social anthropology">Social</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">Cultural</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_anthropology" title="Applied anthropology">Applied</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_art" title="Anthropology of art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_anthropology" title="Cognitive anthropology">Cognitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyborg_anthropology" title="Cyborg anthropology">Cyborg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_development" title="Anthropology of development">Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_anthropology" title="Digital anthropology">Digital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_anthropology" title="Ecological anthropology">Ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_anthropology" title="Environmental anthropology">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_anthropology" title="Economic anthropology">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_economy_in_anthropology" title="Political economy in anthropology"><span class="wrap">Political economy</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_anthropology" title="Feminist anthropology">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_food" title="Anthropology of food">Food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnohistory" title="Ethnohistory">Historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_institutions" title="Anthropology of institutions">Institutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinship" title="Kinship">Kinship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_anthropology" title="Legal anthropology">Legal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_media" title="Anthropology of media">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_anthropology" title="Medical anthropology">Medical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnomuseology" title="Ethnomuseology">Museums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnomusicology" title="Ethnomusicology">Musical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_anthropology" title="Political anthropology">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_anthropology" title="Psychological anthropology">Psychological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_anthropology" title="Public anthropology">Public</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_religion" title="Anthropology of religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbolic_anthropology" title="Symbolic anthropology">Symbolic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transpersonal_anthropology" class="mw-redirect" title="Transpersonal anthropology">Transpersonal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_anthropology" title="Urban anthropology">Urban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_anthropology" title="Visual anthropology">Visual</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_anthropology" title="Linguistic anthropology">Linguistic</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropological_linguistics" title="Anthropological linguistics">Anthropological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_description" title="Linguistic description">Descriptive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnolinguistics" title="Ethnolinguistics">Ethnological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnopoetics" title="Ethnopoetics">Ethnopoetical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_linguistics" title="Historical linguistics">Historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_ideology" title="Language ideology">Ideology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiotic_anthropology" title="Semiotic anthropology">Semiotic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociolinguistics" title="Sociolinguistics">Sociological</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology#Methods" title="Cultural anthropology">Research framework</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropometry" title="Anthropometry">Anthropometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">Ethnography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cyber-ethnography" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyber-ethnography">cyber</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnology" title="Ethnology">Ethnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_cross-cultural_sample" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard cross-cultural sample">Cross-cultural comparison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Participant_observation" title="Participant observation">Participant observation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holism_in_science" title="Holism in science">Holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reflexivity_(social_theory)" title="Reflexivity (social theory)">Reflexivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thick_description" title="Thick description">Thick description</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_relativism" title="Cultural relativism">Cultural relativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnocentrism" title="Ethnocentrism">Ethnocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emic_and_etic" title="Emic and etic">Emic and etic</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Key concepts</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_anthropology" title="Development anthropology">Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnicity" title="Ethnicity">Ethnicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">Evolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sociocultural_evolution" title="Sociocultural evolution">sociocultural</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender" title="Gender">Gender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinship" title="Kinship">Kinship and descent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meme" title="Meme">Meme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistory" title="Prehistory">Prehistory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_(human_categorization)" title="Race (human categorization)">Race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropological_theories_of_value" title="Anthropological theories of value">Value</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">Colonialism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Postcolonialism" title="Postcolonialism">Postcolonialism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Key theories</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Actor%E2%80%93network_theory" title="Actor–network theory">Actor–network theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alliance_theory" title="Alliance theory">Alliance theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-cultural_studies" title="Cross-cultural studies">Cross-cultural studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_materialism_(anthropology)" title="Cultural materialism (anthropology)">Cultural materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_theory" title="Culture theory">Culture theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans-cultural_diffusion" class="mw-redirect" title="Trans-cultural diffusion">Diffusionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_anthropology" title="Feminist anthropology">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_particularism" title="Historical particularism">Historical particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boasian_anthropology" title="Boasian anthropology">Boasian anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_functionalism" title="Structural functionalism">Functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbolic_anthropology" title="Symbolic anthropology">Interpretive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Performance_studies" title="Performance studies">Performance studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_economy_in_anthropology" title="Political economy in anthropology">Political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Practice_theory" title="Practice theory">Practice theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_anthropology" title="Structural anthropology">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_theory_in_anthropology" title="Systems theory in anthropology">Systems theory</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Lists</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Anthropologists_by_nationality" title="Category:Anthropologists by nationality">Anthropologists by nationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_anthropology" title="List of years in anthropology">Anthropology by year</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_anthropology" title="Bibliography of anthropology">Bibliography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_anthropology_journals" title="List of anthropology journals">Journals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_indigenous_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="List of indigenous peoples">List of indigenous peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Anthropology_organizations" title="Category:Anthropology organizations">Organizations</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Anthropology" title="Template:Anthropology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Anthropology" title="Template talk:Anthropology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Anthropology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Anthropology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Anthropology</b> is the scientific study of humanity, concerned with <a href="/wiki/Human_behavior" title="Human behavior">human behavior</a>, <a href="/wiki/Human_biology" title="Human biology">human biology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cultures" class="mw-redirect" title="Cultures">cultures</a>, <a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">societies</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistics</a>, in both the present and past, including <a href="/wiki/Archaic_humans" title="Archaic humans">archaic humans</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-aaa_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aaa-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Social_anthropology" title="Social anthropology">Social anthropology</a> studies patterns of behavior, while <a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">cultural anthropology</a> studies cultural meaning, including norms and values.<sup id="cite_ref-aaa_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aaa-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term <a href="/wiki/Sociocultural_anthropology" title="Sociocultural anthropology">sociocultural anthropology</a> is commonly used today. <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_anthropology" title="Linguistic anthropology">Linguistic anthropology</a> studies how language influences social life. <a href="/wiki/Biological_anthropology" title="Biological anthropology">Biological or physical anthropology</a> studies the biological development of humans.<sup id="cite_ref-aaa_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aaa-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">Archaeology</a>, often termed as "anthropology of the past," studies human activity through investigation of physical evidence. It is considered a branch of anthropology in North America and Asia, while in Europe, archaeology is viewed as a discipline in its own right or grouped under other related disciplines, such as history and <a href="/wiki/Palaeontology" class="mw-redirect" title="Palaeontology">palaeontology</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anthropology&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The abstract noun <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/anthropology" class="extiw" title="wikt:anthropology">anthropology</a></i> is first attested in reference to <a href="/wiki/History" title="History">history</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-oed2_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oed2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>n 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its present use first appeared in <a href="/wiki/German_Renaissance" title="German Renaissance">Renaissance</a> <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Germany</a> in the works of <a href="/wiki/Magnus_Hundt" title="Magnus Hundt">Magnus Hundt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Otto_Casmann" title="Otto Casmann">Otto Casmann</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Medicine_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Medicine-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their <a href="/wiki/Neo-Latin" title="Neo-Latin">Neo-Latin</a> <i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">anthropologia</i></span></i> derived from the <a href="/wiki/Combining_form" class="mw-redirect" title="Combining form">combining forms</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Greek</a> words <i>ánthrōpos</i> (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E1%BC%84%CE%BD%CE%B8%CF%81%CF%89%CF%80%CE%BF%CF%82" class="extiw" title="wikt:ἄνθρωπος">ἄνθρωπος</a></span></span>, "<a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">human</a>") and <i>lógos</i> (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%BB%CF%8C%CE%B3%CE%BF%CF%82" class="extiw" title="wikt:λόγος">λόγος</a></span></span>, "<a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">study</a>").<sup id="cite_ref-oed2_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oed2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its adjectival form appeared in the works of <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-oed2_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oed2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It began to be used in English, possibly via <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a> <i><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Anthropologie</i></span></i>, by the early 18th century.<sup id="cite_ref-oed2_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oed2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>n 2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origin_and_development_of_the_term">Origin and development of the term</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anthropology&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Origin and development of the term"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_anthropology" title="History of anthropology">History of anthropology</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bernardino_de_Sahag%C3%BAn_(2).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Bernardino_de_Sahag%C3%BAn_%282%29.jpg/170px-Bernardino_de_Sahag%C3%BAn_%282%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="309" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Bernardino_de_Sahag%C3%BAn_%282%29.jpg/255px-Bernardino_de_Sahag%C3%BAn_%282%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Bernardino_de_Sahag%C3%BAn_%282%29.jpg/340px-Bernardino_de_Sahag%C3%BAn_%282%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1653" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Bernardino_de_Sahag%C3%BAn" title="Bernardino de Sahagún">Bernardino de Sahagún</a> is considered to be the founder of modern anthropology.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Through_the_19th_century">Through the 19th century</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anthropology&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Through the 19th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1647, the <a href="/wiki/Caspar_Bartholin_the_Elder" title="Caspar Bartholin the Elder">Bartholins</a>, early scholars of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Copenhagen" title="University of Copenhagen">University of Copenhagen</a>, defined <i><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">l'anthropologie</i></span></i> as follows:<sup id="cite_ref-frenchy_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-frenchy-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Anthropology, that is to say the science that treats of man, is divided ordinarily and with reason into Anatomy, which considers the body and the parts, and Psychology, which speaks of the soul.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>n 3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Sporadic use of the term for some of the subject matter occurred subsequently, such as the use by <a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Serres" title="Étienne Serres">Étienne Serres</a> in 1839 to describe the natural history, or paleontology, of man, based on comparative anatomy, and the creation of a chair in anthropology and ethnography in 1850 at the <a href="/wiki/National_Museum_of_Natural_History,_France" title="National Museum of Natural History, France">French National Museum of Natural History</a> by <a href="/wiki/Jean_Louis_Armand_de_Quatrefages_de_Br%C3%A9au" title="Jean Louis Armand de Quatrefages de Bréau">Jean Louis Armand de Quatrefages de Bréau</a>. Various short-lived organizations of anthropologists had already been formed. The <a href="/wiki/Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9_Ethnologique_de_Paris" title="Société Ethnologique de Paris">Société Ethnologique de Paris</a>, the first to use the term <i><a href="/wiki/Ethnology" title="Ethnology">ethnology</a></i>, was formed in 1839 and focused on methodically studying human races. After the death of its founder, <a href="/wiki/William_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Edwards" title="William Frédéric Edwards">William Frédéric Edwards</a>, in 1842, it gradually declined in activity until it eventually dissolved in 1862.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Meanwhile, the Ethnological Society of New York, currently the <a href="/wiki/American_Ethnological_Society" title="American Ethnological Society">American Ethnological Society</a>, was founded on its model in 1842, as well as the <a href="/wiki/Ethnological_Society_of_London" title="Ethnological Society of London">Ethnological Society of London</a> in 1843, a break-away group of the <a href="/wiki/Aborigines%27_Protection_Society" title="Aborigines' Protection Society">Aborigines' Protection Society</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Schiller131_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schiller131-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These anthropologists of the times were liberal, anti-slavery, and pro-<a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">human-rights activists.</a> They maintained international connections.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Anthropology and many other current fields are the intellectual results of the comparative methods developed in the earlier 19th century. Theorists in diverse fields such as <a href="/wiki/Comparative_anatomy" title="Comparative anatomy">anatomy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Comparative_method_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Comparative method (linguistics)">linguistics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ethnology" title="Ethnology">ethnology</a>, started making feature-by-feature comparisons of their subject matters, and were beginning to suspect that similarities between animals, languages, and folkways were the result of processes or laws unknown to them then.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For them, the publication of <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_Species" title="On the Origin of Species">On the Origin of Species</a></i> was the epiphany of everything they had begun to suspect. Darwin himself arrived at his conclusions through comparison of species he had seen in <a href="/wiki/Agronomy" title="Agronomy">agronomy</a> and in the wild. </p><p>Darwin and Wallace unveiled evolution in the late 1850s. There was an immediate rush to bring it into the social sciences. <a href="/wiki/Paul_Broca" title="Paul Broca">Paul Broca</a> in Paris was in the process of breaking away from the <a href="/wiki/Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9_de_biologie" title="Société de biologie">Société de biologie</a> to form the first of the explicitly anthropological societies, the <a href="/wiki/Society_of_Anthropology_of_Paris" title="Society of Anthropology of Paris">Société d'Anthropologie de Paris</a>, meeting for the first time in Paris in 1859.<sup id="cite_ref-Fletcher_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fletcher-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>n 4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When he read Darwin, he became an immediate convert to <i>Transformisme</i>, as the French called <a href="/wiki/Evolutionism" title="Evolutionism">evolutionism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His definition now became "the study of the human group, considered as a whole, in its details, and in relation to the rest of nature".<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Broca, being what today would be called a <a href="/wiki/Neurosurgery" title="Neurosurgery">neurosurgeon</a>, had taken an interest in the pathology of speech. He wanted to localize the difference between man and the other animals, which appeared to reside in speech. He discovered the speech center of the human brain, today called <a href="/wiki/Broca%27s_area" title="Broca's area">Broca's area</a> after him. His interest was mainly in <a href="/wiki/Biological_anthropology" title="Biological anthropology">Biological anthropology</a>, but a German philosopher specializing in psychology, <a href="/wiki/Theodor_Waitz" title="Theodor Waitz">Theodor Waitz</a>, took up the theme of general and social anthropology in his six-volume work, entitled <i>Die Anthropologie der Naturvölker</i>, 1859–1864. The title was soon translated as "The Anthropology of Primitive Peoples". The last two volumes were published posthumously. </p><p>Waitz defined anthropology as "the science of the nature of man". Following Broca's lead, Waitz points out that anthropology is a new field, which would gather material from other fields, but would differ from them in the use of comparative anatomy, physiology, and psychology to differentiate man from "the animals nearest to him". He stresses that the data of comparison must be empirical, gathered by experimentation.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The history of civilization, as well as ethnology, are to be brought into the comparison. It is to be presumed fundamentally that the species, man, is a unity, and that "the same laws of thought are applicable to all men".<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Waitz was influential among British ethnologists. In 1863, the explorer <a href="/wiki/Richard_Francis_Burton" title="Richard Francis Burton">Richard Francis Burton</a> and the speech therapist <a href="/wiki/James_Hunt_(speech_therapist)" title="James Hunt (speech therapist)">James Hunt</a> broke away from the <a href="/wiki/Ethnological_Society_of_London" title="Ethnological Society of London">Ethnological Society of London</a> to form the <a href="/wiki/Anthropological_Society_of_London" title="Anthropological Society of London">Anthropological Society of London</a>, which henceforward would follow the path of the new anthropology rather than just ethnology. It was the 2nd society dedicated to general anthropology in existence. Representatives from the French <i>Société</i> were present, though not Broca. In his keynote address, printed in the first volume of its new publication, <i>The Anthropological Review</i>, Hunt stressed the work of Waitz, adopting his definitions as a standard.<sup id="cite_ref-hunt_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hunt-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>n 5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among the first associates were the young <a href="/wiki/Edward_Burnett_Tylor" title="Edward Burnett Tylor">Edward Burnett Tylor</a>, inventor of <a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">cultural anthropology</a>, and his brother <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Tylor" title="Alfred Tylor">Alfred Tylor</a>, a geologist. Previously Edward had referred to himself as an ethnologist; subsequently, an anthropologist. </p><p>Similar organizations in other countries followed: The <a href="/wiki/Anthropological_Society_of_Madrid" title="Anthropological Society of Madrid">Anthropological Society of Madrid</a> (1865), the <a href="/wiki/American_Anthropological_Association" title="American Anthropological Association">American Anthropological Association</a> in 1902, the Anthropological Society of Vienna (1870), the Italian Society of Anthropology and Ethnology (1871), and many others subsequently. The majority of these were evolutionists. One notable exception was the <a href="/wiki/Berliner_Gesellschaft_f%C3%BCr_Anthropologie,_Ethnologie_und_Urgeschichte" title="Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte">Berlin Society for Anthropology, Ethnology, and Prehistory</a> (1869) founded by <a href="/wiki/Rudolph_Virchow" class="mw-redirect" title="Rudolph Virchow">Rudolph Virchow</a>, known for his vituperative attacks on the evolutionists. Not religious himself, he insisted that Darwin's conclusions lacked empirical foundation. </p><p>During the last three decades of the 19th century, a proliferation of anthropological societies and associations occurred, most independent, most publishing their own journals, and all international in membership and association. The major theorists belonged to these organizations. They supported the gradual osmosis of anthropology curricula into the major institutions of higher learning. By 1898, 48 educational institutions in 13 countries had some curriculum in anthropology. None of the 75 faculty members were under a department named anthropology.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="20th_and_21st_centuries">20th and 21st centuries</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anthropology&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: 20th and 21st centuries"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Anthropology as a specialized field of academic study developed much through the end of the 19th century. Then it rapidly expanded beginning in the early 20th century to the point where many of the world's higher educational institutions typically included anthropology departments. Thousands of anthropology departments have come into existence, and anthropology has also diversified from a few major subdivisions to dozens more. Practical anthropology, the use of anthropological knowledge and technique to solve specific problems, has arrived; for example, the presence of buried victims might stimulate the use of a forensic archaeologist to recreate the final scene. The organization has also reached a global level. For example, the World Council of Anthropological Associations (WCAA), "a network of national, regional and international associations that aims to promote worldwide communication and cooperation in anthropology", currently contains members from about three dozen nations.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since the work of <a href="/wiki/Franz_Boas" title="Franz Boas">Franz Boas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bronis%C5%82aw_Malinowski" title="Bronisław Malinowski">Bronisław Malinowski</a> in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, <i>social</i> anthropology in Great Britain and <a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology"><i>cultural</i> anthropology</a> in the US have been distinguished from other social sciences by their emphasis on <a href="/wiki/Cross-cultural_studies" title="Cross-cultural studies">cross-cultural comparisons</a>, long-term in-depth examination of context, and the importance they place on <a href="/wiki/Participant_observation" title="Participant observation">participant-observation</a> or experiential immersion in the area of research. Cultural anthropology, in particular, has emphasized <a href="/wiki/Cultural_relativism" title="Cultural relativism">cultural relativism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">holism</a>, and the use of findings to frame cultural critiques.<sup id="cite_ref-Hylland_Eriksen_2004_p._79_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hylland_Eriksen_2004_p._79-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This has been particularly prominent in the United States, from <a href="/wiki/Boasian_anthropology" title="Boasian anthropology">Boas' arguments</a> against 19th-century racial <a href="/wiki/Ideology" title="Ideology">ideology</a>, through <a href="/wiki/Margaret_Mead" title="Margaret Mead">Margaret Mead</a>'s advocacy for <a href="/wiki/Gender_equality" title="Gender equality">gender equality</a> and sexual liberation, to current criticisms of <a href="/wiki/Post-colonialism" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-colonialism">post-colonial</a> oppression and promotion of <a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">multiculturalism</a>. <a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">Ethnography</a> is one of its primary <a href="/wiki/Research_design" title="Research design">research designs</a> as well as the text that is generated from anthropological fieldwork.<sup id="cite_ref-Ingold1994p331_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ingold1994p331-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Spiro1987_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Spiro1987-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Heyck1997_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Heyck1997-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Great Britain and the Commonwealth countries, the British tradition of <a href="/wiki/Social_anthropology" title="Social anthropology">social anthropology</a> tends to dominate. In the United States, anthropology has traditionally been divided into the <a href="/wiki/Four_field_approach" class="mw-redirect" title="Four field approach">four field approach</a> developed by Franz Boas in the early 20th century: <a href="/wiki/Biological_anthropology" title="Biological anthropology"><i>biological</i> or <i>physical</i> anthropology</a>; <a href="/wiki/Social_anthropology" title="Social anthropology"><i>social</i></a>, <a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology"><i>cultural</i></a>, or <a href="/wiki/Sociocultural_anthropology" title="Sociocultural anthropology"><i>sociocultural</i> anthropology</a>; <a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">archaeological anthropology</a>; and <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_anthropology" title="Linguistic anthropology">linguistic anthropology</a>. These fields frequently overlap but tend to use different methodologies and techniques.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>European countries with overseas colonies tended to practice more <a href="/wiki/Ethnology" title="Ethnology">ethnology</a> (a term coined and defined by <a href="/wiki/Adam_Franti%C5%A1ek_Koll%C3%A1r" title="Adam František Kollár">Adam F. Kollár</a> in 1783). It is sometimes referred to as sociocultural anthropology in the parts of the world that were influenced by the European tradition.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Fields">Fields</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anthropology&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Fields"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/American_anthropology" title="American anthropology">American anthropology</a></div> <p>Anthropology is a global discipline involving humanities, social sciences and natural sciences. Anthropology builds upon knowledge from <a href="/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">natural sciences</a>, including the discoveries about the origin and evolution of <i><a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">Homo sapiens</a></i>, human physical traits, <a href="/wiki/Human_behavior" title="Human behavior">human behavior</a>, the variations among different groups of humans, how the evolutionary past of <i>Homo sapiens</i> has influenced its social organization and culture, and from <a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">social sciences</a>, including the organization of human social and cultural relations, institutions, social conflicts, etc.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Early anthropology originated in Classical Greece and Persia and studied and tried to understand observable cultural diversity, such as by <a href="/wiki/Al-Biruni" title="Al-Biruni">Al-Biruni</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic Golden Age</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Ahmed_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ahmed-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As such, anthropology has been central in the development of several new (late 20th century) interdisciplinary fields such as <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_science" title="Cognitive science">cognitive science</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Global_studies" title="Global studies">global studies</a>, and various <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_studies" title="Ethnic studies">ethnic studies</a>. </p><p>According to <a href="/wiki/Clifford_Geertz" title="Clifford Geertz">Clifford Geertz</a>, </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>...anthropology is perhaps the last of the great nineteenth-century conglomerate disciplines still for the most part organizationally intact. Long after natural history, moral philosophy, philology, and political economy have dissolved into their specialized successors, it has remained a diffuse assemblage of ethnology, human biology, comparative linguistics, and prehistory, held together mainly by the vested interests, sunk costs, and administrative habits of academia, and by a romantic image of comprehensive scholarship.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p><a href="/wiki/Sociocultural_anthropology" title="Sociocultural anthropology">Sociocultural anthropology</a> has been heavily influenced by <a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">structuralist</a> and postmodern theories, as well as a shift toward the analysis of modern societies. During the 1970s and 1990s, there was an <a href="/wiki/Epistemological" class="mw-redirect" title="Epistemological">epistemological</a> shift away from the <a href="/wiki/Positivist" class="mw-redirect" title="Positivist">positivist</a> traditions that had largely informed the discipline.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> During this shift, enduring questions about the nature and production of knowledge came to occupy a central place in cultural and social anthropology. In contrast, archaeology and biological anthropology remained largely positivist. Due to this difference in epistemology, the four sub-fields of anthropology have lacked cohesion over the last several decades.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sociocultural">Sociocultural</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anthropology&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Sociocultural"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">Cultural anthropology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Social_anthropology" title="Social anthropology">Social anthropology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sociocultural_anthropology" title="Sociocultural anthropology">Sociocultural anthropology</a></div> <p>Sociocultural anthropology draws together the principal axes of <a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">cultural anthropology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Social_anthropology" title="Social anthropology">social anthropology</a>. Cultural anthropology is the comparative study of the manifold ways in which people <i>make sense</i> of the world around them, while social anthropology is the study of the <i>relationships</i> among individuals and groups.<sup id="cite_ref-Ingold1994pxv_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ingold1994pxv-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cultural anthropology is more related to <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a>, literature and <a href="/wiki/The_arts" title="The arts">the arts</a> (how one's culture affects the experience for self and group, contributing to a more complete understanding of the people's knowledge, customs, and institutions), while social anthropology is more related to <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociology</a> and history.<sup id="cite_ref-Ingold1994pxv_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ingold1994pxv-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In that, it helps develop an understanding of social structures, typically of others and other populations (such as minorities, subgroups, dissidents, etc.). There is no hard-and-fast distinction between them, and these categories overlap to a considerable degree. </p><p>Inquiry in sociocultural anthropology is guided in part by <a href="/wiki/Cultural_relativism" title="Cultural relativism">cultural relativism</a>, the attempt to understand other societies in terms of their own cultural symbols and values.<sup id="cite_ref-Ingold1994p331_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ingold1994p331-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Accepting other cultures in their own terms moderates reductionism in cross-cultural comparison.<sup id="cite_ref-Ingold1996p18_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ingold1996p18-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This project is often accommodated in the field of <a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">ethnography</a>. Ethnography can refer to both a methodology and the product of ethnographic research, i.e. an ethnographic <a href="/wiki/Monograph" title="Monograph">monograph</a>. As a methodology, ethnography is based upon long-term fieldwork within a community or other research site. <a href="/wiki/Participant_observation" title="Participant observation">Participant observation</a> is one of the foundational methods of social and cultural anthropology.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ethnology" title="Ethnology">Ethnology</a> involves the systematic comparison of different cultures. The process of participant-observation can be especially helpful to understanding a culture from an <a href="/wiki/Emic" class="mw-redirect" title="Emic">emic</a> (conceptual, vs. <a href="/wiki/Etic" class="mw-redirect" title="Etic">etic</a>, or technical) point of view. </p><p>The study of <a href="/wiki/Kinship" title="Kinship">kinship</a> and <a href="/wiki/Social_organization" title="Social organization">social organization</a> is a central focus of sociocultural anthropology, as kinship is a <a href="/wiki/Human_universal" class="mw-redirect" title="Human universal">human universal</a>. Sociocultural anthropology also covers <a href="/wiki/Economic_anthropology" title="Economic anthropology">economic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Political_anthropology" title="Political anthropology">political organization</a>, law and conflict resolution, patterns of consumption and exchange, material culture, technology, infrastructure, gender relations, ethnicity, childrearing and socialization, religion, myth, symbols, values, etiquette, worldview, sports, music, nutrition, recreation, games, food, festivals, and language (which is also the object of study in linguistic anthropology).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Comparison across cultures is a key element of method in sociocultural anthropology, including the industrialized (and de-industrialized) West. The <a href="/wiki/Standard_Cross-Cultural_Sample" title="Standard Cross-Cultural Sample">Standard Cross-Cultural Sample</a> (SCCS) includes 186 such cultures.<sup id="cite_ref-MurdockWhite1969_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MurdockWhite1969-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biological">Biological</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anthropology&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Biological"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Biological_anthropology" title="Biological anthropology">Biological anthropology</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Human_remains.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Human_remains.jpg/220px-Human_remains.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Human_remains.jpg/330px-Human_remains.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Human_remains.jpg/440px-Human_remains.jpg 2x" data-file-width="561" data-file-height="410" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Forensic_anthropology" title="Forensic anthropology">Forensic anthropologists</a> can help identify skeletonized human remains, such as these found lying in scrub in Western Australia, c. 1900–1910.</figcaption></figure> <p>Biological anthropology and physical anthropology are synonymous terms to describe anthropological research focused on the study of humans and non-human primates in their biological, evolutionary, and demographic dimensions. It examines the biological and social factors that have affected the evolution of humans and other primates, and that generate, maintain or change contemporary genetic and physiological variation.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Archaeological">Archaeological</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anthropology&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Archaeological"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">Archaeology</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">Archaeology</a> is the study of the human past through its material remains. Artifacts, faunal remains, and human altered landscapes are evidence of the cultural and material lives of past societies. Archaeologists examine material remains in order to deduce patterns of past human behavior and cultural practices. Ethnoarchaeology is a type of archaeology that studies the practices and material remains of living human groups in order to gain a better understanding of the evidence left behind by past human groups, who are presumed to have lived in similar ways.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rosetta_Stone.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Rosetta_Stone.svg/220px-Rosetta_Stone.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Rosetta_Stone.svg/330px-Rosetta_Stone.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Rosetta_Stone.svg/440px-Rosetta_Stone.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Rosetta_Stone" title="Rosetta Stone">Rosetta Stone</a> was an example of ancient communication.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Linguistic">Linguistic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anthropology&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Linguistic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_anthropology" title="Linguistic anthropology">Linguistic anthropology</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_anthropology" title="Linguistic anthropology">Linguistic anthropology</a> (not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Anthropological_linguistics" title="Anthropological linguistics">anthropological linguistics</a>) seeks to understand the processes of human communications, verbal and non-verbal, variation in <a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">language</a> across time and space, the social uses of language, and the relationship between language and culture.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is the branch of anthropology that brings linguistic methods to bear on anthropological problems, linking the analysis of linguistic forms and processes to the interpretation of sociocultural processes. Linguistic anthropologists often draw on related fields including <a href="/wiki/Sociolinguistics" title="Sociolinguistics">sociolinguistics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pragmatics" title="Pragmatics">pragmatics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_linguistics" title="Cognitive linguistics">cognitive linguistics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Semiotics" title="Semiotics">semiotics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Discourse_analysis" title="Discourse analysis">discourse analysis</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Narrative" title="Narrative">narrative</a> analysis.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ethnography">Ethnography</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anthropology&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Ethnography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">Ethnography</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">Ethnography</a> is a method of analysing social or cultural interaction. It often involves <a href="/wiki/Participant_observation" title="Participant observation">participant observation</a> though an ethnographer may also draw from texts written by participants of in social interactions. Ethnography views first-hand experience and social context as important.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Tim_Ingold" title="Tim Ingold">Tim Ingold</a> distinguishes ethnography from anthropology arguing that anthropology tries to construct general theories of human experience, applicable in general and novel settings, while ethnography concerns itself with fidelity. He argues that the anthropologist must make his writing consistent with their understanding of literature and other theory but notes that ethnography may be of use to the anthropologists and the fields inform one another.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Key_topics_by_field:_sociocultural">Key topics by field: sociocultural</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anthropology&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Key topics by field: sociocultural"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Art,_media,_music,_dance_and_film"><span id="Art.2C_media.2C_music.2C_dance_and_film"></span>Art, media, music, dance and film</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anthropology&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Art, media, music, dance and film"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on the</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_art" title="Anthropology of art">Anthropology of art</a>,<br /><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_media" title="Anthropology of media">media</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethnomusicology" title="Ethnomusicology">music</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethnochoreology" title="Ethnochoreology">dance</a><br /> and <a href="/wiki/Visual_anthropology" title="Visual anthropology">film</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%27David%27_by_Michelangelo_JBU16.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/%27David%27_by_Michelangelo_JBU16.JPG/120px-%27David%27_by_Michelangelo_JBU16.JPG" decoding="async" width="120" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/%27David%27_by_Michelangelo_JBU16.JPG/180px-%27David%27_by_Michelangelo_JBU16.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/%27David%27_by_Michelangelo_JBU16.JPG/240px-%27David%27_by_Michelangelo_JBU16.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="3456" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align: center;color: var(--color-base)">Basic concepts</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Color_symbolism" title="Color symbolism">Color symbolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_culture" title="Visual culture">Visual culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body_culture_studies" title="Body culture studies">Body culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Material_culture" title="Material culture">Material culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_media" title="New media">New media</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align: center;color: var(--color-base)">Case studies</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <dl><dt>Art</dt> <dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Visual_arts_by_indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Visual arts by indigenous peoples of the Americas">Art of the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Australian_art" title="Indigenous Australian art">Indigenous Australian art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Oceanic art">Oceanic art</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Film</dt> <dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Nanook_of_the_North" title="Nanook of the North">Nanook of the North</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Ax_Fight" title="The Ax Fight">The Ax Fight</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/N%C7%83ai,_the_Story_of_a_%C7%83Kung_Woman" title="Nǃai, the Story of a ǃKung Woman">Nǃai, the Story of a ǃKung Woman</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Incidents_of_Travel_in_Chichen_Itza" title="Incidents of Travel in Chichen Itza">Incidents of Travel in Chichen Itza</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Doon_School_Quintet" title="The Doon School Quintet">The Doon School Quintet</a></i></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align: center;color: var(--color-base)">Museums</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Anthropological_Archives" title="National Anthropological Archives">National Anthropological Archives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centro_Cultural_Mexiquense" title="Centro Cultural Mexiquense">Centro Cultural Mexiquense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Anthropology_at_UBC" title="Museum of Anthropology at UBC">Museum of Anthropology at UBC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Archaeology_and_Anthropology,_University_of_Cambridge" title="Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, University of Cambridge">Museum of Anthropology, Cambridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Indian_Arts_and_Culture" title="Museum of Indian Arts and Culture">Museum of Indian Arts and Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Hull_Fleming_Museum" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Hull Fleming Museum">Robert Hull Fleming Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_museums_with_major_collections_in_ethnography_and_anthropology" title="List of museums with major collections in ethnography and anthropology">List of museums</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align: center;color: var(--color-base)">Related articles</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethnographic_film" title="Ethnographic film">Ethnographic film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_ethnography" title="Video ethnography">Video ethnography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnocinema" title="Ethnocinema">Ethnocinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_visual_anthropology_films" title="List of visual anthropology films">List of ethnographic films</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Mead_Film_Festival" title="Margaret Mead Film Festival">Margaret Mead Film Festival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cantometrics" title="Cantometrics">Cantometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Museum_anthropology" title="Museum anthropology">Museum anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salvage_ethnography" title="Salvage ethnography">Salvage ethnography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_art" title="Tribal art">Tribal art</a>/<a href="/wiki/Folk_art" title="Folk art">Folk art</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align: center;color: var(--color-base)">Major theorists</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tim_Asch" title="Tim Asch">Tim Asch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregory_Bateson" title="Gregory Bateson">Gregory Bateson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Boas" title="Franz Boas">Franz Boas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Bourdieu" title="Pierre Bourdieu">Pierre Bourdieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Collier_(anthropologist)" class="mw-redirect" title="John Collier (anthropologist)">John Collier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frances_Densmore" title="Frances Densmore">Frances Densmore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_J._Flaherty" title="Robert J. Flaherty">Robert J. Flaherty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Gardner_(anthropologist)" title="Robert Gardner (anthropologist)">Robert Gardner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Gell" title="Alfred Gell">Alfred Gell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Hugh_Layton" title="Robert Hugh Layton">Robert Hugh Layton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_L%C3%A9vi-Strauss" title="Claude Lévi-Strauss">Claude Lévi-Strauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alan_Lomax" title="Alan Lomax">Alan Lomax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Marshall_(filmmaker)" title="John Marshall (filmmaker)">John Marshall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Mead" title="Margaret Mead">Margaret Mead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alan_Merriam" class="mw-redirect" title="Alan Merriam">Alan Merriam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruno_Nettl" title="Bruno Nettl">Bruno Nettl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hortense_Powdermaker" title="Hortense Powdermaker">Hortense Powdermaker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Rouch" title="Jean Rouch">Jean Rouch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_MacDougall" title="David MacDougall">David MacDougall</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <a href="/wiki/Social_anthropology" title="Social anthropology">Social</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">cultural anthropology</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Anthropology_of_art" title="Template:Anthropology of art"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Anthropology_of_art" title="Template talk:Anthropology of art"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Anthropology_of_art" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Anthropology of art"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Art">Art</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anthropology&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Art"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_art" title="Anthropology of art">Anthropology of art</a></div> <p>One of the central problems in the anthropology of art concerns the universality of 'art' as a cultural phenomenon. Several anthropologists have noted that the Western categories of 'painting', 'sculpture', or 'literature', conceived as independent artistic activities, do not exist, or exist in a significantly different form, in most non-Western contexts.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To surmount this difficulty, anthropologists of art have focused on formal features in objects which, without exclusively being 'artistic', have certain evident 'aesthetic' qualities. Boas' <i>Primitive Art</i>, <a href="/wiki/Claude_L%C3%A9vi-Strauss" title="Claude Lévi-Strauss">Claude Lévi-Strauss</a>' <i>The Way of the Masks</i> (1982) or Geertz's 'Art as Cultural System' (1983) are some examples in this trend to transform the anthropology of 'art' into an anthropology of culturally specific 'aesthetics'.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Media">Media</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anthropology&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Media"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Media_anthropology" class="mw-redirect" title="Media anthropology">Media anthropology</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Punu_mask_Gabon.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Punu_mask_Gabon.JPG/170px-Punu_mask_Gabon.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="278" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Punu_mask_Gabon.JPG/255px-Punu_mask_Gabon.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Punu_mask_Gabon.JPG/340px-Punu_mask_Gabon.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1501" data-file-height="2455" /></a><figcaption>A Punu tribe mask, Gabon, Central Africa</figcaption></figure> <p>Media anthropology (also known as the anthropology of media or mass media) emphasizes <a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">ethnographic studies</a> as a means of understanding producers, audiences, and other cultural and social aspects of mass media. The types of ethnographic contexts explored range from contexts of media production (e.g., ethnographies of newsrooms in newspapers, journalists in the field, film production) to contexts of media reception, following audiences in their everyday responses to media. Other types include <a href="/wiki/Cyber_anthropology" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyber anthropology">cyber anthropology</a>, a relatively new area of <a href="/wiki/Internet_research" title="Internet research">internet research</a>, as well as ethnographies of other areas of research which happen to involve media, such as development work, <a href="/wiki/Social_movement" title="Social movement">social movements</a>, or health education. This is in addition to many classic ethnographic contexts, where media such as radio, <a href="/wiki/Newspaper" title="Newspaper">the press</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_media" title="New media">new media</a>, and television have started to make their presences felt since the early 1990s.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Music">Music</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anthropology&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Music"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ethnomusicology" title="Ethnomusicology">Ethnomusicology</a></div> <p>Ethnomusicology is an academic field encompassing various approaches to the study of music (broadly defined), that emphasize its cultural, social, material, cognitive, biological, and other dimensions or contexts instead of or in addition to its isolated sound component or any particular repertoire. </p><p>Ethnomusicology can be used in a wide variety of fields, such as teaching, politics, cultural anthropology etc. While the origins of ethnomusicology date back to the 18th and 19th centuries, it was formally termed "ethnomusicology" by Dutch scholar <a href="/wiki/Jaap_Kunst" title="Jaap Kunst">Jaap Kunst</a> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1950</span>. Later, the influence of study in this area spawned the creation of the periodical <i><a href="/wiki/Ethnomusicology_(academic_journal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnomusicology (academic journal)">Ethnomusicology</a></i> and the <a href="/wiki/Society_for_Ethnomusicology" title="Society for Ethnomusicology">Society of Ethnomusicology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Visual">Visual</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anthropology&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Visual"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Visual_anthropology" title="Visual anthropology">Visual anthropology</a></div> <p>Visual anthropology is concerned, in part, with the study and production of <a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">ethnographic</a> photography, film and, since the mid-1990s, <a href="/wiki/New_media" title="New media">new media</a>. While the term is sometimes used interchangeably with <a href="/wiki/Ethnographic_film" title="Ethnographic film">ethnographic film</a>, visual anthropology also encompasses the anthropological study of visual representation, including areas such as performance, museums, art, and the production and <a href="/wiki/Reception_theory" title="Reception theory">reception</a> of <a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_media" title="Anthropology of media">mass media</a>. Visual representations from all cultures, such as sandpaintings, tattoos, sculptures and reliefs, cave paintings, scrimshaw, jewelry, hieroglyphs, paintings, and photographs are included in the focus of visual anthropology.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economic,_political_economic,_applied_and_development"><span id="Economic.2C_political_economic.2C_applied_and_development"></span>Economic, political economic, applied and development</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anthropology&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Economic, political economic, applied and development"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle"><i>Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Economic_anthropology" title="Category:Economic anthropology">a series</a> on</i></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#ccccff;"><a href="/wiki/Economic_anthropology" title="Economic anthropology">Economic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Applied_anthropology" title="Applied anthropology">applied</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_development" title="Anthropology of development">development <br />anthropology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align: center;color: var(--color-base)">Basic concepts</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commodification" title="Commodification">Commodification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barter" title="Barter">Barter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debt" title="Debt">Debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_studies_of_finance" title="Social studies of finance">Finance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embeddedness" title="Embeddedness">Embeddedness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reciprocity_(cultural_anthropology)" title="Reciprocity (cultural anthropology)">Reciprocity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redistribution_(cultural_anthropology)" title="Redistribution (cultural anthropology)">Redistribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropological_theories_of_value" title="Anthropological theories of value">Value</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wealth#Anthropological_views" title="Wealth">Wealth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gift_economy" title="Gift economy">Gift economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limited_good" title="Limited good">Limited good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inalienable_possessions" title="Inalienable possessions">Inalienable possessions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commodity_pathway_diversion" title="Commodity pathway diversion">Singularization <span style="font-size:85%;">(commodity pathway)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spheres_of_exchange" title="Spheres of exchange">Spheres of exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_capital" title="Social capital">Social capital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_capital" title="Cultural capital">Cultural capital</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align: center;color: var(--color-base)">Provisioning systems</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hunter-gatherer" title="Hunter-gatherer">Hunting-gathering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pastoralism" title="Pastoralism">Pastoralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nomadic_pastoralism" title="Nomadic pastoralism">Nomadic pastoralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shifting_cultivation" title="Shifting cultivation">Shifting cultivation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_economy" title="Moral economy">Moral economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peasant_economics" title="Peasant economics">Peasant economics</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align: center;color: var(--color-base)">Case studies</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <dl><dt><i>Prestations</i></dt> <dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kula_ring" title="Kula ring">Kula ring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moka_exchange" title="Moka exchange">Moka exchange</a></li></ul> <dl><dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Potlatch" title="Potlatch">Potlatch</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><i>Gifting</i></dt> <dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gifting_remittances" title="Gifting remittances">Gifting remittances</a></li></ul> <dl><dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Organ_gifting" title="Organ gifting">Organ gifting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shell_money" title="Shell money">Shell money</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><i>Provisioning</i></dt> <dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ach%C3%A9_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Aché people">Aché people</a> (hunter-gatherers)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Batek_people" title="Batek people">Batek people</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><i>Colonialism and development</i></dt> <dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Anti-Politics_Machine" title="The Anti-Politics Machine">The Anti-Politics Machine</a></i></li></ul> <dl><dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Europe_and_the_People_Without_History" title="Europe and the People Without History">Europe and the <br />People Without History</a></i></li></ul> <dl><dt><i>Political economy</i></dt> <dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_economy" title="Jim Crow economy">Jim Crow economy</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align: center;color: var(--color-base)">Related articles</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_political_economy" title="Critique of political economy">Critique of political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Original_affluent_society" title="Original affluent society">Original affluent society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formalist%E2%80%93substantivist_debate" title="Formalist–substantivist debate">Formalist–substantivist debate</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Great_Transformation_(book)" title="The Great Transformation (book)">The Great Transformation</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peasant_economics" title="Peasant economics">Peasant economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_poverty" title="Culture of poverty">Culture of poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_economy_in_anthropology" title="Political economy in anthropology">Political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_formation" title="State formation">State formation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutritional_anthropology" title="Nutritional anthropology">Nutritional anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heritage_commodification" title="Heritage commodification">Heritage commodification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_development" title="Anthropology of development">Anthropology of development</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align: center;color: var(--color-base)">Major theorists</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Bohannan" title="Paul Bohannan">Paul Bohannan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Chayanov" title="Alexander Chayanov">Alexander Chayanov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Diamond" title="Stanley Diamond">Stanley Diamond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Firth" title="Raymond Firth">Raymond Firth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Godelier" title="Maurice Godelier">Maurice Godelier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Graeber" title="David Graeber">David Graeber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jane_I._Guyer" title="Jane I. Guyer">Jane I. Guyer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keith_Hart_(anthropologist)" title="Keith Hart (anthropologist)">Keith Hart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marvin_Harris" title="Marvin Harris">Marvin Harris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bronis%C5%82aw_Malinowski" title="Bronisław Malinowski">Bronisław Malinowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcel_Mauss" title="Marcel Mauss">Marcel Mauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidney_Mintz" title="Sidney Mintz">Sidney Mintz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Polanyi" title="Karl Polanyi">Karl Polanyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marshall_Sahlins" title="Marshall Sahlins">Marshall Sahlins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harold_K._Schneider" title="Harold K. Schneider">Harold K. Schneider</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Wolf" title="Eric Wolf">Eric Wolf</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <a href="/wiki/Social_anthropology" title="Social anthropology">Social</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">cultural anthropology</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Economic_%26_development_anthropology" title="Template:Economic & development anthropology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Economic_%26_development_anthropology" title="Template talk:Economic & development anthropology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Economic_%26_development_anthropology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Economic & development anthropology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Economic">Economic</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anthropology&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Economic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Economic_anthropology" title="Economic anthropology">Economic anthropology</a></div> <p>Economic anthropology attempts to explain human economic behavior in its widest historic, geographic and cultural scope. It has a complex relationship with the discipline of economics, of which it is highly critical. Its origins as a sub-field of anthropology begin with the Polish-British founder of anthropology, <a href="/wiki/Bronis%C5%82aw_Malinowski" title="Bronisław Malinowski">Bronisław Malinowski</a>, and his French compatriot, <a href="/wiki/Marcel_Mauss" title="Marcel Mauss">Marcel Mauss</a>, on the nature of gift-giving exchange (or <a href="/wiki/Reciprocity_(cultural_anthropology)" title="Reciprocity (cultural anthropology)">reciprocity</a>) as an alternative to market exchange. Economic Anthropology remains, for the most part, focused upon exchange. The school of thought derived from Marx and known as Political Economy focuses on production, in contrast.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Economic anthropologists have abandoned the primitivist niche they were relegated to by economists, and have now turned to examine corporations, banks, and the <a href="/wiki/Global_financial_system" title="Global financial system">global financial system</a> from an anthropological perspective.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Political_economy">Political economy</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anthropology&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Political economy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Political_economy_in_anthropology" title="Political economy in anthropology">Political economy in anthropology</a></div> <p>Political economy in anthropology is the application of the theories and methods of <a href="/wiki/Historical_materialism" title="Historical materialism">historical materialism</a> to the traditional concerns of anthropology, including, but not limited to, non-capitalist societies. Political economy introduced questions of history and colonialism to ahistorical anthropological theories of social structure and culture. Three main areas of interest rapidly developed. The first of these areas was concerned with the "pre-capitalist" societies that were subject to evolutionary "tribal" stereotypes. Sahlin's work on hunter-gatherers as the "original affluent society" did much to dissipate that image. The second area was concerned with the vast majority of the world's population at the time, the peasantry, many of whom were involved in complex revolutionary wars such as in Vietnam. The third area was on colonialism, imperialism, and the creation of the capitalist <a href="/wiki/World-system" title="World-system">world-system</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Roseberry_1988_161–85_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Roseberry_1988_161–85-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More recently, these political economists have more directly addressed issues of industrial (and post-industrial) capitalism around the world. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Applied">Applied</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anthropology&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Applied"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Applied_anthropology" title="Applied anthropology">Applied anthropology</a></div> <p>Applied anthropology refers to the application of the method and theory of anthropology to the analysis and solution of practical problems. It is a "complex of related, research-based, instrumental methods which produce change or stability in specific cultural systems through the provision of data, initiation of direct action, and/or the formulation of policy".<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Applied anthropology is the practical side of anthropological research; it includes researcher involvement and activism within the participating community. It is closely related to <a href="/wiki/Development_anthropology" title="Development anthropology">development anthropology</a> (distinct from the more critical <a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_development" title="Anthropology of development">anthropology of development</a>).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Development">Development</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anthropology&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Development"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_development" title="Anthropology of development">anthropology of development</a></div> <p>Anthropology of development tends to view development from a <i>critical</i> perspective. The kind of issues addressed and implications for the approach involve pondering why, if a key development goal is to alleviate poverty, is poverty increasing? Why is there such a gap between plans and outcomes? Why are those working in development so willing to disregard history and the lessons it might offer? Why is development so externally driven rather than having an internal basis? In short, why does so much planned development fail? </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kinship,_feminism,_gender_and_sexuality"><span id="Kinship.2C_feminism.2C_gender_and_sexuality"></span>Kinship, feminism, gender and sexuality</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anthropology&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Kinship, feminism, gender and sexuality"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1132462144">.mw-parser-output .template-anthropology-of-kinship .sidebar-caption{padding-bottom:0.3em;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .template-anthropology-of-kinship .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:#ccccff;padding-top:0.2em;display:block;margin-bottom:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .template-anthropology-of-kinship .sidebar-list-title{background:lavender;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .template-anthropology-of-kinship .sidebar-subgroup .sidebar-heading{background:#e6e6ff;font-style:italic;font-weight:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist template-anthropology-of-kinship"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Kinship_and_descent" title="Category:Kinship and descent">a series</a> on the</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle">Anthropology of <a href="/wiki/Kinship" title="Kinship">kinship</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Eg-filiation.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Eg-filiation.svg/100px-Eg-filiation.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="101" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Eg-filiation.svg/150px-Eg-filiation.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Eg-filiation.svg/200px-Eg-filiation.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="280" data-file-height="283" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Basic concepts</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Family" title="Family">Family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lineage_(anthropology)" title="Lineage (anthropology)">Lineage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affinity_(law)" title="Affinity (law)">Affinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consanguinity" title="Consanguinity">Consanguinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marriage" title="Marriage">Marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incest_taboo" title="Incest taboo">Incest taboo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endogamy" title="Endogamy">Endogamy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exogamy" title="Exogamy">Exogamy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moiety_(kinship)" title="Moiety (kinship)">Moiety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monogamy" title="Monogamy">Monogamy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polygyny" title="Polygyny">Polygyny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polygamy" title="Polygamy">Polygamy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concubinage" title="Concubinage">Concubinage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyandry" title="Polyandry">Polyandry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bride_price" title="Bride price">Bride price</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bride_service" title="Bride service">Bride service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dowry" title="Dowry">Dowry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parallel_and_cross_cousins" title="Parallel and cross cousins">Parallel / cross cousins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cousin_marriage" title="Cousin marriage">Cousin marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levirate_marriage" title="Levirate marriage">Levirate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sororate_marriage" title="Sororate marriage">Sororate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posthumous_marriage" title="Posthumous marriage">Posthumous marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joking_relationship" title="Joking relationship">Joking relationship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clan" title="Clan">Clan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cohabitation" title="Cohabitation">Cohabitation</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Fictive_kinship" title="Fictive kinship">Fictive</a> / <a href="/wiki/Milk_kinship" title="Milk kinship">Milk</a> / <a href="/wiki/Nurture_kinship" title="Nurture kinship">Nurture kinship</a></span></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Descent</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup hlist"> <table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cognatic_kinship" title="Cognatic kinship">Cognatic</a> / <a href="/wiki/Bilateral_descent" title="Bilateral descent">Bilateral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matrilateral" title="Matrilateral">Matrilateral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lineal_descendant" title="Lineal descendant">Lineal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collateral_(kinship)" title="Collateral (kinship)">Collateral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_society" title="House society">House society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avunculate" title="Avunculate">Avunculate</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Linealities</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ambilineality" title="Ambilineality">Ambilineality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unilineality" title="Unilineality">Unilineality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matrilineality" title="Matrilineality">Matrilineality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrilineality" title="Patrilineality">Patrilineality</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Household forms and residence</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Extended_family" title="Extended family">Extended</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matrifocal_family" title="Matrifocal family">Matrifocal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matrilocal_residence" title="Matrilocal residence">Matrilocal</a></li> <li><br /><a href="/wiki/Neolocal_residence" title="Neolocal residence">Neolocal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_family" title="Nuclear family">Nuclear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrilocal_residence" title="Patrilocal residence">Patrilocal</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Terminology</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kinship_terminology" title="Kinship terminology">Kinship terminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classificatory_kinship" title="Classificatory kinship">Classificatory terminologies</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> By group</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iroquois_kinship" title="Iroquois kinship">Iroquois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crow_kinship" title="Crow kinship">Crow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omaha_kinship" title="Omaha kinship">Omaha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eskimo_kinship" title="Eskimo kinship">Eskimo (Inuit)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_kinship" title="Hawaiian kinship">Hawaiian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sudanese_kinship" title="Sudanese kinship">Sudanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinship_terminology#Dravidian" title="Kinship terminology">Dravidian <i>(debated)</i></a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Case studies</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_kinship" title="Australian Aboriginal kinship">Australian Aboriginal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_kinship" title="Burmese kinship">Burmese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_kinship" title="Chinese kinship">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippine_kinship" title="Philippine kinship">Philippine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyandry_in_Tibet" title="Polyandry in Tibet">Polyandry in Tibet</a> / <a href="/wiki/Polyandry_in_India" title="Polyandry in India">in India</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Feminist</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chambri_people#Marriage_within_the_Chambri" title="Chambri people">Chambri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mosuo_women" class="mw-redirect" title="Mosuo women">Mosuo</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Sexuality</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Coming_of_Age_in_Samoa" title="Coming of Age in Samoa">Coming of Age in Samoa</a></i></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Major theorists</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diane_Bell_(anthropologist)" title="Diane Bell (anthropologist)">Diane Bell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Boellstorff" title="Tom Boellstorff">Tom Boellstorff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Goody" title="Jack Goody">Jack Goody</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._D._Hamilton" title="W. D. Hamilton">W. D. Hamilton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Herdt" title="Gilbert Herdt">Gilbert Herdt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Don_Kulick" title="Don Kulick">Don Kulick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Lancaster" title="Roger Lancaster">Roger Lancaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louise_Lamphere" title="Louise Lamphere">Louise Lamphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleanor_Leacock" title="Eleanor Leacock">Eleanor Leacock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_L%C3%A9vi-Strauss" title="Claude Lévi-Strauss">Claude Lévi-Strauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bronis%C5%82aw_Malinowski" title="Bronisław Malinowski">Bronisław Malinowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Mead" title="Margaret Mead">Margaret Mead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henrietta_Moore" title="Henrietta Moore">Henrietta Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lewis_H._Morgan" title="Lewis H. Morgan">Lewis H. Morgan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_O._Murray" title="Stephen O. Murray">Stephen O. Murray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michelle_Rosaldo" title="Michelle Rosaldo">Michelle Rosaldo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gayle_Rubin" title="Gayle Rubin">Gayle Rubin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_M._Schneider" title="David M. Schneider">David M. Schneider</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marilyn_Strathern" title="Marilyn Strathern">Marilyn Strathern</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Related articles</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alliance_theory" title="Alliance theory">Alliance theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_matrilineal_or_matrilocal_societies" title="List of matrilineal or matrilocal societies">Matrilineal / matrilocal societies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_anthropology" title="Feminist anthropology">Feminist anthropology</a></li> <li><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><i><a href="/wiki/Sex_and_Repression_in_Savage_Society" title="Sex and Repression in Savage Society">Sex and Repression in Savage Society</a></i></div></li> <li><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><i><a href="/wiki/Social_Bonding_and_Nurture_Kinship" title="Social Bonding and Nurture Kinship">Social Bonding and Nurture Kinship</a></i></div></li> <li><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/The_Traffic_in_Women:_Notes_on_the_Political_Economy_of_Sex" title="The Traffic in Women: Notes on the Political Economy of Sex">"The Traffic in Women"</a></div></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <a href="/wiki/Social_anthropology" title="Social anthropology">Social anthropology</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">Cultural anthropology</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Anthropology_of_kinship" title="Template:Anthropology of kinship"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Anthropology_of_kinship" title="Template talk:Anthropology of kinship"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Anthropology_of_kinship" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Anthropology of kinship"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Kinship">Kinship</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anthropology&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Kinship"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Kinship" title="Kinship">Kinship</a></div> <p><i>Kinship</i> can refer both to <i>the study of</i> the patterns of social relationships in one or more human cultures, or it can refer to <i>the patterns of social relationships</i> themselves. Over its history, anthropology has developed a number of related concepts and terms, such as "<a href="/wiki/Kinship" title="Kinship">descent</a>", "<a href="/wiki/Descent_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Descent group">descent groups</a>", "<a href="/wiki/Lineage_(anthropology)" title="Lineage (anthropology)">lineages</a>", "<a href="/wiki/Affinity_(law)" title="Affinity (law)">affines</a>", "<a href="/wiki/Cognatic_kinship" title="Cognatic kinship">cognates</a>", and even "<a href="/wiki/Fictive_kinship" title="Fictive kinship">fictive kinship</a>". Broadly, kinship patterns may be considered to include people related both by descent (one's social relations during development), and also relatives by marriage. Within kinship you have two different families. People have their biological families and it is the people they share DNA with. This is called <a href="/wiki/Consanguinity" title="Consanguinity">consanguinity</a> or "blood ties".<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="This claim needs references to better sources. (November 2023)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> People can also have a chosen family in which they chose who they want to be a part of their family. In some cases, people are closer with their chosen family more than with their biological families.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Feminist">Feminist</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anthropology&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Feminist"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Feminist_anthropology" title="Feminist anthropology">Feminist anthropology</a></div> <p>Feminist anthropology is a four field approach to anthropology (<a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">archeological</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biological_anthropology" title="Biological anthropology">biological</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">cultural</a>, <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_anthropology" title="Linguistic anthropology">linguistic</a>) that seeks to reduce male bias in research findings, anthropological hiring practices, and the scholarly production of knowledge. Anthropology engages often with feminists from non-Western traditions, whose perspectives and experiences can differ from those of white feminists of Europe, America, and elsewhere. From the perspective of the <a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">Western world</a>, historically such 'peripheral' perspectives have been ignored, observed only from an outsider perspective, and regarded as less-valid or less-important than knowledge from the Western world.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Exploring and addressing that double bias against women from marginalized racial or ethnic groups is of particular interest in <a href="/wiki/Intersectional" class="mw-redirect" title="Intersectional">intersectional</a> feminist anthropology. </p><p>Feminist anthropologists have stated that their publications have contributed to anthropology, along the way correcting against the systemic biases beginning with the "patriarchal origins of anthropology (and (academia)" and note that from 1891 to 1930 doctorates in anthropology went to males more than 85%, more than 81% were under 35, and only 7.2% to anyone over 40 years old, thus reflecting an age gap in the pursuit of anthropology by <a href="/wiki/First-wave_feminism" title="First-wave feminism">first-wave feminists</a> until later in life.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This correction of systemic bias may include mainstream <a href="/wiki/Feminist_theory" title="Feminist theory">feminist theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/History" title="History">history</a>, <a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">archaeology</a>, and anthropology. Feminist anthropologists are often concerned with the construction of <a href="/wiki/Gender" title="Gender">gender</a> across societies. Gender constructs are of particular interest when studying <a href="/wiki/Sexism" title="Sexism">sexism</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>According to <a href="/wiki/St._Clair_Drake" title="St. Clair Drake">St. Clair Drake</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vera_Mae_Green" title="Vera Mae Green">Vera Mae Green</a> was, until "[w]ell into the 1960s", the only <a href="/wiki/African-American" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American">African American</a> female <a href="/wiki/Anthropologist" title="Anthropologist">anthropologist</a> who was also a <a href="/wiki/Caribbeanist" title="Caribbeanist">Caribbeanist</a>. She studied ethnic and family relations in the <a href="/wiki/Caribbean" title="Caribbean">Caribbean</a> as well as the United States, and thereby tried to improve the way black life, experiences, and culture were studied.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, Zora Neale Hurston, although often primarily considered to be a literary author, was trained in anthropology by Franz Boas, and published <i>Tell my Horse</i> about her "anthropological observations" of voodoo in the Caribbean (1938).<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Feminist anthropology is inclusive of the anthropology of birth<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as a specialization, which is the anthropological study of <a href="/wiki/Pregnancy" title="Pregnancy">pregnancy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Childbirth" title="Childbirth">childbirth</a> within cultures and societies. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medical,_nutritional,_psychological,_cognitive_and_transpersonal"><span id="Medical.2C_nutritional.2C_psychological.2C_cognitive_and_transpersonal"></span>Medical, nutritional, psychological, cognitive and transpersonal</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anthropology&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Medical, nutritional, psychological, cognitive and transpersonal"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="padding-top:0.2em;"><i>Part of <a href="/wiki/Medical_anthropology" title="Medical anthropology">a series</a> on</i></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#ccccff;"><a href="/wiki/Medical_anthropology" title="Medical anthropology">Medical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Psychological_anthropology" title="Psychological anthropology">psychological<br />anthropology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align: center;color: var(--color-base)">Basic concepts</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Health" title="Health">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture-bound_syndrome" title="Culture-bound syndrome">Culture-bound syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_bind" title="Double bind">Double bind</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align: center;color: var(--color-base)">Case studies</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Navajo_medicine" title="Navajo medicine">Navajo medicine</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align: center;color: var(--color-base)">Related articles</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nutritional_anthropology" title="Nutritional anthropology">Nutritional anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_anthropology" title="Psychological anthropology">Psychological anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_anthropology" title="Cognitive anthropology">Cognitive anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transpersonal_anthropology" class="mw-redirect" title="Transpersonal anthropology">Transpersonal anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnomedicine" title="Ethnomedicine">Ethnomedicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_ethnography" title="Clinical ethnography">Clinical ethnography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_medical_anthropology" title="Critical medical anthropology">Critical medical anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-cultural_psychiatry" title="Cross-cultural psychiatry">Cross-cultural psychiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Person-centered_ethnography" title="Person-centered ethnography">Person-centered ethnography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_for_Medical_Anthropology" title="Society for Medical Anthropology">Society for Medical Anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_character_studies" title="National character studies">National character studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syndemic" title="Syndemic">Syndemic</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align: center;color: var(--color-base)">Major theorists</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gregory_Bateson" title="Gregory Bateson">Gregory Bateson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Bloch" title="Maurice Bloch">Maurice Bloch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_L._Briggs" title="Charles L. Briggs">Charles L. Briggs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veena_Das" title="Veena Das">Veena Das</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Devereux" title="George Devereux">George Devereux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cora_Du_Bois" title="Cora Du Bois">Cora Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Farmer" title="Paul Farmer">Paul Farmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_M._J._Fischer" title="Michael M. J. Fischer">Michael M. J. Fischer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Kleinman" title="Arthur Kleinman">Arthur Kleinman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Laughlin" title="Charles Laughlin">Charles Laughlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._Thomas_Lawson" title="E. Thomas Lawson">E. Thomas Lawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_I._Levy" title="Robert I. Levy">Robert I. Levy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Linton" title="Ralph Linton">Ralph Linton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanya_Luhrmann" title="Tanya Luhrmann">Tanya Luhrmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marvin_Opler" title="Marvin Opler">Marvin Opler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michelle_Rosaldo" title="Michelle Rosaldo">Michelle Rosaldo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nancy_Scheper-Hughes" title="Nancy Scheper-Hughes">Nancy Scheper-Hughes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Shweder" title="Richard Shweder">Richard Shweder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merrill_Singer" title="Merrill Singer">Merrill Singer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dan_Sperber" title="Dan Sperber">Dan Sperber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melford_Spiro" title="Melford Spiro">Melford Spiro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beatrice_Blyth_Whiting" title="Beatrice Blyth Whiting">Beatrice Whiting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Whiting_(anthropologist)" title="John Whiting (anthropologist)">John Whiting</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align: center;color: var(--color-base)">Journals</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Culture,_Medicine_and_Psychiatry" title="Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry">Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ethos" title="Ethos">Ethos</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Medical_Anthropology_Quarterly" title="Medical Anthropology Quarterly">Medical Anthropology Quarterly</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Transcultural_Psychiatry" title="Transcultural Psychiatry">Transcultural Psychiatry</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Journal_of_Cognition_and_Culture&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Journal of Cognition and Culture (page does not exist)">Journal of Cognition and Culture</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_Consciousness" title="Anthropology of Consciousness">Anthropology of Consciousness</a></i></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="padding-top:0.15em;"> <a href="/wiki/Social_anthropology" title="Social anthropology">Social</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">cultural anthropology</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Medical_anthropology" title="Template:Medical anthropology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Medical_anthropology" title="Template talk:Medical anthropology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Medical_anthropology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Medical anthropology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Medical">Medical</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anthropology&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Medical"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Medical_anthropology" title="Medical anthropology">Medical anthropology</a></div> <p>Medical anthropology is an interdisciplinary field which studies "human health and disease, health care systems, and biocultural adaptation".<sup id="cite_ref-McElroy1996_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McElroy1996-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is believed that William Caudell was the first to discover the field of medical anthropology. Currently, research in medical anthropology is one of the main growth areas in the field of anthropology as a whole. It focuses on the following six basic fields:<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>The development of systems of medical knowledge and medical care</li> <li>The patient-physician relationship</li> <li>The integration of alternative medical systems in culturally diverse environments</li> <li>The interaction of social, environmental and biological factors which influence health and illness both in the individual and the community as a whole</li> <li>The critical analysis of interaction between psychiatric services and migrant populations ("critical ethnopsychiatry": Beneduce 2004, 2007)</li> <li>The impact of biomedicine and biomedical technologies in non-Western settings</li></ul> <p>Other subjects that have become central to medical anthropology worldwide are violence and social suffering (Farmer, 1999, 2003; Beneduce, 2010) as well as other issues that involve physical and psychological harm and suffering that are not a result of illness. On the other hand, there are fields that intersect with medical anthropology in terms of research methodology and theoretical production, such as <i>cultural psychiatry</i> and <i>transcultural psychiatry</i> or <i>ethnopsychiatry</i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Nutritional">Nutritional</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anthropology&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Nutritional"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Nutritional_anthropology" title="Nutritional anthropology">Nutritional anthropology</a></div> <p>Nutritional anthropology is a synthetic concept that deals with the interplay between <a href="/wiki/Economic_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic systems">economic systems</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nutrition" title="Nutrition">nutritional status</a> and <a href="/wiki/Food_security" title="Food security">food security</a>, and how changes in the former affect the latter. If economic and environmental changes in a community affect access to food, food security, and dietary health, then this interplay between culture and biology is in turn connected to broader historical and <a href="/wiki/Economic_history" title="Economic history">economic trends</a> associated with globalization. Nutritional status affects overall health status, work performance potential, and the overall potential for economic development (either in terms of human development or traditional western models) for any given group of people. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Psychological">Psychological</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anthropology&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Psychological"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Psychological_anthropology" title="Psychological anthropology">Psychological anthropology</a></div> <p>Psychological anthropology is an interdisciplinary subfield of anthropology that studies the interaction of <a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">cultural</a> and <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">mental processes</a>. This subfield tends to focus on ways in which humans' development and <a href="/wiki/Enculturation" title="Enculturation">enculturation</a> within a particular cultural group – with its own history, language, practices, and conceptual categories – shape processes of human <a href="/wiki/Cognition" title="Cognition">cognition</a>, <a href="/wiki/Emotion" title="Emotion">emotion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">perception</a>, <a href="/wiki/Motivation" title="Motivation">motivation</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mental_health" title="Mental health">mental health</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It also examines how the understanding of cognition, emotion, motivation, and similar psychological processes inform or constrain our models of cultural and social processes.<sup id="cite_ref-D'Andrade_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-D'Andrade-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cognitive">Cognitive</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anthropology&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Cognitive"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_anthropology" title="Cognitive anthropology">Cognitive anthropology</a></div> <p>Cognitive anthropology seeks to explain patterns of shared knowledge, cultural <a href="/wiki/Innovation" title="Innovation">innovation</a>, and transmission over time and space using the methods and <a href="/wiki/Theories" class="mw-redirect" title="Theories">theories</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Cognitive sciences">cognitive sciences</a> (especially <a href="/wiki/Experimental_psychology" title="Experimental psychology">experimental psychology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">evolutionary biology</a>) often through close collaboration with historians, ethnographers, archaeologists, linguists, musicologists and other specialists engaged in the description and <a href="/wiki/Interpretation_(logic)" title="Interpretation (logic)">interpretation</a> of cultural forms. Cognitive anthropology is concerned with what people from different groups know and how that implicit knowledge changes the way people perceive and relate to the world around them.<sup id="cite_ref-D'Andrade_62-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-D'Andrade-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Transpersonal">Transpersonal</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anthropology&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Transpersonal"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Transpersonal_anthropology" class="mw-redirect" title="Transpersonal anthropology">Transpersonal anthropology</a></div> <p>Transpersonal anthropology studies the relationship between <a href="/wiki/Altered_states_of_consciousness" class="mw-redirect" title="Altered states of consciousness">altered states of consciousness</a> and culture. As with <a href="/wiki/Transpersonal_psychology" title="Transpersonal psychology">transpersonal psychology</a>, the field is much concerned with altered states of consciousness (ASC) and <a href="/wiki/Transpersonal_experience" class="mw-redirect" title="Transpersonal experience">transpersonal experience</a>. However, the field differs from mainstream transpersonal psychology in taking more cognizance of cross-cultural issues – for instance, the roles of <a href="/wiki/Mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Mythology">myth</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ritual" title="Ritual">ritual</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diet_(nutrition)" title="Diet (nutrition)">diet</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Literature" title="Literature">text</a> in evoking and interpreting extraordinary experiences.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Political_and_legal">Political and legal</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anthropology&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Political and legal"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="padding-top:0.2em;"><i>Part of <a href="/wiki/Political_anthropology" title="Political anthropology">a series</a> on</i></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#ccccff;"><a href="/wiki/Political_anthropology" title="Political anthropology">Political</a> and<br /><a href="/wiki/Legal_anthropology" title="Legal anthropology">legal anthropology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Basic concepts</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <dl><dt>Status and rank</dt> <dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ascribed_status" title="Ascribed status">Ascribed status</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achieved_status" title="Achieved status">Achieved status</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_status" title="Social status">Social status</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caste" title="Caste">Caste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_grade" title="Age grade">Age grade</a>/<a href="/wiki/Age_set" title="Age set">Age set</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leveling_mechanism" title="Leveling mechanism">Leveling mechanism</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Leadership</dt> <dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Big_man_(anthropology)" title="Big man (anthropology)">Big man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patriarchy" title="Patriarchy">Patriarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matriarchy" title="Matriarchy">Matriarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elder_(administrative_title)" title="Elder (administrative title)">Elder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pantribal_sodalities" class="mw-redirect" title="Pantribal sodalities">Pantribal sodalities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_chief" title="Tribal chief">Chief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paramount_chief" title="Paramount chief">Paramount chief</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Polities</dt> <dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Band_society" title="Band society">Band society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Segmentary_lineage" title="Segmentary lineage">Segmentary lineage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribe" title="Tribe">Tribe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chiefdom" title="Chiefdom">Chiefdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petty_kingdom" title="Petty kingdom">Petty kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_society" title="House society">House society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnicity" title="Ethnicity">Ethnic group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_state" title="Theatre state">Theatre state</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Law and custom</dt> <dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Customary_law" title="Customary law">Customary law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_culture" title="Legal culture">Legal culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ritual_warfare" title="Ritual warfare">Ritual warfare</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Case studies</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <dl><dt>Acephelous</dt> <dd></dd> <dd>Societies without hierarchical leaders</dd></dl> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/African_Political_Systems" title="African Political Systems">African Political Systems</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moka_exchange" title="Moka exchange">Papuan Big man system</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Art_of_Not_Being_Governed" title="The Art of Not Being Governed">The Art of Not Being Governed</a></i></li></ul> <dl><dt>State</dt> <dd></dd> <dd>Non-western state systems</dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Negara:_The_Theatre_State_in_Nineteenth-Century_Bali" title="Negara: The Theatre State in Nineteenth-Century Bali">Negara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandala_(Southeast_Asian_political_model)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mandala (Southeast Asian political model)">Mandala</a></li></ul> <dl><dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Technology,_Tradition,_and_the_State_in_Africa" title="Technology, Tradition, and the State in Africa">Technology, Tradition,<br /> and the State in Africa</a></i></li></ul> <dl><dt>Legal systems</dt> <dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kapu_(Hawaiian_culture)" title="Kapu (Hawaiian culture)">Kapu</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Colonialism and resistance</dt> <dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Europe_and_the_People_Without_History" title="Europe and the People Without History">Europe and the People <br />Without History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cargo_cult" title="Cargo cult">Cargo cult</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Major theorists</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/E._Adamson_Hoebel" title="E. Adamson Hoebel">E. Adamson Hoebel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Balandier" title="Georges Balandier">Georges Balandier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F._G._Bailey" title="F. G. Bailey">F. G. Bailey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fredrik_Barth" title="Fredrik Barth">Fredrik Barth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Boissevain" title="Jeremy Boissevain">Jeremy Boissevain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_L._Carneiro" title="Robert L. Carneiro">Robert L. Carneiro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_J._M._Claessen" title="Henri J. M. Claessen">Henri J. M. Claessen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Comaroff" title="Jean Comaroff">Jean Comaroff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Comaroff" title="John Comaroff">John Comaroff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Clastres" title="Pierre Clastres">Pierre Clastres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._E._Evans-Pritchard" title="E. E. Evans-Pritchard">E. E. Evans-Pritchard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Fikentscher" title="Wolfgang Fikentscher">Wolfgang Fikentscher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meyer_Fortes" title="Meyer Fortes">Meyer Fortes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morton_Fried" title="Morton Fried">Morton Fried</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numa_Denis_Fustel_de_Coulanges" title="Numa Denis Fustel de Coulanges">Numa Denis Fustel de Coulanges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Gellner" title="Ernest Gellner">Ernest Gellner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Graeber" title="David Graeber">David Graeber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lesley_Gill" title="Lesley Gill">Lesley Gill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulf_Hannerz" title="Ulf Hannerz">Ulf Hannerz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Blom_Hansen" title="Thomas Blom Hansen">Thomas Blom Hansen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ted_C._Lewellen" title="Ted C. Lewellen">Ted C. Lewellen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Leach" title="Edmund Leach">Edmund Leach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Linton" title="Ralph Linton">Ralph Linton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Mertz" title="Elizabeth Mertz">Elizabeth Mertz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidney_Mintz" title="Sidney Mintz">Sidney Mintz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sally_Falk_Moore" title="Sally Falk Moore">Sally Falk Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rodney_Needham" title="Rodney Needham">Rodney Needham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marshall_Sahlins" title="Marshall Sahlins">Marshall Sahlins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_C._Scott" title="James C. Scott">James C. Scott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elman_Service" title="Elman Service">Elman Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aidan_Southall" title="Aidan Southall">Aidan Southall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Spencer" title="Jonathan Spencer">Jonathan Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bjorn_Thomassen" class="mw-redirect" title="Bjorn Thomassen">Bjorn Thomassen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Douglas_R._White" title="Douglas R. White">Douglas R. White</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Wolf" title="Eric Wolf">Eric Wolf</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Related articles</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Circumscription_theory" title="Circumscription theory">Circumscription theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_anthropology" title="Legal anthropology">Legal anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Left%E2%80%93right_paradigm" title="Left–right paradigm">Left–right paradigm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_formation" title="State formation">State formation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_economy_in_anthropology" title="Political economy in anthropology">Political economy in anthropology</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Network_Analysis_and_Ethnographic_Problems" title="Network Analysis and Ethnographic Problems">Network Analysis and Ethnographic Problems</a></i></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Journals</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Political_and_Legal_Anthropology_Review" class="mw-redirect" title="Political and Legal Anthropology Review">Political and Legal Anthropology Review</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Journal_of_Legal_Anthropology&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Journal of Legal Anthropology (page does not exist)">Journal of Legal Anthropology</a></i></li> <li><i>Journal of Law and Society</i></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="padding-top:0.15em;"> <a href="/wiki/Social_anthropology" title="Social anthropology">Social</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">cultural anthropology</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Political_anthropology" title="Template:Political anthropology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Political_anthropology" title="Template talk:Political anthropology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Political_anthropology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Political anthropology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Political">Political</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anthropology&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Political"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Political_anthropology" title="Political anthropology">Political anthropology</a></div> <p>Political anthropology concerns the structure of <a href="/wiki/Form_of_government" class="mw-redirect" title="Form of government">political systems</a>, looked at from the basis of the structure of societies. Political anthropology developed as a discipline concerned primarily with politics in stateless societies, a new development started from the 1960s, and is still unfolding: anthropologists started increasingly to study more "complex" social settings in which the presence of states, bureaucracies and markets entered both ethnographic accounts and analysis of local phenomena. The turn towards complex societies meant that political themes were taken up at two main levels. Firstly, anthropologists continued to study <a href="/wiki/Political_organization" class="mw-redirect" title="Political organization">political organization</a> and political phenomena that lay outside the state-regulated sphere (as in patron-client relations or tribal political organization). Secondly, anthropologists slowly started to develop a disciplinary concern with states and their institutions (and on the relationship between formal and informal political institutions). An anthropology of the state developed, and it is a most thriving field today. Geertz's comparative work on "Negara", the Balinese state, is an early, famous example. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Legal">Legal</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anthropology&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Legal"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Legal_anthropology" title="Legal anthropology">Legal anthropology</a></div> <p>Legal anthropology or anthropology of law specializes in "the cross-cultural study of social ordering".<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Earlier legal anthropological research often focused more narrowly on conflict management, crime, sanctions, or formal regulation. More recent applications include issues such as <a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">human rights</a>, <a href="/wiki/Legal_pluralism" title="Legal pluralism">legal pluralism</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and political uprisings. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Public">Public</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anthropology&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Public"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Public_anthropology" title="Public anthropology">Public anthropology</a></div> <p>Public anthropology was created by Robert Borofsky, a professor at Hawaii Pacific University, to "demonstrate the ability of anthropology and anthropologists to effectively address problems beyond the discipline – illuminating larger social issues of our times as well as encouraging broad, public conversations about them with the explicit goal of fostering social change".<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nature,_science,_and_technology"><span id="Nature.2C_science.2C_and_technology"></span>Nature, science, and technology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anthropology&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Nature, science, and technology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="padding-top:0.2em;"><i>Part of a series on</i></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#ccccff;"><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Nature,_science,_and_technology">Anthropology of nature,<br /> science, and technology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align: center;color: var(--color-base)">Basic concepts</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecogovernmentality" title="Ecogovernmentality">Ecogovernmentality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature%E2%80%93culture_divide" title="Nature–culture divide">Nature–culture divide</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align: center;color: var(--color-base)">Major theorists</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Boellstorff" title="Tom Boellstorff">Tom Boellstorff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ray_Brassier" title="Ray Brassier">Ray Brassier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_H._Bratton" title="Benjamin H. Bratton">Benjamin H. Bratton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriella_Coleman" title="Gabriella Coleman">Gabriella Coleman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Gilles Deleuze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roy_Ellen" title="Roy Ellen">Roy Ellen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Fisher" title="Mark Fisher">Mark Fisher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9lix_Guattari" title="Félix Guattari">Félix Guattari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donna_Haraway" title="Donna Haraway">Donna Haraway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizuko_Ito" title="Mizuko Ito">Mizuko Ito</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nick_Land" title="Nick Land">Nick Land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruno_Latour" title="Bruno Latour">Bruno Latour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Miller_(anthropologist)" title="Daniel Miller (anthropologist)">Daniel Miller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ted_Nelson" title="Ted Nelson">Ted Nelson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reza_Negarestani" title="Reza Negarestani">Reza Negarestani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sadie_Plant" title="Sadie Plant">Sadie Plant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Virilio" title="Paul Virilio">Paul Virilio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mike_Wesch" class="mw-redirect" title="Mike Wesch">Mike Wesch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leslie_White" title="Leslie White">Leslie White</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align: center;color: var(--color-base)">Related articles</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Capitalist_Realism" title="Capitalist Realism">Capitalist Realism</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(2009)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_ecology" title="Cultural ecology">Cultural ecology</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cybernetic_Culture_Research_Unit" title="Cybernetic Culture Research Unit">Cybernetic Culture Research Unit</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(CCRU)</span></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cybertext" title="Cybertext">Cybertext</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyborg_anthropology" title="Cyborg anthropology">Cyborg anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_anthropology" title="Digital anthropology">Digital anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_anthropology" title="Ecological anthropology">Ecological anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_anthropology" title="Environmental anthropology">Environmental anthropology</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fanged_Noumena" title="Fanged Noumena">Fanged Noumena</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(2011)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hari_Kunzru" title="Hari Kunzru">Hari Kunzru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypermedia" title="Hypermedia">Hypermedia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypertext" title="Hypertext">Hypertext</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypertext_fiction" title="Hypertext fiction">Hypertext fiction</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Literary_Machines" title="Literary Machines">Literary Machines</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1981)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_ecology" title="Political ecology">Political ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rave" title="Rave">Rave culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science,_technology_and_society" class="mw-redirect" title="Science, technology and society">Science, technology and society</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="padding-top:0.15em;"> <a href="/wiki/Social_anthropology" title="Social anthropology">Social</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">cultural anthropology</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Cyber_anthropology" title="Template:Cyber anthropology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Cyber_anthropology" title="Template talk:Cyber anthropology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Cyber_anthropology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Cyber anthropology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cyborg">Cyborg</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anthropology&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Cyborg"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cyborg_anthropology" title="Cyborg anthropology">Cyborg anthropology</a></div> <p>Cyborg anthropology originated as a sub-focus group within the <a href="/wiki/American_Anthropological_Association" title="American Anthropological Association">American Anthropological Association</a>'s annual meeting in 1993. The sub-group was very closely related to <a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies" title="Science and technology studies">STS</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Society_for_the_Social_Studies_of_Science" class="mw-redirect" title="Society for the Social Studies of Science">Society for the Social Studies of Science</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Donna_Haraway" title="Donna Haraway">Donna Haraway</a>'s 1985 <i><a href="/wiki/Cyborg_Manifesto" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyborg Manifesto">Cyborg Manifesto</a></i> could be considered the founding document of cyborg anthropology by first exploring the philosophical and sociological ramifications of the term. Cyborg anthropology studies humankind and its relations with the technological systems it has built, specifically modern technological systems that have reflexively shaped notions of what it means to be human beings.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Digital">Digital</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anthropology&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Digital"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Digital_anthropology" title="Digital anthropology">Digital anthropology</a></div> <p>Digital anthropology is the study of the relationship between humans and digital-era technology and extends to various areas where anthropology and <a href="/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">technology</a> intersect. It is sometimes grouped with <a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">sociocultural anthropology</a>, and sometimes considered part of <a href="/wiki/Material_culture" title="Material culture">material culture</a>. The field is new, and thus has a variety of names with a variety of emphases. These include techno-anthropology,<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> digital ethnography, cyberanthropology,<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and virtual anthropology.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ecological">Ecological</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anthropology&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Ecological"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ecological_anthropology" title="Ecological anthropology">Ecological anthropology</a></div> <p>Ecological anthropology is defined as the "study of <a href="/wiki/Cultural_adaptation" class="mw-redirect" title="Cultural adaptation">cultural adaptations</a> to environments".<sup id="cite_ref-Kottak_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kottak-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The sub-field is also defined as, "the study of relationships between a population of humans and their <a href="/wiki/Biophysical_environment" class="mw-redirect" title="Biophysical environment">biophysical environment</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-Townsend_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Townsend-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The focus of its research concerns "how cultural <a href="/wiki/Beliefs" class="mw-redirect" title="Beliefs">beliefs</a> and practices helped human populations adapt to their environments, and how their environments change across space and time.<sup id="cite_ref-Kottak_CP_1999_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kottak_CP_1999-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The contemporary perspective of environmental anthropology, and arguably at least the backdrop, if not the focus of most of the ethnographies and cultural fieldworks of today, is <a href="/wiki/Political_ecology" title="Political ecology">political ecology</a>. Many characterize this new perspective as more informed with culture, politics and power, globalization, localized issues, century anthropology and more.<sup id="cite_ref-Pyke_G_1984_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pyke_G_1984-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The focus and data interpretation is often used for arguments for/against or creation of policy, and to prevent corporate exploitation and damage of land. Often, the observer has become an active part of the struggle either directly (organizing, participation) or indirectly (articles, documentaries, books, ethnographies). Such is the case with environmental justice advocate Melissa Checker and her relationship with the people of Hyde Park.<sup id="cite_ref-Checker_M_2005_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Checker_M_2005-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Environment">Environment</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anthropology&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Environment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Social sciences, like anthropology, can provide interdisciplinary approaches to the environment. Professor Kay Milton, Director of the Anthropology research network in the School of History and Anthropology,<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> describes anthropology as distinctive, with its most distinguishing feature being its interest in non-industrial indigenous and traditional societies. Anthropological theory is distinct because of the consistent presence of the concept of culture; not an exclusive topic but a central position in the study and a deep concern with the human condition. Milton describes three trends that are causing a fundamental shift in what characterizes anthropology: dissatisfaction with the cultural relativist perspective, reaction against cartesian dualisms which obstructs progress in theory (nature culture divide), and finally an increased attention to globalization (transcending the barriers or time/space). </p><p>Environmental discourse appears to be characterized by a high degree of globalization. (The troubling problem is borrowing non-indigenous practices and creating standards, concepts, philosophies and practices in western countries.) Anthropology and environmental discourse now have become a distinct position in anthropology as a discipline. Knowledge about diversities in human culture can be important in addressing environmental problems - anthropology is now a study of human ecology. Human activity is the most important agent in creating environmental change, a study commonly found in human ecology which can claim a central place in how environmental problems are examined and addressed. Other ways anthropology contributes to environmental discourse is by being theorists and analysts, or by refinement of definitions to become more neutral/universal, etc. In exploring environmentalism - the term typically refers to a concern that the environment should be protected, particularly from the harmful effects of human activities. Environmentalism itself can be expressed in many ways. Anthropologists can open the doors of environmentalism by looking beyond industrial society, understanding the opposition between industrial and non-industrial relationships, knowing what ecosystem people and biosphere people are and are affected by, dependent and independent variables, "primitive" ecological wisdom, diverse environments, resource management, diverse cultural traditions, and knowing that environmentalism is a part of culture.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historical">Historical</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anthropology&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Historical"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ethnohistory" title="Ethnohistory">Ethnohistory</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Historical_anthropology" title="Historical anthropology">Historical anthropology</a></div> <p>Ethnohistory is the study of <a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">ethnographic</a> cultures and <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples" title="Indigenous peoples">indigenous</a> customs by examining <a href="/wiki/History" title="History">historical records</a>. It is also the study of the history of various <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic group">ethnic groups</a> that may or may not exist today. Ethnohistory uses both historical and ethnographic data as its foundation. Its historical methods and materials go beyond the standard use of documents and manuscripts. Practitioners recognize the utility of such source material as maps, music, paintings, photography, <a href="/wiki/Folklore" title="Folklore">folklore</a>, oral tradition, site exploration, archaeological materials, museum collections, enduring customs, language, and place names.<sup id="cite_ref-Axtell1979_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Axtell1979-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religion">Religion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anthropology&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Religion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="padding-top:0.2em;">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:lavender; padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_religion" title="Anthropology of religion">Anthropology of religion</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Some_results_of_recent_anthropological_exploration_in_Peru_BHL23999360.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Two ancient anthropomorphic figures from Peru" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Some_results_of_recent_anthropological_exploration_in_Peru_BHL23999360.jpg/220px-Some_results_of_recent_anthropological_exploration_in_Peru_BHL23999360.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Some_results_of_recent_anthropological_exploration_in_Peru_BHL23999360.jpg/330px-Some_results_of_recent_anthropological_exploration_in_Peru_BHL23999360.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Some_results_of_recent_anthropological_exploration_in_Peru_BHL23999360.jpg/440px-Some_results_of_recent_anthropological_exploration_in_Peru_BHL23999360.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2864" data-file-height="2148" /></a></span><div class="sidebar-caption">Two ancient anthropomorphic figures from Peru</div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Basic concepts</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content nowraplinks hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afterlife" title="Afterlife">Afterlife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animism" title="Animism">Animism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augury" title="Augury">Augury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitas" title="Communitas">Communitas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_religion" title="Comparative religion">Comparative religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divination" title="Divination">Divination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_language" title="Divine language">Divine language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_origin_of_religion" title="Evolutionary origin of religion">Evolutionary origin of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fetishism" title="Fetishism">Fetishism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Spirit" title="Great Spirit">Great Spirit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henotheism" title="Henotheism">Henotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Initiation" title="Initiation">Initiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laying_on_of_hands" title="Laying on of hands">Laying on of hands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liminality" title="Liminality">Liminality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magic_(supernatural)" title="Magic (supernatural)">Magic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mana_(Oceanian_cultures)" title="Mana (Oceanian cultures)">Mana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monotheism" title="Monotheism">Monotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nympholepsy" title="Nympholepsy">Nympholepsy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oracle" title="Oracle">Oracle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pilgrimage" title="Pilgrimage">Pilgrimage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polytheism" title="Polytheism">Polytheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rite_of_passage" title="Rite of passage">Rite of passage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ritual" title="Ritual">Ritual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_language" title="Sacred language">Sacred language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred%E2%80%93profane_dichotomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Sacred–profane dichotomy">Sacred–profane dichotomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_site" class="mw-redirect" title="Sacred site">Sacred site</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shamanism" title="Shamanism">Shamanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soul_dualism" title="Soul dualism">Soul dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superstition" title="Superstition">Superstition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theories_about_religion" title="Theories about religion">Theories about religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totem" title="Totem">Totem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transtheism" title="Transtheism">Transtheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veneration_of_the_dead" title="Veneration of the dead">Veneration of the dead</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Case studies</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content nowraplinks hlist"> <dl><dt>Magic</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coral_Gardens_and_Their_Magic" title="Coral Gardens and Their Magic">Coral Gardens and Their Magic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trait%C3%A9_sur_les_apparitions_des_esprits_et_sur_les_vampires_ou_les_revenans_de_Hongrie,_de_Moravie,_%26c." title="Traité sur les apparitions des esprits et sur les vampires ou les revenans de Hongrie, de Moravie, &c.">Treatise on the Apparitions of<br />Spirits and on Vampires or Revenants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enchanted_Feminism" title="Enchanted Feminism">Neo-Paganism</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Ritual</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angakkuq" title="Angakkuq">Angakkuq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babaylan" class="mw-redirect" title="Babaylan">Babaylan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bobohizan" title="Bobohizan">Bobohizan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bomoh" title="Bomoh">Bomoh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bora_(Australian)" title="Bora (Australian)">Bora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dukun" title="Dukun">Dukun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miko" title="Miko">Miko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jh%C4%81kri" title="Jhākri">Jhākri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pawang" title="Pawang">Pawang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slametan" title="Slametan">Slametan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wu_(shaman)" title="Wu (shaman)">Wu</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Revitalization movements</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cargo_cult" title="Cargo cult">Cargo cult</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghost_Dance" title="Ghost Dance">Ghost Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Handsome_Lake" title="Handsome Lake">Handsome Lake</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Related articles</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content nowraplinks hlist"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Elementary_Forms_of_the_Religious_Life" title="The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life">The Elementary Forms<br />of the Religious Life</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Purity_and_Danger" title="Purity and Danger">Purity and Danger</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myth_and_ritual" title="Myth and ritual">Myth and ritual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology_of_religion_and_ritual" title="Archaeology of religion and ritual">Archaeology of religion and ritual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceremonial_pole" title="Ceremonial pole">Poles in mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lived_religion" title="Lived religion">Lived religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elite_religion" title="Elite religion">Elite religion</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Major theorists</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content nowraplinks hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Augustin_Calmet" title="Antoine Augustin Calmet">Augustin Calmet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akbar_Ahmed" title="Akbar Ahmed">Akbar S. Ahmed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talal_Asad" title="Talal Asad">Talal Asad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Campbell" title="Joseph Campbell">Joseph Campbell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Douglas" title="Mary Douglas">Mary Douglas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Émile Durkheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mircea_Eliade" title="Mircea Eliade">Mircea Eliade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arnold_van_Gennep" title="Arnold van Gennep">Arnold van Gennep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Girard" title="René Girard">René Girard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._E._Evans-Pritchard" title="E. E. Evans-Pritchard">E. E. Evans-Pritchard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_George_Frazer" title="James George Frazer">James Frazer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numa_Denis_Fustel_de_Coulanges" title="Numa Denis Fustel de Coulanges">Fustel de Coulanges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clifford_Geertz" title="Clifford Geertz">Clifford Geertz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robin_W._G._Horton" title="Robin W. G. Horton">Robin Horton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_L%C3%A9vi-Strauss" title="Claude Lévi-Strauss">Claude Lévi-Strauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Ranulph_Marett" title="Robert Ranulph Marett">Robert Marett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steven_Ozment" title="Steven Ozment">Steven Ozment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roy_Rappaport" title="Roy Rappaport">Roy Rappaport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saba_Mahmood" title="Saba Mahmood">Saba Mahmood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marshall_Sahlins" title="Marshall Sahlins">Marshall Sahlins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melford_Spiro" title="Melford Spiro">Melford Spiro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Jeyaraja_Tambiah" title="Stanley Jeyaraja Tambiah">Stanley Tambiah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victor_Turner" title="Victor Turner">Victor Turner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Burnett_Tylor" title="Edward Burnett Tylor">Edward Burnett Tylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Martin_Varisco" title="Daniel Martin Varisco">Daniel Martin Varisco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_F._C._Wallace" title="Anthony F. C. Wallace">Anthony F. C. Wallace</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Journals</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content nowraplinks hlist"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Anthropological_Perspectives_on_Religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthropological Perspectives on Religion">Anthropological Perspectives on Religion</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Folklore_Society" title="The Folklore Society">Folklore</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Hibbert_Journal" title="The Hibbert Journal">The Hibbert Journal</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Journal_of_Religion" title="The Journal of Religion">The Journal of Religion</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Oceania_(journal)" title="Oceania (journal)">Oceania</a></i></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/List_of_religions_and_spiritual_traditions" title="List of religions and spiritual traditions">Religions</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content nowraplinks hlist"> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_religion" title="Ethnic religion">Ethnic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Folk_religion" title="Folk religion">folk religions</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afro-American_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Afro-American religion">Afro-American religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alaska_Native_religion" title="Alaska Native religion">Alaska Native religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anito" title="Anito">Anito</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atua" title="Atua">Atua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_shamanism" title="Mongolian shamanism">Böö mörgöl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_folk_religion" title="Chinese folk religion">Chinese folk religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanitu" title="Hanitu">Hanitu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hausa_animism" title="Hausa animism">Hausa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kejaw%C3%A8n" title="Kejawèn">Kejawèn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American religion">Native American religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noaidi" title="Noaidi">Noaidi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_shamanism" title="Korean shamanism">Shindo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shamanism_in_Siberia" title="Shamanism in Siberia">Shamanism in Siberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shinto" title="Shinto">Shinto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tengrism" title="Tengrism">Tengrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_African_religions" title="Traditional African religions">Traditional African religions</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana">Mahayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nichiren_Buddhism" title="Nichiren Buddhism">Nichiren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pure_Land_Buddhism" title="Pure Land Buddhism">Pure Land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shingon_Buddhism" title="Shingon Buddhism">Shingon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theravada" title="Theravada">Theravada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiantai" title="Tiantai">Tiantai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vajrayana" title="Vajrayana">Vajrayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adventism" title="Adventism">Adventism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglicanism" title="Anglicanism">Anglicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_Apostolic_Church" title="Armenian Apostolic Church">Armenian Apostolic Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baptists" title="Baptists">Baptists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calvinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvinism">Calvinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coptic_Orthodox_Church" title="Coptic Orthodox Church">Coptic Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Eastern Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Orthodox_Tewahedo_Church" title="Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church">Ethiopian Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_Orthodox_Church" title="Greek Orthodox Church">Greek Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutheranism" title="Lutheranism">Lutheranism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methodism" title="Methodism">Methodism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nestorianism" title="Nestorianism">Nestorianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oriental_Orthodoxy" class="mw-redirect" title="Oriental Orthodoxy">Oriental Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pentecostalism" title="Pentecostalism">Pentecostalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quakers" title="Quakers">Quakers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Orthodox_Church" title="Russian Orthodox Church">Russian Orthodoxy</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_denominations" title="Hindu denominations">Hindu denominations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaivism" title="Shaivism">Shaivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaktism" title="Shaktism">Shaktism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smartism" class="mw-redirect" title="Smartism">Smartism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaishnavism" title="Vaishnavism">Vaishnavism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayyavazhi" title="Ayyavazhi">Ayyavazhi</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahmadiyya" title="Ahmadiyya">Ahmadiyya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibadi" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibadi">Ibadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahdavia" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahdavia">Mahdavia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-denominational_Muslim" title="Non-denominational Muslim">Non-denominational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quranism" title="Quranism">Quranists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam">Shia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufism" title="Sufism">Sufism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam" title="Sunni Islam">Sunni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yazd%C3%A2nism" title="Yazdânism">Yazdânism</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_Judaism" title="Conservative Judaism">Conservative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haredi_Judaism" title="Haredi Judaism">Haredi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hasidic_Judaism" title="Hasidic Judaism">Hasidic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haymanot" title="Haymanot">Haymanot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karaite_Judaism" title="Karaite Judaism">Karaite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Judaism" title="Orthodox Judaism">Orthodox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reform_Judaism" title="Reform Judaism">Reform</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Digambara" title="Digambara">Digambara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Avet%C4%81mbara" title="Śvetāmbara">Śvetāmbara</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Sikhism" title="Sikhism">Sikhism</a></dt></dl></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="padding-top:0.15em;"> <a href="/wiki/Social_anthropology" title="Social anthropology">Social</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">cultural anthropology</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Anthropology_of_religion" title="Template:Anthropology of religion"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Anthropology_of_religion" title="Template talk:Anthropology of religion"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Anthropology_of_religion" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Anthropology of religion"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_religion" title="Anthropology of religion">Anthropology of religion</a></div> <p>The anthropology of religion involves the study of religious institutions in relation to other social institutions, and the comparison of religious beliefs and practices across cultures. Modern anthropology assumes that there is complete continuity between <a href="/wiki/Magical_thinking" title="Magical thinking">magical thinking</a> and religion,<sup id="cite_ref-Cassirer1944_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cassirer1944-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>n 6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and that every religion is a cultural product, created by the human <a href="/wiki/Community" title="Community">community</a> that worships it.<sup id="cite_ref-Guthrie2000p225_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Guthrie2000p225-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Urban">Urban</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anthropology&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Urban"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Urban_anthropology" title="Urban anthropology">Urban anthropology</a></div> <p>Urban anthropology is concerned with issues of <a href="/wiki/Urbanization" title="Urbanization">urbanization</a>, poverty, and <a href="/wiki/Neoliberalism" title="Neoliberalism">neoliberalism</a>. <a href="/wiki/Ulf_Hannerz" title="Ulf Hannerz">Ulf Hannerz</a> quotes a 1960s remark that traditional anthropologists were "a notoriously <a href="/wiki/Agoraphobic" class="mw-redirect" title="Agoraphobic">agoraphobic</a> lot, anti-urban by definition". Various social processes in the <a href="/wiki/Western_World" class="mw-redirect" title="Western World">Western World</a> as well as in the "<a href="/wiki/Third_World" title="Third World">Third World</a>" (the latter being the habitual focus of attention of anthropologists) brought the attention of "<a href="#Focus_on_the_"other_cultures"">specialists in 'other cultures'</a>" closer to their homes.<sup id="cite_ref-Hannerz_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hannerz-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are two main approaches to urban anthropology: examining the types of cities or examining the social issues within the cities. These two methods are overlapping and dependent of each other. By defining different types of cities, one would use social factors as well as economic and political factors to categorize the cities. By directly looking at the different social issues, one would also be studying how they affect the dynamic of the city.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Key_topics_by_field:_archaeological_and_biological">Key topics by field: archaeological and biological</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anthropology&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Key topics by field: archaeological and biological"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Archaeological" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaeological">Archaeological</a> and <a href="/wiki/Biological_anthropology" title="Biological anthropology">Biological anthropology</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anthrozoology">Anthrozoology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anthropology&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Anthrozoology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Anthrozoology" title="Anthrozoology">Anthrozoology</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Anthrozoology" title="Anthrozoology">Anthrozoology</a> (also known as "human–animal studies") is the study of interaction between living things. It is an <a href="/wiki/Interdisciplinary" class="mw-redirect" title="Interdisciplinary">interdisciplinary</a> field that overlaps with a number of other disciplines, including anthropology, <a href="/wiki/Ethology" title="Ethology">ethology</a>, medicine, <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Veterinary_medicine" title="Veterinary medicine">veterinary medicine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zoology" title="Zoology">zoology</a>. A major focus of anthrozoologic research is the quantifying of the positive effects of human-animal relationships on either party and the study of their interactions.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It includes scholars from a diverse range of fields, including anthropology, sociology, biology, and philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>n 7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biocultural">Biocultural</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anthropology&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Biocultural"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Biocultural_anthropology" title="Biocultural anthropology">Biocultural anthropology</a></div> <p>Biocultural anthropology is the <a href="/wiki/Scientific" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific">scientific</a> exploration of the relationships between <a href="/wiki/Human_biology" title="Human biology">human biology</a> and culture. <a href="/wiki/Biological_anthropology" title="Biological anthropology">Physical anthropologists</a> throughout the first half of the 20th century viewed this relationship from a <a href="/wiki/Race_(classification_of_human_beings)" class="mw-redirect" title="Race (classification of human beings)">racial</a> perspective; that is, from the assumption that <a href="/wiki/Typology_(anthropology)" title="Typology (anthropology)">typological</a> human biological differences lead to cultural differences.<sup id="cite_ref-Biocult_syn_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Biocult_syn-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After World War II the emphasis began to shift toward an effort to explore the role culture plays in shaping human biology. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Evolutionary">Evolutionary</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anthropology&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Evolutionary"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_anthropology" title="Evolutionary anthropology">Evolutionary anthropology</a></div> <p>Evolutionary anthropology is the interdisciplinary study of the <a href="/wiki/Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">evolution</a> of <a href="/wiki/Human_physiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Human physiology">human physiology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Human_behaviour" class="mw-redirect" title="Human behaviour">human behaviour</a> and the relation between <a href="/wiki/Hominins" class="mw-redirect" title="Hominins">hominins</a> and non-hominin <a href="/wiki/Primate" title="Primate">primates</a>. Evolutionary anthropology is based in <a href="/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">natural science</a> and <a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">social science</a>, combining the <a href="/wiki/Human_development_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Human development (biology)">human development</a> with socioeconomic factors. Evolutionary anthropology is concerned with both biological and cultural evolution of humans, past and present. It is based on a <a href="/wiki/Scientific" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific">scientific</a> approach, and brings together fields such as <a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">archaeology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Behavioral_ecology" title="Behavioral ecology">behavioral ecology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Primatology" title="Primatology">primatology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetics</a>. It is a dynamic and <a href="/wiki/Interdisciplinary" class="mw-redirect" title="Interdisciplinary">interdisciplinary</a> field, drawing on many lines of evidence to understand the human experience, past and present. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Forensic">Forensic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anthropology&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Forensic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Forensic_anthropology" title="Forensic anthropology">Forensic anthropology</a></div> <p>Forensic anthropology is the application of the science of <a href="/wiki/Physical_anthropology" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical anthropology">physical anthropology</a> and human <a href="/wiki/Osteology" title="Osteology">osteology</a> in a legal setting, most often in criminal cases where the victim's remains are in the advanced stages of <a href="/wiki/Decomposition" title="Decomposition">decomposition</a>. A forensic anthropologist can assist in the identification of deceased individuals whose remains are decomposed, burned, mutilated or otherwise unrecognizable. The adjective "forensic" refers to the application of this subfield of science to a court of law. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Palaeoanthropology">Palaeoanthropology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anthropology&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Palaeoanthropology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Palaeoanthropology" class="mw-redirect" title="Palaeoanthropology">Palaeoanthropology</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:LuzonensisMolars.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/LuzonensisMolars.jpg/220px-LuzonensisMolars.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/LuzonensisMolars.jpg/330px-LuzonensisMolars.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/LuzonensisMolars.jpg/440px-LuzonensisMolars.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2208" data-file-height="1242" /></a><figcaption>Five of the seven known fossil teeth of <i><a href="/wiki/Homo_luzonensis" title="Homo luzonensis">Homo luzonensis</a></i> found in <a href="/wiki/Callao_Cave" title="Callao Cave">Callao Cave</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Paleoanthropology combines the disciplines of <a href="/wiki/Paleontology" title="Paleontology">paleontology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Physical_anthropology" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical anthropology">physical anthropology</a>. It is the study of ancient humans, as found in <a href="/wiki/Fossil" title="Fossil">fossil</a> <a href="/wiki/Hominidae" title="Hominidae">hominid</a> evidence such as <a href="/wiki/Petrifaction" title="Petrifaction">petrifacted</a> bones and footprints. Genetics and morphology of specimens are crucially important to this field.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Markers on specimens, such as <a href="/wiki/Enamel_fracture" title="Enamel fracture">enamel fractures</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tooth_decay" title="Tooth decay">dental decay</a> on <a href="/wiki/Tooth" title="Tooth">teeth</a>, can also give insight into the behaviour and diet of past populations.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Organizations">Organizations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anthropology&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: Organizations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Contemporary anthropology is an established science with academic departments at most universities and colleges. The single largest organization of anthropologists is the <a href="/wiki/American_Anthropological_Association" title="American Anthropological Association">American Anthropological Association</a> (AAA), which was founded in 1903.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its members are anthropologists from around the globe.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1989, a group of European and American scholars in the field of anthropology established the <a href="/wiki/European_Association_of_Social_Anthropologists" title="European Association of Social Anthropologists">European Association of Social Anthropologists</a> (EASA) which serves as a major professional organization for anthropologists working in Europe. The EASA seeks to advance the status of anthropology in Europe and to increase visibility of marginalized anthropological traditions and thereby contribute to the project of a global anthropology or world anthropology. </p><p>Hundreds of other organizations exist in the various sub-fields of anthropology, sometimes divided up by nation or region, and many anthropologists work with collaborators in other disciplines, such as <a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">geology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zoology" title="Zoology">zoology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paleontology" title="Paleontology">paleontology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anatomy" title="Anatomy">anatomy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Music_theory" title="Music theory">music theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Art_history" title="Art history">art history</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociology</a> and so on, belonging to professional societies in those disciplines as well.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="List_of_major_organizations">List of major organizations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anthropology&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: List of major organizations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main category: <a href="/wiki/Category:Anthropology_organizations" title="Category:Anthropology organizations">Anthropology organizations</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Anthropological_Association" title="American Anthropological Association">American Anthropological Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Ethnological_Society" title="American Ethnological Society">American Ethnological Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AIBR._Asociaci%C3%B3n_de_Antrop%C3%B3logos_Iberoamericanos_en_Red" class="mw-redirect" title="AIBR. Asociación de Antropólogos Iberoamericanos en Red">Asociación de Antropólogos Iberoamericanos en Red, AIBR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropological_Society_of_London" title="Anthropological Society of London">Anthropological Society of London</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Center_for_World_Indigenous_Studies" title="Center for World Indigenous Studies">Center for World Indigenous Studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnological_Society_of_London" title="Ethnological Society of London">Ethnological Society of London</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Association_of_Social_Anthropologists" title="European Association of Social Anthropologists">European Association of Social Anthropologists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Planck_Institute_for_Evolutionary_Anthropology" title="Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology">Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network_of_Concerned_Anthropologists" title="Network of Concerned Anthropologists">Network of Concerned Anthropologists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N.N._Miklukho-Maklai_Institute_of_Ethnology_and_Anthropology" class="mw-redirect" title="N.N. Miklukho-Maklai Institute of Ethnology and Anthropology">N.N. Miklukho-Maklai Institute of Ethnology and Anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Anthropological_Institute_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland" title="Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland">Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_for_Anthropological_Sciences" title="Society for Anthropological Sciences">Society for Anthropological Sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_for_Applied_Anthropology" title="Society for Applied Anthropology">Society for Applied Anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USC_Center_for_Visual_Anthropology" title="USC Center for Visual Anthropology">USC Center for Visual Anthropology</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ethics">Ethics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anthropology&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: Ethics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As the field has matured it has debated and arrived at ethical principles aimed at protecting both the subjects of anthropological research as well as the researchers themselves, and professional societies have generated codes of ethics.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Anthropologists, like other researchers (especially historians and scientists engaged in field research), have over time assisted state policies and projects, especially colonialism.<sup id="cite_ref-pbuteh_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pbuteh-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some commentators have contended: </p> <ul><li>That the discipline grew out of colonialism, perhaps was in league with it, and derives some of its key notions from it, consciously or not. (See, for example, Gough, Pels and Salemink, but cf. Lewis 2004).<sup id="cite_ref-Gellner_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gellner-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>That ethnographic work is often ahistorical, writing about people as if they were "out of time" in an "ethnographic present" (Johannes Fabian, <i>Time and Its Other</i>).</li> <li>In his article "The Misrepresentation of Anthropology and Its Consequence", <a href="/wiki/Herbert_S._Lewis" title="Herbert S. Lewis">Herbert S. Lewis</a> critiqued older anthropological works that presented other cultures as if they were strange and unusual. While the findings of those researchers should not be discarded, the field should learn from its mistakes.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cultural_relativism">Cultural relativism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anthropology&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: Cultural relativism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As part of their quest for <a href="/wiki/Scientific_objectivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific objectivity">scientific objectivity</a>, present-day anthropologists typically urge <a href="/wiki/Cultural_relativism" title="Cultural relativism">cultural relativism</a>, which has an influence on all the sub-fields of anthropology.<sup id="cite_ref-Ingold1994p331_23-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ingold1994p331-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is the notion that cultures should not be judged by another's values or viewpoints, but be examined dispassionately on their own terms. There should be no notions, in good anthropology, of one culture being better or worse than another culture.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (October 2012)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Ethical commitments in anthropology include noticing and documenting <a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">genocide</a>, <a href="/wiki/Infanticide" title="Infanticide">infanticide</a>, <a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">racism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sexism" title="Sexism">sexism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mutilation" title="Mutilation">mutilation</a> (including <a href="/wiki/Circumcision" title="Circumcision">circumcision</a> and <a href="/wiki/Subincision" class="mw-redirect" title="Subincision">subincision</a>), and <a href="/wiki/Torture" title="Torture">torture</a>. Topics like racism, slavery, and human sacrifice attract anthropological attention and theories ranging from nutritional deficiencies,<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to genes,<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to <a href="/wiki/Acculturation" title="Acculturation">acculturation</a>, to <a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">colonialism</a>, have been proposed to explain their origins and continued recurrences. </p><p>To illustrate the depth of an anthropological approach, one can take just one of these topics, such as "racism" and find thousands of anthropological references, stretching across all the major and minor sub-fields.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Military_involvement">Military involvement</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anthropology&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: Military involvement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Anthropologists' involvement with the U.S. government, in particular, has caused bitter controversy within the discipline. Franz Boas publicly objected to US participation in World War I, and after the war he published a brief exposé and condemnation of the participation of several American archaeologists in espionage in Mexico under their cover as scientists.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>But by the 1940s, many of Boas' anthropologist contemporaries were active in the allied war effort against the <a href="/wiki/Axis_Powers" class="mw-redirect" title="Axis Powers">Axis Powers</a> (Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, and Imperial Japan). Many served in the armed forces, while others worked in intelligence (for example, <a href="/wiki/Office_of_Strategic_Services" title="Office of Strategic Services">Office of Strategic Services</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Office_of_War_Information" class="mw-redirect" title="Office of War Information">Office of War Information</a>). At the same time, <a href="/wiki/David_Price_(anthropologist)" title="David Price (anthropologist)">David H. Price</a>'s work on American anthropology during the Cold War provides detailed accounts of the pursuit and dismissal of several anthropologists from their jobs for communist sympathies.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Attempts to accuse anthropologists of complicity with the CIA and government intelligence activities during the Vietnam War years have turned up little. Many anthropologists (students and teachers) were active in the antiwar movement. Numerous resolutions condemning the war in all its aspects were passed overwhelmingly at the annual meetings of the <a href="/wiki/American_Anthropological_Association" title="American Anthropological Association">American Anthropological Association</a> (AAA).<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Professional anthropological bodies often object to the use of anthropology for the benefit of the <a href="/wiki/State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">state</a>. Their codes of ethics or statements may proscribe anthropologists from giving secret briefings. The <a href="/wiki/Association_of_Social_Anthropologists_of_the_UK_and_Commonwealth" class="mw-redirect" title="Association of Social Anthropologists of the UK and Commonwealth">Association of Social Anthropologists of the UK and Commonwealth</a> (ASA) has called certain scholarship ethically dangerous. The "Principles of Professional Responsibility" issued by the American Anthropological Association and amended through November 1986 stated that "in relation with their own government and with host governments ... no secret research, no secret reports or debriefings of any kind should be agreed to or given."<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The current "Principles of Professional Responsibility" does not make explicit mention of ethics surrounding state interactions.<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> Anthropologists, along with other social scientists, are working with the US military as part of the US Army's strategy in Afghanistan.<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/The_Christian_Science_Monitor" title="The Christian Science Monitor">The Christian Science Monitor</a></i> reports that "Counterinsurgency efforts focus on better grasping and meeting local needs" <a href="/wiki/War_in_Afghanistan_(2001%E2%80%932021)" title="War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)">in Afghanistan</a>, under the <i><a href="/wiki/Human_Terrain_System" title="Human Terrain System">Human Terrain System</a></i> (HTS) program; in addition, HTS teams are working with the <a href="/wiki/US_military_in_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="US military in Iraq">US military in Iraq</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2009, the American Anthropological Association's Commission on the Engagement of Anthropology with the US Security and Intelligence Communities (CEAUSSIC) released its final report concluding, in part, that: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"></p><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>When ethnographic investigation is determined by military missions, not subject to external review, where data collection occurs in the context of war, integrated into the goals of counterinsurgency, and in a potentially coercive environment – all characteristic factors of the HTS concept and its application – it can no longer be considered a legitimate professional exercise of anthropology. In summary, while we stress that constructive engagement between anthropology and the military is possible, CEAUSSIC suggests that the AAA emphasize the incompatibility of HTS with disciplinary ethics and practice for job seekers and that it further recognize the problem of allowing HTS to define the meaning of 'anthropology' within DoD.<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Post-World_War_II_developments">Post-World War II developments</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anthropology&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: Post-World War II developments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Before <a href="/wiki/WWII" class="mw-redirect" title="WWII">WWII</a> British 'social anthropology' and American 'cultural anthropology' were still distinct traditions. After the war, enough British and American anthropologists borrowed ideas and methodological approaches from one another that some began to speak of them collectively as 'sociocultural' anthropology. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Basic_trends">Basic trends</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anthropology&action=edit&section=55" title="Edit section: Basic trends"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are several characteristics that tend to unite anthropological work. One of the central characteristics is that anthropology tends to provide a comparatively more <a href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">holistic</a> account of phenomena and tends to be highly empirical.<sup id="cite_ref-Hylland_Eriksen_2004_p._79_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hylland_Eriksen_2004_p._79-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The quest for holism leads most anthropologists to study a particular place, problem or phenomenon in detail, using a variety of methods, over a more extensive period than normal in many parts of academia. </p><p>In the 1990s and 2000s, calls for clarification of what constitutes a culture, of how an observer knows where his or her own culture ends and another begins, and other crucial topics in writing anthropology were heard. These dynamic relationships, between what can be observed on the ground, as opposed to what can be observed by compiling many local observations remain fundamental in any kind of anthropology, whether cultural, biological, linguistic or archaeological.<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Biological anthropologists are interested in both human variation<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in the possibility of human universals (behaviors, ideas or concepts shared by virtually all human cultures).<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They use many different methods of study, but modern population <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Participant_observation" title="Participant observation">participant observation</a> and other techniques often take anthropologists "into the field," which means traveling to a community in its own setting, to do something called "fieldwork." On the biological or physical side, human measurements, genetic samples, nutritional data may be gathered and published as articles or monographs. </p><p>Along with dividing up their project by theoretical emphasis, anthropologists typically divide the world up into relevant time periods and geographic regions. Human time on Earth is divided up into relevant cultural traditions based on material, such as the <a href="/wiki/Paleolithic" title="Paleolithic">Paleolithic</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">Neolithic</a>, of particular use in archaeology.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Further cultural subdivisions according to tool types, such as <a href="/wiki/Olduwan" class="mw-redirect" title="Olduwan">Olduwan</a> or <a href="/wiki/Mousterian" title="Mousterian">Mousterian</a> or <a href="/wiki/Levallois_technique" title="Levallois technique">Levalloisian</a> help archaeologists and other anthropologists in understanding major trends in the human past.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Anthropologists and geographers share approaches to <a href="/wiki/Culture_regions" class="mw-redirect" title="Culture regions">culture regions</a> as well, since mapping cultures is central to both sciences. By making comparisons across cultural traditions (time-based) and cultural regions (space-based), anthropologists have developed various kinds of <a href="/wiki/Comparative_method" title="Comparative method">comparative method</a>, a central part of their science. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Commonalities_between_fields">Commonalities between fields</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anthropology&action=edit&section=56" title="Edit section: Commonalities between fields"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Because anthropology developed from so many different enterprises (see <a href="/wiki/History_of_anthropology" title="History of anthropology">History of anthropology</a>), including but not limited to <a href="/wiki/Fossil_collecting" title="Fossil collecting">fossil-hunting</a>, <a href="/wiki/Exploration" title="Exploration">exploring</a>, documentary film-making, <a href="/wiki/Paleontology" title="Paleontology">paleontology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Primatology" title="Primatology">primatology</a>, antiquity dealings and curatorship, <a href="/wiki/Philology" title="Philology">philology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Etymology" title="Etymology">etymology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetics</a>, regional analysis, <a href="/wiki/Ethnology" title="Ethnology">ethnology</a>, history, <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Religious_studies" title="Religious studies">religious studies</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> it is difficult to characterize the entire field in a brief article, although attempts to write histories of the entire field have been made.<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some authors argue that anthropology originated and developed as the study of "other cultures", both in terms of time (past societies) and space (non-European/non-Western societies).<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, the classic of <a href="/wiki/Urban_anthropology" title="Urban anthropology">urban anthropology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ulf_Hannerz" title="Ulf Hannerz">Ulf Hannerz</a> in the introduction to his seminal <i>Exploring the City: Inquiries Toward an Urban Anthropology</i> mentions that the "<a href="/wiki/Third_World" title="Third World">Third World</a>" had habitually received most of attention; anthropologists who traditionally specialized in "other cultures" looked for them far away and started to look "across the tracks" only in late 1960s.<sup id="cite_ref-Hannerz_84-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hannerz-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Now there exist many works focusing on peoples and topics very close to the author's "home".<sup id="cite_ref-Lewis_128-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lewis-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is also argued that other fields of study, like History and <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a>, on the contrary focus disproportionately on the West.<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In France, the study of Western societies has been traditionally left to <a href="/wiki/Sociologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Sociologist">sociologists</a>, but this is increasingly changing,<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> starting in the 1970s from scholars like Isac Chiva and journals like <i><a href="/wiki/Terrain_(journal)" title="Terrain (journal)">Terrain</a></i> ("fieldwork") and developing with the center founded by <a href="/wiki/Marc_Aug%C3%A9" title="Marc Augé">Marc Augé</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/%C3%89cole_des_hautes_%C3%A9tudes_en_sciences_sociales" class="mw-redirect" title="École des hautes études en sciences sociales">Le Centre d'anthropologie des mondes contemporains</a></i>, the Anthropological Research Center of Contemporary Societies). </p><p>Since the 1980s it has become common for social and cultural anthropologists to set ethnographic research in the North Atlantic region, frequently examining the connections between locations rather than limiting research to a single locale. There has also been a related shift toward broadening the focus beyond the daily life of ordinary people; increasingly, research is set in settings such as scientific laboratories, social movements, governmental and nongovernmental organizations and businesses.<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anthropology&action=edit&section=57" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Man_of_the_woods.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Man_of_the_woods.JPG/28px-Man_of_the_woods.JPG" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Man_of_the_woods.JPG/42px-Man_of_the_woods.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Man_of_the_woods.JPG/57px-Man_of_the_woods.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1296" data-file-height="1284" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Primates" title="Portal:Primates">Primates portal</a></span></li></ul> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col div-col-small" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropological_science_fiction" title="Anthropological science fiction">Anthropological science fiction</a> – Genre of literature</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_anthropology" title="Christian anthropology">Christian anthropology</a>, a sub-field of theology</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circumscription_theory" title="Circumscription theory">Circumscription theory</a> – Political theory</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">Culture</a> – Social behavior and norms of a society</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual_inheritance_theory" title="Dual inheritance theory">Dual inheritance theory</a> – Theory of human behavior</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emic_and_etic" title="Emic and etic">Emic and etic</a> – Two kinds of anthropologic field research</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engaged_theory" title="Engaged theory">Engaged theory</a> – Comprehensive critical theory</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnobiology" title="Ethnobiology">Ethnobiology</a> – Study of how living things are used by human cultures</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_behavioral_ecology" title="Human behavioral ecology">Human behavioral ecology</a> – Study of human behavior and cultural diversity</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_ethology" title="Human ethology">Human ethology</a> – The study of human behavior</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_Relations_Area_Files" title="Human Relations Area Files">Human Relations Area Files</a> – International nonprofit membership organization</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intangible_cultural_heritage" title="Intangible cultural heritage">Intangible cultural heritage</a> – Class of UNESCO designated cultural heritage</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_society" title="Origins of society">Origins of society</a> – topic within evolutionary biology, anthropology, prehistory and palaeolithic archaeology<span style="display:none" class="category-wikidata-fallback-annotation">Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_anthropology" title="Philosophical anthropology">Philosophical anthropology</a>, a sub-field of philosophy</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_medicine" title="Prehistoric medicine">Prehistoric medicine</a> – Medicine in the time before the invention of writing</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qualitative_research" title="Qualitative research">Qualitative research</a> – Form of research</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lists">Lists</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anthropology&action=edit&section=58" title="Edit section: Lists"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col div-col-small" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_anthropology" title="Outline of anthropology">Outline of anthropology</a> – Overview of and topical guide to anthropology</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_indigenous_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="List of indigenous peoples">List of indigenous peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_anthropologists" title="List of anthropologists">List of anthropologists</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anthropology&action=edit&section=59" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Harvey_(astrologer)" title="Richard Harvey (astrologer)">Richard Harvey</a>'s 1593 <i>Philadelphus</i>, a defense of the legend of <a href="/wiki/Brutus_of_Britain" class="mw-redirect" title="Brutus of Britain">Brutus</a> in <a href="/wiki/History_of_Britain" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Britain">British history</a>, includes the passage "Genealogy or issue which they had, Artes which they studied, Actes which they did. This part of History is named Anthropology."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/John_Kersey" class="mw-redirect" title="John Kersey">John Kersey</a>'s 1706 edition of <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_World_of_English_Words" title="The New World of English Words">The New World of English Words</a></i> includes the definition "<i>Anthropology</i>, a Discourse or Description of Man, or of a Man's Body."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In French: <i>L'Anthropologie, c'est à dire la science qui traite de l'homme, est divisée ordinairment & avec raison en l'Anatomie, qui considere le corps & les parties, et en la Psychologie, qui parle de l'Ame</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-frenchy_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-frenchy-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">As <a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_Fletcher_(anthropologist)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Robert Fletcher (anthropologist) (page does not exist)">Fletcher</a> points out, the French society was by no means the first to include anthropology or parts of it as its topic. Previous organizations used other names. The German Anthropological Association of St. Petersburg, however, met first in 1861, but due to the death of its founder never met again.<sup id="cite_ref-Fletcher_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fletcher-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hunt's choice of theorists does not exclude the numerous other theorists that were beginning to publish a large volume of anthropological studies.<sup id="cite_ref-hunt_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hunt-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"It seems to be one of the postulates of modern anthropology that there is complete continuity between magic and religion. [note 35: See, for instance, RR Marett, Faith, Hope, and Charity in Primitive Religion, the Gifford Lectures (Macmillan, 1932), Lecture II, pp. 21 ff.] ... We have no empirical evidence at all that there ever was an age of magic that has been followed and superseded by an age of religion."<sup id="cite_ref-Cassirer1944_81-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cassirer1944-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Anthrozoology should not be confused with "<a href="/wiki/Animal_studies" title="Animal studies">animal studies</a>", which often refers to <a href="/wiki/Animal_testing" title="Animal testing">animal testing</a>.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anthropology&action=edit&section=60" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-aaa-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-aaa_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-aaa_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-aaa_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.americananthro.org/AdvanceYourCareer/Content.aspx?ItemNumber=2150">"What is Anthropology?"</a>. <a href="/wiki/American_Anthropological_Association" title="American Anthropological Association">American Anthropological Association</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160216033701/http://www.americananthro.org/AdvanceYourCareer/Content.aspx?ItemNumber=2150">Archived</a> from the original on 16 February 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 August</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=What+is+Anthropology%3F&rft.pub=American+Anthropological+Association&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.americananthro.org%2FAdvanceYourCareer%2FContent.aspx%3FItemNumber%3D2150&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-oed2-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-oed2_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-oed2_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-oed2_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-oed2_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Oxford English Dictionary</i>, 1st ed. "anthropology, <i>n</i>." Oxford University Press (Oxford), 1885.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Medicine-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Medicine_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIsrael_Institute_of_the_History_of_Medicine1952" class="citation book cs1">Israel Institute of the History of Medicine (1952). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lev_H1Ie0zcC&pg=PA19"><i>Koroth</i></a>. Brill. p. 19. GGKEY:34XGYHLZ7XY. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160610201217/https://books.google.com/books?id=lev_H1Ie0zcC&pg=PA19">Archived</a> from the original on 10 June 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 November</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Koroth&rft.pages=19&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=1952&rft.au=Israel+Institute+of+the+History+of+Medicine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dlev_H1Ie0zcC%26pg%3DPA19&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurkhart2003" class="citation journal cs1">Burkhart, Louise M. (2003). "Bernardino de Sahagun: First Anthropologist (review)". <i>The Catholic Historical Review</i>. <b>89</b> (2): 351–352. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fcat.2003.0100">10.1353/cat.2003.0100</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162350550">162350550</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Catholic+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=Bernardino+de+Sahagun%3A+First+Anthropologist+%28review%29&rft.volume=89&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=351-352&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fcat.2003.0100&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162350550%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Burkhart&rft.aufirst=Louise+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-frenchy-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-frenchy_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-frenchy_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBartholinBartholin1647" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Caspar_Bartholin_the_Younger" title="Caspar Bartholin the Younger">Bartholin, Caspar</a>; <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Bartholin" title="Thomas Bartholin">Bartholin, Thomas</a> (1647). "Preface". <i>Institutions anatomiques de Gaspar Bartholin, augmentées et enrichies pour la seconde fois tant des opinions et observations nouvelles des modernes</i>. Translated from the Latin by Abr. Du Prat. Paris: M. Hénault et J. Hénault.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Preface&rft.btitle=Institutions+anatomiques+de+Gaspar+Bartholin%2C+augment%C3%A9es+et+enrichies+pour+la+seconde+fois+tant+des+opinions+et+observations+nouvelles+des+modernes&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=M.+H%C3%A9nault+et+J.+H%C3%A9nault&rft.date=1647&rft.aulast=Bartholin&rft.aufirst=Caspar&rft.au=Bartholin%2C+Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSibeud2008" class="citation book cs1">Sibeud, Emmanuelle (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/newhistoryofanth0000unse/page/98">"The Metamorphosis of Ethnology in France, 1839–1930"</a>. In Kuklick, Henrika (ed.). <i>A New History of Anthropology</i>. Blackwell Publishing. p. 98. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780470766217" title="Special:BookSources/9780470766217"><bdi>9780470766217</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Metamorphosis+of+Ethnology+in+France%2C+1839%E2%80%931930&rft.btitle=A+New+History+of+Anthropology&rft.pages=98&rft.pub=Blackwell+Publishing&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9780470766217&rft.aulast=Sibeud&rft.aufirst=Emmanuelle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnewhistoryofanth0000unse%2Fpage%2F98&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Schiller131-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Schiller131_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchiller1979">Schiller 1979</a>, pp. 130–132</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchiller1979">Schiller 1979</a>, p. 221</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fletcher-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fletcher_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fletcher_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFletcher1882" class="citation book cs1">Fletcher, Robert (1882). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9dEJAQAAIAAJ">"Paul Broca and the French School of Anthropology"</a>. <i>The Saturday Lectures, Delivered in the Lecture-room of the U. S. National Museum under the Auspices of the Anthropological and Biological Societies of Washington in March and April 1882</i>. Boston; Washington, DC: D. Lothrop & Co.; Judd & Detweiler.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Paul+Broca+and+the+French+School+of+Anthropology&rft.btitle=The+Saturday+Lectures%2C+Delivered+in+the+Lecture-room+of+the+U.+S.+National+Museum+under+the+Auspices+of+the+Anthropological+and+Biological+Societies+of+Washington+in+March+and+April+1882&rft.place=Boston%3B+Washington%2C+DC&rft.pub=D.+Lothrop+%26+Co.%3B+Judd+%26+Detweiler&rft.date=1882&rft.aulast=Fletcher&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9dEJAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchiller1979">Schiller 1979</a>, p. 143</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchiller1979">Schiller 1979</a>, p. 136</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWaitz1863">Waitz 1863</a>, p. 5</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWaitz1863">Waitz 1863</a>, pp. 11–12</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-hunt-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-hunt_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-hunt_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHunt1863">Hunt 1863</a>, Introductory Address</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaccurdy1899" class="citation journal cs1">Maccurdy, George Grant (1899). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PA385">"Extent of Instruction in Anthropology in Europe and the United States"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement of Science</i>. <b>10</b> (260): 382–390. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1899Sci....10..910M">1899Sci....10..910M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.10.260.910">10.1126/science.10.260.910</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17837336">17837336</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+American+Association+for+the+Advancement+of+Science&rft.atitle=Extent+of+Instruction+in+Anthropology+in+Europe+and+the+United+States&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=260&rft.pages=382-390&rft.date=1899&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17837336&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.10.260.910&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1899Sci....10..910M&rft.aulast=Maccurdy&rft.aufirst=George+Grant&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPA385&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnthropology" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged April 2023">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wcaanet.org/index.shtml">"Home"</a>. World Council of Anthropological Associations. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150402172343/http://www.wcaanet.org/index.shtml">Archived</a> from the original on 2 April 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 March</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Home&rft.pub=World+Council+of+Anthropological+Associations&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wcaanet.org%2Findex.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hylland_Eriksen_2004_p._79-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hylland_Eriksen_2004_p._79_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hylland_Eriksen_2004_p._79_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Hylland Eriksen, Thomas. (2004) "What is Anthropology" Pluto. London. p. 79. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7453-2320-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-7453-2320-0">0-7453-2320-0</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ingold1994p331-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ingold1994p331_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ingold1994p331_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ingold1994p331_23-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIngold,_Tim1994" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Tim_Ingold" title="Tim Ingold">Ingold, Tim</a> (1994). "Introduction to culture". <i>Companion Encyclopedia of Anthropology</i>. p. 331. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-02137-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-02137-1"><bdi>978-0-415-02137-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction+to+culture&rft.btitle=Companion+Encyclopedia+of+Anthropology&rft.pages=331&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-415-02137-1&rft.au=Ingold%2C+Tim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Spiro1987-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Spiro1987_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">On varieties of cultural relativism in anthropology, see Spiro, Melford E. (1987) "Some Reflections on Cultural Determinism and Relativism with Special Reference to Emotion and Reason," in <i>Culture and Human Nature: Theoretical Papers of Melford E. Spiro</i>. Edited by B. Kilborne and L.L. Langness, pp. 32–58. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Heyck1997-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Heyck1997_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeyckStockingGoody1997" class="citation journal cs1">Heyck, Thomas William; Stocking, George W.; Goody, Jack (1997). "After Tylor: British Social Anthropology 1888–1951". <i>The American Historical Review</i>. <b>102</b> (5): 1486–1488. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2171126">10.2307/2171126</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0002-8762">0002-8762</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2171126">2171126</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=After+Tylor%3A+British+Social+Anthropology+1888%E2%80%931951.&rft.volume=102&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=1486-1488&rft.date=1997&rft.issn=0002-8762&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2171126%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2171126&rft.aulast=Heyck&rft.aufirst=Thomas+William&rft.au=Stocking%2C+George+W.&rft.au=Goody%2C+Jack&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://americananthro.org/learn-teach/what-is-anthropology/">"What is Anthropology?"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=What+is+Anthropology%3F&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Famericananthro.org%2Flearn-teach%2Fwhat-is-anthropology%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Layton, Robert (1998) <i>An Introduction to Theory in Anthropology</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aaanet.org/about/WhatisAnthropology.cfm">What is Anthropology – American Anthropological Association</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151015065744/http://www.aaanet.org/about/WhatisAnthropology.cfm">Archived</a> 15 October 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Aaanet.org. Retrieved on 2 November 2016.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.livinganthropologically.com/introduction-to-anthropology/what-is-anthropology-2013/">What is Anthropology</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181210120808/https://www.livinganthropologically.com/introduction-to-anthropology/what-is-anthropology-2013/">Archived</a> 10 December 2018 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Living Anthropologically. Retrieved on 2017-17-01.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ahmed-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ahmed_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAhmed1984" class="citation journal cs1">Ahmed, Akbar S. (1984). "Al-Beruni: The First Anthropologist". <i>RAIN</i>. <b>60</b> (60): 9–10. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3033407">10.2307/3033407</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3033407">3033407</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=RAIN&rft.atitle=Al-Beruni%3A+The+First+Anthropologist&rft.volume=60&rft.issue=60&rft.pages=9-10&rft.date=1984&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3033407&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3033407%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Ahmed&rft.aufirst=Akbar+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Understanding Other Religions: Al-Biruni's and Gadamer's "fusion of Horizons"</i> By Kemal Ataman p. 59 <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBloch,_Maurice1991" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Bloch" title="Maurice Bloch">Bloch, Maurice</a> (1991). "Language, Anthropology and Cognitive Science". <i>Man</i>. <b>26</b> (2): 183–198. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2803828">10.2307/2803828</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2803828">2803828</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Man&rft.atitle=Language%2C+Anthropology+and+Cognitive+Science&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=183-198&rft.date=1991&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2803828&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2803828%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=Bloch%2C+Maurice&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaniel_A._SegalSylvia_J._Yanagisako2005" class="citation book cs1">Daniel A. Segal; Sylvia J. Yanagisako, eds. (2005). <i>Unwrapping the Sacred Bundle</i>. Durham and London: Duke University Press. pp. Back Cover. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-8684-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-8684-1"><bdi>978-0-8223-8684-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Unwrapping+the+Sacred+Bundle&rft.place=Durham+and+London&rft.pages=Back+Cover&rft.pub=Duke+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-8223-8684-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ingold1994pxv-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ingold1994pxv_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ingold1994pxv_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIngold,_Tim1994" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Tim_Ingold" title="Tim Ingold">Ingold, Tim</a> (1994). "General Introduction". <i>Companion Encyclopedia of Anthropology</i>. Taylor & Francis. p. xv. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-02137-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-02137-1"><bdi>978-0-415-02137-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=General+Introduction&rft.btitle=Companion+Encyclopedia+of+Anthropology&rft.pages=xv&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-415-02137-1&rft.au=Ingold%2C+Tim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ingold1996p18-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ingold1996p18_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTim_Ingold1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Tim_Ingold" title="Tim Ingold">Tim Ingold</a> (1996). <i>Key Debates in Anthropology</i>. p. 18. <q>the traditional anthropological project of cross-cultural or cross-societal comparison</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Key+Debates+in+Anthropology&rft.pages=18&rft.date=1996&rft.au=Tim+Ingold&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBernard2002" class="citation book cs1">Bernard, H. Russell (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161104002847/http://www.antropocaos.com.ar/Russel-Research-Method-in-Anthropology.pdf"><i>Research Methods in Anthropology</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a href="/wiki/Altamira_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Altamira Press">Altamira Press</a>. p. 322. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7591-0868-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7591-0868-4"><bdi>978-0-7591-0868-4</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.antropocaos.com.ar/Russel-Research-Method-in-Anthropology.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 4 November 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Research+Methods+in+Anthropology&rft.pages=322&rft.pub=Altamira+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-7591-0868-4&rft.aulast=Bernard&rft.aufirst=H.+Russell&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.antropocaos.com.ar%2FRussel-Research-Method-in-Anthropology.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-MurdockWhite1969-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-MurdockWhite1969_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGeorge_Peter_MurdockDouglas_R._White1969" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/George_Peter_Murdock" class="mw-redirect" title="George Peter Murdock">George Peter Murdock</a>; <a href="/wiki/Douglas_R._White" title="Douglas R. White">Douglas R. White</a> (1969). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://repositories.cdlib.org/imbs/socdyn/wp/Standard_Cross-Cultural_Sample">"Standard Cross-Cultural Sample"</a>. <i>Ethnology</i>. <b>9</b>: 329–369. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091012045111/http://repositories.cdlib.org/imbs/socdyn/wp/Standard_Cross-Cultural_Sample/">Archived</a> from the original on 12 October 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 June</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ethnology&rft.atitle=Standard+Cross-Cultural+Sample&rft.volume=9&rft.pages=329-369&rft.date=1969&rft.au=George+Peter+Murdock&rft.au=Douglas+R.+White&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Frepositories.cdlib.org%2Fimbs%2Fsocdyn%2Fwp%2FStandard_Cross-Cultural_Sample&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120422203737/http://www.anthropology.utoronto.ca/about/research/physical-or-biological">"Research Subfields: Physical or Biological"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/University_of_Toronto" title="University of Toronto">University of Toronto</a></i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://anthropology.utoronto.ca/about/research/physical-or-biological">the original</a> on 22 April 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 March</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=University+of+Toronto&rft.atitle=Research+Subfields%3A+Physical+or+Biological&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fanthropology.utoronto.ca%2Fabout%2Fresearch%2Fphysical-or-biological&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robbins, R.H. & Larkin, S.N. (2007). <i>Cultural Anthropology: A problem-based approach</i>. Toronto, ON: Nelson Education Ltd.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup> </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.americananthro.org/AdvanceYourCareer/Content.aspx?ItemNumber=2150">"What is Anthropology? – Advance Your Career"</a>. <i>www.americananthro.org</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161026173505/http://www.americananthro.org/AdvanceYourCareer/Content.aspx?ItemNumber=2150">Archived</a> from the original on 26 October 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 August</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.americananthro.org&rft.atitle=What+is+Anthropology%3F+%E2%80%93+Advance+Your+Career&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.americananthro.org%2FAdvanceYourCareer%2FContent.aspx%3FItemNumber%3D2150&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Salzmann, Zdeněk. (1993) <i>Language, culture, and society: an introduction to linguistic anthropology</i>. 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Sage. p. 4. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7619-5824-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7619-5824-6"><bdi>978-0-7619-5824-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Ethnography&rft.pages=4&rft.pub=Sage&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-7619-5824-6&rft.aulast=Atkinson&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft.au=Coffey%2C+Amanda&rft.au=Delamont%2C+Sara&rft.au=Lofland%2C+Lyn&rft.au=Lofland%2C+John&rft.au=Lofland%2C+Professor+Lyn+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DT0PuxgEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIngold2008" class="citation journal cs1">Ingold, Timothy (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://abdn.pure.elsevier.com/en/publications/anthropology-is-emnotem-ethnography">"Anthropology is not ethnography"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the British Academy</i>. <b>154</b>: 69–92. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0068-1202">0068-1202</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+British+Academy&rft.atitle=Anthropology+is+not+ethnography&rft.volume=154&rft.pages=69-92&rft.date=2008&rft.issn=0068-1202&rft.aulast=Ingold&rft.aufirst=Timothy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fabdn.pure.elsevier.com%2Fen%2Fpublications%2Fanthropology-is-emnotem-ethnography&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Layton, Robert. 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Prospect Heights, Ill.: Waveland Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/environmentalant0000town/page/104">104</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57766-581-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57766-581-6"><bdi>978-1-57766-581-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Environmental+anthropology+%3A+from+pigs+to+policies&rft.place=Prospect+Heights%2C+Ill.&rft.pages=104&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Waveland+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-57766-581-6&rft.aulast=Townsend&rft.aufirst=Patricia+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fenvironmentalant0000town%2Fpage%2F104&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kottak_CP_1999-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kottak_CP_1999_75-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKottak1999" class="citation journal cs1">Kottak, Conrad P. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 November</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Anthropologist&rft.atitle=The+New+Ecological+Anthropology&rft.volume=101&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=23-35&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2027.42%2F66329&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F683339%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1525%2Faa.1999.101.1.23&rft.aulast=Kottak&rft.aufirst=Conrad+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F227632647&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pyke_G_1984-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Pyke_G_1984_76-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPyke1984" class="citation journal cs1">Pyke, G H (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/243636746">"Optimal Foraging Theory: A Critical Review"</a>. <i>Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics</i>. <b>15</b>: 523. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.es.15.110184.002515">10.1146/annurev.es.15.110184.002515</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170403005941/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/243636746">Archived</a> from the original on 3 April 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 November</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Ecology+and+Systematics&rft.atitle=Optimal+Foraging+Theory%3A+A+Critical+Review&rft.volume=15&rft.pages=523&rft.date=1984&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev.es.15.110184.002515&rft.aulast=Pyke&rft.aufirst=G+H&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F243636746&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Checker_M_2005-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Checker_M_2005_77-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMelissa_Checker2005" class="citation book cs1">Melissa Checker (2005). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/pollutedpromises0000chec"><i>Polluted promises: environmental racism and the search for justice in a southern town</i></a></span>. NYU Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8147-1657-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8147-1657-1"><bdi>978-0-8147-1657-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Polluted+promises%3A+environmental+racism+and+the+search+for+justice+in+a+southern+town&rft.pub=NYU+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-8147-1657-1&rft.au=Melissa+Checker&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpollutedpromises0000chec&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/identities/lccn-n93016959/">"Milton, Kay 1951"</a>. <i>OCLC WorldCat Identities</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211102211940/http://worldcat.org/identities/lccn-n93016959/">Archived</a> from the original on 2 November 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 November</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=OCLC+WorldCat+Identities&rft.atitle=Milton%2C+Kay+1951&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fworldcat.org%2Fidentities%2Flccn-n93016959%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMilton1996" class="citation book cs1">Milton, Kay (1996). <i>Environmentalism and Cultural Theory; Exploring the Role of Anthropology in Environmental Discourse</i>. New York.: Routledge Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Environmentalism+and+Cultural+Theory%3B+Exploring+the+Role+of+Anthropology+in+Environmental+Discourse.&rft.place=New+York.&rft.pub=Routledge+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Milton&rft.aufirst=Kay&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Axtell1979-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Axtell1979_80-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAxtell1979" class="citation journal cs1">Axtell, J. (1979). "Ethnohistory: An Historian's Viewpoint". <i>Ethnohistory</i>. <b>26</b> (1): 3–4. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F481465">10.2307/481465</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/481465">481465</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ethnohistory&rft.atitle=Ethnohistory%3A+An+Historian%27s+Viewpoint&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=3-4&rft.date=1979&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F481465&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F481465%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Axtell&rft.aufirst=J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cassirer1944-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cassirer1944_81-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cassirer1944_81-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Cassirer" title="Ernst Cassirer">Cassirer, Ernst</a> (1944) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pe9fWSv-iLsC&pg=PA102"><i>An Essay On Man</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319070726/http://books.google.com/books?id=pe9fWSv-iLsC&pg=PA102">Archived</a> 19 March 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, pt.II, ch.7 <i>Myth and Religion</i>, pp. 122–123.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Guthrie2000p225-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Guthrie2000p225_83-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Guthrie (2000) <i>Guide to the Study of Religion</i>. Bloomsbury Academic. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wlNJQoZlGC4C&pg=PA225">pp. 225–226</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151025182211/https://books.google.com/books?id=wlNJQoZlGC4C&pg=PA225">Archived</a> 25 October 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-304-70176-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-304-70176-9">0-304-70176-9</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hannerz-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hannerz_84-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hannerz_84-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Ulf_Hannerz" title="Ulf Hannerz">Hannerz, Ulf</a> (1980) <i>Exploring the City: Inquiries Toward an Urban Anthropology</i>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-231-08376-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-231-08376-9">0-231-08376-9</a>, p. 1. Columbia University Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGriffithsChapmanChristiansen2010" class="citation journal cs1">Griffiths, M. B.; Chapman, M.; Christiansen, F. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/7368130">"Chinese consumers: The Romantic reappraisal"</a>. <i>Ethnography</i>. <b>11</b> (3): 331–357. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1466138110370412">10.1177/1466138110370412</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24047982">24047982</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144152261">144152261</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ethnography&rft.atitle=Chinese+consumers%3A+The+Romantic+reappraisal&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=331-357&rft.date=2010&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144152261%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F24047982%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F1466138110370412&rft.aulast=Griffiths&rft.aufirst=M.+B.&rft.au=Chapman%2C+M.&rft.au=Christiansen%2C+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F7368130&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mills, Daniel S (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vrueZDfPUzoC&pg=PA28">"Anthrozoology"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160603184431/https://books.google.com/books?id=vrueZDfPUzoC&pg=PA28">Archived</a> 3 June 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <i>The Encyclopedia of Applied Animal Behaviour and Welfare</i>. CABI, pp. 28–30. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85199-724-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-85199-724-4">0-85199-724-4</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">DeMello, Margo (2010). <i>Teaching the Animal: Human–Animal Studies Across the Disciplines</i>. Lantern Books. p. xi. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-59056-168-6" title="Special:BookSources/1-59056-168-6">1-59056-168-6</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130625044717/http://www.animalsandsociety.org/content/index.php?pid=41">"Animals & Society Institute"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.animalsandsociety.org/content/index.php?pid=41">the original</a> on 25 June 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 February</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Animals+%26+Society+Institute&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.animalsandsociety.org%2Fcontent%2Findex.php%3Fpid%3D41&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Biocult_syn-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Biocult_syn_90-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoodmanLeatherman1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alan_H._Goodman" title="Alan H. Goodman">Goodman, Alan H.</a>; Leatherman, Thomas L., eds. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=T8ZhpG_B_6MC"><i>Building A New Biocultural Synthesis</i></a>. University of Michigan Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-472-06606-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-472-06606-3"><bdi>978-0-472-06606-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130616142101/http://books.google.com/books?id=T8ZhpG_B_6MC">Archived</a> from the original on 16 June 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 September</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Reconstructing+the+genetic+history+of+late+Neanderthals&rft.volume=555&rft.issue=7698&rft.pages=652-656&rft.date=2018-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6485383%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2018Natur.555..652H&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature26151&rft.issn=1476-4687&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F29562232&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F1887%2F70268&rft.aulast=Kelso&rft.aufirst=Janet&rft.au=P%C3%A4%C3%A4bo%2C+Svante&rft.au=Meyer%2C+Matthias&rft.au=Pr%C3%BCfer%2C+Kay&rft.au=Reich%2C+David&rft.au=Patterson%2C+Nick&rft.au=Slatkin%2C+Montgomery&rft.au=Nickel%2C+Birgit&rft.au=Nagel%2C+Sarah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenaccess.leidenuniv.nl%2Fbitstream%2Fhandle%2F1887%2F70268%2FHajdinjak_2018_T.pdf%3Fsequence%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTowleIrishDe_Groote2017" class="citation journal cs1">Towle, Ian; Irish, Joel D.; De Groote, Isabelle (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/317189250">"Behavioral inferences from the high levels of dental chipping in Homo naledi"</a>. <i>American Journal of Physical Anthropology</i>. <b>164</b> (1): 184–192. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fajpa.23250">10.1002/ajpa.23250</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28542710">28542710</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:24296825">24296825</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Physical+Anthropology&rft.atitle=Behavioral+inferences+from+the+high+levels+of+dental+chipping+in+Homo+naledi&rft.volume=164&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=184-192&rft.date=2017&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A24296825%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28542710&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fajpa.23250&rft.aulast=Towle&rft.aufirst=Ian&rft.au=Irish%2C+Joel+D.&rft.au=De+Groote%2C+Isabelle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F317189250&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aaanet.org/about/">AAAnet.org</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090422181152/http://www.aaanet.org/about/">Archived</a> 22 April 2009 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://aaanet.org/membership/upload/MAY-08-AAA.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 13 June 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=American+Anthropological+Association+%E2%80%93+Monthly+Membership+Report&rft.date=2010-06-13&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Faaanet.org%2Fmembership%2Fupload%2FMAY-08-AAA.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Johanson, Donald and Wong, Kate (2007). <i>Lucy's Legacy</i>. Kindle Books.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Netti, Bruno (2005). <i>The Study of Ethnomusicology</i>. Ch. 1. University of Illinois Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-252-03033-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-252-03033-8">0-252-03033-8</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.americananthro.org/ParticipateAndAdvocate/Content.aspx?ItemNumber=1911&RDtoken=3371&userID=6944">"Final Report of the Commission to Review the AAA Statements on Ethics – Participate & Advocate"</a>. 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(1973) <i>Anthropology & the Colonial Encounter.</i> Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">van Breman, Jan, and Akitoshi Shimizu (1999) <i>Anthropology and Colonialism in Asia and Oceania</i>. Richmond, Surrey: Curzon Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gellner-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gellner_100-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gellner, Ernest (1992) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://okhovvat.com/files/en/content/2011/6/4/351_379.pdf"><i>Postmodernism, Reason, and Religion</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170403010839/http://okhovvat.com/files/en/content/2011/6/4/351_379.pdf">Archived</a> 3 April 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 November</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Physical+Anthropology&rft.atitle=Melanin%2C+afrocentricity%2C+and+pseudoscience&rft.volume=36&rft.pages=33-58&rft.date=1993&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fajpa.1330360604&rft.aulast=De+Montellano&rft.aufirst=Bernard+R.+Ortiz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F199944&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrowman2011" class="citation journal cs1">Browman, David (22 November 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5334%2Fbha.2123">"Spying by American Archaeologists in World War I"</a>. <i>Bulletin of the History of Archaeology</i>. <b>21</b> (2): 10–17. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5334%2Fbha.2123">10.5334/bha.2123</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2047-6930">2047-6930</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+the+History+of+Archaeology&rft.atitle=Spying+by+American+Archaeologists+in+World+War+I&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=10-17&rft.date=2011-11-22&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5334%2Fbha.2123&rft.issn=2047-6930&rft.aulast=Browman&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.5334%252Fbha.2123&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrice1998" class="citation journal cs1">Price, David H. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 October</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Dialectical+Anthropology&rft.atitle=The+anti-imperialist+tradition+in+North+American+anthropology%3A+Vietnam%2C+the+Left+Academy%2C+and+the+founding+of+ARPA&rft.volume=40&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=60&rft.date=2016-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A146855589%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F43895186%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10624-016-9412-y&rft.aulast=Lee&rft.aufirst=Richard+Borshay&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F43895186&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.americananthro.org/ParticipateAndAdvocate/Content.aspx?ItemNumber=1656">"Past AAA Statements on Ethics – Participate & Advocate"</a>. <i>www.americananthro.org</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180910222429/http://www.americananthro.org/ParticipateAndAdvocate/Content.aspx?ItemNumber=1656">Archived</a> from the original on 10 September 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 May</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.americananthro.org&rft.atitle=Past+AAA+Statements+on+Ethics+%E2%80%93+Participate+%26+Advocate&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.americananthro.org%2FParticipateAndAdvocate%2FContent.aspx%3FItemNumber%3D1656&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ethics.americananthro.org/category/statement/">"Ethics Forum » Full Text of the 2012 Ethics Statement"</a>. <i>Ethics Forum</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190502191053/http://ethics.americananthro.org/category/statement/">Archived</a> from the original on 2 May 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 May</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Ethics+Forum&rft.atitle=Ethics+Forum+%C2%BB+Full+Text+of+the+2012+Ethics+Statement&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fethics.americananthro.org%2Fcategory%2Fstatement%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.csmonitor.com/2007/0907/p01s08-wosc.htm">US Army's strategy in Afghanistan: better anthropology</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080211195702/http://www.csmonitor.com/2007/0907/p01s08-wosc.htm">Archived</a> 11 February 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. CSMonitor.com (7 September 2007). Retrieved on 2 November 2016.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.army.mil/professionalWriting/volumes/volume4/december_2006/12_06_2.html">"The Human Terrain System: A CORDS for the 21st Century"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140121225645/http://www.army.mil/professionalWriting/volumes/volume4/december_2006/12_06_2.html">Archived</a> from the original on 21 January 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Human+Terrain+System%3A+A+CORDS+for+the+21st+Century&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.army.mil%2FprofessionalWriting%2Fvolumes%2Fvolume4%2Fdecember_2006%2F12_06_2.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAAA_Commission_on_the_Engagement_of_Anthropology_with_the_US_Security_and_Intelligence_Communities2009" class="citation report cs1">AAA Commission on the Engagement of Anthropology with the US Security and Intelligence Communities (14 October 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231029201022/https://s3.amazonaws.com/rdcms-aaa/files/production/public/FileDownloads/pdfs/cmtes/commissions/CEAUSSIC/upload/CEAUSSIC_HTS_Final_Report.pdf">Final Report on The Army's Human Terrain System Proof of Concept Program</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (Report). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://s3.amazonaws.com/rdcms-aaa/files/production/public/FileDownloads/pdfs/cmtes/commissions/CEAUSSIC/upload/CEAUSSIC_HTS_Final_Report.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 29 October 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 May</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Final+Report+on+The+Army%27s+Human+Terrain+System+Proof+of+Concept+Program&rft.date=2009-10-14&rft.au=AAA+Commission+on+the+Engagement+of+Anthropology+with+the+US+Security+and+Intelligence+Communities&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fs3.amazonaws.com%2Frdcms-aaa%2Ffiles%2Fproduction%2Fpublic%2FFileDownloads%2Fpdfs%2Fcmtes%2Fcommissions%2FCEAUSSIC%2Fupload%2FCEAUSSIC_HTS_Final_Report.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rosaldo, Renato (1993). <i>Culture and Truth: The remaking of social analysis</i>. Beacon Press. Inda</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Xavier, John and Rosaldo, Renato (2007). <i>The Anthropology of Globalization</i>. Wiley-Blackwell.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jurmain, Robert; Kilgore, Lynn; Trevathan, Wenda and Ciochon, Russell L. (2007). <i>Introduction to Physical Anthropology</i>. 11th ed. Wadsworth. chapters I, III and IV. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-495-18779-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-495-18779-8">0-495-18779-8</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wompack, Mari (2001). <i>Being Human</i>. Prentice Hall. pp. 11–20. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-13-644071-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-13-644071-1">0-13-644071-1</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brown, Donald (1991). <i>Human Universals</i>. McGraw Hill.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Roughley, Neil (2000). <i>Being Humans: Anthropological Universality and Particularity in Transciplinary Perspectives</i>. Walter de Gruyter Publishing.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Erickson, Paul A. and Liam D. Murphy (2003). <i>A History of Anthropological Theory</i>. Broadview Press. pp. 11–12. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4426-0110-8" title="Special:BookSources/1-4426-0110-8">1-4426-0110-8</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stocking, George (1992) "Paradigmatic Traditions in the History of Anthropology", pp. 342–361 in George Stocking, <i>The Ethnographer's Magic and Other Essays in the History of Anthropology</i>. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-299-13414-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-299-13414-8">0-299-13414-8</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Leaf, Murray (1979). <i>Man, Mind and Science: A History of Anthropology.</i> Columbia University Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See the many essays relating to this in Prem Poddar and David Johnson, Historical Companion to Postcolonial Thought in English, Edinburgh University Press, 2004. See also Prem Poddar et al., Historical Companion to Postcolonial Literatures – Continental Europe and its Empires, Edinburgh University Press, 2008</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lewis-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lewis_128-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lewis, Herbert S. (1998) <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/682051">The Misrepresentation of Anthropology and its Consequences</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170403010337/http://www.jstor.org/stable/682051">Archived</a> 3 April 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></i> <i><a href="/wiki/American_Anthropologist" title="American Anthropologist">American Anthropologist</a></i> "100:" 716–731</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Jack_Goody" title="Jack Goody">Goody, Jack</a> (2007) <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jo1UVi48KywC">The Theft of History</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150319071011/http://books.google.com/books?id=jo1UVi48KywC">Archived</a> 19 March 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></i>. Cambridge University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-87069-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-87069-0">0-521-87069-0</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbélès" class="citation journal cs1">Abélès, Marc. "How the Anthropology of France Has Changed Anthropology in France: Assessing New Directions in the Field". <i><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Anthropology_(journal)" title="Cultural Anthropology (journal)">Cultural Anthropology</a></i>. <b>1999</b>: 407. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/08867356">08867356</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cultural+Anthropology&rft.atitle=How+the+Anthropology+of+France+Has+Changed+Anthropology+in+France%3A+Assessing+New+Directions+in+the+Field&rft.volume=1999&rft.pages=407&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F08867356%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Ab%C3%A9l%C3%A8s&rft.aufirst=Marc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fischer, Michael M. J. (2003) <i>Emergent Forms of Life and the Anthropological Voice</i>. Duke University Press.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Works_cited">Works cited</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anthropology&action=edit&section=61" title="Edit section: Works cited"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 20em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHunt1863" class="citation journal cs1">Hunt, James (1863). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pzYpAQAAIAAJ">"Introductory Address on the Study of Anthropology"</a>. <i>The Anthropological Review</i>. <b>I</b>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Anthropological+Review&rft.atitle=Introductory+Address+on+the+Study+of+Anthropology&rft.volume=I&rft.date=1863&rft.aulast=Hunt&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpzYpAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnthropology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchiller1979" class="citation book cs1">Schiller, Francis (1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=C5dtJxYrkDYC"><i>Paul Broca, Founder of French Anthropology, Explorer of the Brain</i></a>. Berkeley: University of California Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Paul+Broca%2C+Founder+of+French+Anthropology%2C+Explorer+of+the+Brain&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1979&rft.aulast=Schiller&rft.aufirst=Francis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DC5dtJxYrkDYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnthropology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWaitz1863" class="citation book cs1">Waitz, Theodor (1863). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=G4FQAAAAcAAJ"><i>Introduction to Anthropology</i></a>. Translated by J. Frederick Collingwood for the Anthropological Society of London. London: Longman, Green, Longman, and Roberts.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Anthropology&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Longman%2C+Green%2C+Longman%2C+and+Roberts&rft.date=1863&rft.aulast=Waitz&rft.aufirst=Theodor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DG4FQAAAAcAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnthropology" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anthropology&action=edit&section=62" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_anthropology" title="Bibliography of anthropology">Bibliography of anthropology</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dictionaries_and_encyclopedias">Dictionaries and encyclopedias</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anthropology&action=edit&section=63" title="Edit section: Dictionaries and encyclopedias"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 20em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarnardSpencer2010" class="citation book cs1">Barnard, Alan; Spencer, Jonathan, eds. (2010). <i>The Routledge Encyclopedia of Social and Cultural Anthropology</i>. London: Routledge.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Routledge+Encyclopedia+of+Social+and+Cultural+Anthropology&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2010&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnthropology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarfield1997" class="citation book cs1">Barfield, Thomas (1997). <i>The Dictionary of Anthropology</i>. Hoboken: Wiley-Blackwell Publishing.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Dictionary+of+Anthropology&rft.place=Hoboken&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell+Publishing&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Barfield&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnthropology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJackson2013" class="citation book cs1">Jackson, John L. (2013). <i>Oxford Bibliographies: Anthropology</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Oxford+Bibliographies%3A+Anthropology&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Jackson&rft.aufirst=John+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnthropology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLevinsonEmber1996" class="citation book cs1">Levinson, David; Ember, Melvin, eds. (1996). <i>Encyclopedia of Cultural Anthropology</i>. Vol. 1–4. New York: Henry Holt.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Cultural+Anthropology&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Henry+Holt&rft.date=1996&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnthropology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRapportOvering2007" class="citation book cs1">Rapport, Nigel; Overing, Joanna (2007). <i>Social and Cultural Anthropology: The Key Concepts</i>. New York: Routledge.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Social+and+Cultural+Anthropology%3A+The+Key+Concepts&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Rapport&rft.aufirst=Nigel&rft.au=Overing%2C+Joanna&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnthropology" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fieldnotes_and_memoirs">Fieldnotes and memoirs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anthropology&action=edit&section=64" title="Edit section: Fieldnotes and memoirs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 20em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarley1983" class="citation book cs1">Barley, Nigel (1983). <i>The innocent anthropologist: notes from a mud hut</i>. London: British Museum Publications.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+innocent+anthropologist%3A+notes+from+a+mud+hut&rft.place=London&rft.pub=British+Museum+Publications&rft.date=1983&rft.aulast=Barley&rft.aufirst=Nigel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnthropology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGeertz1995" class="citation book cs1">Geertz, Clifford (1995). <i>After the fact: two countries, four decades, one anthropologist</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=After+the+fact%3A+two+countries%2C+four+decades%2C+one+anthropologist&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Geertz&rft.aufirst=Clifford&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnthropology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLévi-Strauss1967" class="citation book cs1">Lévi-Strauss, Claude (1967). <i>Tristes tropiques</i>. Translated from the French by John Russell. New York: Atheneum.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tristes+tropiques&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Atheneum&rft.date=1967&rft.aulast=L%C3%A9vi-Strauss&rft.aufirst=Claude&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnthropology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMalinowski1967" class="citation book cs1">Malinowski, Bronisław (1967). <i>A diary in the strict sense of the term</i>. Translated by Norbert Guterman. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+diary+in+the+strict+sense+of+the+term&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Harcourt%2C+Brace+%26+World&rft.date=1967&rft.aulast=Malinowski&rft.aufirst=Bronis%C5%82aw&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnthropology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMead1972" class="citation book cs1">Mead, Margaret (1972). <i>Blackberry winter: my earlier years</i>. New York: William Marrow.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Blackberry+winter%3A+my+earlier+years&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=William+Marrow&rft.date=1972&rft.aulast=Mead&rft.aufirst=Margaret&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnthropology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMead1977" class="citation book cs1">—— (1977). <i>Letters from the field, 1925–1975</i>. New York: Harper & Row.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Letters+from+the+field%2C+1925%E2%80%931975&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Harper+%26+Row&rft.date=1977&rft.aulast=Mead&rft.aufirst=Margaret&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnthropology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRabinow1977" class="citation book cs1">Rabinow, Paul (1977). <i>Reflections on fieldwork in Morocco</i>. Quantum Books. Berkeley: University of California Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reflections+on+fieldwork+in+Morocco&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.series=Quantum+Books&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1977&rft.aulast=Rabinow&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnthropology" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Histories">Histories</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anthropology&action=edit&section=65" title="Edit section: Histories"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 20em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAsad1973" class="citation book cs1">Asad, Talal, ed. (1973). <i>Anthropology & the Colonial Encounter</i>. Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities k.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Anthropology+%26+the+Colonial+Encounter&rft.place=Atlantic+Highlands%2C+NJ&rft.pub=Humanities+k&rft.date=1973&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnthropology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarthGingrichParkin2005" class="citation book cs1">Barth, Fredrik; Gingrich, Andre; Parkin, Robert (2005). <i>One Discipline, Four Ways: British, German, French, and American anthropology</i>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=One+Discipline%2C+Four+Ways%3A+British%2C+German%2C+French%2C+and+American+anthropology&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Barth&rft.aufirst=Fredrik&rft.au=Gingrich%2C+Andre&rft.au=Parkin%2C+Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnthropology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDarnell2001" class="citation book cs1">Darnell, Regna. (2001). <i>Invisible Genealogies: A History of Americanist Anthropology</i>. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Invisible+Genealogies%3A+A+History+of+Americanist+Anthropology&rft.place=Lincoln%2C+NE&rft.pub=University+of+Nebraska+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Darnell&rft.aufirst=Regna.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnthropology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGisi2007" class="citation book cs1">Gisi, Lucas Marco (2007). <i>Einbildungskraft und Mythologie. Die Verschränkung von Anthropologie und Geschichte im 18. Jahrhundert</i>. Berlin; New York: de Gruyter.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Einbildungskraft+und+Mythologie.+Die+Verschr%C3%A4nkung+von+Anthropologie+und+Geschichte+im+18.+Jahrhundert&rft.place=Berlin%3B+New+York&rft.pub=de+Gruyter&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Gisi&rft.aufirst=Lucas+Marco&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnthropology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarris2001" class="citation book cs1">Harris, Marvin. (2001) [1968]. <i>The rise of anthropological theory: a history of theories of culture</i>. Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+rise+of+anthropological+theory%3A+a+history+of+theories+of+culture&rft.place=Walnut+Creek%2C+CA&rft.pub=AltaMira+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Harris&rft.aufirst=Marvin.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnthropology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKehoe1998" class="citation book cs1">Kehoe, Alice B. (1998). <i>The Land of Prehistory: A Critical History of American Archaeology</i>. New York; London: Routledge.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Land+of+Prehistory%3A+A+Critical+History+of+American+Archaeology&rft.place=New+York%3B+London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Kehoe&rft.aufirst=Alice+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnthropology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewis1998" class="citation journal cs1">Lewis, H.S. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/248344">"The Misrepresentation of Anthropology and Its Consequences"</a>. <i>American Anthropologist</i>. <b>100</b> (3): 716–731. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Faa.1998.100.3.716">10.1525/aa.1998.100.3.716</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210305074809/https://www.academia.edu/248344/The_Misrepresentation_of_Anthropology_and_Its_Consequences">Archived</a> from the original on 5 March 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 November</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Anthropologist&rft.atitle=The+Misrepresentation+of+Anthropology+and+Its+Consequences&rft.volume=100&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=716-731&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1525%2Faa.1998.100.3.716&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=H.S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F248344&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnthropology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewis2004" class="citation journal cs1">—— (2004). "Imagining Anthropology's History". <i>Reviews in Anthropology</i>. <b>33</b> (3): 243–261. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00938150490486418">10.1080/00938150490486418</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162956412">162956412</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reviews+in+Anthropology&rft.atitle=Imagining+Anthropology%27s+History&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=243-261&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00938150490486418&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162956412%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=H.S&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnthropology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewis2005" class="citation book cs1">—— (2005). "Anthropology, the Cold War, and Intellectual History". In Darnell, R.; Gleach, F.W. (eds.). <i>Histories of Anthropology Annual, Vol. I</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Anthropology%2C+the+Cold+War%2C+and+Intellectual+History&rft.btitle=Histories+of+Anthropology+Annual%2C+Vol.+I&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=H.S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnthropology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPelsSalemink2000" class="citation book cs1">Pels, Peter; Salemink, Oscar, eds. (2000). <i>Colonial Subjects: Essays on the Practical History of Anthropology</i>. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Colonial+Subjects%3A+Essays+on+the+Practical+History+of+Anthropology&rft.place=Ann+Arbor&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+Press&rft.date=2000&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnthropology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrice2004" class="citation book cs1">Price, David (2004). <i>Threatening Anthropology: McCarthyism and the FBI's Surveillance of Activist Anthropologists</i>. Durham: Duke University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Threatening+Anthropology%3A+McCarthyism+and+the+FBI%27s+Surveillance+of+Activist+Anthropologists&rft.place=Durham&rft.pub=Duke+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Price&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnthropology" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSera-Shriar2013" class="citation book cs1">Sera-Shriar, Efram (2013). <i>The Making of British Anthropology, 1813–1871</i>. Science and Culture in the Nineteenth Century, 18. London; Vermont: Pickering and Chatto.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Making+of+British+Anthropology%2C+1813%E2%80%931871&rft.place=London%3B+Vermont&rft.series=Science+and+Culture+in+the+Nineteenth+Century%2C+18&rft.pub=Pickering+and+Chatto&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Sera-Shriar&rft.aufirst=Efram&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnthropology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStocking1968" class="citation book cs1">Stocking, George Jr. (1968). <i>Race, Culture and Evolution</i>. New York: Free Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Race%2C+Culture+and+Evolution&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Free+Press&rft.date=1968&rft.aulast=Stocking&rft.aufirst=George+Jr.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnthropology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrencher2000" class="citation book cs1">Trencher, Susan (2000). <i>Mirrored Images: American Anthropology and American Culture, 1960–1980</i>. Westport, Conn.: Bergin & Garvey.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mirrored+Images%3A+American+Anthropology+and+American+Culture%2C+1960%E2%80%931980&rft.place=Westport%2C+Conn.&rft.pub=Bergin+%26+Garvey&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Trencher&rft.aufirst=Susan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnthropology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWolf1982" class="citation book cs1">Wolf, Eric (1982). <i>Europe and the People Without History</i>. Berkeley; Los Angeles: California University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Europe+and+the+People+Without+History&rft.place=Berkeley%3B+Los+Angeles&rft.pub=California+University+Press&rft.date=1982&rft.aulast=Wolf&rft.aufirst=Eric&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnthropology" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Textbooks_and_key_theoretical_works">Textbooks and key theoretical works</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anthropology&action=edit&section=66" title="Edit section: Textbooks and key theoretical works"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 20em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCliffordMarcus1986" class="citation book cs1">Clifford, James; Marcus, George E. (1986). <i>Writing culture: the poetics and politics of ethnography</i>. Berkeley: University of California Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Writing+culture%3A+the+poetics+and+politics+of+ethnography&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.aulast=Clifford&rft.aufirst=James&rft.au=Marcus%2C+George+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnthropology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGeertz1973" class="citation book cs1">Geertz, Clifford (1973). <i>The Interpretation of Cultures</i>. New York: Basic Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Interpretation+of+Cultures&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=1973&rft.aulast=Geertz&rft.aufirst=Clifford&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnthropology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarris1997" class="citation book cs1">Harris, Marvin (1997). <i>Culture, People, Nature: An Introduction to General Anthropology</i> (7th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Culture%2C+People%2C+Nature%3A+An+Introduction+to+General+Anthropology&rft.place=Boston&rft.edition=7th&rft.pub=Allyn+%26+Bacon&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Harris&rft.aufirst=Marvin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnthropology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSalzmann1993" class="citation book cs1">Salzmann, Zdeněk (1993). <i>Language, culture, and society: an introduction to linguistic anthropology</i>. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Language%2C+culture%2C+and+society%3A+an+introduction+to+linguistic+anthropology&rft.place=Boulder%2C+CO&rft.pub=Westview+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.aulast=Salzmann&rft.aufirst=Zden%C4%9Bk&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnthropology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShwederLeVine1984" class="citation book cs1">Shweder, Richard A.; LeVine, Robert A., eds. (1984). <i>Culture Theory: essays on mind, self, and emotion</i>. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Culture+Theory%3A+essays+on+mind%2C+self%2C+and+emotion&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1984&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnthropology" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anthropology&action=edit&section=67" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1250146164">.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow{padding:0.75em 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow>b{display:block}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul{border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.75em 0;width:217px;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul>li{min-height:31px}.mw-parser-output .sister-logo{display:inline-block;width:31px;line-height:31px;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-link{display:inline-block;margin-left:4px;width:182px;vertical-align:middle}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div role="navigation" aria-labelledby="sister-projects" class="side-box metadata side-box-right sister-box sistersitebox plainlinks"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <b>Anthropology</b> at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects"><span id="sister-projects">sister projects</span></a></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/27px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/41px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/54px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="391" data-file-height="391" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/Anthropology" class="extiw" title="wikt:Special:Search/Anthropology">Definitions</a> from Wiktionary</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Anthropology" class="extiw" title="c:Category:Anthropology">Media</a> from Commons</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/27px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/41px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/54px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="759" data-file-height="415" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Special:Search/Anthropology" class="extiw" title="n:Special:Search/Anthropology">News</a> from Wikinews</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/23px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/35px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/46px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Anthropology" class="extiw" title="q:Anthropology">Quotations</a> from Wikiquote</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/26px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="26" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/39px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/51px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Special:Search/Anthropology" class="extiw" title="s:Special:Search/Anthropology">Texts</a> from Wikisource</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/27px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/41px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/54px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Special:Search/Anthropology" class="extiw" title="b:Special:Search/Anthropology">Textbooks</a> from Wikibooks</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/27px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/41px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/54px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Special:Search/Anthropology" class="extiw" title="v:Special:Search/Anthropology">Resources</a> from Wikiversity</span></li></ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.anthroencyclopedia.com/">Open Encyclopedia of Anthropology.</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaller" class="citation web cs1">Haller, Dieter. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.germananthropology.com/">"Interviews with German Anthropologists: Video Portal for the History of German Anthropology post 1945"</a>. Ruhr-Universität Bochum<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 March</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Interviews+with+German+Anthropologists%3A+Video+Portal+for+the+History+of+German+Anthropology+post+1945&rft.pub=Ruhr-Universit%C3%A4t+Bochum&rft.aulast=Haller&rft.aufirst=Dieter&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.germananthropology.com%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnthropology" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <p>(<a href="/wiki/Anthropological_Index_Online" title="Anthropological Index Online">AIO</a>) </p> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Social_sciences" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Social_sciences" title="Template:Social sciences"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Social_sciences" title="Template talk:Social sciences"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Social_sciences" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Social sciences"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Social_sciences" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">Social sciences</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_social_science" title="Outline of social science">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_social_sciences" title="History of the social sciences">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_sociology_articles" title="Index of sociology articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Primary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Anthropology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_anthropology" title="Social anthropology">social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_anthropology" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical anthropology">physical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">Economics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microeconomics" title="Microeconomics">microeconomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macroeconomics" title="Macroeconomics">macroeconomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Econometrics" title="Econometrics">econometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_economics" title="Mathematical economics">mathematical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography" title="Geography">Geography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Physical_geography" title="Physical geography">physical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_geography" title="Human geography">human</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technical_geography" title="Technical geography">technical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_geography" title="Integrated geography">integrated</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History" title="History">History</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_history" title="Cultural history">cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auxiliary_sciences_of_history" title="Auxiliary sciences of history">auxiliary sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history" title="Economic history">economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_history_(field)" title="World history (field)">human</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history" title="Military history">military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history" title="Political history">political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_history" title="Social history">social</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">Law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">jurisprudence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_history" title="Legal history">legal history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_legal_systems" title="List of national legal systems">legal systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_law" title="Public law">public law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Private_law" title="Private law">private law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">Linguistics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Semiotics" title="Semiotics">semiotics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_science" title="Political science">Political science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_relations" title="International relations">international relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_politics" title="Comparative politics">comparative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_policy" title="Public policy">public policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_administration" title="Public administration">public administration</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">Psychology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abnormal_psychology" title="Abnormal psychology">abnormal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_psychology" title="Cognitive psychology">cognitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Developmental_psychology" title="Developmental psychology">developmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personality_psychology" title="Personality psychology">personality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_psychology" title="Social psychology">social</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criminology" title="Criminology">criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demography" title="Demography">demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_Internet" title="Sociology of the Internet">internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_sociology" title="Rural sociology">rural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_sociology" title="Urban sociology">urban</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Interdisciplinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Administration <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Business_administration" title="Business administration">business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_administration" title="Public administration">public</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthrozoology" title="Anthrozoology">Anthrozoology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Area_studies" title="Area studies">Area studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_studies" title="Business studies">Business studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_science" title="Cognitive science">Cognitive science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communication_studies" title="Communication studies">Communication studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_studies" title="Community studies">Community studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminology" title="Criminology">Criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_studies" title="Cultural studies">Cultural studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_studies" title="Development studies">Development studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">Education</a></li> <li>Environmental <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_social_science" title="Environmental social science">social science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_studies" title="Environmental studies">studies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_studies" title="Food studies">Food studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_studies" title="Gender studies">Gender studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_studies" title="Global studies">Global studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_sociology" title="Historical sociology">Historical sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_technology" title="History of technology">History of technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_ecology" title="Human ecology">Human ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_science" title="Information science">Information science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_relations" title="International relations">International studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Management" title="Management">Management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_studies" title="Media studies">Media studies</a></li> <li>Philosophies <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_and_economics" title="Philosophy and economics"> economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">social science</a></li></ul></li> <li>Planning <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Land-use_planning" title="Land-use planning">land use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_planning" title="Regional planning">regional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning" title="Urban planning">urban</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_ecology" title="Political ecology">Political ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_economy" title="Political economy">Political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_sociology" title="Political sociology">Political sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">Public health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_science" title="Regional science">Regional science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies" title="Science and technology studies">Science and technology studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_studies" title="Science studies">Science studies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_social_science" title="Quantum social science">Quantum social science</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_work" title="Social work">Social work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegan_studies" title="Vegan studies">Vegan studies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">List</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_social_science_journals" title="List of social science journals">List of social science journals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other categorizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Behavioral sciences">Behavioral sciences</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Geisteswissenschaft" title="Geisteswissenschaft">Geisteswissenschaft</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_science" title="Human science">Human science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">Humanities</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Social_sciences" title="Category:Social sciences">Category</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Social_sciences" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Social sciences">Commons</a></b></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Social_sciences.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/32px-Social_sciences.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/48px-Social_sciences.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/64px-Social_sciences.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="139" data-file-height="122" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Society" title="Portal:Society">Society portal</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Wikiversity page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/16px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/24px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/32px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <b><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Portal:Social_Sciences" class="extiw" title="wikiversity:Portal:Social Sciences">Wikiversity</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Humanities" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Humanities" title="Template:Humanities"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Humanities" title="Template talk:Humanities"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Humanities" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Humanities"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Humanities" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">Humanities</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Disciplines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;height:2.5em;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classics" title="Classics">Classical studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History" title="History">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_arts#Literary_arts" title="The arts">Language arts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Literature" title="Literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poetry" title="Poetry">Poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">Rhetoric</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Performing_arts" title="Performing arts">Performing arts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dance" title="Dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Musicology" title="Musicology">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre" title="Theatre">Theatre</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_studies" title="Religious studies">Religious studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_arts" title="Visual arts">Visual arts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Filmmaking" title="Filmmaking">Filmmaking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Painting" title="Painting">Painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sculpture" title="Sculpture">Sculpture</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Interdisciplinary_fields" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Interdisciplinary fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Digital_humanities" title="Digital humanities">Digital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_humanities" title="Environmental humanities">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_humanities" title="Health humanities">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_humanities" title="Medical humanities">Medical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_humanities" title="Public humanities">Public</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Themes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abductive_reasoning" title="Abductive reasoning">Abductive reasoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antipositivism" title="Antipositivism">Antipositivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_arts" title="The arts">The arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beauty" title="Beauty">Beauty</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Belles-lettres" title="Belles-lettres">Belles-lettres</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bildung" title="Bildung">Bildung</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creativity" title="Creativity">Creativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism" title="Criticism">Criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_literacy" title="Cultural literacy">Cultural literacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">Culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/High_culture" title="High culture">High</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_knowledge" title="General knowledge">General knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li> <li> <a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historism" title="Historism">Historism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_condition" title="Human condition">Human condition</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Humanitas" title="Humanitas">Humanitas</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_arts_education" title="Liberal arts education">Liberal arts education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trivium" title="Trivium">Trivium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quadrivium" title="Quadrivium">Quadrivium</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_character" title="Moral character">Moral character</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-realization" title="Self-realization">Self-realization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-reflection" title="Self-reflection">Self-reflection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wisdom" title="Wisdom">Wisdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Work_of_art" title="Work of art">Work of art</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Journals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-style:italic;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Journal_of_Archaeology" title="American Journal of Archaeology">American Journal of Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daedalus_(journal)" title="Daedalus (journal)">Daedalus</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/History_of_Humanities" title="History of Humanities">History of Humanities</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanitas_(journal)" title="Humanitas (journal)">Humanitas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanities_and_Social_Sciences_Communications" title="Humanities and Social Sciences Communications">Humanities and Social Sciences Communications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Controversial_Ideas" title="Journal of Controversial Ideas">Journal of Controversial Ideas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_the_Royal_Asiatic_Society" title="Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society">Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonardo_(journal)" title="Leonardo (journal)">Leonardo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nova_Religio" title="Nova Religio">Nova Religio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revue_des_%C3%89tudes_Arm%C3%A9niennes" title="Revue des Études Arméniennes">Revue des Études Arméniennes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teaching_Philosophy" title="Teaching Philosophy">Teaching Philosophy</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_humanities_journals" title="List of humanities journals">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arts_and_Humanities_Research_Council" title="Arts and Humanities Research Council">Arts and Humanities Research Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_science" title="Human science">Human science</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Geisteswissenschaft" title="Geisteswissenschaft">Geisteswissenschaft</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanities,_arts,_and_social_sciences" title="Humanities, arts, and social sciences">Humanities, arts, and social sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Master_of_Humanities" title="Master of Humanities">Master of Humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moscow_University_for_the_Humanities" title="Moscow University for the Humanities">Moscow University for the Humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Endowment_for_the_Humanities" title="National Endowment for the Humanities">National Endowment for the Humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Humanities_Medal" title="National Humanities Medal">National Humanities Medal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antihumanism" title="Antihumanism">Antihumanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philistinism" title="Philistinism">Philistinism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_culture#Criticism" title="Popular culture">Criticism of mass culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_essentialism" title="Educational essentialism">Educational essentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanities_in_the_United_States" title="Humanities in the United States">Humanities in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_people_considered_a_founder_in_a_Humanities_field" class="mw-redirect" title="List of people considered a founder in a Humanities field">List of people considered a founder in a Humanities field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_humanities" title="Outline of the humanities">Outline of the humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance humanism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Latin_school#Studia_Humanitatis" title="Latin school">Studia Humanitatis</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q23404#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q23404#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q23404#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Anthropology"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/810196/">FAST</a></span></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Anthropologie"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4002230-4">Germany</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Anthropology"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85005581">United States</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Anthropologie"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb133184815">France</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Anthropologie"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb133184815">BnF data</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00574809">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="antropologie"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph114065&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Antropología"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX530931">Spain</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Antropoloģija"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000053087&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="인류학[人類學]"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lod.nl.go.kr/resource/KSH1998004857">Korea</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Antropologi"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://libris.kb.se/b8nqp1xv22429tb">Sweden</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Anthropology"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007295589305171">Israel</a></span></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hls-dhs-dss.ch/fr/articles/008252">Historical Dictionary of Switzerland</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalog.archives.gov/id/10638537">NARA</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" 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1,\n [\"CITEREFChio2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCliffordMarcus1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCole1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFD\u0026#039;Andrade1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDaniel_A._SegalSylvia_J._Yanagisako2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDarnell2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDe_Montellano1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFletcher1882\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGeertz1973\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGeertz1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGeorge_Peter_MurdockDouglas_R._White1969\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGisi2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoodmanLeatherman1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGreenhouse,_Carol_J.1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGriffithsChapmanChristiansen2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaller\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHannHart,_Keith2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarris1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarris2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeffernan2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHent_de_VriesLawrence_E._Sullivan2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeyckStockingGoody1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHunt1863\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIngold,_Tim1994\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFIngold2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIsrael_Institute_of_the_History_of_Medicine1952\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJackson2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKedia,_Satish2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKehoe1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKelsoPääboMeyerPrüfer2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKnorr,_Alexander2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKottak1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKottak2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeVine,_R._A.,_Norman,_K.2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLee2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLevi-Strauss1962\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLevinsonEmber1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLewis1998\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFLewis2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLewis2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLévi-Strauss1967\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaccurdy1899\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMalinowski1967\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarshall1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcElroy,_A1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMead1972\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMead1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMelissa_Checker2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMilton1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPelsSalemink2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPetilloHlavka2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPountney,_Laura2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPrice1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPrice2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPyke1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRabinow1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRapportOvering2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoseberry1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSalzmann1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSargent2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchiller1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchroll,_M._A.,_\u0026amp;_Schwartz,_S._A.2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchwartz,_T.G.M._White1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSera-Shriar2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShwederLeVine1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSibeud2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSpitulnik,_Deborah1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStocking1968\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTim_Ingold1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTowleIrishDe_Groote2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTownsend2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTrefzer2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTrencher2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWaitz1863\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeber,_GerhardBookstein,_Fred2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWolf1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWomack2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYoungGoulet1994\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 1,\n [\"About\"] = 1,\n [\"Annotated link\"] = 17,\n [\"Anthropology\"] = 1,\n [\"Anthropology of art\"] = 1,\n [\"Anthropology of kinship\"] = 1,\n [\"Anthropology of religion\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Better source needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 3,\n [\"Circa\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 3,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 61,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 31,\n [\"Cite report\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 19,\n [\"Cn\"] = 7,\n [\"Colbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Colend\"] = 1,\n [\"Cyber anthropology\"] = 1,\n [\"Dead link\"] = 1,\n [\"Distinguish\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col\"] = 2,\n [\"Div col end\"] = 2,\n [\"Economic anthropology\"] = 1,\n [\"Further\"] = 1,\n [\"Google books\"] = 5,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 7,\n [\"Hatgrp\"] = 1,\n [\"Humanities\"] = 1,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 15,\n [\"ISBN?\"] = 2,\n [\"Lang\"] = 5,\n [\"Linktext\"] = 2,\n [\"Main\"] = 37,\n [\"Main category\"] = 1,\n [\"Medical anthropology\"] = 1,\n [\"Page needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Political anthropology\"] = 1,\n [\"Portal\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 5,\n [\"Refend\"] = 5,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 2,\n [\"Refn\"] = 7,\n [\"See also\"] = 1,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Sister project links\"] = 1,\n [\"Social sciences\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 10,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\ntable#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","300","19.5"],["?","220","14.3"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","120","7.8"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::find","100","6.5"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getExpandedArgument","80","5.2"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::match","60","3.9"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","60","3.9"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","60","3.9"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::plain","60","3.9"],["type","60","3.9"],["[others]","420","27.3"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-br4qw","timestamp":"20241123193535","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Anthropology","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Anthropology","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q23404","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q23404","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2001-11-02T11:20:05Z","dateModified":"2024-11-03T04:05:55Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/c\/cf\/Antropologo_social.jpg","headline":"scientific study of humans, human behavior, and societies"}</script> </body> </html>