ÉCONOMIE RÉGIONALE ET URBAINE - Encyclopædia Universalis

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Bref historique du paysage économique </a> </li> <li class="list-group-item "> <a class="d-block" title="ÉCONOMIE RÉGIONALE ET URBAINE, Pourquoi existe-t-il des villes ? Une vue d'ensemble" href="/encyclopedie/economie-regionale-et-urbaine/2-pourquoi-existe-t-il-des-villes-une-vue-d-ensemble/"> 2. Pourquoi existe-t-il des villes ? Une vue d'ensemble </a> </li> <li class="list-group-item "> <a class="d-block" title="ÉCONOMIE RÉGIONALE ET URBAINE, La structure des villes" href="/encyclopedie/economie-regionale-et-urbaine/3-la-structure-des-villes/"> 3. La structure des villes </a> </li> <li class="list-group-item "> <a class="d-block" title="ÉCONOMIE RÉGIONALE ET URBAINE, De la formation des centres urbains" href="/encyclopedie/economie-regionale-et-urbaine/4-de-la-formation-des-centres-urbains/"> 4. De la formation des centres urbains </a> </li> <li class="list-group-item "> <a class="d-block" title="ÉCONOMIE RÉGIONALE ET URBAINE, Les systèmes urbains" href="/encyclopedie/economie-regionale-et-urbaine/5-les-systemes-urbains/"> 5. Les systèmes urbains </a> </li> <li class="list-group-item "> <a class="d-block" title="ÉCONOMIE RÉGIONALE ET URBAINE, La structure centre-périphérie" href="/encyclopedie/economie-regionale-et-urbaine/6-la-structure-centre-peripherie/"> 6. La structure centre-périphérie </a> </li> <li class="list-group-item "> <a class="d-block" title="ÉCONOMIE RÉGIONALE ET URBAINE, La nouvelle organisation des espaces politiques" href="/encyclopedie/economie-regionale-et-urbaine/7-la-nouvelle-organisation-des-espaces-politiques/"> 7. La nouvelle organisation des espaces politiques </a> </li> <li class="list-group-item "> <a class="d-block" title="ÉCONOMIE RÉGIONALE ET URBAINE, Bibliographie" href="/encyclopedie/economie-regionale-et-urbaine/8-bibliographie/"> 8. Bibliographie </a> </li> </ul> <button class="btn btn-sm btn-universalis" data-bs-toggle="collapse" data-bs-target="#free-toc" aria-expanded="false" title="Afficher / masquer le sommaire"> <i aria-hidden="true" class="fa fa-fw fa-eye"></i> Sommaire </button> </div> <h1 class="mb-1"> <strong>ÉCONOMIE RÉGIONALE ET URBAINE</strong> </h1> <ul class="pagination justify-content-center public-links "><li class="page-item active"><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 1" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">1</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 2" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">2</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 3" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">3</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 4" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">4</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 5" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">5</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 6" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">6</a></li></ul><p class="text-sm text-muted mb-1">Article modifié le <time datetime="2025-01-29"> 29/01/2025 </time></p><div class="content paged type-article" ><div class="block_1" data-ucode="yC130143_0"><i class="anchor" id="yC130143_0"></i><p>À toutes les échelles spatiales, les activités humaines sont inégalement réparties. Dans les villes, mais aussi dans les pays et entre les nations, la distribution de la population et celle des richesses sont caractérisées par des pics et des creux, lesquels sont le reflet d’inégalités spatiales souvent considérables. Ce constat, et d'autres qui s'y rattachent, constituent la raison d'être de l'économie régionale et urbaine. Comme son nom l'indique, celle-ci étudie des territoires de nature différente. Alors que l'économie régionale s'intéresse principalement à l'organisation de vastes territoires – la France ou l'Union européenne, par exemple –, l'économie urbaine se penche sur la structure interne des villes et sur la manière dont les sols y sont affectés – quartiers résidentiels ou commerciaux, par exemple. Dans les villes, le sol est une composante fondamentale du choix des localisations ; en revanche, il est peu significatif dans l'organisation des grands espaces économiques où l’intégration des marchés et la mobilité des facteurs de <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="La production est à la fois une activité consistant à créer des biens en combinant des ressources et le résultat de cette activité (la production d'un bien, la production des entreprises, etc.). Devenue centrale dans la réflexion économique, cette notion ne s'est imposée dans son sens moderne qu'à la fin du xviii e siècle.. Dans l'Antiquité, seule la production agricole a retenu l..." title="Article : PRODUCTION, économie" href="/encyclopedie/production-economie/">production</a> prédominent. La distinction entre économie régionale et économie urbaine est donc avant tout une question d’échelle spatiale. Elle dicte ainsi l'architecture de ce domaine de la <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="La science économique est loin d'être une science exacte, tant les divisions des économistes sont notoires et tant leurs prévisions font l'objet de contestations et de révisions. Par ailleurs, si la science économique évolue, on ne peut guère la créditer de découvertes majeures au cours de ces dernières années. On pourrait d'ailleurs se demander s'il y en a jamais eu ; l'attribution..." title="Article : ÉCONOMIE (Définition et nature) - Une science trop humaine ?" href="/encyclopedie/economie-definition-et-nature-une-science-trop-humaine/">science économique</a>, les systèmes de ville et la <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="Observables dans toute société , archaïque ou moderne, totale – la société française, par exemple – ou partielle – le salon de Mme Verdurin –, les phénomènes de hiérarchisation sociale sont familiers et omniprésents. Dans toute société, les agents sociaux se classent les uns par rapport aux autres, se distinguent les uns des autres sous le rapport du prestige, du pouvoir ou..." title="Article : HIÉRARCHIE" href="/encyclopedie/hierarchie/">hiérarchie</a> urbaine étant à la charnière des deux champs.</p><p> Le déplacement des personnes ou la transmission d'informations, l'<a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="Au sens général, le terme « échange » s'applique à tout mouvement d'intention réciproque entre deux parties. En économie, on appelle « échange » les différents modes de transferts de biens et de services exécutés en contrepartie et en équivalence les uns des autres.. L'échange économique n'est pas un phénomène universel. Il n'intervient pas entre les membres des com..." title="Article : ÉCHANGE" href="/encyclopedie/echange/">échange</a> de biens et de services entre agents économiques imposent des frais, qu’on appellera « coûts de transport ». Quelle que soit l'organisation économique et sociale, l'arbitrage entre rendements d'échelle croissants (augmentation plus que proportionnelle de la production à la suite d’une augmentation des facteurs de production) et coûts liés à la mobilité des biens et des personnes (coûts de transport) gouverne la distribution des activités économiques dans l'espace. De ce binôme résulte une conséquence fondamentale pour comprendre la formation des espaces économiques à toutes les échelles : tout ne peut pas être disponible partout. Un exemple simple suffira à l’illustrer. Un décideur a pour tâche de satisfaire les besoins d’usagers implantés dans deux régions distinctes. L’approvisionnement des usagers n’engendre pas de coût si l’offre est locale, mais il implique un coût de transport égal à <em>T</em> euros si l’approvisionnement se fait à partir de l’autre région. Le coût de construction d’un établissement est supposé identique dans chacune des régions et égal à <em>F</em> euros. Si le décideur désire minimiser le coût total de construction et de transport, il choisira de construire un établissement dans chaque région si, et seulement si, 2<em>F</em> est inférieur à <em>F + T</em>, c’est-à-dire si <em>T</em> excède <em>F</em>. Dans le cas contraire, il est moins onéreux de construire un seul établissement approvisionnant les deux régions. Autrement dit, des coûts de transport élevés favorisent la dispersion de l’offre, alors que des coûts de transport modérés poussent à sa concentration. En revanche, plus la <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="La notion de valeur a différentes acceptions en économie, qui témoignent des difficultés à la définir ainsi que des enjeux théoriques dont elle est l'objet. La valeur d'un bien peut renvoyer à la satisfaction que retire un individu de l'usage de ce bien. Cette valeur, qualifiée alors de valeur d'usage, dépend des caractéristiques physiques du bien mais aussi des goûts de l'individu..." title="Article : VALEUR, économie" href="/encyclopedie/valeur-economie/">valeur</a> de <em>F</em> est élevée, par exemple parce que l’investissement nécessaire réclame des équipements coûteux, plus la production au sein d’une seule région est vraisemblable. On voit ainsi comment les valeurs respectives de <em>T</em> et de <em>F</em>, donc les deux termes de l’arbitrage, affectent le choix du décideur et, en fin de compte, la concentration ou la dispersion de la production.</p><p>Du fait du progrès <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="À l'idée grecque de l' homme, zoon logon echon – vivant possédant le logos , le parler-penser – les modernes ont juxtaposé, et même opposé, l'idée de l' Homo faber , l'homme défini par la fabrication d'instruments, donc la possession d'outils. Les documents anthropologiques ont paru, un temps , leur donner raison, mais ce n'était qu'apparence : les galets éclatés se conservent..." title="Article : TECHNIQUE" href="/encyclopedie/technique/">technique</a>, rendements d'échelle et coûts de transport varient avec le temps, induisant des formes de peuplement qui diffèrent au cours de l'histoire.</p><div class="clearfix"></div></div><div class="block_1" data-ucode="yC130143_1"><i class="anchor" id="yC130143_1"></i><h2> Bref historique du paysage économique</h2><p>Pendant des siècles, les sociétés humaines ont été dominées par la « tyrannie de la distance ». Jusqu'à l'introduction de la vapeur dans l'économie<a href="javascript:" title="Lire la suite" class="read-more ms-1">[...]</a></p></div><div class="clearfix"></div></div><ul class="pagination justify-content-center public-links "><li class="page-item active"><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 1" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">1</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 2" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">2</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 3" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">3</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 4" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">4</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 5" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">5</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 6" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">6</a></li></ul><div class="folio-block"><p class="folio-block-title text-center text-uc"><strong>La suite de cet article est accessible aux abonnés</strong></p><ul class="list-unstyled"><li><i class="fa fa-fw fa-check-circle"></i> Des contenus variés, complets et fiables</li><li><i class="fa fa-fw fa-check-circle"></i> Accessible sur tous les écrans</li><li><i class="fa fa-fw fa-check-circle"></i> Pas de publicité</li></ul><p class="text-center"><a href="/abonnement/" class="btn btn-cta text-uc" id="folio-button" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="Block bottom">Découvrez nos offres </a></p><p class="text-center text-sm"> Déjà abonné ? 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Au xixe siècle, la cité prend véritablement son essor et s'impose comme un centre sidérurgique de premier plan, avec…" data-copyright="Bettman/ Getty-Images" width="1024" height="712" /> </a> <figcaption class="figure-caption"> <p class="m-0 mt-1 fw-bold text-gray-700 text-truncate"> Pittsburgh (États-Unis) </p> <p class="m-0 copyright text-sm text-gray-700 text-truncate"> Bettman/ Getty-Images </p> </figcaption> </figure> </div> </div> </section> <section class="mb-5 d-print-none learn-more"> <i class="anchor" id="yC130143_REFERENCES"></i> <p class="title-minor">Autres références</p> <ul class="list-group"> <li class="list-group-item"> <h3 class="fs-5 m-0 mt-1"> <a href="/encyclopedie/berlin/#c27235"> <span class="rg">BERLIN</span> </a> </h3> <ul class="list-inline list-inline-bullet mb-1 text-muted"> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">Écrit par <span rel="author">Guillaume LACQUEMENT</span> et <span rel="author">François REITEL</span> </li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">5 917 mots</li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">7 médias </li> </ul> <div class="d-none d-md-inline-block float-start me-3"> <a class="protected" title="Article : BERLIN" href="/encyclopedie/berlin/"> <img class="rounded shadow" loading="lazy" alt="Ambassade des Pays-Bas à Berlin, R. Koolhaas - crédits : L. M. Peter/ AKG-images" width="125" height="125" src="/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/0/7/csm_pa082543_01db3c6f30.webp"/> </a> </div> <div class="snippet-content mt-3"> Capitale politique,Berlin peine toutefois à s’imposer comme métropole économique sur la scène internationale. Non seulement les entreprises berlinoises ont une emprise marginale sur les activités économiques des nouveaux Länder, mais elles restent majoritairement dépendantes des firmes dont les sièges... </div> </li> <li class="list-group-item"> <h3 class="fs-5 m-0 mt-1"> <a href="/encyclopedie/bobigny/"> <span class="rg">BOBIGNY</span> </a> </h3> <ul class="list-inline list-inline-bullet mb-1 text-muted"> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">Écrit par <span rel="author">Boris LEBEAU</span> </li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">795 mots</li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">1 média </li> </ul> <div class="snippet-content mt-3"> <p> Avec 48 892 habitants (en 2012), Bobigny est une commune de taille moyenne de la <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="Le terme « banlieue » reste très marqué dans sa signification par la période au cours de laquelle les banlieues se sont formées autour des villes, en général aux xix e et xx e siècles. Durant cette phase de formation, les banlieues sont fortement dépendantes de la ville-centre, elles croissent rapidement et souvent dans le désordre, accueillent les fonctions dont la ville n..." title="Article : BANLIEUE" href="/encyclopedie/banlieue/">banlieue</a> nord-est de <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="Un certain nombre de villes du monde ont donné naissance à des mythes ; quelques-uns ont acquis une portée universelle, en se détachant des caractères fondamentaux du pays lui-même pour exalter la Ville en tant qu'individu. Il en est ainsi de Rome et de Paris . On a maintes fois signalé cette sorte de familiarité amoureuse, avec ses éclats de haine ou d'adoration, que Paris a toujou..." title="Article : PARIS" href="/encyclopedie/paris/">Paris</a>. Pourtant, son statut de préfecture de la Seine-Saint-Denis lui confère une place particulière dans le système territorial métropolitain.</p><p>Bien que les fouilles archéologiques menées...</p> </div> </li> <li class="list-group-item"> <h3 class="fs-5 m-0 mt-1"> <a href="/encyclopedie/bretagne-region-administrative/#c27235"> <span class="rg">BRETAGNE, </span><em class="it">région administrative</em> </a> </h3> <ul class="list-inline list-inline-bullet mb-1 text-muted"> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">Écrit par <span rel="author"> Encyclopædia Universalis</span> et <span rel="author">Jean OLLIVRO</span> </li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">3 072 mots</li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">2 médias </li> </ul> <div class="d-none d-md-inline-block float-start me-3"> <a class="protected" title="Article : BRETAGNE, r&eacute;gion administrative" href="/encyclopedie/bretagne-region-administrative/"> <img class="rounded shadow" loading="lazy" alt="Bretagne : carte administrative - crédits : Encyclopædia Universalis France" width="125" height="125" src="/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/a/b/csm_at110503_4b8914f47e.webp"/> </a> </div> <div class="snippet-content mt-3"> Le secteur économique associe des performances remarquables et des germes de fragilité. D'un côté, la Bretagne est la deuxième région française dans le domaine des télécommunications, où elle présente des compétences remarquables (technopôle de Lannion, de Rennes-Atalante, de Brest). Ses autres points... </div> </li> <li class="list-group-item"> <h3 class="fs-5 m-0 mt-1"> <a href="/encyclopedie/colombie/#c27235"> <span class="rg">COLOMBIE</span> </a> </h3> <ul class="list-inline list-inline-bullet mb-1 text-muted"> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">Écrit par <span rel="author"> Encyclopædia Universalis</span> , <span rel="author">Marcel NIEDERGANG</span> , <span rel="author">Olivier PISSOAT</span> et <span rel="author">Clément THIBAUD</span> </li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">13 648 mots</li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">5 médias </li> </ul> <div class="d-none d-md-inline-block float-start me-3"> <a class="protected" title="Article : COLOMBIE" href="/encyclopedie/colombie/"> <img class="rounded shadow" loading="lazy" alt="Colombie : carte physique - crédits : Encyclopædia Universalis France" width="125" height="125" src="/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/c/7/csm_at004304_d83d15a3d0.webp"/> </a> </div> <div class="snippet-content mt-3"> De cette occupation morcelée du territoire a découlé une logique régionale oùchaque ville commande son environnement (proche ou éloigné) et cherche à se connecter aux axes du <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="Selon la maxime empruntée à l'auteur latin de théâtre Plaute (254-184 av. J.-C.), « la bonne marchandise trouve facilement un acheteur » ( Proba merx facile emptorem reperit ). Sont ici exprimées deux conditions indispensables à la relation d'échange : avoir quelque chose à échanger et trouver un partenaire pour l'échange. Il en est une troisième qui confère au commerce sa rais..." title="Article : COMMERCE" href="/encyclopedie/commerce/">commerce</a> interne et vers l'étranger. Après l'indépendance du pays (1830), les rivalités entre régions ont retardé la... </div> </li> <li class="list-unstyled text-center mt-3"> <a class="btn btn-sm btn-primary" title="Afficher la liste complète des références" rel="related" href="/index/economie-regionale-et-urbaine/"> Afficher les 16 références <i aria-hidden="true" class="fa fa-fw fa-chevron-right"></i> </a> </li> </ul> </section> <section class="mb-5 d-print-none article-indexes learn-more"> <i class="anchor" id="yC130143_INDEXES"></i> <p class="title-minor">Voir aussi</p> <ul class="list-inline list-inline-bullet"> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : DENSITÉ DE POPULATION" href="/index/densite-de-population/"> <span class="rg">DENSITÉ DE POPULATION</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : TRANSPORTS ÉCONOMIE DES" href="/index/economie-des-transports/"> <span class="rg">TRANSPORTS </span><span class="pc">ÉCONOMIE DES</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : ÉCONOMIES D'ÉCHELLE" href="/index/economies-d-echelle/"> <span class="rg">ÉCONOMIES D'ÉCHELLE</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : MONOPOLE" href="/index/monopole/"> <span class="rg">MONOPOLE</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : EUROPE, histoire" href="/index/europe-histoire/"> <span class="rg">EUROPE, </span><em class="it">histoire</em> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : INDUSTRIELLE SOCIÉTÉ" href="/index/societe-industrielle/"> <span class="rg">INDUSTRIELLE </span><span class="pc">SOCIÉTÉ</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : RENTE FONCIÈRE" href="/index/rente-fonciere/"> <span class="rg">RENTE FONCIÈRE</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : ESPACE ÉCONOMIQUE" href="/index/espace-economique/"> <span class="rg">ESPACE ÉCONOMIQUE</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : REMPART" href="/index/rempart/"> <span class="rg">REMPART</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : MODÈLES ET MODÉLISATION, économie" href="/index/modeles-et-modelisation-economie/"> <span class="rg">MODÈLES ET MODÉLISATION, </span><em class="it">économie</em> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : ÉCONOMIE GÉOGRAPHIQUE" href="/index/economie-geographique/"> <span class="rg">ÉCONOMIE GÉOGRAPHIQUE</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : MARCHÉ FONCIER" href="/index/marche-foncier/"> <span class="rg">MARCHÉ FONCIER</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : INFORMATION DIFFUSION DE L'" href="/index/diffusion-de-l-information/"> <span class="rg">INFORMATION </span><span class="pc">DIFFUSION DE L'</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : RÉGIONS" href="/index/regions/"> <span class="rg">RÉGIONS</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : NTIC (nouvelles technologies de l'information et de la communication)" href="/index/ntic-nouvelles-technologies-de-l-information-et-de-la-communication/"> <span class="rg">NTIC </span><span class="rm">(nouvelles technologies de l'information et de la communication)</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : RECONVERSION ÉCONOMIQUE" href="/index/reconversion-economique/"> <span class="rg">RECONVERSION ÉCONOMIQUE</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : ÉCONOMIE MÉDIÉVALE" href="/index/economie-medievale/"> <span class="rg">ÉCONOMIE MÉDIÉVALE</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : ÉCONOMIE RURALE SUBURBAINE" href="/index/economie-rurale-suburbaine/"> <span class="rg">ÉCONOMIE RURALE SUBURBAINE</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : TRANSPORT DE MARCHANDISES ou FRET" href="/index/transport-de-marchandises-fret/"> <span class="rg">TRANSPORT DE MARCHANDISES </span><span class="rm">ou </span><span class="rg">FRET</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : MOBILITÉ GÉOGRAPHIQUE" href="/index/mobilite-geographique/"> <span class="rg">MOBILITÉ GÉOGRAPHIQUE</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : AMÉNAGEMENT DE L'ESPACE URBAIN" href="/index/amenagement-de-l-espace-urbain/"> <span class="rg">AMÉNAGEMENT DE L'ESPACE URBAIN</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : TRANSPORTS URBAINS" href="/index/transports-urbains/"> <span class="rg">TRANSPORTS URBAINS</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : GÉOGRAPHIE URBAINE" href="/index/geographie-urbaine/"> <span class="rg">GÉOGRAPHIE URBAINE</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : MIGRATIONS ALTERNANTES ou PENDULAIRES" href="/index/migrations-alternantes/"> <span class="rg">MIGRATIONS ALTERNANTES </span><span class="rm">ou </span><span class="rg">PENDULAIRES</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : FONCIÈRE URBAINE PROPRIÉTÉ" href="/index/propriete-fonciere-urbaine/"> <span class="rg">FONCIÈRE URBAINE </span><span class="pc">PROPRIÉTÉ</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : CENTRE URBAIN" href="/index/centre-urbain/"> <span class="rg">CENTRE URBAIN</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : CONCENTRATION INDUSTRIELLE" href="/index/concentration-industrielle/"> <span class="rg">CONCENTRATION INDUSTRIELLE</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : SERVICE PUBLIC" href="/index/service-public/"> <span class="rg">SERVICE PUBLIC</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : CROISSANCE ÉCONOMIQUE" href="/index/croissance-economique/"> <span class="rg">CROISSANCE ÉCONOMIQUE</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : CONCENTRATION ÉCONOMIQUE" href="/index/concentration-economique/"> <span class="rg">CONCENTRATION ÉCONOMIQUE</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : URBANISATION" href="/index/urbanisation/"> <span class="rg">URBANISATION</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : VILLES LIBRES" href="/index/villes-libres/"> <span class="rg">VILLES LIBRES</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : SPÉCIALISATION, économie" href="/index/specialisation-economie/"> <span class="rg">SPÉCIALISATION, </span><em class="it">économie</em> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : COLLECTIVITÉS LOCALES ou TERRITORIALES" href="/index/collectivites-locales-territoriales/"> <span class="rg">COLLECTIVITÉS LOCALES </span><span class="rm">ou </span><span class="rg">TERRITORIALES</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : HISTOIRE URBAINE" href="/index/histoire-urbaine/"> <span class="rg">HISTOIRE URBAINE</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : TRANSPORT TERRESTRE" href="/index/transport-terrestre/"> <span class="rg">TRANSPORT TERRESTRE</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : HISTOIRE ÉCONOMIQUE" href="/index/histoire-economique/"> <span class="rg">HISTOIRE ÉCONOMIQUE</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : THÜNEN JOHANN HEINRICH VON (1783-1850)" href="/index/johann-heinrich-von-thunen/"> <span class="rg">THÜNEN </span><span class="pc">JOHANN HEINRICH VON </span><span class="rm">(1783-1850)</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : AGGLOMÉRATION ÉCONOMIES D'" href="/index/economies-d-agglomeration/"> <span class="rg">AGGLOMÉRATION </span><span class="pc">ÉCONOMIES D'</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : CENTRE ET PÉRIPHÉRIE" href="/index/centre-et-peripherie/"> <span class="rg">CENTRE ET PÉRIPHÉRIE</span> </a> </li> </ul> </section> </div> <div class="col-lg-4 col-xl-3 px-0 d-none d-lg-block 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