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</div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Magna_Graecia_ancient_colonies_and_dialects-eu.svg/220px-Magna_Graecia_ancient_colonies_and_dialects-eu.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="207" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Magna_Graecia_ancient_colonies_and_dialects-eu.svg/330px-Magna_Graecia_ancient_colonies_and_dialects-eu.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Magna_Graecia_ancient_colonies_and_dialects-eu.svg/440px-Magna_Graecia_ancient_colonies_and_dialects-eu.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="440" data-file-height="414" /></a><figcaption>Map of ancient Magna Graecia, on the western side of the <a href="/wiki/Adriatic_Sea" title="Adriatic Sea">Adriatic Sea</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <b>Italian school</b> of <a href="/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosophy" title="Pre-Socratic philosophy">pre-Socratic philosophy</a> refers to <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Ancient Greek</a> philosophers in <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a> or <a href="/wiki/Magna_Graecia" title="Magna Graecia">Magna Graecia</a> in the 6th and 5th century BC.<sup id="cite_ref-blakey_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-blakey-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Contemporary scholarship disputes the Italian school as a historical school rather than simply a geographical one.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Doxography" title="Doxography">doxographer</a> <a href="/wiki/Diogenes_La%C3%ABrtius" class="mw-redirect" title="Diogenes Laërtius">Diogenes Laërtius</a> divides pre-Socratic philosophy into the <a href="/wiki/Ionian_school_(philosophy)" title="Ionian school (philosophy)">Ionian</a> and Italian school.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to classicist <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Barnes" title="Jonathan Barnes">Jonathan Barnes</a>, "Although the Italian 'school' was founded by <a href="/wiki/%C3%89migr%C3%A9" title="Émigré">émigrés</a> from Ionia, it quickly took on a character of its own."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarnes200278_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarnes200278-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to classicist <a href="/wiki/W._K._C._Guthrie" title="W. K. C. Guthrie">W. K. C. Guthrie</a>, it contrasted with the "<a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">materialistic</a> and purely rational <a href="/wiki/Milesian_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Milesian school">Milesians</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-:3_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Italian school included the <a href="/wiki/Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagorean school</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-blakey_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-blakey-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Parmenides" title="Parmenides">Parmenides</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Eleatics" title="Eleatics">Eleatic school</a>, <a href="/wiki/Xenophanes" title="Xenophanes">Xenophanes</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Empedocles" title="Empedocles">Empedocles</a>. According to Diogenes Laërtius, the succession goes <a href="/wiki/Pythagoras" title="Pythagoras">Pythagoras</a> (“pupil of <a href="/wiki/Pherecydes_of_Syros" title="Pherecydes of Syros">Pherecydes</a>”), Telauges (his son), Xenophanes, Parmenides, <a href="/wiki/Zeno_of_Elea" title="Zeno of Elea">Zeno of Elea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leucippus" title="Leucippus">Leucippus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Democritus" title="Democritus">Democritus</a> (“who had many pupils”), Nausiphanes [and Naucydes] (“in particular”), and <a href="/wiki/Epicurus" title="Epicurus">Epicurus</a> (Succession ends).<sup id="cite_ref-:0_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Parmenides, Xenophanes, and Empedocles all wrote in verse.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> notes, as he criticizes the Pythagorean <a href="/wiki/Pythagorean_astronomical_system" title="Pythagorean astronomical system">view</a> of a <a href="/wiki/Counter-Earth" title="Counter-Earth">Counter-Earth</a>, "Most people...say it <a href="/wiki/Geocentric_model" title="Geocentric model">lies at the center</a>. But the Italian philosophers known as Pythagoreans take the contrary view."<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Pythagoras">Pythagoras</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Italian_school_(philosophy)&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Pythagoras"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Pythagoras" title="Pythagoras">Pythagoras</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pythagoras_in_the_Roman_Forum,_Colosseum.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Pythagoras_in_the_Roman_Forum%2C_Colosseum.jpg/160px-Pythagoras_in_the_Roman_Forum%2C_Colosseum.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="231" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Pythagoras_in_the_Roman_Forum%2C_Colosseum.jpg/240px-Pythagoras_in_the_Roman_Forum%2C_Colosseum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Pythagoras_in_the_Roman_Forum%2C_Colosseum.jpg/320px-Pythagoras_in_the_Roman_Forum%2C_Colosseum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2862" data-file-height="4140" /></a><figcaption>Bust of Pythagoras</figcaption></figure> <p>Pythagoras traveled from <a href="/wiki/Samos" title="Samos">Samos</a> to <a href="/wiki/Crotone" title="Crotone">Croton</a> circa 530 BC, beginning the separation from the earlier Ionian schools.<sup id="cite_ref-blakey_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-blakey-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:3_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagoreans</a> established a <a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">dualist</a> philosophical school and religious sect concerned with such things as mathematics, music, and medicine; for example <a href="/wiki/Alcmaeon_of_Croton" title="Alcmaeon of Croton">Alcmaeon of Croton</a>. According to <a href="/wiki/Iamblichus" title="Iamblichus">Iamblichus</a>, of all the pre-socratic schools, the Pythagoreans had the most adherents. </p><p>Soon after the victory of Croton over <a href="/wiki/Sybaris" title="Sybaris">Sybaris</a> in 510 BC, the Pythagoreans were attacked at their meeting place by a <a href="/wiki/Greek_democracy" title="Greek democracy">democratic</a> group led by <a href="/wiki/Cylon_of_Croton" title="Cylon of Croton">Cylon</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There was also a second attack on the Pythagoreans at the former house of the wrestler <a href="/wiki/Milo_of_Croton" title="Milo of Croton">Milo</a> in 454 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thereafter, it seems Pythagoreans fled across the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Taranto" title="Gulf of Taranto">Tarantine Gulf</a> and were found in places such as <a href="/wiki/Metapontum" title="Metapontum">Metapontum</a> and <a href="/wiki/Taranto" title="Taranto">Tarentum</a>. Perhaps this is what led to <a href="/wiki/Philolaus" title="Philolaus">Philolaus</a> fleeing back to <a href="/wiki/Greece" title="Greece">Greece</a> and instilling Pythagorean ideas on the mainland.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The teaching most securely identified with Pythagoras is <i><a href="/wiki/Metempsychosis" title="Metempsychosis">metempsychosis</a></i>, or the "transmigration of souls", which holds that every <a href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">soul</a> is <a href="/wiki/Immortality" title="Immortality">immortal</a> and, upon death, <a href="/wiki/Reincarnation" title="Reincarnation">enters into a new body</a>. He may have also devised the doctrine of <i><a href="/wiki/Musica_universalis" title="Musica universalis">musica universalis</a></i>, which holds that the <a href="/wiki/Classical_planet" title="Classical planet">planets</a> move according to <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematical</a> <a href="/wiki/Equation" title="Equation">equations</a> and thus resonate to produce an inaudible symphony of music. Scholars debate whether Pythagoras developed the <a href="/wiki/Numerology" title="Numerology">numerological</a> and musical teachings attributed to him, or if those teachings were developed by his followers. </p><p>In antiquity, Pythagoras was credited with many mathematical and scientific discoveries, including the <a href="/wiki/Pythagorean_theorem" title="Pythagorean theorem">Pythagorean theorem</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pythagorean_tuning" title="Pythagorean tuning">Pythagorean tuning</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Platonic_solids" class="mw-redirect" title="Platonic solids">five regular solids</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Proportionality_(mathematics)" title="Proportionality (mathematics)">Theory of Proportions</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Spherical_Earth" title="Spherical Earth">sphericity of the Earth</a>, and the identity of the <a href="/wiki/Phosphorus_(morning_star)" title="Phosphorus (morning star)">morning</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hesperus" title="Hesperus">evening stars</a> as the planet <a href="/wiki/Venus" title="Venus">Venus</a>. It was said that he was the first man to call himself a philosopher ("lover of wisdom")<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and that he was the first to divide the globe into <a href="/wiki/Geographical_zone" title="Geographical zone">five climatic zones</a>. </p><p>The Platonic dialogue <i><a href="/wiki/Timaeus_(dialogue)" title="Timaeus (dialogue)">Timaeus</a></i> is named for a Pythagorean from <a href="/wiki/Locri" title="Locri">Locri</a>. <a href="/wiki/Iccus_of_Taranto" title="Iccus of Taranto">Iccus of Taranto</a> is considered the founder of athletic dieting. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Xenophanes">Xenophanes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Italian_school_(philosophy)&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Xenophanes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Xenophanes" title="Xenophanes">Xenophanes</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_the_Presocratic_Greek_World.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Map_of_the_Presocratic_Greek_World.png/280px-Map_of_the_Presocratic_Greek_World.png" decoding="async" width="280" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Map_of_the_Presocratic_Greek_World.png/420px-Map_of_the_Presocratic_Greek_World.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Map_of_the_Presocratic_Greek_World.png/560px-Map_of_the_Presocratic_Greek_World.png 2x" data-file-width="1595" data-file-height="907" /></a><figcaption>Xenophanes characterised his travels as "tossing up and down"<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Ancient Greece</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Archaic_Greece" title="Archaic Greece">archaic period</a>. His travels took him from <a href="/wiki/Colophon_(city)" title="Colophon (city)">Colophon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ionia" title="Ionia">Ionia</a> in present day <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a> as far as <a href="/wiki/Greek_colonization" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek colonization">colonies</a> in <a href="/wiki/Magna_Graecia" title="Magna Graecia">Magna Graecia</a> in present day <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELesher19923-4_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELesher19923-4-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Xenophanes also made the trip across the <a href="/wiki/Aegean_Sea" title="Aegean Sea">Aegean</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ionian_Sea" title="Ionian Sea">Ionian</a> seas, in his case from <a href="/wiki/Colophon_(city)" title="Colophon (city)">Colophon</a> to <a href="/wiki/Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicily</a>, perhaps after Colophon was conquered by the Persians in 546 BC. He lived on the island<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and was alleged to be at the court of <a href="/wiki/Hiero_I_of_Syracuse" title="Hiero I of Syracuse">Hiero I</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many later ancient accounts associate Xenophanes with the Greek colony in the Italian city of <a href="/wiki/Velia" title="Velia">Elea</a>, either as the author of a poem on the founding of that city,<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>d<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or as the founder of the Eleatic school of philosophy,<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>e<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or as the teacher of Parmenides.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>f<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Others associate him with Pythagoreanism. However, modern scholars generally believe that there is little historical or philosophical justification for these associations.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELesher19923-4_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELesher19923-4-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p> In his ninety-second year he was still, we have seen, leading a wandering life, which is hardly consistent with the statement that he settled at Elea and founded a school there, especially if we are to think of him as spending his last days at Hieron's court. It is very remarkable that no ancient writer expressly says he ever was at Elea, and all the evidence we have seems inconsistent with his having settled there at all.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBurnet1892115_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurnet1892115-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Xenophanes is sometimes considered the first <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">skeptic</a> in Western philosophy and a precursor to <a href="/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>g<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Xeniades" title="Xeniades">Xeniades</a> of <a href="/wiki/Corinth" title="Corinth">Corinth</a> was alleged to be his follower.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>h<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>He relays one of the oldest stories about Pythagoras, seemingly ridiculing their doctrine of <a href="/wiki/Reincarnation" title="Reincarnation">transmigration of souls</a>: "Once they say that he was passing by when a puppy was being whipped, And he took pity and said: "Stop! Do not beat it! For it is the soul of a friend that I recognised when I heard it giving tongue."<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also famously ridiculed the notion of <a href="/wiki/Anthropomorphism" title="Anthropomorphism">anthropomorphic</a> gods, "But mortals suppose that gods are born, wear their own clothers and have a voice and body."<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>i<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and "<a href="/wiki/Ethiopians" title="Ethiopians">Ethiopians</a> say that their gods are snub-nosed and black; <a href="/wiki/Thracians" title="Thracians">Thracians</a> that theirs are blue-eyed and red-haired."<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>j<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It is also questioned whether Xenophanes should be considered part of an Italian school or an independent figure.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Parmenides">Parmenides</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Italian_school_(philosophy)&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Parmenides"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Parmenides" title="Parmenides">Parmenides</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Busto_di_Parmenide.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Busto_di_Parmenide.jpg/180px-Busto_di_Parmenide.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="240" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Busto_di_Parmenide.jpg/270px-Busto_di_Parmenide.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Busto_di_Parmenide.jpg/360px-Busto_di_Parmenide.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2448" data-file-height="3264" /></a><figcaption>Bust of Parmenides found at <a href="/wiki/Velia" title="Velia">Elea</a>, thought to have been partially modeled on a <a href="/wiki/Metrodorus_of_Lampsacus_(the_younger)" title="Metrodorus of Lampsacus (the younger)">Metrodorus</a> bust.</figcaption></figure> <p>Parmenides founded the Eleatic school in Elea, which included as followers Zeno and <a href="/wiki/Melissus_of_Samos" title="Melissus of Samos">Melissus of Samos</a>. According to classicist <a href="/wiki/W._K._C._Guthrie" title="W. K. C. Guthrie">W. K. C. Guthrie</a>, "Parmenides....is with good reason believed to have started as a philosopher of the Italian school, and to have rebelled against its teachings."<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to <a href="/wiki/Sotion" title="Sotion">Sotion</a>, he was first a student of Xenophanes,<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>k<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but did not follow him, and later became associated with a Pythagorean, Aminias, whom he preferred as his teacher. </p><p>Parmenides argued that all is one and change was an illusion, contra <a href="/wiki/Heraclitus" title="Heraclitus">Heraclitus</a>. Parmenides is considered one of the most significant figures of pre-socratic philosophy, given such lofty titles as the founder of <a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">ontology</a> and the inventor of the hypothetico-deductive method in philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Attributed to him is the saying "<a href="/wiki/Creation_ex_materia" class="mw-redirect" title="Creation ex materia">Out of nothing, nothing comes</a>." </p><p>Only fragments of his poem survive. In it, Parmenides prescribes two views of <a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">reality</a>. The first, the Way of "<a href="/wiki/Aletheia" title="Aletheia">Aletheia</a>" or truth, describes how all reality is one, <a href="/wiki/Change_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Change (philosophy)">change</a> is impossible, and existence is timeless and uniform. The second view, the way of "<a href="/wiki/Doxa" title="Doxa">Doxa</a>", or opinion, describes the world of appearances, in which one's sensory faculties lead to conceptions which are false and deceitful. </p><p>Zeno of Elea defended his master's views and argued that motion was impossible with his famous <a href="/wiki/Zeno%27s_paradoxes" title="Zeno's paradoxes">paradoxes</a> such as the Achilles and the Arrow. Melissus, who commanded the Samian fleet in the <a href="/wiki/Samian_War" title="Samian War">Samian War</a>, similarly argued all is one and unchanging. </p><p>The dialogue named <i><a href="/wiki/Parmenides_(dialogue)" title="Parmenides (dialogue)">Parmenides</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> which recounts a fictionalized account of a visit that Parmenides and Zeno made to <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Athens" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Athens">Ancient Athens</a> in 450 BC. The dialogue called <a href="/wiki/Sophist_(dialogue)" title="Sophist (dialogue)"><i>Sophist</i></a> also contains Plato's response to Eleatic philosophy. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Gorgias" title="Gorgias">Gorgias</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Sophist" title="Sophist">sophist</a> from Sicily and also the namesake of a <a href="/wiki/Gorgias_(dialogue)" title="Gorgias (dialogue)">dialogue</a> by Plato, argued nothing existed and even if it did nothing can be known about it, seemingly ridiculing Melissus.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Callicles" title="Callicles">Callicles</a> from the dialogue is reckoned a follower of Gorgias. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Empedocles">Empedocles</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Italian_school_(philosophy)&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Empedocles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Empedocles" title="Empedocles">Empedocles</a></div> <p>The pluralist and medicine man <a href="/wiki/Empedocles" title="Empedocles">Empedocles</a> came from <a href="/wiki/Agrigento" title="Agrigento">Akragas</a>, in Sicily, and is best known for originating the cosmogonic theory of the <a href="/wiki/Classical_element" title="Classical element">four classical elements</a>. According to <a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a>, he also founded the Sicilian school of medicine.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His followers included <a href="/wiki/Acron" title="Acron">Acron</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pausanias_of_Sicily" title="Pausanias of Sicily">Pausanias</a>. Legend holds that Empedocles committed suicide by falling into <a href="/wiki/Mount_Etna" title="Mount Etna">Mount Etna's volcano</a>. </p><p>Empedocles was exiled from native town and traveled around Italy. <a href="/wiki/Theophrastus" title="Theophrastus">Theophrastus</a> relays that Empedocles was influenced by Parmenides and Pythagoras. Indeed Empedocles also founded a religious order like Pythagoras. Empedocles seems the first to treat God as an impersonal, abstract, mind, which seems to be a combination of <a href="/wiki/Anaxagoras" title="Anaxagoras">Anaxagoras</a>' treatment of mind (as incorporeal) and Xenophanes treatment of god (as impersonal).<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Italian_school_(philosophy)&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/On_Melissus,_Xenophanes,_and_Gorgias" title="On Melissus, Xenophanes, and Gorgias">On Melissus, Xenophanes, and Gorgias</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Italian_school_(philosophy)&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Tusculan_Disputations" class="mw-redirect" title="Tusculan Disputations">Tusculan Disputations</a></i>, 5.3.8–9 (citing <a href="/wiki/Heraclides_Ponticus" title="Heraclides Ponticus">Heraclides Ponticus</a> fr. 88 Wehrli), <a href="/wiki/Diogenes_La%C3%ABrtius" class="mw-redirect" title="Diogenes Laërtius">Diogenes Laërtius</a> 1.12, 8.8, <a href="/wiki/Iamblichus" title="Iamblichus">Iamblichus</a> <i>VP</i> 58. Burkert attempted to discredit this ancient tradition, but it has been defended by <a href="/wiki/Cornelia_Johanna_de_Vogel" title="Cornelia Johanna de Vogel">C. J. De Vogel</a>, <i>Pythagoras and Early Pythagoreanism</i> (1966), pp. 97–102, and C. Riedweg, <i>Pythagoras: His Life, Teaching, And Influence</i> (2005), p. 92.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Diels-Kranz_numbering" class="mw-redirect" title="Diels-Kranz numbering">DK</a> 21B8</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"for the most part" at <a href="/wiki/Messina" title="Messina">Zancle</a> and <a href="/wiki/Catania" title="Catania">Catana</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">DK 28A1</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A8,30,36</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A2,A30,A31</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">DK 21B49</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Sextus_Empiricus" title="Sextus Empiricus">Sextus Empiricus</a> more than once couples him with Xenophanes.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">DK 21B14</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">DK 21B16</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The testimony of the link between Parmenides and Xenophanes goes back to <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, <i>Met.</i> I 5, 986b (A 6) and from <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>, <i>Sophist</i> 242d (21 A 29)</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Italian_school_(philosophy)&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-blakey-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-blakey_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-blakey_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-blakey_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFRobert_Blakey1848" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Blakey_(writer)" title="Robert Blakey (writer)">Robert Blakey</a> (April 21, 1848). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wttRAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA17">"History of the Philosophy of Mind: Embracing the Opinions of All Writers on Mental Science from the Earliest Period to the Present Time"</a>. Trelawney Wm. Saunders. p. 17 – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=History+of+the+Philosophy+of+Mind%3A+Embracing+the+Opinions+of+All+Writers+on+Mental+Science+from+the+Earliest+Period+to+the+Present+Time&rft.pages=17&rft.pub=Trelawney+Wm.+Saunders&rft.date=1848-04-21&rft.au=Robert+Blakey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwttRAAAAMAAJ%26pg%3DPA17&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+school+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWerner_Jaeger" class="citation book cs1">Werner Jaeger. <i>The Theology of the Early Greek Philosophers: The Gifford Lectures 1936</i>. p. 38.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Theology+of+the+Early+Greek+Philosophers%3A+The+Gifford+Lectures+1936&rft.pages=38&rft.au=Werner+Jaeger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+school+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mueller, Ian and Wolfgang G. Haase. “Heterodoxy and Doxography in Hippolytus’ ‘Refutation of All Heresies’.” (1992).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Laurent, Régis. An Introduction to Aristotle's Metaphysics of Time: Historical Research Into the Mythological and Astronomical Conceptions that Preceded Aristotle's Philosophy. France, Villegagnons-Plaisance éditions, 2015. p. 151</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaks2018" class="citation web cs1">Laks, André (May 3, 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ndpr.nd.edu/reviews/the-concept-of-presocratic-philosophy-its-origin-development-and-significance/">"The Concept of Presocratic Philosophy: Its Origin, Development, and Significance"</a>. <i>Notre Dame Philosophical Reviews</i>. Daniel W. Graham.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Notre+Dame+Philosophical+Reviews&rft.atitle=The+Concept+of+Presocratic+Philosophy%3A+Its+Origin%2C+Development%2C+and+Significance&rft.date=2018-05-03&rft.aulast=Laks&rft.aufirst=Andr%C3%A9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fndpr.nd.edu%2Freviews%2Fthe-concept-of-presocratic-philosophy-its-origin-development-and-significance%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+school+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://maritain.nd.edu/jmc/etext/hwp103.htm">"A History of Western Philosophy 1.3"</a>. <i>maritain.nd.edu</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=maritain.nd.edu&rft.atitle=A+History+of+Western+Philosophy+1.3&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmaritain.nd.edu%2Fjmc%2Fetext%2Fhwp103.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+school+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Oxford Handbook of Presocratic Philosophy, p. 297</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarnes200278-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarnes200278_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBarnes2002">Barnes 2002</a>, p. 78.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Pre Socratic Philosophy (Cambridge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 1961) p. 443</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3VA6AQAAMAAJ&dq=%22Italian+School%22+philosophy+eleatic&pg=PA115"><i>Bibliotheca Sacra</i></a>. Dallas Theological Seminary. 1851.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bibliotheca+Sacra&rft.pub=Dallas+Theological+Seminary&rft.date=1851&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3VA6AQAAMAAJ%26dq%3D%2522Italian%2BSchool%2522%2Bphilosophy%2Beleatic%26pg%3DPA115&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+school+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://donaldrobertson.name/2013/03/04/the-succession-of-philosophical-schools/">"The Succession of Philosophical Schools – Donald Robertson"</a>. 4 March 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Succession+of+Philosophical+Schools+%E2%80%93+Donald+Robertson&rft.date=2013-03-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdonaldrobertson.name%2F2013%2F03%2F04%2Fthe-succession-of-philosophical-schools%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+school+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Taub, Liba. Science Writing in Greco-Roman Antiquity. N.p., Cambridge University Press, 2017. p. 117</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Poetry and Poetics in the Presocratic Philosophers by Tom Mackenzie</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Aristotle <i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Heavens" title="On the Heavens">On the Heavens</a></i>, 2. 13</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sandywell, Barry. Presocratic Reflexivity: The Construction of Philosophical Discourse C. 600-450 B.C.: Logological Investigations: Volume Three. United Kingdom, Taylor & Francis, 2002., p. 197</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Popper, Karl</a> “The Pre-Socratics and the Rationalist Tradition”: A Review of General Semantics 24, no. 2 (1967): 149–72. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/42574324">http://www.jstor.org/stable/42574324</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">E. Robinson, <i>''Democracy Beyond Athens''</i>, Cambridge 2011, p. 108. </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Huffman, C. A., 1993, Philolaus of Croton: Pythagorean and Presocratic, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">W. K. C. Guthrie A History of Greek Philosophy, p. 179</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELesher19923-4-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELesher19923-4_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELesher19923-4_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLesher1992">Lesher 1992</a>, p. 3-4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFG._W._F._Hegel" class="citation book cs1">G. W. F. Hegel. <i>Lectures on the History of Philosophy: Greek philosophy to Plato</i>. p. 241.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lectures+on+the+History+of+Philosophy%3A+Greek+philosophy+to+Plato&rft.pages=241&rft.au=G.+W.+F.+Hegel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+school+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFB._A._G._Fuller1923" class="citation book cs1">B. A. G. Fuller (1923). <i>History of Greek Philosophy: Thales to Democritus</i>. p. 98.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Greek+Philosophy%3A+Thales+to+Democritus&rft.pages=98&rft.date=1923&rft.au=B.+A.+G.+Fuller&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+school+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurnet1892115-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBurnet1892115_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBurnet1892">Burnet 1892</a>, p. 115.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Xenophanes' Scepticism by James H. Lesher, <i>Phronesis</i> Vol. 23, No. 1 (1978), pp. 1-21 </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sextus Empiricus, <i>Pyrrh. Hyp.</i> ii. 18, <i>adv. Math.</i> vii. 48</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Diogenes Laërtius, viii. 36</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTemporiniHaase1992" class="citation book cs1">Temporini, Hildegard; Haase, Wolfgang (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kFloAAAAMAAJ"><i>Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt: Principat. v</i></a>. De Gruyter. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-001885-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-001885-1"><bdi>978-3-11-001885-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aufstieg+und+Niedergang+der+r%C3%B6mischen+Welt%3A+Principat.+v&rft.pub=De+Gruyter&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-3-11-001885-1&rft.aulast=Temporini&rft.aufirst=Hildegard&rft.au=Haase%2C+Wolfgang&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkFloAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+school+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">W. K. C. Guthrie, A History of Greek Philosophy, p. 172</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaniel_Graham" class="citation book cs1">Daniel Graham. <i>Presocratic Philosophy</i>. p. 227.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Presocratic+Philosophy&rft.pages=227&rft.au=Daniel+Graham&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+school+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFM._A._Soupios" class="citation book cs1">M. A. Soupios. <i>The Greeks Who Made Us Who We Are</i>. p. 193.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Greeks+Who+Made+Us+Who+We+Are&rft.pages=193&rft.au=M.+A.+Soupios&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+school+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Empedocles" Cambridge Encyclopedia of Philosophy (1961) by Charles Kahn, p. 498</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarnes2002" class="citation book cs1">Barnes, Jonathan (2002). <i>The Presocratic Philosophers</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Presocratic+Philosophers&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Barnes&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+school+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurnet1892" class="citation book cs1">Burnet, John (1892). "Science and Religion". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LQYrAAAAMAAJ"><i>Early Greek Philosophy</i></a>. A. and C. Black. pp. 83–129<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 April</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Science+and+Religion&rft.btitle=Early+Greek+Philosophy&rft.pages=83-129&rft.pub=A.+and+C.+Black&rft.date=1892&rft.aulast=Burnet&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLQYrAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+school+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLesher1992" class="citation book cs1">Lesher, James H. (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LxxJXTviacgC"><i>Xenophanes of Colophon: Fragments : a Text and Translation with a Commentary</i></a>. University of Toronto Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8020-8508-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8020-8508-5"><bdi>978-0-8020-8508-5</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 April</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Xenophanes+of+Colophon%3A+Fragments+%3A+a+Text+and+Translation+with+a+Commentary&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-8020-8508-5&rft.aulast=Lesher&rft.aufirst=James+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLxxJXTviacgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AItalian+school+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl 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id="Italian" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Italian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagorean</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pythagoras" title="Pythagoras">Pythagoras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippasus" title="Hippasus">Hippasus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philolaus" title="Philolaus">Philolaus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archytas" title="Archytas">Archytas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamiskos" title="Lamiskos">Lamiskos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcmaeon_of_Croton" title="Alcmaeon of Croton">Alcmaeon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brontinus" title="Brontinus">Brontinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theano_(philosopher)" title="Theano (philosopher)">Theano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Damo_(philosopher)" title="Damo (philosopher)">Damo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calliphon_of_Croton" title="Calliphon of Croton">Calliphon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermotimus_of_Clazomenae" title="Hermotimus of Clazomenae">Hermotimus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metrodorus_of_Cos" title="Metrodorus of Cos">Metrodorus of Cos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arignote" title="Arignote">Arignote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myia" title="Myia">Myia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurytus_(Pythagorean)" title="Eurytus (Pythagorean)">Eurytus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pythagoreans" title="Category:Pythagoreans">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">Skeptic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xenophanes" title="Xenophanes">Xenophanes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xeniades" title="Xeniades">Xeniades</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Eleatics" title="Eleatics">Eleatic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parmenides" title="Parmenides">Parmenides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zeno_of_Elea" title="Zeno of Elea">Zeno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melissus_of_Samos" title="Melissus of Samos">Melissus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hippo_(philosopher)" title="Hippo (philosopher)">Hippo</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pluralism_(philosophy)" title="Pluralism (philosophy)">Pluralist</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ionian_school_(philosophy)" title="Ionian school (philosophy)">Ionian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Anaxagoras" title="Anaxagoras">Anaxagoras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archelaus_(philosopher)" title="Archelaus (philosopher)">Archelaus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metrodorus_of_Lampsacus_(the_elder)" title="Metrodorus of Lampsacus (the elder)">Metrodorus of Lampsacus</a></li> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Italian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Empedocles" title="Empedocles">Empedocles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acron" title="Acron">Acron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pausanias_of_Sicily" title="Pausanias of Sicily">Pausanias</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomist</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leucippus" title="Leucippus">Leucippus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democritus" title="Democritus">Democritus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sophist" title="Sophist">Sophist</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ionian_school_(philosophy)" title="Ionian school (philosophy)">Ionian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Protagoras" title="Protagoras">Protagoras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prodicus" title="Prodicus">Prodicus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippias" title="Hippias">Hippias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thrasymachus" title="Thrasymachus">Thrasymachus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Damon_of_Athens" title="Damon of Athens">Damon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Sophists" title="Category:Sophists">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Italian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gorgias" title="Gorgias">Gorgias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Callicles" title="Callicles">Callicles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lycophron_(sophist)" title="Lycophron (sophist)">Lycophron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dionysodorus_(sophist)" title="Dionysodorus (sophist)">Dionysodorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthydemus_of_Chios" title="Euthydemus of Chios">Euthydemus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Sophists" title="Category:Sophists">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Classical_Greek_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical Greek philosophy">Classical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a> (<a href="/wiki/Category:Pupils_of_Socrates" title="Category:Pupils of Socrates">students</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophon" title="Xenophon">Xenophon</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cynicism_(philosophy)" title="Cynicism (philosophy)">Cynic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antisthenes" title="Antisthenes">Antisthenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diogenes" title="Diogenes">Diogenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crates_of_Thebes" title="Crates of Thebes">Crates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menippus" title="Menippus">Menippus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Cynic_philosophers" title="List of Cynic philosophers">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cyrenaics" title="Cyrenaics">Cyrenaic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristippus" title="Aristippus">Aristippus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristippus_the_Younger" title="Aristippus the Younger">Aristippus the Younger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodorus_the_Atheist" title="Theodorus the Atheist">Theodorus the Atheist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegesias_of_Cyrene" title="Hegesias of Cyrene">Hegesias of Cyrene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anniceris" title="Anniceris">Anniceris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Cyrenaic_philosophers" title="Category:Cyrenaic philosophers">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Eretrian_school" title="Eretrian school">Eretrian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phaedo_of_Elis" title="Phaedo of Elis">Phaedo of Elis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menedemus" title="Menedemus">Menedemus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asclepiades_of_Phlius" title="Asclepiades of Phlius">Asclepiades of Phlius</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Megarian_school" title="Megarian school">Megarian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Euclid_of_Megara" title="Euclid of Megara">Euclid of Megara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ichthyas" title="Ichthyas">Ichthyas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thrasymachus_of_Corinth" title="Thrasymachus of Corinth">Thrasymachus of Corinth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eubulides" title="Eubulides">Eubulides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stilpo" title="Stilpo">Stilpo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicarete_of_Megara" title="Nicarete of Megara">Nicarete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pasicles_of_Thebes" title="Pasicles of Thebes">Pasicles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bryson_of_Achaea" title="Bryson of Achaea">Bryson</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Dialecticians" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Megarian_school" title="Megarian school">Dialecticians</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clinomachus" title="Clinomachus">Clinomachus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apollonius_Cronus" title="Apollonius Cronus">Apollonius Cronus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euphantus" title="Euphantus">Euphantus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dionysius_of_Chalcedon" title="Dionysius of Chalcedon">Dionysius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Cronus" title="Diodorus Cronus">Diodorus Cronus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philo_the_Dialectician" title="Philo the Dialectician">Philo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexinus" title="Alexinus">Alexinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panthoides" title="Panthoides">Panthoides</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Platonism" title="Platonism">Platonic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speusippus" title="Speusippus">Speusippus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenocrates" title="Xenocrates">Xenocrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Platonists" title="List of ancient Platonists">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> (<a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theophrastus" title="Theophrastus">Theophrastus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strato_of_Lampsacus" title="Strato of Lampsacus">Strato of Lampsacus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyco_of_Troas" title="Lyco of Troas">Lyco of Troas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_of_Aphrodisias" title="Alexander of Aphrodisias">Alexander of Aphrodisias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Peripatetic_philosophers" title="Category:Peripatetic philosophers">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonist</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrho" title="Pyrrho">Pyrrho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timon_of_Phlius" title="Timon of Phlius">Timon of Phlius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aenesidemus" title="Aenesidemus">Aenesidemus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agrippa_the_Skeptic" title="Agrippa the Skeptic">Agrippa the Skeptic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sextus_Empiricus" title="Sextus Empiricus">Sextus Empiricus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ancient_Skeptic_philosophers" title="Category:Ancient Skeptic philosophers">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zeno_of_Citium" title="Zeno of Citium">Zeno of Citium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleanthes" title="Cleanthes">Cleanthes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chrysippus" title="Chrysippus">Chrysippus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panaetius" title="Panaetius">Panaetius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posidonius" title="Posidonius">Posidonius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger" title="Seneca the Younger">Seneca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucius_Annaeus_Cornutus" title="Lucius Annaeus Cornutus">Lucius Annaeus Cornutus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Musonius_Rufus" class="mw-redirect" title="Musonius Rufus">Musonius Rufus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epictetus" title="Epictetus">Epictetus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arrian" title="Arrian">Arrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Stoic_philosophers" title="List of Stoic philosophers">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicurean</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epicurus" title="Epicurus">Epicurus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metrodorus_of_Lampsacus_(the_younger)" title="Metrodorus of Lampsacus (the younger)">Metrodorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zeno_of_Sidon" title="Zeno of Sidon">Zeno of Sidon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philodemus" title="Philodemus">Philodemus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucretius" title="Lucretius">Lucretius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diogenes_of_Oenoanda" title="Diogenes of Oenoanda">Diogenes of Oenoanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Epicurean_philosophers" title="List of Epicurean philosophers">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Academic_skepticism" title="Academic skepticism">Academic Skeptic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arcesilaus" title="Arcesilaus">Arcesilaus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carneades" title="Carneades">Carneades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philo_of_Larissa" title="Philo of Larissa">Philo of Larissa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Platonists" title="List of ancient Platonists">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Platonism" title="Middle Platonism">Middle Platonic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antiochus_of_Ascalon" title="Antiochus of Ascalon">Antiochus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eudorus_of_Alexandria" title="Eudorus of Alexandria">Eudorus of Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philo" title="Philo">Philo of Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaius_the_Platonist" title="Gaius the Platonist">Gaius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apuleius" title="Apuleius">Apuleius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcinous_(philosopher)" title="Alcinous (philosopher)">Alcinous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Platonists" title="List of ancient Platonists">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Neopythagoreanism" title="Neopythagoreanism">Neopythagorean</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nigidius_Figulus" title="Nigidius Figulus">Nigidius Figulus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apollonius_of_Tyana" title="Apollonius of Tyana">Apollonius of Tyana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moderatus_of_Gades" title="Moderatus of Gades">Moderatus of Gades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicomachus" title="Nicomachus">Nicomachus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numenius_of_Apamea" title="Numenius of Apamea">Numenius of Apamea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Neo-Pythagoreans" title="Category:Neo-Pythagoreans">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonist</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ammonius_Saccas" title="Ammonius Saccas">Ammonius Saccas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plotinus" title="Plotinus">Plotinus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_students_of_Plotinus" title="List of students of Plotinus">students</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origen" title="Origen">Origen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porphyry_(philosopher)" title="Porphyry (philosopher)">Porphyry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iamblichus" title="Iamblichus">Iamblichus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_(emperor)" title="Julian (emperor)">Julian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutarch_of_Athens" title="Plutarch of Athens">Plutarch of Athens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrianus" title="Syrianus">Syrianus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proclus" title="Proclus">Proclus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ammonius_Hermiae" title="Ammonius Hermiae">Ammonius Hermiae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Damascius" title="Damascius">Damascius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simplicius_of_Cilicia" title="Simplicius of Cilicia">Simplicius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Platonists" title="List of ancient Platonists">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Second_Sophistic" title="Second Sophistic">Second Sophistic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nicetes_of_Smyrna" title="Nicetes of Smyrna">Nicetes of Smyrna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dio_Chrysostom" title="Dio Chrysostom">Dio Chrysostom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Favorinus" title="Favorinus">Favorinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucian" title="Lucian">Lucian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philostratus" title="Philostratus">Philostratus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Roman-era_Sophists" title="Category:Roman-era Sophists">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" 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