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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Etymology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Etymology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ancient_era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancient_era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Ancient era</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ancient_era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medieval_era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medieval_era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Medieval era</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medieval_era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Astrolabes_and_clocks" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Astrolabes_and_clocks"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Astrolabes and clocks</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Astrolabes_and_clocks-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Construction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Construction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Construction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Construction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mathematical_basis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mathematical_basis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Mathematical basis</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Mathematical_basis-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Mathematical basis subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Mathematical_basis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Designing_a_tympanum_through_stereographic_projection" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Designing_a_tympanum_through_stereographic_projection"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Designing a tympanum through stereographic projection</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Designing_a_tympanum_through_stereographic_projection-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_tropics_and_the_equator_define_the_tympanum" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_tropics_and_the_equator_define_the_tympanum"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.1</span> <span>The tropics and the equator define the tympanum</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_tropics_and_the_equator_define_the_tympanum-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_horizon_and_the_measurement_of_altitude" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_horizon_and_the_measurement_of_altitude"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.2</span> <span>The horizon and the measurement of altitude</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_horizon_and_the_measurement_of_altitude-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_meridians_and_the_measurement_of_azimuth" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_meridians_and_the_measurement_of_azimuth"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.3</span> <span>The meridians and the measurement of azimuth</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_meridians_and_the_measurement_of_azimuth-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Footnotes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Footnotes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Footnotes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Footnotes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Astrolabe</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 72 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-72" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">72 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrolabium" title="Astrolabium – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Astrolabium" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A3%D8%B3%D8%B7%D8%B1%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%A8" title="أسطرلاب – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="أسطرلاب" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrolabiu" title="Astrolabiu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Astrolabiu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrolyabiya" title="Astrolyabiya – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Astrolyabiya" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%B7%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%A8" title="اوسطورلاب – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="اوسطورلاب" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%85%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9F%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AC" title="অ্যাস্ট্রোল্যাব – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="অ্যাস্ট্রোল্যাব" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8F%D0%B1%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Астралябія – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Астралябія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Астролабия – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Астролабия" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrolab" title="Astrolab – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Astrolab" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrolabi" title="Astrolabi – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Astrolabi" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrol%C3%A1b" title="Astroláb – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Astroláb" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrolabium" title="Astrolabium – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Astrolabium" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrolabium" title="Astrolabium – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Astrolabium" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrolaab" title="Astrolaab – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Astrolaab" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CF%83%CF%84%CF%81%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%AC%CE%B2%CE%BF%CF%82" title="Αστρολάβος – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Αστρολάβος" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrolabio" title="Astrolabio – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Astrolabio" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrolabo" title="Astrolabo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Astrolabo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrolabio" title="Astrolabio – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Astrolabio" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%B7%D8%B1%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%A8" title="اسطرلاب – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="اسطرلاب" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrolabe" title="Astrolabe – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Astrolabe" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astral%C3%A1ib" title="Astraláib – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Astraláib" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrolabio" title="Astrolabio – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Astrolabio" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%84%B1%EB%B0%98_(%EC%B2%9C%EB%AC%B8%ED%95%99)" title="성반 (천문학) – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="성반 (천문학)" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D5%BD%D5%BF%D6%80%D5%B8%D5%AC%D5%A1%D5%A2" title="Աստրոլաբ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Աստրոլաբ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7" title="तारेक्ष – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="तारेक्ष" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrolab" title="Astrolab – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Astrolab" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrolabo" title="Astrolabo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Astrolabo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ig mw-list-item"><a href="https://ig.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrolabe" title="Astrolabe – Igbo" lang="ig" hreflang="ig" data-title="Astrolabe" data-language-autonym="Igbo" data-language-local-name="Igbo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Igbo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrolab" title="Astrolab – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Astrolab" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrolabio" title="Astrolabio – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Astrolabio" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xh mw-list-item"><a href="https://xh.wikipedia.org/wiki/I-Astrolabe" title="I-Astrolabe – Xhosa" lang="xh" hreflang="xh" data-title="I-Astrolabe" data-language-autonym="IsiXhosa" data-language-local-name="Xhosa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiXhosa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrolabio" title="Astrolabio – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Astrolabio" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%A6%D7%98%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%91" title="אצטרולב – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אצטרולב" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%90%E1%83%91%E1%83%98" title="ასტროლაბი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ასტროლაბი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8F%D0%B1%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Астролябия – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Астролябия" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrolab" title="Astrolab – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Astrolab" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrolabs" title="Astrolabs – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Astrolabs" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrolab" title="Astrolab – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Astrolab" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astroliabija" title="Astroliabija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Astroliabija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asztrol%C3%A1bium" title="Asztrolábium – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Asztrolábium" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B1" title="Астролаб – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Астролаб" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%86%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%AC%E0%B5%8D" title="ആസ്ട്രോലാബ് – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ആസ്ട്രോലാബ്" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrolab" title="Astrolab – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Astrolab" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrolabium" title="Astrolabium – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Astrolabium" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A2%E3%82%B9%E3%83%88%E3%83%AD%E3%83%A9%E3%83%BC%E3%83%99" title="アストロラーベ – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="アストロラーベ" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrolabium" title="Astrolabium – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Astrolabium" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrolabium" title="Astrolabium – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Astrolabium" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrolabi" title="Astrolabi – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Astrolabi" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrolyabiya" title="Astrolyabiya – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Astrolyabiya" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%B7%D8%B1%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%A8" title="اسطرلاب – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="اسطرلاب" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrolabium" title="Astrolabium – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Astrolabium" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrol%C3%A1bio" title="Astrolábio – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Astrolábio" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrolab" title="Astrolab – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Astrolab" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8F%D0%B1%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Астролябия – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Астролябия" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrolabe" title="Astrolabe – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Astrolabe" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrol%C3%A1b" title="Astroláb – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Astroláb" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrolab" title="Astrolab – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Astrolab" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%DB%8C%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%A8" title="ئیسترلاب – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ئیسترلاب" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B1" title="Астролаб – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Астролаб" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrolab" title="Astrolab – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Astrolab" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrolabi" title="Astrolabi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Astrolabi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrolabium" title="Astrolabium – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Astrolabium" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%AA%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%9A" title="แอสโตรเลบ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="แอสโตรเลบ" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D1%81%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B1" title="Устурлоб – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Устурлоб" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usturlap" title="Usturlap – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Usturlap" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8F%D0%B1%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Астролябія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Астролябія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%B7%D8%B1%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%A8" title="اسطرلاب – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="اسطرلاب" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C6%B0%E1%BB%9Bc_tr%E1%BA%AFc_tinh" title="Thước trắc tinh – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Thước trắc tinh" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrolabyo" title="Astrolabyo – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Astrolabyo" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%98%9F%E7%9B%98" title="星盘 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="星盘" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%98%9F%E7%9B%A4" title="星盤 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="星盤" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%98%9F%E7%9B%98" title="星盘 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="星盘" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q164992#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Astrolabe" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Astrolabe" rel="discussion" 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<div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Astronomical instrument</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable"><span>For other pages with a similar name, see <a href="/wiki/Astrolabe_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Astrolabe (disambiguation)">Astrolabe (disambiguation)</a>.</span> <span>Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Cosmolabe" title="Cosmolabe">Cosmolabe</a>.</span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Khalili_Collection_Islamic_Art_sci_0430_back.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Planispheric Astrolabe made of brass, cast, with fretwork rete and surface engraving" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Khalili_Collection_Islamic_Art_sci_0430_back.jpg/260px-Khalili_Collection_Islamic_Art_sci_0430_back.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="335" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Khalili_Collection_Islamic_Art_sci_0430_back.jpg/390px-Khalili_Collection_Islamic_Art_sci_0430_back.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Khalili_Collection_Islamic_Art_sci_0430_back.jpg/520px-Khalili_Collection_Islamic_Art_sci_0430_back.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2500" data-file-height="3219" /></a><figcaption>North African, <span class="nowrap">9th century <span class="smallcaps"><span style="font-variant: small-caps; text-transform: lowercase;">CE</span></span>,</span> planispheric astrolabe. <a href="/wiki/Khalili_Collections" title="Khalili Collections">Khalili Collection</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Iranian_Astrolabe_14.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Iranian_Astrolabe_14.jpg/260px-Iranian_Astrolabe_14.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Iranian_Astrolabe_14.jpg/390px-Iranian_Astrolabe_14.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Iranian_Astrolabe_14.jpg/520px-Iranian_Astrolabe_14.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2848" data-file-height="3616" /></a><figcaption>A modern astrolabe made in 2013, in <a href="/wiki/Tabriz" title="Tabriz">Tabriz</a>, Iran.</figcaption></figure> <p>An <b>astrolabe</b> (<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1248666159">.mw-parser-output .tfd-dated{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .tfd-default{border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);clear:both;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tfd-tiny{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .tfd-inline{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1)}.mw-parser-output .tfd-sidebar{border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);text-align:center;position:relative}@media(min-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .tfd-sidebar{clear:right;float:right;width:22em}}</style><span class="tfd tfd-dated tfd-tiny"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Templates_for_discussion/Log/2024_November_12#Template:Lang-grc-gre" title="Wikipedia:Templates for discussion/Log/2024 November 12">‹See Tfd›</a></span><a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a>: <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">ἀστρολάβος</span></span> <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">astrolábos</i></span>, <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">star-taker</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>; <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: <span lang="ar" dir="rtl">ٱلأَسْطُرلاب</span> <span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">al-Asṭurlāb</i></span>; <a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a>: <span lang="fa" dir="rtl">ستاره‌یاب</span> <span title="Persian-language romanization"><i lang="fa-Latn">Setāreyāb</i></span>) is an <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomical</a> instrument dating to ancient times. It serves as a <a href="/wiki/Star_chart" title="Star chart">star chart</a> and <a href="/wiki/Model#Physical_model" title="Model">physical model</a> of visible <a href="/wiki/Celestial_sphere" title="Celestial sphere">half-dome of the sky</a>. Its various functions also make it an elaborate <a href="/wiki/Inclinometer" title="Inclinometer">inclinometer</a> and an <a href="/wiki/Analog_computer" title="Analog computer">analog calculation device</a> capable of working out several kinds of problems in astronomy. In its simplest form it is a metal disc with a pattern of wires, cutouts, and perforations that allows a user to calculate astronomical positions precisely. It is able to measure the <a href="/wiki/Altitude_(astronomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Altitude (astronomy)">altitude</a> above the horizon of a celestial body, day or night; it can be used to identify stars or planets, to determine local <a href="/wiki/Latitude" title="Latitude">latitude</a> given <a href="/wiki/Local_time" title="Local time">local time</a> (and vice versa), to survey, or to <a href="/wiki/Triangulation" title="Triangulation">triangulate</a>. It was used in <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">classical antiquity</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic Golden Age</a>, the European <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a> for all these purposes. </p><p>The astrolabe, which is a precursor to the <a href="/wiki/Sextant" title="Sextant">sextant</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is effective for determining latitude on land or calm seas. Although it is less reliable on the heaving deck of a ship in rough seas, the <a href="/wiki/Mariner%27s_astrolabe" title="Mariner's astrolabe">mariner's astrolabe</a> was developed to solve that problem. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Applications">Applications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Astrolabe&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Applications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lot-stoffler-johannes-1452-1531-elucidatio-fabricae-usuque-astrolabii-6069643.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Lot-stoffler-johannes-1452-1531-elucidatio-fabricae-usuque-astrolabii-6069643.jpg/310px-Lot-stoffler-johannes-1452-1531-elucidatio-fabricae-usuque-astrolabii-6069643.jpg" decoding="async" width="310" height="406" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Lot-stoffler-johannes-1452-1531-elucidatio-fabricae-usuque-astrolabii-6069643.jpg/465px-Lot-stoffler-johannes-1452-1531-elucidatio-fabricae-usuque-astrolabii-6069643.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Lot-stoffler-johannes-1452-1531-elucidatio-fabricae-usuque-astrolabii-6069643.jpg/620px-Lot-stoffler-johannes-1452-1531-elucidatio-fabricae-usuque-astrolabii-6069643.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2442" data-file-height="3200" /></a><figcaption>16th century woodcut of measurement of a building's height with an astrolabe</figcaption></figure> <p>The 10th century <a href="/wiki/Astronomer" title="Astronomer">astronomer</a> <a href="/wiki/%CA%BFAbd_al-Ra%E1%B8%A5m%C4%81n_al-%E1%B9%A2%C5%ABf%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="ʿAbd al-Raḥmān al-Ṣūfī">ʿAbd al-Raḥmān al-Ṣūfī</a> wrote a massive text of 386 chapters on the astrolabe, which reportedly described more than 1,000 applications for the astrolabe's various functions.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These ranged from the astrological, the astronomical and the religious, to navigation, seasonal and daily time-keeping, and tide tables. At the time of their use, astrology was widely considered as much of a serious science as astronomy, and study of the two went hand-in-hand. The astronomical interest varied between folk astronomy (of the pre-Islamic tradition in Arabia) which was concerned with celestial and seasonal observations, and mathematical astronomy, which would inform intellectual practices and precise calculations based on astronomical observations. In regard to the astrolabe's religious function, the demands of Islamic prayer times were to be astronomically determined to ensure precise daily timings, and the <a href="/wiki/Qibla" title="Qibla">qibla</a>, the direction of <a href="/wiki/Mecca" title="Mecca">Mecca</a> towards which Muslims must pray, could also be determined by this device. In addition to this, the <a href="/wiki/Lunar_calendar" title="Lunar calendar">lunar calendar</a> that was informed by the calculations of the astrolabe was of great significance to the religion of Islam, given that it determines the dates of important religious observances such as <a href="/wiki/Ramadan" title="Ramadan">Ramadan</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Astrolabe&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Etymology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <i><a href="/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford English Dictionary</a></i> gives the translation "star-taker" for the English word <i>astrolabe</i> and traces it through medieval Latin to the <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> word <span class="texhtml">ἀστρολάβος</span> : <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">astrolábos</i></span>,<sup id="cite_ref-oed_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oed-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> from <span class="texhtml">ἄστρον</span>: <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">astron</i></span> "star", and <span class="texhtml">λαμβάνειν</span>: <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">lambanein</i></span> "to take".<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the medieval Islamic world the <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a> word <span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">al-asturlāb</i></span> (i.e., astrolabe) was given various etymologies. In Arabic texts, the word is translated as <span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">ākhidhu al-nujūm</i></span> (<a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: <span lang="ar" dir="rtl">آخِذُ ٱلنُّجُومْ</span>, <abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr><span style="white-space: nowrap;"> </span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">star-taker</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>) – a direct translation of the Greek word.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing198144_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing198144-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Al-Biruni" title="Al-Biruni">Al-Biruni</a> quotes and criticises medieval scientist <a href="/wiki/Hamza_al-Isfahani" title="Hamza al-Isfahani">Hamza al-Isfahani</a>, who stated:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing198144_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing198144-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd>"<i>asturlab</i> is an Arabisation of this Persian phrase" (<span title="Persian-language romanization"><i lang="fa-Latn">sitara yab</i></span>, meaning "taker of the stars").<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing198151_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing198151-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval Islam">medieval Islamic</a> sources, there is also a <a href="/wiki/Folk_etymology" title="Folk etymology">folk etymology</a> of the word as "lines of lab", where "Lab" refers to a certain son of <a href="/wiki/Idris_(prophet)" title="Idris (prophet)">Idris</a> (<a href="/wiki/Enoch" title="Enoch">Enoch</a>). This etymology is mentioned by a 10th century scientist named <a href="/wiki/Ali_Ibn_Ibrahim_Qomi" class="mw-redirect" title="Ali Ibn Ibrahim Qomi">al-Qummi</a> but rejected by <a href="/wiki/Al-Khwarizmi" title="Al-Khwarizmi">al-Khwarizmi</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing198145_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing198145-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Astrolabe&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient_era">Ancient era</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Astrolabe&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Ancient era"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>An astrolabe is essentially a plane (two-dimensional) version of an <a href="/wiki/Armillary_sphere" title="Armillary sphere">armillary sphere</a>, which had already been invented in the <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic period</a> and probably been used by <a href="/wiki/Hipparchus" title="Hipparchus">Hipparchus</a> to produce his star catalogue. <a href="/wiki/Theon_of_Alexandria" title="Theon of Alexandria">Theon of Alexandria</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 335–405</span>) wrote a detailed treatise on the astrolabe.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELewis2001_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELewis2001-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The invention of the plane astrolabe is sometimes wrongly attributed to Theon's daughter <a href="/wiki/Hypatia" title="Hypatia">Hypatia</a> (born <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 350–370</span>; died <span class="nowrap">415 <span class="smallcaps"><span style="font-variant: small-caps; text-transform: lowercase;">CE</span></span>),</span><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Theodore_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Theodore-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Deakin2007_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Deakin2007-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bradley_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bradley-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but it's known to have been used much earlier.<sup id="cite_ref-Theodore_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Theodore-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Deakin2007_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Deakin2007-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bradley_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bradley-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The misattribution comes from a misinterpretation of a statement in a letter written by Hypatia's pupil <a href="/wiki/Synesius" title="Synesius">Synesius</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 373–414</span>),<sup id="cite_ref-Theodore_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Theodore-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Deakin2007_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Deakin2007-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bradley_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bradley-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which mentions that Hypatia had taught him how to construct a plane astrolabe, but does not say that she invented it.<sup id="cite_ref-Theodore_11-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Theodore-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Deakin2007_12-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Deakin2007-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bradley_13-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bradley-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lewis argues that <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a> used an astrolabe to make the astronomical observations recorded in the <i><a href="/wiki/Tetrabiblos" title="Tetrabiblos">Tetrabiblos</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELewis2001_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELewis2001-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, <a href="/wiki/Emilie_Savage-Smith" title="Emilie Savage-Smith">Emilie Savage-Smith</a> notes </p> <dl><dd>"there is no convincing evidence that Ptolemy or any of his predecessors knew about the planispheric astrolabe".<sup id="cite_ref-SavageSmith-1992_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SavageSmith-1992-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <p>In chapter 5.1 of the <i><a href="/wiki/Almagest" title="Almagest">Almagest</a></i>, Ptolemy describes the construction of an <a href="/wiki/Armillary_sphere" title="Armillary sphere">armillary sphere</a>, and it is usually assumed that this was the instrument he used. </p><p>Astrolabes continued to be used in the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>. Christian philosopher <a href="/wiki/John_Philoponus" title="John Philoponus">John Philoponus</a> wrote a treatise (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 550</span>) on the astrolabe in Greek, which is the earliest extant treatise on the instrument.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesopotamian">Mesopotamian</a> bishop <a href="/wiki/Severus_Sebokht" title="Severus Sebokht">Severus Sebokht</a> also wrote a treatise on the astrolabe in the <a href="/wiki/Syriac_language" title="Syriac language">Syriac language</a> during the mid-7th century.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sebokht refers to the astrolabe as being made of brass in the introduction of his treatise, indicating that metal astrolabes were known in the Christian East well before they were developed in the Islamic world or in the Latin West.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medieval_era">Medieval era</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Astrolabe&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Medieval era"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Astrolabes were further developed in the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">medieval Islamic world</a>, where <a href="/wiki/Astronomy_in_medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Astronomy in medieval Islam">Muslim astronomers</a> introduced angular scales to the design,<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> adding circles indicating <a href="/wiki/Azimuth" title="Azimuth">azimuths</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Horizon" title="Horizon">horizon</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was widely used throughout the Muslim world, chiefly as an <a href="/wiki/Geography_in_medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Geography in medieval Islam">aid to navigation</a> and as a way of finding the <a href="/wiki/Qibla" title="Qibla">Qibla</a>, the direction of <a href="/wiki/Mecca" title="Mecca">Mecca</a>. Eighth-century <a href="/wiki/Mathematics_in_medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Mathematics in medieval Islam">mathematician</a> <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_al-Fazari" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad al-Fazari">Muhammad al-Fazari</a> is the first person credited with building the astrolabe in the Islamic world.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The mathematical background was established by Muslim astronomer <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_J%C4%81bir_al-Harr%C4%81n%C4%AB_al-Batt%C4%81n%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad ibn Jābir al-Harrānī al-Battānī">Albatenius</a> in his treatise <i>Kitab az-Zij</i> <span class="nowrap">(<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 920 <span class="smallcaps"><span style="font-variant: small-caps; text-transform: lowercase;">CE</span></span></span>),</span> which was translated into Latin by <a href="/wiki/Plato_Tiburtinus" title="Plato Tiburtinus">Plato Tiburtinus</a> (<i>De Motu Stellarum</i>). The earliest surviving astrolabe is dated <a href="/wiki/Islamic_calendar" title="Islamic calendar">AH</a> 315 <span class="nowrap">(927–928 <span class="smallcaps"><span style="font-variant: small-caps; text-transform: lowercase;">CE</span></span>).</span> In the Islamic world, astrolabes were used to find the times of sunrise and the rising of fixed stars, to help schedule morning prayers (<a href="/wiki/Salat" class="mw-redirect" title="Salat">salat</a>). In the 10th century, <a href="/wiki/Al-Sufi" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Sufi">al-Sufi</a> first described over 1,000 different uses of an astrolabe, in areas as diverse as <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Islamic_astrology" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic astrology">astrology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mariner%27s_astrolabe" title="Mariner's astrolabe">navigation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Surveying" title="Surveying">surveying</a>, timekeeping, prayer, <a href="/wiki/Salat" class="mw-redirect" title="Salat">Salat</a>, <a href="/wiki/Qibla" title="Qibla">Qibla</a>, etc.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Astrolabium.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Astrolabium.jpg/220px-Astrolabium.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="326" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Astrolabium.jpg/330px-Astrolabium.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Astrolabium.jpg/440px-Astrolabium.jpg 2x" data-file-width="480" data-file-height="711" /></a><figcaption>An Arab astrolabe from 1208</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Spherical_astrolabe" class="mw-redirect" title="Spherical astrolabe">spherical astrolabe</a> was a variation of both the astrolabe and the <a href="/wiki/Armillary_sphere" title="Armillary sphere">armillary sphere</a>, invented during the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> by astronomers and <a href="/wiki/Inventions_in_the_Muslim_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Inventions in the Muslim world">inventors</a> in the Islamic world.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The earliest description of the spherical astrolabe dates to <a href="/wiki/Al-Nayrizi" title="Al-Nayrizi">Al-Nayrizi</a> (<a href="/wiki/Floruit" title="Floruit">fl.</a> 892–902). In the 12th century, <a href="/wiki/Sharaf_al-D%C4%ABn_al-T%C5%ABs%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Sharaf al-Dīn al-Tūsī">Sharaf al-Dīn al-Tūsī</a> invented the <i>linear astrolabe</i>, sometimes called the "staff of al-Tusi", which was </p> <dl><dd>"a simple wooden rod with graduated markings, but without sights. It was furnished with a plumb line and a double chord for making angular measurements and bore a perforated pointer".<sup id="cite_ref-MacTutor_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MacTutor-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The geared mechanical astrolabe was invented by Abi Bakr of <a href="/wiki/Isfahan" title="Isfahan">Isfahan</a> in 1235.<sup id="cite_ref-Bedini_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bedini-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <p>The first known metal astrolabe in Western Europe is the Destombes astrolabe made from brass in the eleventh century in Portugal.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Brown-2010_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brown-2010-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page:  140">(p 140)</span></sup> Metal astrolabes avoided the warping that large wooden ones were prone to, allowing the construction of larger and therefore more accurate instruments. Metal astrolabes were heavier than wooden instruments of the same size, making it difficult to use them in navigation.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Spherical_astrolabe.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/33/Spherical_astrolabe.jpg" decoding="async" width="210" height="213" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="210" data-file-height="213" /></a><figcaption>Spherical astrolabe</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Euclid_and_Herman_-_Ashmole_MS_304,_fol_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Euclid_and_Herman_-_Ashmole_MS_304%2C_fol_2.jpg/220px-Euclid_and_Herman_-_Ashmole_MS_304%2C_fol_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Euclid_and_Herman_-_Ashmole_MS_304%2C_fol_2.jpg/330px-Euclid_and_Herman_-_Ashmole_MS_304%2C_fol_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Euclid_and_Herman_-_Ashmole_MS_304%2C_fol_2.jpg/440px-Euclid_and_Herman_-_Ashmole_MS_304%2C_fol_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1152" data-file-height="900" /></a><figcaption>A depiction of <a href="/wiki/Hermann_of_Reichenau" title="Hermann of Reichenau">Hermann of Reichenau</a> with an astrolabe in a 13th century manuscript by Matthew Paris</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Herman_Contractus" class="mw-redirect" title="Herman Contractus">Herman Contractus</a> of <a href="/wiki/Reichenau_Abbey" title="Reichenau Abbey">Reichenau Abbey</a>, examined the use of the astrolabe in <i>Mensura Astrolai</i> during the 11th century.<sup id="cite_ref-Northrup-2015-EWT_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Northrup-2015-EWT-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page:  72">(p <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofwo0000unse_d8h7/page/72">72</a>)</span></sup> <a href="/wiki/Peter_of_Maricourt" class="mw-redirect" title="Peter of Maricourt">Peter of Maricourt</a> wrote a treatise on the construction and use of a universal astrolabe in the last half of the 13th century entitled <i>Nova compositio astrolabii particularis</i>. Universal astrolabes can be found at the <a href="/wiki/History_of_Science_Museum,_Oxford" title="History of Science Museum, Oxford">History of Science Museum, Oxford</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> David A. King, historian of Islamic instrumentation, describes the universal astrolobe designed by Ibn al-Sarraj of <a href="/wiki/Aleppo" title="Aleppo">Aleppo</a> (a.k.a. Ahmad bin Abi Bakr; fl. 1328) as "the most sophisticated astronomical instrument from the entire Medieval and Renaissance periods".<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>English author <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Chaucer" title="Geoffrey Chaucer">Geoffrey Chaucer</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1343–1400</span>) compiled <i><a href="/wiki/A_Treatise_on_the_Astrolabe" title="A Treatise on the Astrolabe">A Treatise on the Astrolabe</a></i> for his son, mainly based on a work by <a href="/wiki/Mashallah_ibn_Athari" title="Mashallah ibn Athari">Messahalla</a> or <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Saffar" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn al-Saffar">Ibn al-Saffar</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Selin-2008_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Selin-2008-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The same source was translated by French astronomer and astrologer Pélerin de Prusse and others. The first printed book on the astrolabe was <i>Composition and Use of Astrolabe</i> by <a href="/wiki/Christian_of_Prachatice" title="Christian of Prachatice">Christian of Prachatice</a>, also using Messahalla, but relatively original. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Front_of_a_Sanskrit_Astrolabe.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Front_of_a_Sanskrit_Astrolabe.jpg/200px-Front_of_a_Sanskrit_Astrolabe.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="228" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Front_of_a_Sanskrit_Astrolabe.jpg/299px-Front_of_a_Sanskrit_Astrolabe.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Front_of_a_Sanskrit_Astrolabe.jpg/399px-Front_of_a_Sanskrit_Astrolabe.jpg 2x" data-file-width="669" data-file-height="764" /></a><figcaption>Front of an <a href="/wiki/Indian_astrolabe" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian astrolabe">Indian astrolabe</a> now kept at the <a href="/wiki/National_Museum_of_Scotland" title="National Museum of Scotland">Royal Museum of Scotland at Edinburgh.</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In 1370, the first Indian treatise on the astrolabe was written by the <a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jain</a> astronomer <a href="/wiki/Mahendra_Suri" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahendra Suri">Mahendra Suri</a>, titled <i>Yantrarāja</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A simplified astrolabe, known as a <i>balesilha</i>, was used by sailors to get an accurate reading of latitude while at sea. The use of the <i>balesilha</i> was promoted by <a href="/wiki/Prince_Henry_the_Navigator" title="Prince Henry the Navigator">Prince Henry</a> (1394–1460) while navigating for Portugal.<sup id="cite_ref-Northrup-2015-EWT_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Northrup-2015-EWT-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page:  460">(p <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofwo0000unse_d8h7/page/460">460</a>)</span></sup> </p><p> The astrolabe was almost certainly first brought north of the Pyrenees by Gerbert of Aurillac (future <a href="/wiki/Pope_Sylvester_II" title="Pope Sylvester II">Pope Sylvester II</a>), where it was integrated into the <a href="/wiki/Quadrivium" title="Quadrivium">quadrivium</a> at the school in Reims, France, sometime before the turn of the 11th century.<sup id="cite_ref-Brown-2010_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brown-2010-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page:  143">(p 143)</span></sup> In the 15th century, French instrument maker Jean Fusoris (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1365–1436</span>) also started remaking and selling astrolabes in his shop in <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a>, along with portable sundials and other popular scientific devices of the day.</p><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Detail_of_Astronomical_Instrument_Ieremias_Palladas.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Detail_of_Astronomical_Instrument_Ieremias_Palladas.png/220px-Detail_of_Astronomical_Instrument_Ieremias_Palladas.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="223" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Detail_of_Astronomical_Instrument_Ieremias_Palladas.png/330px-Detail_of_Astronomical_Instrument_Ieremias_Palladas.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Detail_of_Astronomical_Instrument_Ieremias_Palladas.png/440px-Detail_of_Astronomical_Instrument_Ieremias_Palladas.png 2x" data-file-width="762" data-file-height="774" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Catherine_of_Alexandria_(Palladas)#Scientific_Element" title="Catherine of Alexandria (Palladas)">Astronomical Instrument</a> Detail by <a href="/wiki/Ieremias_Palladas" title="Ieremias Palladas">Ieremias Palladas</a> 1612</figcaption></figure><p> Thirteen of his astrolabes survive to this day.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One more special example of craftsmanship in early 15th-century Europe is the astrolabe designed by Antonius de Pacento and made by Dominicus de Lanzano, dated 1420.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 16th century, <a href="/wiki/Johannes_St%C3%B6ffler" title="Johannes Stöffler">Johannes Stöffler</a> published <i>Elucidatio fabricae ususque astrolabii</i>, a manual of the construction and use of the astrolabe. Four identical 16th century astrolabes made by <a href="/wiki/Georg_Hartmann" title="Georg Hartmann">Georg Hartmann</a> provide some of the earliest evidence for <a href="/wiki/Batch_production" title="Batch production">batch production</a> by <a href="/wiki/Division_of_labor" class="mw-redirect" title="Division of labor">division of labor</a>. </p><p>Greek painter <a href="/wiki/Ieremias_Palladas" title="Ieremias Palladas">Ieremias Palladas</a> incorporated a sophisticated astrolabe in his 1612 painting depicting <a href="/wiki/Catherine_of_Alexandria" title="Catherine of Alexandria">Catherine of Alexandria</a>. The painting, entitled <a href="/wiki/Catherine_of_Alexandria_(Palladas)#Scientific_Element" title="Catherine of Alexandria (Palladas)"><i>Catherine of Alexandria</i></a>; in addition to the saint, showed a device labelled the 'system of the universe' (<span class="texhtml">Σύστημα τοῦ Παντός</span>). The device featured the <a href="/wiki/Classical_planets" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical planets">classical planets</a> with their Greek names: <a href="/wiki/Helios" title="Helios">Helios</a> (Sun), <a href="/wiki/Selene" title="Selene">Selene</a> (Moon), <a href="/wiki/Hermes" title="Hermes">Hermes</a> (Mercury), <a href="/wiki/Aphrodite" title="Aphrodite">Aphrodite</a> (Venus), <a href="/wiki/Ares" title="Ares">Ares</a> (Mars), <a href="/wiki/Zeus" title="Zeus">Zeus</a> (Jupiter), and <a href="/wiki/Cronus" title="Cronus">Cronos</a> (Saturn). The depicted device also had celestial spheres, following the <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemaic model">Ptolemaic model</a>, and Earth was shown as a blue sphere with circles of geographic coordinates. A complicated line representing the axis of the Earth covered the entire instrument.<sup id="cite_ref-astro_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-astro-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1248256098">@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery{width:100%!important}}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery{display:table}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-default{background:transparent;margin-top:4px}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-center{margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-left{float:left}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-right{float:right}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-none{float:none}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-collapsible{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .title,.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .main,.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .footer{display:table-row}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .title>div{display:table-cell;padding:0 4px 4px;text-align:center;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .main>div{display:table-cell}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .gallery{line-height:1.35em}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .footer>div{display:table-cell;padding:4px;text-align:right;font-size:85%;line-height:1em}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .title>div *,.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .footer>div *{overflow:visible}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .gallerybox img{background:none!important}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .bordered-images .thumb img{border:solid var(--background-color-neutral,#eaecf0)1px}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .whitebg .thumb{background:var(--background-color-base,#fff)!important}</style><div class="mod-gallery mod-gallery-default mod-gallery-center"><div class="title"><div>Medieval astrolabes</div></div><div class="main"><div><ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional nochecker bordered-images whitebg"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tusi_manus.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A treatise explaining the importance of the astrolabe by Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, Persian scientist"><img alt="A treatise explaining the importance of the astrolabe by Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, Persian scientist" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Tusi_manus.jpg/180px-Tusi_manus.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Tusi_manus.jpg/270px-Tusi_manus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Tusi_manus.jpg/360px-Tusi_manus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="533" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">A treatise explaining the importance of the astrolabe by <a href="/wiki/Nasir_al-Din_al-Tusi" title="Nasir al-Din al-Tusi">Nasir al-Din al-Tusi</a>, Persian scientist</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Jean_Fusoris_planispheric_astrolabe_in_Putnam_Gallery,_2009-11-24.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Astrolabe of Jean Fusoris, made in Paris, 1400"><img alt="Astrolabe of Jean Fusoris, made in Paris, 1400" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Jean_Fusoris_planispheric_astrolabe_in_Putnam_Gallery%2C_2009-11-24.jpg/144px-Jean_Fusoris_planispheric_astrolabe_in_Putnam_Gallery%2C_2009-11-24.jpg" decoding="async" width="144" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Jean_Fusoris_planispheric_astrolabe_in_Putnam_Gallery%2C_2009-11-24.jpg/216px-Jean_Fusoris_planispheric_astrolabe_in_Putnam_Gallery%2C_2009-11-24.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Jean_Fusoris_planispheric_astrolabe_in_Putnam_Gallery%2C_2009-11-24.jpg/288px-Jean_Fusoris_planispheric_astrolabe_in_Putnam_Gallery%2C_2009-11-24.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2439" data-file-height="3046" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Astrolabe of <a href="/wiki/Jean_Fusoris" title="Jean Fusoris">Jean Fusoris</a>, made in <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a>, 1400</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Astrolabe-Persian-18C.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="An 18th-century Persian astrolabe"><img alt="An 18th-century Persian astrolabe" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Astrolabe-Persian-18C.jpg/180px-Astrolabe-Persian-18C.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Astrolabe-Persian-18C.jpg/270px-Astrolabe-Persian-18C.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Astrolabe-Persian-18C.jpg/360px-Astrolabe-Persian-18C.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1061" data-file-height="972" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">An 18th-century <a href="/wiki/Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Persia">Persian</a> astrolabe</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Astrolabe,_18th_century,_disassembled.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Disassembled 18th-century astrolabe"><img alt="Disassembled 18th-century astrolabe" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Astrolabe%2C_18th_century%2C_disassembled.jpg/180px-Astrolabe%2C_18th_century%2C_disassembled.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Astrolabe%2C_18th_century%2C_disassembled.jpg/270px-Astrolabe%2C_18th_century%2C_disassembled.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Astrolabe%2C_18th_century%2C_disassembled.jpg/360px-Astrolabe%2C_18th_century%2C_disassembled.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2627" data-file-height="2550" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Disassembled 18th-century astrolabe</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Astrolabium_im_Mathematisch-Physikalischen_Salon_(Zwinger,_Dresden).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Exploded view of an astrolabe"><img alt="Exploded view of an astrolabe" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Astrolabium_im_Mathematisch-Physikalischen_Salon_%28Zwinger%2C_Dresden%29.jpg/180px-Astrolabium_im_Mathematisch-Physikalischen_Salon_%28Zwinger%2C_Dresden%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="125" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Astrolabium_im_Mathematisch-Physikalischen_Salon_%28Zwinger%2C_Dresden%29.jpg/270px-Astrolabium_im_Mathematisch-Physikalischen_Salon_%28Zwinger%2C_Dresden%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Astrolabium_im_Mathematisch-Physikalischen_Salon_%28Zwinger%2C_Dresden%29.jpg/360px-Astrolabium_im_Mathematisch-Physikalischen_Salon_%28Zwinger%2C_Dresden%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3843" data-file-height="2677" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Exploded view of an astrolabe</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Astrolabe_-_Stereographic_projection_on_tympan.gif" class="mw-file-description" title="Animation showing how celestial and geographic coordinates are mapped on an astrolabe's tympan through a stereographic projection. Hypothetical tympan (40° north latitude) of a 16th-century European planispheric astrolabe."><img alt="Animation showing how celestial and geographic coordinates are mapped on an astrolabe's tympan through a stereographic projection. Hypothetical tympan (40° north latitude) of a 16th-century European planispheric astrolabe." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Astrolabe_-_Stereographic_projection_on_tympan.gif/98px-Astrolabe_-_Stereographic_projection_on_tympan.gif" decoding="async" width="98" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Astrolabe_-_Stereographic_projection_on_tympan.gif/147px-Astrolabe_-_Stereographic_projection_on_tympan.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Astrolabe_-_Stereographic_projection_on_tympan.gif/196px-Astrolabe_-_Stereographic_projection_on_tympan.gif 2x" data-file-width="1440" data-file-height="2640" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Animation showing how <a href="/wiki/Celestial_coordinate_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Celestial coordinate system">celestial</a> and <a href="/wiki/Geographic_coordinate_system" title="Geographic coordinate system">geographic coordinates</a> are mapped on an astrolabe's tympan through a <a href="/wiki/Stereographic_projection" title="Stereographic projection">stereographic projection</a>. Hypothetical tympan (<a href="/wiki/40th_parallel_north" title="40th parallel north">40° north latitude</a>) of a 16th-century European <a href="/wiki/Planisphere" title="Planisphere">planispheric</a> astrolabe.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Libro_Primero_del_Astrolabio_Redondo_(Libros_del_saber_de_astronom%C3%ADa).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Astrolabe manual from the Alfonso X of Castile work Libros del saber de astronomía, 1276."><img alt="Astrolabe manual from the Alfonso X of Castile work Libros del saber de astronomía, 1276." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Libro_Primero_del_Astrolabio_Redondo_%28Libros_del_saber_de_astronom%C3%ADa%29.jpg/135px-Libro_Primero_del_Astrolabio_Redondo_%28Libros_del_saber_de_astronom%C3%ADa%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="135" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Libro_Primero_del_Astrolabio_Redondo_%28Libros_del_saber_de_astronom%C3%ADa%29.jpg/202px-Libro_Primero_del_Astrolabio_Redondo_%28Libros_del_saber_de_astronom%C3%ADa%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Libro_Primero_del_Astrolabio_Redondo_%28Libros_del_saber_de_astronom%C3%ADa%29.jpg/270px-Libro_Primero_del_Astrolabio_Redondo_%28Libros_del_saber_de_astronom%C3%ADa%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2611" data-file-height="3481" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Astrolabe manual from the <a href="/wiki/Alfonso_X_of_Castile" title="Alfonso X of Castile">Alfonso X of Castile</a> work <a href="/wiki/Libros_del_saber_de_astronom%C3%ADa" title="Libros del saber de astronomía">Libros del saber de astronomía</a>, 1276.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Astrolabium_Masha%27allah_Public_Library_Brugge_Ms._522.tif" class="mw-file-description" title="A page from the 1575 book "Astrolabium" depicting an astrolabe. Masha'Allah Public Library Bruges [nl] Ms. 522"><img alt="A page from the 1575 book "Astrolabium" depicting an astrolabe. Masha'Allah Public Library Bruges [nl] Ms. 522" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Astrolabium_Masha%27allah_Public_Library_Brugge_Ms._522.tif/lossy-page1-127px-Astrolabium_Masha%27allah_Public_Library_Brugge_Ms._522.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="127" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Astrolabium_Masha%27allah_Public_Library_Brugge_Ms._522.tif/lossy-page1-191px-Astrolabium_Masha%27allah_Public_Library_Brugge_Ms._522.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Astrolabium_Masha%27allah_Public_Library_Brugge_Ms._522.tif/lossy-page1-255px-Astrolabium_Masha%27allah_Public_Library_Brugge_Ms._522.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2740" data-file-height="3873" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">A page from the 1575 book "Astrolabium" depicting an astrolabe. Masha'Allah <a href="/wiki/Public_Library_Bruges" class="mw-redirect" title="Public Library Bruges">Public Library Bruges</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Openbare_Bibliotheek_Brugge" class="extiw" title="nl:Openbare Bibliotheek Brugge">nl</a>]</span> Ms. 522</div> </li> </ul></div></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Astrolabes_and_clocks">Astrolabes and clocks</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Astrolabe&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Astrolabes and clocks"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Het_gebruik_van_het_astrolabium_door_Amerigo_Vespucci,_Jan_Collaert_II,_Museum_Plantin-Moretus,_PK.OPB.0186.018.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Het_gebruik_van_het_astrolabium_door_Amerigo_Vespucci%2C_Jan_Collaert_II%2C_Museum_Plantin-Moretus%2C_PK.OPB.0186.018.jpg/310px-Het_gebruik_van_het_astrolabium_door_Amerigo_Vespucci%2C_Jan_Collaert_II%2C_Museum_Plantin-Moretus%2C_PK.OPB.0186.018.jpg" decoding="async" width="310" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Het_gebruik_van_het_astrolabium_door_Amerigo_Vespucci%2C_Jan_Collaert_II%2C_Museum_Plantin-Moretus%2C_PK.OPB.0186.018.jpg/465px-Het_gebruik_van_het_astrolabium_door_Amerigo_Vespucci%2C_Jan_Collaert_II%2C_Museum_Plantin-Moretus%2C_PK.OPB.0186.018.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Het_gebruik_van_het_astrolabium_door_Amerigo_Vespucci%2C_Jan_Collaert_II%2C_Museum_Plantin-Moretus%2C_PK.OPB.0186.018.jpg/620px-Het_gebruik_van_het_astrolabium_door_Amerigo_Vespucci%2C_Jan_Collaert_II%2C_Museum_Plantin-Moretus%2C_PK.OPB.0186.018.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3508" data-file-height="2550" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Amerigo_Vespucci" title="Amerigo Vespucci">Amerigo Vespucci</a> observing the <a href="/wiki/Crux" title="Crux">Southern Cross</a> by looking over the top of an <a href="/wiki/Armillary_sphere" title="Armillary sphere">armillary sphere</a> bizarrely held from the top as if it were an astrolabe; however, an astrolabe cannot be used by looking over its top. The page inexplicably contains the word <i>astrolabium</i>. By <a href="/wiki/Jan_Collaert_II" title="Jan Collaert II">Jan Collaert II</a>. <a href="/wiki/Museum_Plantin-Moretus" class="mw-redirect" title="Museum Plantin-Moretus">Museum Plantin-Moretus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antwerp" title="Antwerp">Antwerp</a>, Belgium.</figcaption></figure> <p>Mechanical <a href="/wiki/Astronomical_clock" title="Astronomical clock">astronomical clocks</a> were initially influenced by the astrolabe; they could be seen in many ways as clockwork astrolabes designed to produce a continual display of the current position of the sun, stars, and planets. For example, <a href="/wiki/Richard_of_Wallingford" title="Richard of Wallingford">Richard of Wallingford</a>'s clock (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1330</span>) consisted essentially of a star map rotating behind a fixed rete, similar to that of an astrolabe.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorth2005_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorth2005-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many astronomical clocks use an astrolabe-style display, such as the famous <a href="/wiki/Prague_Orloj" class="mw-redirect" title="Prague Orloj">clock at Prague</a>, adopting a stereographic projection (see below) of the ecliptic plane. In recent times, astrolabe watches have become popular. For example, Swiss watchmaker <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Oechslin" title="Ludwig Oechslin">Ludwig Oechslin</a> designed and built an astrolabe wristwatch in conjunction with <a href="/wiki/Ulysse_Nardin" title="Ulysse Nardin">Ulysse Nardin</a> in 1985.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dutch watchmaker Christaan van der Klauuw also manufactures astrolabe watches today.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Construction">Construction</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Astrolabe&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Construction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>An astrolabe consists of a disk with a wide, raised rim, called the <i>mater</i> (mother), which is deep enough to hold one or more flat plates called <i>tympans</i>, or <i><a href="/wiki/Clime" title="Clime">climates</a></i>. A <a href="/wiki/Tympan" title="Tympan">tympan</a> is made for a specific <a href="/wiki/Latitude" title="Latitude">latitude</a> and is engraved with a <a href="/wiki/Stereographic_projection" title="Stereographic projection">stereographic projection</a> of <a href="/wiki/Circle" title="Circle">circles</a> denoting <a href="/wiki/Azimuth" title="Azimuth">azimuth</a> and <a href="/wiki/Horizontal_coordinate_system" title="Horizontal coordinate system">altitude</a> and representing the portion of the <a href="/wiki/Celestial_sphere" title="Celestial sphere">celestial sphere</a> above the local horizon. The rim of the mater is typically graduated into <a href="/wiki/Hour" title="Hour">hours of time</a>, <a href="/wiki/Degree_(angle)" title="Degree (angle)">degrees of arc</a>, or both.<sup id="cite_ref-Stephenson_2000_108–109_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stephenson_2000_108–109-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Above the mater and tympan, the <i>rete</i>, a framework bearing a projection of the <a href="/wiki/Ecliptic" title="Ecliptic">ecliptic</a> plane and several <a href="/wiki/Pointer_(rod)" title="Pointer (rod)">pointers</a> indicating the positions of the brightest <a href="/wiki/Star" title="Star">stars</a>, is free to rotate. These pointers are often just simple points, but depending on the skill of the craftsman can be very elaborate and artistic. There are examples of astrolabes with artistic pointers in the shape of balls, stars, snakes, hands, dogs' heads, and leaves, among others.<sup id="cite_ref-Stephenson_2000_108–109_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stephenson_2000_108–109-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The names of the indicated stars were often engraved on the pointers in Arabic or Latin.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some astrolabes have a narrow <i><a href="/wiki/Ruler" title="Ruler">rule</a></i> or <i>label</i> which rotates over the rete, and may be marked with a scale of <a href="/wiki/Declination" title="Declination">declinations</a>. </p><p>The rete, representing the <a href="/wiki/Sky" title="Sky">sky</a>, functions as a <a href="/wiki/Star_chart" title="Star chart">star chart</a>. When it is rotated, the stars and the <a href="/wiki/Ecliptic" title="Ecliptic">ecliptic</a> move over the projection of the coordinates on the tympan. One complete rotation corresponds to the passage of a day. The astrolabe is, therefore, a predecessor of the modern <a href="/wiki/Planisphere" title="Planisphere">planisphere</a>. </p><p>On the back of the mater, there is often engraved a number of scales that are useful in the astrolabe's various applications. These vary from designer to designer, but might include curves for time conversions, a <a href="/wiki/Calendar" title="Calendar">calendar</a> for converting the day of the month to the sun's position on the ecliptic, trigonometric scales, and graduation of 360 degrees around the back edge. The <i><a href="/wiki/Alidade" title="Alidade">alidade</a></i> is attached to the back face. An alidade can be seen in the lower right illustration of the Persian astrolabe above. When the astrolabe is held vertically, the alidade can be rotated and the sun or a star sighted along its length, so that its altitude in degrees can be read ("taken") from the graduated edge of the astrolabe; hence the word's Greek roots: "astron" (ἄστρον) = star + "lab-" (λαβ-) = to take. The alidade had vertical and horizontal cross-hairs which plots locations on an azimuthal ring called an almucantar (altitude-distance circle). </p><p>An arm called a radius connects from the center of the astrolabe to the optical axis which is parallel with another arm also called a radius. The other radius contains graduations of altitude and distance measurements. </p><p>A shadow square also appears on the back of some astrolabes, developed by Muslim astrologists in the 9th Century, whereas devices of the Ancient Greek tradition featured only altitude scales on the back of the devices.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was used to convert shadow lengths and the altitude of the sun, the uses of which were various from surveying to measuring inaccessible heights.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Devices were usually signed by their maker with an inscription appearing on the back of the astrolabe, and if there was a patron of the object, their name would appear inscribed on the front, or in some cases, the name of the reigning sultan or the teacher of the astrolabist has also been found to appear inscribed in this place.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The date of the astrolabe's construction was often also signed, which has allowed historians to determine that these devices are the second oldest scientific instrument in the world. The inscriptions on astrolabes also allowed historians to conclude that astronomers tended to make their own astrolabes, but that many were also made to order and kept in stock to sell, suggesting there was some contemporary market for the devices.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1248256098"><div class="mod-gallery mod-gallery-default mod-gallery-center"><div class="title"><div>Construction of astrolabes</div></div><div class="main"><div><ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional nochecker bordered-images whitebg"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Yale%27s_Hartmann_astrolabe.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Hartmann astrolabe in Yale collection. This instrument shows its rete and rule."><img alt="The Hartmann astrolabe in Yale collection. This instrument shows its rete and rule." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Yale%27s_Hartmann_astrolabe.jpg/180px-Yale%27s_Hartmann_astrolabe.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Yale%27s_Hartmann_astrolabe.jpg/270px-Yale%27s_Hartmann_astrolabe.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Yale%27s_Hartmann_astrolabe.jpg/360px-Yale%27s_Hartmann_astrolabe.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2110" data-file-height="1944" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Georg_Hartmann" title="Georg Hartmann">Hartmann</a> astrolabe in <a href="/wiki/Yale_University" title="Yale University">Yale</a> collection. This instrument shows its rete and rule.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Globe_Celeste_Louvre_Asturlabi_DSC_0713.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Celestial Globe, Isfahan (?), Iran 1144. Shown at the Louvre Museum, this globe is the third oldest surviving in the world."><img alt="Celestial Globe, Isfahan (?), Iran 1144. Shown at the Louvre Museum, this globe is the third oldest surviving in the world." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Globe_Celeste_Louvre_Asturlabi_DSC_0713.JPG/180px-Globe_Celeste_Louvre_Asturlabi_DSC_0713.JPG" decoding="async" width="180" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Globe_Celeste_Louvre_Asturlabi_DSC_0713.JPG/270px-Globe_Celeste_Louvre_Asturlabi_DSC_0713.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Globe_Celeste_Louvre_Asturlabi_DSC_0713.JPG/360px-Globe_Celeste_Louvre_Asturlabi_DSC_0713.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3872" data-file-height="2592" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Celestial Globe, Isfahan (?), Iran 1144. Shown at the <a href="/wiki/Louvre_Museum" class="mw-redirect" title="Louvre Museum">Louvre Museum</a>, this globe is the third oldest surviving in the world.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Planispheric_astrolabe.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Computer-generated planispheric astrolabe"><img alt="Computer-generated planispheric astrolabe" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Planispheric_astrolabe.png/157px-Planispheric_astrolabe.png" decoding="async" width="157" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Planispheric_astrolabe.png/235px-Planispheric_astrolabe.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Planispheric_astrolabe.png/314px-Planispheric_astrolabe.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="918" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Computer-generated planispheric astrolabe</div> </li> </ul></div></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mathematical_basis">Mathematical basis</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Astrolabe&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Mathematical basis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The construction and design of astrolabes are based on the application of the <a href="/wiki/Stereographic_projection" title="Stereographic projection">stereographic projection</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Celestial_sphere" title="Celestial sphere">celestial sphere</a>. The point from which the projection is usually made is the <a href="/wiki/South_Pole" title="South Pole">South Pole</a>. The plane onto which the projection is made is that of the <a href="/wiki/Equator" title="Equator">Equator</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Designing_a_tympanum_through_stereographic_projection">Designing a tympanum through stereographic projection</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Astrolabe&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Designing a tympanum through stereographic projection"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Parts_of_a_tympan_of_an_astrolabe.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Parts_of_a_tympan_of_an_astrolabe.png/310px-Parts_of_a_tympan_of_an_astrolabe.png" decoding="async" width="310" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Parts_of_a_tympan_of_an_astrolabe.png/465px-Parts_of_a_tympan_of_an_astrolabe.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Parts_of_a_tympan_of_an_astrolabe.png/620px-Parts_of_a_tympan_of_an_astrolabe.png 2x" data-file-width="3100" data-file-height="1800" /></a><figcaption>Parts of an Astrolabe tympanum</figcaption></figure> <p>The tympanum captures the celestial coordinate axes upon which the <i>rete</i> will rotate. It is the component that will enable the precise determination of a star's position at a specific time of <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_rotation" title="Earth's rotation">day</a> and <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_orbit" title="Earth's orbit">year</a>. </p><p>Therefore, it should project: </p> <ol><li>The <a href="/wiki/Zenith" title="Zenith">zenith</a>, which will vary depending on the <a href="/wiki/Latitude" title="Latitude">latitude</a> of the astrolabe user.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Horizon" title="Horizon">horizon line</a> and <a href="/wiki/Almucantar" title="Almucantar">almucantar</a> or circles parallel to the horizon, which will allow for the determination of a celestial body's <a href="/wiki/Horizontal_coordinate_system" title="Horizontal coordinate system">altitude</a> (from the horizon to the zenith).</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Meridian_(astronomy)" title="Meridian (astronomy)">celestial meridian</a> (north-south meridian, passing through the zenith) and secondary meridians (circles intersecting the north-south meridian at the zenith), which will enable the measurement of <a href="/wiki/Azimuth" title="Azimuth">azimuth</a> for a celestial body.</li> <li>The three main <a href="/wiki/Circle_of_latitude" title="Circle of latitude">circles of latitude</a> (<a href="/wiki/Tropic_of_Capricorn" title="Tropic of Capricorn">Capricorn</a>, <a href="/wiki/Equator" title="Equator">Equator</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tropic_of_Cancer" title="Tropic of Cancer">Cancer</a>) to determine the exact moments of <a href="/wiki/Solstice" title="Solstice">solstices</a> and <a href="/wiki/Equinox" title="Equinox">equinoxes</a> throughout the year.</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_tropics_and_the_equator_define_the_tympanum">The tropics and the equator define the tympanum</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Astrolabe&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: The tropics and the equator define the tympanum"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Proyecci%C3%B3n_estereogr%C3%A1fica_de_tr%C3%B3picos_y_ecuador_en_un_astrolabio.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Proyecci%C3%B3n_estereogr%C3%A1fica_de_tr%C3%B3picos_y_ecuador_en_un_astrolabio.png/620px-Proyecci%C3%B3n_estereogr%C3%A1fica_de_tr%C3%B3picos_y_ecuador_en_un_astrolabio.png" decoding="async" width="620" height="320" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Proyecci%C3%B3n_estereogr%C3%A1fica_de_tr%C3%B3picos_y_ecuador_en_un_astrolabio.png/930px-Proyecci%C3%B3n_estereogr%C3%A1fica_de_tr%C3%B3picos_y_ecuador_en_un_astrolabio.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Proyecci%C3%B3n_estereogr%C3%A1fica_de_tr%C3%B3picos_y_ecuador_en_un_astrolabio.png/1240px-Proyecci%C3%B3n_estereogr%C3%A1fica_de_tr%C3%B3picos_y_ecuador_en_un_astrolabio.png 2x" data-file-width="1651" data-file-height="851" /></a><figcaption>Stereographic projection of Earth's tropics and equator from the South Pole.</figcaption></figure> <p>On the right side of the image above: </p> <ol><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#C4F5F5; color:black;"> </span> The blue sphere represents the <a href="/wiki/Celestial_sphere" title="Celestial sphere">celestial sphere</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#0325F1; color:white;"> </span> The blue arrow indicates the direction of true north (the <a href="/wiki/Polaris" title="Polaris">North Star</a>).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#0325F1; color:white;"> </span> The central blue point represents Earth (the observer's location).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#001919; color:white;"> </span> The geographic south of the celestial sphere acts as the <a href="/wiki/Stereographic_projection" title="Stereographic projection">projection pole</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#B8B8B8; color:black;"> </span> The celestial equatorial plane serves as the <a href="/wiki/Projection_plane" title="Projection plane">projection plane</a>.</li> <li>Three parallel circles represent the projection on the celestial sphere of Earth's main <a href="/wiki/Circle_of_latitude" title="Circle of latitude">circles of latitude</a>: <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#DA5E1B; color:black;"> </span> In orange, the celestial <a href="/wiki/Tropic_of_Cancer" title="Tropic of Cancer">Tropic of Cancer</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#8533DB; color:white;"> </span> In purple, the celestial <a href="/wiki/Equator" title="Equator">equator</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#006713; color:white;"> </span> In green, the celestial <a href="/wiki/Tropic_of_Capricorn" title="Tropic of Capricorn">Tropic of Capricorn</a>.</li></ul></li></ol> <p>When projecting onto the celestial equatorial plane, three concentric circles correspond to the celestial sphere's three <a href="/wiki/Circle_of_latitude" title="Circle of latitude">circles of latitude</a> (left side of the image). The largest of these, the projection on the celestial equatorial plane of the celestial <a href="/wiki/Tropic_of_Capricorn" title="Tropic of Capricorn">Tropic of Capricorn</a>, defines the size of the astrolabe's tympanum. The center of the tympanum (and the center of the three circles) is actually the north-south axis around which Earth rotates, and therefore, the <i>rete</i> of the astrolabe will rotate around this point as the hours of the day pass (due to <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_rotation" title="Earth's rotation">Earth's rotational motion</a>). </p><p>The three concentric circles on the tympanum are useful for determining the exact moments of <a href="/wiki/Solstice" title="Solstice">solstices</a> and <a href="/wiki/Equinox" title="Equinox">equinoxes</a> throughout the year: if the sun's altitude at noon on the <i>rete</i> is known and coincides with the outer circle of the tympanum (Tropic of Capricorn), it signifies the <a href="/wiki/Winter_solstice" title="Winter solstice">winter solstice</a> (the sun will be at the <a href="/wiki/Zenith" title="Zenith">zenith</a> for an observer at the Tropic of Capricorn, meaning summer in the southern hemisphere and winter in the northern hemisphere). If, on the other hand, its altitude coincides with the inner circle (Tropic of Cancer), it indicates the <a href="/wiki/Summer_solstice" title="Summer solstice">summer solstice</a>. If its altitude is on the middle circle (equator), it corresponds to one of the two <a href="/wiki/Equinox" title="Equinox">equinoxes</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_horizon_and_the_measurement_of_altitude">The horizon and the measurement of altitude</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Astrolabe&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: The horizon and the measurement of altitude"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Proyecci%C3%B3n_estereogr%C3%A1fica_del_horizonte_sobre_el_t%C3%ADmpano_de_un_astrolabio.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Proyecci%C3%B3n_estereogr%C3%A1fica_del_horizonte_sobre_el_t%C3%ADmpano_de_un_astrolabio.png/620px-Proyecci%C3%B3n_estereogr%C3%A1fica_del_horizonte_sobre_el_t%C3%ADmpano_de_un_astrolabio.png" decoding="async" width="620" height="320" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Proyecci%C3%B3n_estereogr%C3%A1fica_del_horizonte_sobre_el_t%C3%ADmpano_de_un_astrolabio.png/930px-Proyecci%C3%B3n_estereogr%C3%A1fica_del_horizonte_sobre_el_t%C3%ADmpano_de_un_astrolabio.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Proyecci%C3%B3n_estereogr%C3%A1fica_del_horizonte_sobre_el_t%C3%ADmpano_de_un_astrolabio.png/1240px-Proyecci%C3%B3n_estereogr%C3%A1fica_del_horizonte_sobre_el_t%C3%ADmpano_de_un_astrolabio.png 2x" data-file-width="1651" data-file-height="851" /></a><figcaption>Stereographic projection of an observer's horizon at a specific latitude</figcaption></figure> <p>On the right side of the image above: </p> <ol><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#0325F1; color:white;"> </span> The blue arrow indicates the direction of true north (the <a href="/wiki/Polaris" title="Polaris">North Star</a>).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#0325F1; color:white;"> </span> The central blue point represents Earth (the observer's location).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#001919; color:white;"> </span> The black arrow represents the <a href="/wiki/Zenith" title="Zenith">zenith</a> direction for the observer (which would vary depending on the observer's <a href="/wiki/Latitude" title="Latitude">latitude</a>).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#001919; color:white;"> </span> The two black circles represent the <a href="/wiki/Horizon" title="Horizon">horizon</a> surrounding the observer, which is perpendicular to the zenith vector and defines the portion of the <a href="/wiki/Celestial_sphere" title="Celestial sphere">celestial sphere</a> visible to the observer, and its projection on the celestial equatorial plane.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#001919; color:white;"> </span> The geographic south of the celestial sphere acts as the <a href="/wiki/Stereographic_projection" title="Stereographic projection">projection pole</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#B8B8B8; color:black;"> </span> The celestial equatorial plane serves as the <a href="/wiki/Projection_plane" title="Projection plane">projection plane</a>.</li></ol> <p>When projecting the <a href="/wiki/Horizon" title="Horizon">horizon</a> onto the celestial equatorial plane, it transforms into an ellipse upward-shifted relatively to the center of the tympanum (both the observer and the projection of the north-south axis). This implies that a portion of the celestial sphere will fall outside the outer circle of the tympanum (the projection of the celestial <a href="/wiki/Tropic_of_Capricorn" title="Tropic of Capricorn">Tropic of Capricorn</a>) and, therefore, won't be represented. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Proyecci%C3%B3n_estereogr%C3%A1fica_del_horizonte_y_almucantar_sobre_el_t%C3%ADmpano_de_un_astrolabio.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Proyecci%C3%B3n_estereogr%C3%A1fica_del_horizonte_y_almucantar_sobre_el_t%C3%ADmpano_de_un_astrolabio.png/620px-Proyecci%C3%B3n_estereogr%C3%A1fica_del_horizonte_y_almucantar_sobre_el_t%C3%ADmpano_de_un_astrolabio.png" decoding="async" width="620" height="320" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Proyecci%C3%B3n_estereogr%C3%A1fica_del_horizonte_y_almucantar_sobre_el_t%C3%ADmpano_de_un_astrolabio.png/930px-Proyecci%C3%B3n_estereogr%C3%A1fica_del_horizonte_y_almucantar_sobre_el_t%C3%ADmpano_de_un_astrolabio.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Proyecci%C3%B3n_estereogr%C3%A1fica_del_horizonte_y_almucantar_sobre_el_t%C3%ADmpano_de_un_astrolabio.png/1240px-Proyecci%C3%B3n_estereogr%C3%A1fica_del_horizonte_y_almucantar_sobre_el_t%C3%ADmpano_de_un_astrolabio.png 2x" data-file-width="1651" data-file-height="851" /></a><figcaption>Stereographic projection of the horizon and an almucantar.</figcaption></figure> <p>Additionally, when drawing circles parallel to the horizon up to the zenith (<a href="/wiki/Almucantar" title="Almucantar">almucantar</a>), and projecting them on the celestial equatorial plane, as in the image above, a grid of consecutive ellipses is constructed, allowing for the determination of a <a href="/wiki/Horizontal_coordinate_system" title="Horizontal coordinate system">star's altitude</a> when its <i>rete</i> overlaps with the designed tympanum. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_meridians_and_the_measurement_of_azimuth">The meridians and the measurement of azimuth</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Astrolabe&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: The meridians and the measurement of azimuth"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Proyecci%C3%B3n_estereogr%C3%A1fica_del_horizonte_y_azimut_sobre_el_t%C3%ADmpano_de_un_astrolabio.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Proyecci%C3%B3n_estereogr%C3%A1fica_del_horizonte_y_azimut_sobre_el_t%C3%ADmpano_de_un_astrolabio.png/620px-Proyecci%C3%B3n_estereogr%C3%A1fica_del_horizonte_y_azimut_sobre_el_t%C3%ADmpano_de_un_astrolabio.png" decoding="async" width="620" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Proyecci%C3%B3n_estereogr%C3%A1fica_del_horizonte_y_azimut_sobre_el_t%C3%ADmpano_de_un_astrolabio.png/930px-Proyecci%C3%B3n_estereogr%C3%A1fica_del_horizonte_y_azimut_sobre_el_t%C3%ADmpano_de_un_astrolabio.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Proyecci%C3%B3n_estereogr%C3%A1fica_del_horizonte_y_azimut_sobre_el_t%C3%ADmpano_de_un_astrolabio.png/1240px-Proyecci%C3%B3n_estereogr%C3%A1fica_del_horizonte_y_azimut_sobre_el_t%C3%ADmpano_de_un_astrolabio.png 2x" data-file-width="1722" data-file-height="624" /></a><figcaption>Stereographic projection of the north-south meridian and a meridian 40° E on the tympanum of an astrolabe</figcaption></figure> <p>On the right side of the image above: </p> <ol><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#0325F1; color:white;"> </span> The blue arrow indicates the direction of true north (the <a href="/wiki/Polaris" title="Polaris">North Star</a>).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#0325F1; color:white;"> </span> The central blue point represents Earth (the observer's location).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#001919; color:white;"> </span> The black arrow represents the <a href="/wiki/Zenith" title="Zenith">zenith</a> direction for the observer (which would vary depending on the observer's <a href="/wiki/Latitude" title="Latitude">latitude</a>).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#001919; color:white;"> </span> The two black circles represent the <a href="/wiki/Horizon" title="Horizon">horizon</a> surrounding the observer, which is perpendicular to the zenith vector and defines the portion of the <a href="/wiki/Celestial_sphere" title="Celestial sphere">celestial sphere</a> visible to the observer, and its projection on the celestial equatorial plane.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#D92929; color:white;"> </span> The five red dots represent the <a href="/wiki/Zenith" title="Zenith">zenith</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Nadir_(astronomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nadir (astronomy)">nadir</a> (the point on the <a href="/wiki/Celestial_sphere" title="Celestial sphere">celestial sphere</a> opposite the zenith with respect to the observer), their projections on the celestial equatorial plane, and the center (with no physical meaning attached) of the circle obtained by projecting the secondary meridian (see below) on the celestial equatorial plane.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#DA5E1B; color:black;"> </span> The orange circle represents the <a href="/wiki/Meridian_(astronomy)" title="Meridian (astronomy)">celestial meridian</a> (or meridian that goes, for the observer, from the north of the horizon to the south of the horizon passing through the zenith).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#D92929; color:white;"> </span> The two red circles represent a secondary meridian with an <a href="/wiki/Azimuth" title="Azimuth">azimuth</a> of 40° East relative to the observer's horizon (which, like all secondary meridians, intersects the principal meridian at the zenith and nadir), and its projection on the celestial equatorial plane.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#001919; color:white;"> </span> The geographic south of the celestial sphere acts as the <a href="/wiki/Stereographic_projection" title="Stereographic projection">projection pole</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#B8B8B8; color:black;"> </span> The celestial equatorial plane serves as the <a href="/wiki/Projection_plane" title="Projection plane">projection plane</a>.</li></ol> <p>When projecting the <a href="/wiki/Meridian_(astronomy)" title="Meridian (astronomy)">celestial meridian</a>, it results in a straight line that overlaps with the vertical axis of the tympanum, where the <a href="/wiki/Zenith" title="Zenith">zenith</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nadir_(astronomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nadir (astronomy)">nadir</a> are located. However, when projecting the 40° E meridian, another circle is obtained that passes through both the zenith and nadir projections, so its center is located on the perpendicular <a href="/wiki/Bisection" title="Bisection">bisection</a> of the segment connecting both points. In deed, the projection of the celestial meridian can be considered as a circle with an infinite radius (a straight line) whose center is on this bisection and at an infinite distance from these two points. </p><p>If successive meridians that divide the celestial sphere into equal sectors (like "orange slices" radiating from the zenith) are projected, a family of curves passing through the zenith projection on the tympanum is obtained. These curves, once overlaid with the <i>rete</i> containing the major stars, allow for determining the <a href="/wiki/Azimuth" title="Azimuth">azimuth</a> of a star located on the <i>rete</i> and rotated for a specific time of day. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Astrolabe&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 15em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astronomy_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world">astronomy in the medieval Islamic world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equatorium" title="Equatorium">equatorium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamburg_Planetarium" title="Hamburg Planetarium">Hamburg Planetarium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_astronomical_instruments" title="List of astronomical instruments">list of astronomical instruments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippe_Danfrie" title="Philippe Danfrie">Philippe Danfrie</a>, designer and maker of <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_instrument" title="Mathematical instrument">mathematical instruments</a>, globes and astrolabes</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planesphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Planesphere">planesphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planetarium" title="Planetarium">planetarium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yantraraja" title="Yantraraja">Yantraraja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zeiss-Planetarium_Jena" title="Zeiss-Planetarium Jena">Zeiss-Planetarium Jena</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Footnotes">Footnotes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Astrolabe&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Footnotes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> "The most distinguished Syriac scholar of this later period was <a href="/wiki/Severus_Sebokht" title="Severus Sebokht">Severus Sebokht</a> (d. 666–667), Bishop of Kennesrin. ... In addition to these works ... he also wrote on astronomical subjects (Brit. Mus. Add. 14538), and composed a treatise on the astronomical instrument known as the astrolabe, which has been edited and published by F. Nau (Paris, 1899)."<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <div style="float:right;"><span class="nowrap"> — <a href="#CITEREFO'Leary1948">O'Leary (1948)</a></span> </div><br /><br /> <dl><dd></dd></dl> <p>Severus' treatise was translated by <a href="#CITEREFSmith_Margoliouth1932">Smith Margoliouth (1932)</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> "There is no evidence for the Hellenistic origin of the spherical astrolabe, but rather evidence so far available suggests that it may have been an early but distinctly Islamic development with no Greek antecedents."<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> "Paul Kunitzsch has recently established that the Latin treatise on the astrolabe long ascribed to Ma'sh'allah and translated by John of Seville is in fact by Ibn al-Saffar, a disciple of Maslama al-Majriti."<sup id="cite_ref-Selin-2008_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Selin-2008-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Astrolabe&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 25em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1964/05/18/archives/historians-home-yields-rich-lode-new-york-society-searches-its-own.html">"Historians' home yields rich lode"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>. 18 May 1964<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 February</span> 2024</span>. <q>New York Society searches its own building for items to mark anniversary; show opens Thursday; portrait of Stuyvesant and Champlain's astrolabe will be on display.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Historians%27+home+yields+rich+lode&rft.date=1964-05-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1964%2F05%2F18%2Farchives%2Fhistorians-home-yields-rich-lode-new-york-society-searches-its-own.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAstrolabe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBean2009" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Bean, Adam L. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=b3ddWSxmi9cC&pg=PA59">"astrolabes"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/H._James_Birx" title="H. James Birx">Birx, H. James</a> (ed.). <i>Encyclopedia of Time: Science, philosophy, theology, & culture</i>. Vol. 1. SAGE. pp. 59–60. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4129-4164-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4129-4164-8"><bdi>978-1-4129-4164-8</bdi></a> – via Google.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=astrolabes&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Time%3A+Science%2C+philosophy%2C+theology%2C+%26+culture&rft.pages=59-60&rft.pub=SAGE&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-4129-4164-8&rft.aulast=Bean&rft.aufirst=Adam+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Db3ddWSxmi9cC%26pg%3DPA59&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAstrolabe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-oed-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-oed_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dictionary.oed.com/cgi/entry/50013806">"astrolabe"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford English Dictionary</a></i> (2nd ed.). 1989.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=astrolabe&rft.btitle=Oxford+English+Dictionary&rft.edition=2nd&rft.date=1989&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdictionary.oed.com%2Fcgi%2Fentry%2F50013806&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAstrolabe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131022193917/http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/astrolabe?q=astrolabe">"astrolabe"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Oxford_Dictionaries_(website)" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxford Dictionaries (website)">Oxford Dictionaries (website)</a></i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/astrolabe?q=astrolabe">the original</a> on 22 October 2013 – via oxforddictionaries.com.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=astrolabe&rft.btitle=Oxford+Dictionaries+%28website%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Foxforddictionaries.com%2Fdefinition%2Fenglish%2Fastrolabe%3Fq%3Dastrolabe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAstrolabe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=astrolabe">"astrolabe"</a>. <i>Online Etymology Dictionary</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 November</span> 2013</span> – via Etymonline.com.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=astrolabe&rft.btitle=Online+Etymology+Dictionary&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.etymonline.com%2Findex.php%3Fterm%3Dastrolabe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAstrolabe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing198144-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing198144_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing198144_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKing1981">King 1981</a>, p. 44.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing198151-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing198151_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKing1981">King 1981</a>, p. 51.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing198145-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing198145_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKing1981">King 1981</a>, p. 45.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELewis2001-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELewis2001_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELewis2001_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLewis2001">Lewis 2001</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeakin1997" class="citation episode cs1">Deakin, Michael (3 August 1997). "Hypatia of Alexandria". <i>Ockham's razor</i> (radio program). <a href="/wiki/Australian_Broadcasting_Corporation" title="Australian Broadcasting Corporation">ABC</a> <a href="/wiki/ABC_Radio_(Australia)" class="mw-redirect" title="ABC Radio (Australia)">Radio</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ockham%27s+razor&rft.pub=ABC+Radio&rft.date=1997-08-03&rft.aulast=Deakin&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAstrolabe" class="Z3988"></span> Accessed 10 July 2014.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Theodore-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Theodore_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Theodore_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Theodore_11-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Theodore_11-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTheodore2016" class="citation book cs1">Theodore, Jonathan (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3QPWDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA183"><i>The Modern Cultural Myth of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire</i></a>. Manchester, UK: Palgrave, Macmillan. p. 183. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-137-56997-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-137-56997-4"><bdi>978-1-137-56997-4</bdi></a> – via Google.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Modern+Cultural+Myth+of+the+Decline+and+Fall+of+the+Roman+Empire&rft.place=Manchester%2C+UK&rft.pages=183&rft.pub=Palgrave%2C+Macmillan&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-137-56997-4&rft.aulast=Theodore&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3QPWDAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA183&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAstrolabe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Deakin2007-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Deakin2007_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Deakin2007_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Deakin2007_12-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Deakin2007_12-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeakin2007" class="citation book cs1">Deakin, Michael A.B. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=P6X1DJ7UIb4C&pg=PA135"><i>Hypatia of Alexandria: Mathematician and martyr</i></a>. Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books. pp. 102–104. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59102-520-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59102-520-7"><bdi>978-1-59102-520-7</bdi></a> – via Google.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hypatia+of+Alexandria%3A+Mathematician+and+martyr&rft.place=Amherst%2C+NY&rft.pages=102-104&rft.pub=Prometheus+Books&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-59102-520-7&rft.aulast=Deakin&rft.aufirst=Michael+A.B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DP6X1DJ7UIb4C%26pg%3DPA135&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAstrolabe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bradley-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bradley_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bradley_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bradley_13-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bradley_13-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBradley2006" class="citation book cs1">Bradley, Michael John (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EIdtVPeD7GcC&pg=PA63"><i>The Birth of Mathematics: Ancient times to 1300</i></a>. New York City, NY: Infobase Publishing. p. 63. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780816054237" title="Special:BookSources/9780816054237"><bdi>9780816054237</bdi></a> – via Google.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Birth+of+Mathematics%3A+Ancient+times+to+1300&rft.place=New+York+City%2C+NY&rft.pages=63&rft.pub=Infobase+Publishing&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9780816054237&rft.aulast=Bradley&rft.aufirst=Michael+John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEIdtVPeD7GcC%26pg%3DPA63&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAstrolabe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-SavageSmith-1992-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-SavageSmith-1992_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSavage-Smith1992" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol"><a href="/wiki/Emilie_Savage-Smith" title="Emilie Savage-Smith">Savage-Smith, E.</a> (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://press.uchicago.edu/books/HOC/HOC_V2_B1/HOC_VOLUME2_Book1_chapter2.pdf">"Celestial mapping"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. In Harley, J.B.; Woodward, David (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://press.uchicago.edu/books/HOC/HOC_V2_B1/Volume2_Book1.html"><i>The History of Cartography</i></a>. The History of Cartography. Vol. 2, Book 1: Cartography in the traditional Islamic and South Asian societies. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0226316351" title="Special:BookSources/0226316351"><bdi>0226316351</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Celestial+mapping&rft.btitle=The+History+of+Cartography&rft.place=Chicago%2C+IL&rft.series=The+History+of+Cartography&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=0226316351&rft.aulast=Savage-Smith&rft.aufirst=E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpress.uchicago.edu%2Fbooks%2FHOC%2FHOC_V2_B1%2FHOC_VOLUME2_Book1_chapter2.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAstrolabe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> Modern editions of <a href="/wiki/John_Philoponus" title="John Philoponus">John Philoponus</a>' treatise on the astrolabe are <dl><dd></dd></dl> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPhiloponus1839" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/John_Philoponus" title="John Philoponus">Philoponus, John</a> (1839) [<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 550</span>]. Hase, Heinrich (ed.). <i>De usu astrolabii eiusque constructione libellus</i> [<i>On the Use and Construction of the Astrolabe</i>] (in Latin). Bonn, DE: E. Weber. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/165707441">165707441</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=De+usu+astrolabii+eiusque+constructione+libellus&rft.place=Bonn%2C+DE&rft.pub=E.+Weber&rft.date=1839&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F165707441&rft.aulast=Philoponus&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAstrolabe" class="Z3988"></span><br /> or<br /> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPhiloponus1839" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/John_Philoponus" title="John Philoponus">Philoponus, John</a> (1839) [<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 550</span>]. <i>De usu astrolabii eiusque constructione libellus</i> [<i>On the Use and Construction of the Astrolabe</i>]. Rheinisches Museum für Philologie (in Latin). Vol. 6 (reprint ed.). pp. 127–171.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=De+usu+astrolabii+eiusque+constructione+libellus&rft.series=Rheinisches+Museum+f%C3%BCr+Philologie&rft.pages=127-171&rft.edition=reprint&rft.date=1839&rft.aulast=Philoponus&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAstrolabe" class="Z3988"></span> <dl><dd></dd></dl> repr. and translated into French<br /> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSegonds1981" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Segonds, Alain Philippe (1981) [<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 550</span>]. <i><span></span></i>Jean Philopon,<i> traité de l'astrolabe</i> (in French and Latin). <a href="/wiki/John_Philoponus" title="John Philoponus">Philoponus, John</a> (<i>Jean Philopon</i>, original author). Paris, FR: Librairie Alain Brieux. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/10467740">10467740</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jean+Philopon%2C+trait%C3%A9+de+l%27astrolabe&rft.place=Paris%2C+FR&rft.pub=Librairie+Alain+Brieux&rft.date=1981&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F10467740&rft.aulast=Segonds&rft.aufirst=Alain+Philippe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAstrolabe" class="Z3988"></span> <dl><dd></dd></dl> translated into English and included as part of<br /> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPhiloponus1932" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol"><a href="/wiki/John_Philoponus" title="John Philoponus">Philoponus, John</a> (1932) [<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 550</span>]. "On the Use and Construction of the Astrolabe [<i>De usu astrolabii eiusque constructione libellus</i>]". In Gunther, R.T. (ed.). <i>The Astrolabes of the World</i>. Vol. 1 (of 2). Translated by Green, H.W. Oxford. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL18840299M">18840299M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=On+the+Use+and+Construction+of+the+Astrolabe+%5BDe+usu+astrolabii+eiusque+constructione+libellus%5D&rft.btitle=The+Astrolabes+of+the+World&rft.pub=Oxford&rft.date=1932&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL18840299M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.aulast=Philoponus&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAstrolabe" class="Z3988"></span><br /> <dl><dd>which was reprinted in 1976:</dd></dl> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPhiloponus1976" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Philoponus" title="John Philoponus">Philoponus, John</a> (1976) [<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 550</span>]. <i>On the Use and Construction of the Astrolabe</i> [<i>De usu astrolabii eiusque constructione libellus</i>]. Translated by Green, H.W. (reprint ed.). London, UK: Holland Press. pp. 61–81. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL14132393M">14132393M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=On+the+Use+and+Construction+of+the+Astrolabe&rft.place=London%2C+UK&rft.pages=61-81&rft.edition=reprint&rft.pub=Holland+Press&rft.date=1976&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL14132393M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.aulast=Philoponus&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAstrolabe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'Leary1948" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/De_Lacy_O%27Leary" title="De Lacy O'Leary">O'Leary, de Lacy</a> (1948). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aina.org/books/hgsptta.htm"><i>How Greek Science Passed to the Arabs</i></a>. Routledge and Kegan Paul.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=How+Greek+Science+Passed+to+the+Arabs&rft.pub=Routledge+and+Kegan+Paul&rft.date=1948&rft.aulast=O%27Leary&rft.aufirst=de+Lacy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aina.org%2Fbooks%2Fhgsptta.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAstrolabe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith_Margoliouth1932" class="citation book cs1">Smith Margoliouth, Jessie Payne (1932). Gunther, R.T. (ed.). <i>Astrolabes of the World</i>. <a href="/wiki/Severus_Sebokht" title="Severus Sebokht">Sebokht, Severus</a> (original author). Oxford. pp. 82–103.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Astrolabes+of+the+World&rft.pages=82-103&rft.pub=Oxford&rft.date=1932&rft.aulast=Smith+Margoliouth&rft.aufirst=Jessie+Payne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAstrolabe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSebokht" class="citation web cs1">Sebokht, Severus. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/severus_sebokht_astrolabe_01_trans.htm">"Description of the astrolabe"</a>. <i>Tertullian.org</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Tertullian.org&rft.atitle=Description+of+the+astrolabe&rft.aulast=Sebokht&rft.aufirst=Severus&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tertullian.org%2Ffathers%2Fseverus_sebokht_astrolabe_01_trans.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAstrolabe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See p. 289 of <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartin1923" class="citation cs2">Martin, L. C. (1923), "Surveying and navigational instruments from the historical standpoint", <i>Transactions of the Optical Society</i>, <b>24</b> (5): 289–303, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1923TrOS...24..289M">1923TrOS...24..289M</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1088%2F1475-4878%2F24%2F5%2F302">10.1088/1475-4878/24/5/302</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1475-4878">1475-4878</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Transactions+of+the+Optical+Society&rft.atitle=Surveying+and+navigational+instruments+from+the+historical+standpoint&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=289-303&rft.date=1923&rft.issn=1475-4878&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1088%2F1475-4878%2F24%2F5%2F302&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1923TrOS...24..289M&rft.aulast=Martin&rft.aufirst=L.+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAstrolabe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerggren2007" class="citation cs2">Berggren, J. Lennart (2007), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3ullzl036UEC&pg=PA519">"Mathematics in Medieval Islam"</a>, in Katz, Victor J. (ed.), <i>The Mathematics of Egypt, Mesopotamia, China, India, and Islam: a Sourcebook</i>, <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>, p. 519, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-11485-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-11485-9"><bdi>978-0-691-11485-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Mathematics+in+Medieval+Islam&rft.btitle=The+Mathematics+of+Egypt%2C+Mesopotamia%2C+China%2C+India%2C+and+Islam%3A+a+Sourcebook&rft.pages=519&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-691-11485-9&rft.aulast=Berggren&rft.aufirst=J.+Lennart&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3ullzl036UEC%26pg%3DPA519&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAstrolabe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Nelson_Frye" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard Nelson Frye">Richard Nelson Frye</a>: <i>Golden Age of Persia</i>. p. 163</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNizamoglu2005" class="citation web cs1">Nizamoglu, Cem (10 August 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://muslimheritage.com/using-an-astrolabe/">"Using an astrolabe"</a>. <i>Muslim Heritage (muslimheritage.com)</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 October</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Muslim+Heritage+%28muslimheritage.com%29&rft.atitle=Using+an+astrolabe&rft.date=2005-08-10&rft.aulast=Nizamoglu&rft.aufirst=Cem&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmuslimheritage.com%2Fusing-an-astrolabe%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAstrolabe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLachièz-ReyLuminet2001" class="citation book cs1">Lachièz-Rey, Marc; Luminet, Jean-Pierre (2001). <i>Celestial Treasury: From the music of spheres to the conquest of space</i>. Translated by Laredo, Joe. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 74. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-80040-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-80040-2"><bdi>978-0-521-80040-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Celestial+Treasury%3A+From+the+music+of+spheres+to+the+conquest+of+space&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK&rft.pages=74&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-521-80040-2&rft.aulast=Lachi%C3%A8z-Rey&rft.aufirst=Marc&rft.au=Luminet%2C+Jean-Pierre&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAstrolabe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSavage-Smith1993" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Emilie_Savage-Smith" title="Emilie Savage-Smith">Savage-Smith, Emilie</a> (1993). "Book Reviews". <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Islamic_Studies" title="Journal of Islamic Studies">Journal of Islamic Studies</a></i>. <b>4</b> (2): 296–299. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjis%2F4.2.296">10.1093/jis/4.2.296</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Islamic+Studies&rft.atitle=Book+Reviews&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=296-299&rft.date=1993&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fjis%2F4.2.296&rft.aulast=Savage-Smith&rft.aufirst=Emilie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAstrolabe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-MacTutor-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-MacTutor_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'ConnorRobertson" class="citation cs2">O'Connor, John J.; <a href="/wiki/Edmund_F._Robertson" title="Edmund F. Robertson">Robertson, Edmund F.</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Al-Tusi_Sharaf.html">"Sharaf al-Din al-Muzaffar al-Tusi"</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/MacTutor_History_of_Mathematics_Archive" title="MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive">MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/University_of_St_Andrews" title="University of St Andrews">University of St Andrews</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Sharaf+al-Din+al-Muzaffar+al-Tusi&rft.btitle=MacTutor+History+of+Mathematics+Archive&rft.pub=University+of+St+Andrews&rft.aulast=O%27Connor&rft.aufirst=John+J.&rft.au=Robertson%2C+Edmund+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk%2FBiographies%2FAl-Tusi_Sharaf.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAstrolabe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bedini-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bedini_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBediniMaddison1966" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Silvio_Bedini" title="Silvio Bedini">Bedini, Silvio A.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Francis_Maddison" title="Francis Maddison">Maddison, Francis R.</a> (1966). "Mechanical universe: The astrarium of Giovanni de' Dondi". <i><a href="/wiki/Transactions_of_the_American_Philosophical_Society" class="mw-redirect" title="Transactions of the American Philosophical Society">Transactions of the American Philosophical Society</a></i>. <b>56</b> (5): 1–69. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1006002">10.2307/1006002</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1006002">1006002</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Transactions+of+the+American+Philosophical+Society&rft.atitle=Mechanical+universe%3A+The+astrarium+of+Giovanni+de%27+Dondi&rft.volume=56&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=1-69&rft.date=1966&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1006002&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1006002%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Bedini&rft.aufirst=Silvio+A.&rft.au=Maddison%2C+Francis+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAstrolabe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.qantara-med.org/qantara4/public/show_document.php?do_id=1379&lang=en">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'Carolingian' astrolabe"</a>. <i>Qantara (qantara-med.org)</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 November</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Qantara+%28qantara-med.org%29&rft.atitle=%27Carolingian%27+astrolabe&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.qantara-med.org%2Fqantara4%2Fpublic%2Fshow_document.php%3Fdo_id%3D1379%26lang%3Den&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAstrolabe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Brown-2010-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Brown-2010_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brown-2010_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrown2010" class="citation book cs1">Brown, Nancy Marie (2010). <i>The Abacus and the Cross</i>. Basic Books. pp. 140, 143. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-465-00950-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-465-00950-3"><bdi>978-0-465-00950-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Abacus+and+the+Cross&rft.pages=140%2C+143&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-465-00950-3&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Nancy+Marie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAstrolabe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoyle2011" class="citation book cs1">Boyle, David (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=x92SNeDpKqsC&pg=PA253"><i>Toward the Setting Sun: Columbus, Cabot, Vespucci, and the race for America</i></a>. USA: Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 253. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780802779786" title="Special:BookSources/9780802779786"><bdi>9780802779786</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Toward+the+Setting+Sun%3A+Columbus%2C+Cabot%2C+Vespucci%2C+and+the+race+for+America&rft.place=USA&rft.pages=253&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Publishing&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9780802779786&rft.aulast=Boyle&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dx92SNeDpKqsC%26pg%3DPA253&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAstrolabe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Northrup-2015-EWT-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Northrup-2015-EWT_32-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Northrup-2015-EWT_32-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNorthrup2015" class="citation book cs1">Northrup, Cynthia Clark, ed. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofwo0000unse_d8h7"><i>Encyclopedia of World Trade: From ancient times to the present</i></a> (Enhanced Credo ed.). Armonk, NY: Routledge. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofwo0000unse_d8h7/page/72">72</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofwo0000unse_d8h7/page/460">460</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0765680587" title="Special:BookSources/978-0765680587"><bdi>978-0765680587</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/889717964">889717964</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+World+Trade%3A+From+ancient+times+to+the+present&rft.place=Armonk%2C+NY&rft.pages=72%2C+460&rft.edition=Enhanced+Credo&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F889717964&rft.isbn=978-0765680587&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fencyclopediaofwo0000unse_d8h7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAstrolabe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mhs.ox.ac.uk/astrolabe/">"Introduction"</a>. 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"On the authenticity of the treatise on the composition and use of the astrolabe ascribed to Messahalla". <i>Archives Internationales d'Histoire des Sciences, Oxford</i>. <b>31</b> (106): 42–62.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Archives+Internationales+d%27Histoire+des+Sciences%2C+Oxford&rft.atitle=On+the+authenticity+of+the+treatise+on+the+composition+and+use+of+the+astrolabe+ascribed+to+Messahalla&rft.volume=31&rft.issue=106&rft.pages=42-62&rft.date=1981&rft.aulast=Kunitzsch&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAstrolabe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Selin-2008-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Selin-2008_36-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Selin-2008_36-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSelin2008" class="citation book cs1">Selin, Helaine (12 March 2008). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/encyclopaediahis00seli"><i>Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures</i></a></span>. Springer Science & Business Media. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/encyclopaediahis00seli/page/n1347">1335</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-4559-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-4559-2"><bdi>978-1-4020-4559-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+of+the+History+of+Science%2C+Technology%2C+and+Medicine+in+Non-Western+Cultures&rft.pages=1335&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=2008-03-12&rft.isbn=978-1-4020-4559-2&rft.aulast=Selin&rft.aufirst=Helaine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fencyclopaediahis00seli&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAstrolabe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGlickLiveseyWallis2005" class="citation book cs1">Glick, Thomas; Livesey, Steven J.; Wallis, Faith, eds. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SaJlbWK_-FcC&pg=PA464"><i>Medieval Science, Technology, and Medicine: An encyclopedia</i></a>. Routledge. p. 464. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-96930-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-96930-1"><bdi>0-415-96930-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Medieval+Science%2C+Technology%2C+and+Medicine%3A+An+encyclopedia&rft.pages=464&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-415-96930-1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSaJlbWK_-FcC%26pg%3DPA464&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAstrolabe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHockey2009" class="citation book cs1">Hockey, Thomas (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.springerreference.com/docs/html/chapterdbid/58493.html"><i>The Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Springer_Publishing" title="Springer Publishing">Springer Publishing</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-387-31022-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-387-31022-0"><bdi>978-0-387-31022-0</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 August</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Biographical+Encyclopedia+of+Astronomers&rft.pub=Springer+Publishing&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-387-31022-0&rft.aulast=Hockey&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.springerreference.com%2Fdocs%2Fhtml%2Fchapterdbid%2F58493.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAstrolabe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKern2010" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Kern, Ralf (2010). <i>Wissenschaftliche Instrumente in ihrer Zeit</i> [<i>Scientific Instruments in their Era</i>] (in German). Vol. 1: Vom Astrolab zum mathematischen Besteck [From the astroabe to mathematical instruments]. Köln, DE: König. p. 204. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-86560-865-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-86560-865-9"><bdi>978-3-86560-865-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Wissenschaftliche+Instrumente+in+ihrer+Zeit&rft.place=K%C3%B6ln%2C+DE&rft.pages=204&rft.pub=K%C3%B6nig&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-3-86560-865-9&rft.aulast=Kern&rft.aufirst=Ralf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAstrolabe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-astro-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-astro_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVafea2017" class="citation journal cs1">Vafea, Flora (2017). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.brepolsonline.net/doi/abs/10.1484/J.ALMAGEST.5.114932?mobileUi=0">"The astronomical instruments in Saint Catherine's iconography at the Holy Monastery of Sinai"</a></span>. <i>Almagest</i>. <b>8</b> (2): 85–109, <span class="nowrap">esp. p. 87</span>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1484%2FJ.ALMAGEST.5.114932">10.1484/J.ALMAGEST.5.114932</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1792-2593">1792-2593</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 November</span> 2024</span> – via brepolsonline.net.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Almagest&rft.atitle=The+astronomical+instruments+in+Saint+Catherine%27s+iconography+at+the+Holy+Monastery+of+Sinai&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=85-109%2C+%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3Eesp.+p.+87%3C%2Fspan%3E&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1484%2FJ.ALMAGEST.5.114932&rft.issn=1792-2593&rft.aulast=Vafea&rft.aufirst=Flora&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.brepolsonline.net%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.1484%2FJ.ALMAGEST.5.114932%3FmobileUi%3D0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAstrolabe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorth2005-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorth2005_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNorth2005">North 2005</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110102024043/http://www.ulysse-nardin.ch/en/swiss_watch_manufacturer/Collection/Archive/Astrolabium_G._Galilei.html">"Astrolabium G. Galilei"</a>. <i>Ulysse Nardin</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ulysse-nardin.ch/en/swiss_watch_manufacturer/Collection/Archive/Astrolabium_G._Galilei.html">the original</a> on 2 January 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Ulysse+Nardin&rft.atitle=Astrolabium+G.+Galilei&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ulysse-nardin.ch%2Fen%2Fswiss_watch_manufacturer%2FCollection%2FArchive%2FAstrolabium_G._Galilei.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAstrolabe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.klaauw.com/">"Christaan van der Klauuw"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Christaan+van+der+Klauuw&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.klaauw.com%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAstrolabe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stephenson_2000_108–109-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Stephenson_2000_108–109_45-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stephenson_2000_108–109_45-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStephensonBoltFriedman2000" class="citation book cs1">Stephenson, Bruce; Bolt, Marvin; Friedman, Anna Felicity (2000). <i>The Universe Unveiled: Instruments and images through history</i>. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 108–109. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-79143-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-79143-X"><bdi>0-521-79143-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Universe+Unveiled%3A+Instruments+and+images+through+history&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK&rft.pages=108-109&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-521-79143-X&rft.aulast=Stephenson&rft.aufirst=Bruce&rft.au=Bolt%2C+Marvin&rft.au=Friedman%2C+Anna+Felicity&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAstrolabe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ianridpath.com/startales/astrolabe.html">"Star Names on Astrolabes"</a>. Ian Ridpath<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 November</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Star+Names+on+Astrolabes&rft.pub=Ian+Ridpath&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ianridpath.com%2Fstartales%2Fastrolabe.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAstrolabe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKing" class="citation book cs1">King, David A. <i>Some Medieval Astronomical Instruments and Their Secrets, in Mazzolini, R. G. (ed.), Non-Verbal Communication in Science prior to 1900</i>. <a href="/wiki/Florence" title="Florence">Florence</a>. p. 30.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Some+Medieval+Astronomical+Instruments+and+Their+Secrets%2C+in+Mazzolini%2C+R.+G.+%28ed.%29%2C+Non-Verbal+Communication+in+Science+prior+to+1900&rft.pages=30&rft.pub=Florence&rft.aulast=King&rft.aufirst=David+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAstrolabe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKing2018" class="citation book cs1">King, David A. (2018). <i>The Astrolabe: What it is & what it is not</i>. Frankfurt, Germany: <a href="/wiki/Frankfurt" title="Frankfurt">Frankfurt</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Astrolabe%3A+What+it+is+%26+what+it+is+not&rft.place=Frankfurt%2C+Germany&rft.pub=Frankfurt&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=King&rft.aufirst=David+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAstrolabe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_49-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_49-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMayer1956" class="citation book cs1">Mayer, L. A. (1956). <i>Islamic astrolabists and their works</i>. A. Kunding. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1956iatw.book.....M">1956iatw.book.....M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islamic+astrolabists+and+their+works&rft.pub=A.+Kunding&rft.date=1956&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1956iatw.book.....M&rft.aulast=Mayer&rft.aufirst=L.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAstrolabe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGentiliSimonuttiStruppa2020" class="citation journal cs1">Gentili, Graziano; Simonutti, Luisa; Struppa, Daniele C. (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholarship.claremont.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1560&context=jhm">"The Mathematics of the Astrolabe and its History"</a>. <i>Journal of Humanistic Mathematics</i>. <b>10</b>: 101–144. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5642%2Fjhummath.202001.07">10.5642/jhummath.202001.07</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2158%2F1182616">2158/1182616</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:211008813">211008813</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Humanistic+Mathematics&rft.atitle=The+Mathematics+of+the+Astrolabe+and+its+History&rft.volume=10&rft.pages=101-144&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2158%2F1182616&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A211008813%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5642%2Fjhummath.202001.07&rft.aulast=Gentili&rft.aufirst=Graziano&rft.au=Simonutti%2C+Luisa&rft.au=Struppa%2C+Daniele+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscholarship.claremont.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D1560%26context%3Djhm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAstrolabe" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Astrolabe&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">Evans, James (1998), <i>The History and Practice of Ancient Astronomy</i>, Oxford University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-509539-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-509539-1"><bdi>0-19-509539-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+and+Practice+of+Ancient+Astronomy&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-19-509539-1&rft.aulast=Evans&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAstrolabe" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Johannes_St%C3%B6ffler" title="Johannes Stöffler">Stöffler, Johannes</a> (2007) [First published 1513], <i>Stoeffler's Elucidatio – The Construction and Use of the Astrolabe</i> [<i>Elucidatio Fabricae Ususque Astrolabii</i>], translated by Gunella, Alessandro; Lamprey, John, John Lamprey, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4243-3502-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4243-3502-2"><bdi>978-1-4243-3502-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Stoeffler%27s+Elucidatio+%E2%80%93+The+Construction+and+Use+of+the+Astrolabe&rft.pub=John+Lamprey&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-4243-3502-2&rft.aulast=St%C3%B6ffler&rft.aufirst=Johannes&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAstrolabe" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKing1981" class="citation cs2">King, D. A. (1981), "The Origin of the Astrolabe According to the Medieval Islamic Sources", <i>Journal for the History of Arabic Science</i>, <b>5</b>: 43–83</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+for+the+History+of+Arabic+Science&rft.atitle=The+Origin+of+the+Astrolabe+According+to+the+Medieval+Islamic+Sources&rft.volume=5&rft.pages=43-83&rft.date=1981&rft.aulast=King&rft.aufirst=D.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAstrolabe" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">King, Henry (1978), <i>Geared to the Stars: the Evolution of Planetariums, Orreries, and Astronomical Clocks</i>, University of Toronto Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8020-2312-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8020-2312-4"><bdi>978-0-8020-2312-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Geared+to+the+Stars%3A+the+Evolution+of+Planetariums%2C+Orreries%2C+and+Astronomical+Clocks&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto+Press&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=978-0-8020-2312-4&rft.aulast=King&rft.aufirst=Henry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAstrolabe" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">Krebs, Robert E.; Krebs, Carolyn A. (2003), <i>Groundbreaking Scientific Experiments, Inventions, and Discoveries of the Ancient World</i>, Greenwood Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-31342-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-31342-4"><bdi>978-0-313-31342-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Groundbreaking+Scientific+Experiments%2C+Inventions%2C+and+Discoveries+of+the+Ancient+World&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-313-31342-4&rft.aulast=Krebs&rft.aufirst=Robert+E.&rft.au=Krebs%2C+Carolyn+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAstrolabe" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">Laird, Edgar (1997), Carol Poster and Richard Utz (ed.), "Astrolabes and the Construction of Time in the Late Middle Ages", <i>Constructions of Time in the Late Middle Ages</i>, Evanston, Illinois: Northwestern University Press: 51–69</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Constructions+of+Time+in+the+Late+Middle+Ages&rft.atitle=Astrolabes+and+the+Construction+of+Time+in+the+Late+Middle+Ages&rft.pages=51-69&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Laird&rft.aufirst=Edgar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAstrolabe" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">Laird, Edgar; Fischer, Robert, eds. (1995), "Critical edition of Pélerin de Prusse on the Astrolabe (translation of <i>Practique de Astralabe</i>)", <i>Medieval & Renaissance Texts & Studies</i>, Binghamton, New York, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-86698-132-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-86698-132-2"><bdi>0-86698-132-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Medieval+%26+Renaissance+Texts+%26+Studies&rft.atitle=Critical+edition+of+P%C3%A9lerin+de+Prusse+on+the+Astrolabe+%28translation+of+Practique+de+Astralabe%29&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=0-86698-132-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAstrolabe" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewis2001" class="citation cs2">Lewis, M. J. T. (2001), <i>Surveying Instruments of Greece and Rome</i>, Cambridge University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-511-48303-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-511-48303-5"><bdi>978-0-511-48303-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Surveying+Instruments+of+Greece+and+Rome&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-511-48303-5&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=M.+J.+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAstrolabe" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">Morrison, James E. (2007), <i>The Astrolabe</i>, Janus, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-939320-30-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-939320-30-1"><bdi>978-0-939320-30-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Astrolabe&rft.pub=Janus&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-939320-30-1&rft.aulast=Morrison&rft.aufirst=James+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAstrolabe" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeugebauer1975" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Otto_E._Neugebauer" title="Otto E. Neugebauer">Neugebauer, Otto E.</a> (1975), <i>A History of Ancient Mathematical Astronomy</i>, Springer, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-642-61912-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-642-61912-0"><bdi>978-3-642-61912-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Ancient+Mathematical+Astronomy&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=978-3-642-61912-0&rft.aulast=Neugebauer&rft.aufirst=Otto+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAstrolabe" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNorth2005" class="citation cs2">North, John David (2005), <i>God's Clockmaker: Richard of Wallingford and the Invention of Time</i>, Continuum International Publishing Group, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85285-451-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85285-451-5"><bdi>978-1-85285-451-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=God%27s+Clockmaker%3A+Richard+of+Wallingford+and+the+Invention+of+Time&rft.pub=Continuum+International+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-85285-451-5&rft.aulast=North&rft.aufirst=John+David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAstrolabe" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Astrolabe&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikimedia_Commons" title="Wikimedia Commons">Wikimedia Commons</a> has media related to:<br /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Astrolabe" class="extiw" title="commons:Astrolabe"><span style="font-style:italic; font-weight:bold;">Astrolabe</span></a> (<a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Astrolabes" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Astrolabes">category</a>)</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has the text of the <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">1911 <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i></a> article "<span style="font-weight:bold;"><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Astrolabe" class="extiw" title="wikisource:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Astrolabe">Astrolabe</a></span>".</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/astrolabe" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:astrolabe">astrolabe</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://alexboxer.com/astrolabe/">Interactive digital astrolabe by Alex Boxer</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.astrosurf.com/spheres/as/astrolabe-en.htm">A digital astrolabe (HTML5 and javascript)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aramcoworld.com/Articles/May-2019/Astrolabe-Tech-Made-Not-So-Easy">Astrolabe Tech Made ... Not So Easy</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eso.org/~ohainaut/bin/astrolabe.cgi">paper astrolabe generator, from the ESO</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UseE1P6Wmv0">"Hello World!" for the Astrolabe: The First Computer</a> Video of Howard Covitz's Presentation at Ignite Phoenix, June 2009. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.slideshare.net/hcovitz/the-astrolabe-the-first-computer-or-hello-world-on-the-astrolabe">Slides for Presentation</a> Licensed as <a href="/wiki/By-nc-nd" class="mw-redirect" title="By-nc-nd">Creative Commons by-nc-nd</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ted.com/talks/tom_wujec_demos_the_13th_century_astrolabe.html">Video of Tom Wujec demonstrating an astrolabe.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120323125206/http://www.ted.com/talks/tom_wujec_demos_the_13th_century_astrolabe.html">Archived</a> 2012-03-23 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Taken at <a href="/wiki/TEDGlobal" class="mw-redirect" title="TEDGlobal">TEDGlobal 2009</a>. Includes clickable transcript. Licensed as <a href="/wiki/By-nc-nd" class="mw-redirect" title="By-nc-nd">Creative Commons by-nc-nd</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170508124755/http://www.astrolabes.org/">Archive of James E. Morrison's extensive website on Astrolabes</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rogivue.com/xoops/modules/news/article.php?storyid=13">A working model of the Dr. Ludwig Oechslin's Astrolabium Galileo Galilei watch</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rogivue.com/xoops/modules/news/article.php?storyid=14">Ulysse Nardin Astrolabium Galilei Galileo: A Detailed Explanation</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mhs.ox.ac.uk/astrolabe/">Fully illustrated online catalogue of world's largest collection of astrolabes</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.myastrolabe.org">Mobile astrolabe and horologium</a></li> <li>Medieval equal hour <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2011-11-09/one-man27s-trash-is-another27s-centuries-old-treasure/3654974">horary quadrant</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150617101751/http://w.astro.berkeley.edu/~mhughes/Teaching_%26_Outreach_files/astrolabe.pdf"><i>A Beginner's Guide to Basic Construction and Use of the Astrolabe (using ruler, protractor and compasses)</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://astro.berkeley.edu/~mhughes/Teaching_&_Outreach_files/astrolabe.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 17 June 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 October</span> 2018</span></cite><span 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Athari">Mashallah ibn Athari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ya%CA%BFq%C5%ABb_ibn_%E1%B9%AC%C4%81riq" class="mw-redirect" title="Yaʿqūb ibn Ṭāriq">Yaʿqūb ibn Ṭāriq</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">9th</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Ali_al-Khayyat" title="Abu Ali al-Khayyat">Abu Ali al-Khayyat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Ma%27shar_al-Balkhi" title="Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi">Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Said_Gorgani" title="Abu Said Gorgani">Abu Said Gorgani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farghani" title="Al-Farghani">Al-Farghani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Kindi" title="Al-Kindi">Al-Kindi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mahani" title="Al-Mahani">Al-Mahani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Hanifa_Dinawari" title="Abu Hanifa Dinawari">Abu Hanifa Dinawari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-%E1%B8%A4ajj%C4%81j_ibn_Y%C5%ABsuf_ibn_Ma%E1%B9%ADar" title="Al-Ḥajjāj ibn Yūsuf ibn Maṭar">Al-Ḥajjāj ibn Yūsuf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habash_al-Hasib_al-Marwazi" class="mw-redirect" title="Habash al-Hasib al-Marwazi">Al-Marwazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_ibn_Isa_al-Asturlabi" title="Ali ibn Isa al-Asturlabi">Ali ibn Isa al-Asturlabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ban%C5%AB_M%C5%ABs%C4%81_brothers" title="Banū Mūsā brothers">Banū Mūsā brothers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Abbas_Iranshahri" title="Abu al-Abbas Iranshahri">Iranshahri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khalid_ibn_Abd_al%E2%80%90Malik_al%E2%80%90Marwarrudhi" class="mw-redirect" title="Khalid ibn Abd al‐Malik al‐Marwarrudhi">Khalid ibn Abd al‐Malik al‐Marwarrudhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Khwarizmi" title="Al-Khwarizmi">Al-Khwarizmi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sahl_ibn_Bishr" title="Sahl ibn Bishr">Sahl ibn Bishr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Th%C4%81bit_ibn_Qurra" title="Thābit ibn Qurra">Thābit ibn Qurra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yahya_ibn_Abi_Mansur" title="Yahya ibn Abi Mansur">Yahya ibn Abi Mansur</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">10th</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Rahman_al-Sufi" title="Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi">al-Sufi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Adami" title="Ibn al-Adami">Ibn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Adami" title="Al-Adami">Al-Adami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu-Mahmud_Khojandi" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu-Mahmud Khojandi">al-Khojandi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Ja%27far_al-Khazin" title="Abu Ja'far al-Khazin">al-Khazin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Sahl_al-Quhi" title="Abu Sahl al-Quhi">al-Qūhī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Wafa%27_Buzjani" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu al-Wafa' Buzjani">Abu al-Wafa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_ibn_Yusuf" title="Ahmad ibn Yusuf">Ahmad ibn Yusuf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Battani" title="Al-Battani">al-Battani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Qabisi" title="Al-Qabisi">Al-Qabisi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-A%27lam" title="Ibn al-A'lam">Ibn al-A'lam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Nayrizi" title="Al-Nayrizi">Al-Nayrizi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Saghani" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Saghani">Al-Saghani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A%E1%B9%A3-%E1%B9%A2aidan%C4%81n%C4%AB" title="Aṣ-Ṣaidanānī">Aṣ-Ṣaidanānī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Yunus" title="Ibn Yunus">Ibn Yunus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibrahim_ibn_Sinan" title="Ibrahim ibn Sinan">Ibrahim ibn Sinan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ma_Yize" title="Ma Yize">Ma Yize</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Sijzi" title="Al-Sijzi">al-Sijzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-%CA%BBIjliyyah" title="Al-ʻIjliyyah">Al-ʻIjliyyah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nastulus" title="Nastulus">Nastulus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolfadl_Harawi" title="Abolfadl Harawi">Abolfadl Harawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haseb-i_Tabari" title="Haseb-i Tabari">Haseb-i Tabari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maslama_al-Majriti" title="Maslama al-Majriti">al-Majriti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Hasan_al-Ahwazi" title="Abu al-Hasan al-Ahwazi">Abu al-Hasan al-Ahwazi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">11th</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Nasr_Mansur" title="Abu Nasr Mansur">Abu Nasr Mansur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Biruni" title="Al-Biruni">al-Biruni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_ibn_Ridwan" title="Ali ibn Ridwan">Ali ibn Ridwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ab%C5%AB_Is%E1%B8%A5%C4%81q_Ibr%C4%81h%C4%ABm_al-Zarq%C4%81l%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Abū Isḥāq Ibrāhīm al-Zarqālī">Al-Zarqālī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Samh" title="Ibn al-Samh">Ibn al-Samh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Haytham" title="Ibn al-Haytham">Alhazen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Saffar" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn al-Saffar">Ibn al-Saffar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kushyar_Gilani" title="Kushyar Gilani">Kushyar Gilani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Said_al-Andalusi" title="Said al-Andalusi">Said al-Andalusi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibrahim_ibn_Said_al-Sahli" title="Ibrahim ibn Said al-Sahli">Ibrahim ibn Said al-Sahli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Mu%27adh_al-Jayyani" title="Ibn Mu'adh al-Jayyani">Ibn Mu'adh al-Jayyani </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Isfizari" title="Al-Isfizari">Al-Isfizari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_ibn_Khalaf" title="Ali ibn Khalaf">Ali ibn Khalaf</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">12th</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nur_ad-Din_al-Bitruji" title="Nur ad-Din al-Bitruji">Al-Bitruji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avempace" title="Avempace">Avempace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Tufail" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Tufail">Ibn Tufail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Kharaq%C4%AB" title="Al-Kharaqī">Al-Kharaqī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Khazini" title="Al-Khazini">Al-Khazini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Samawal_al-Maghribi" title="Al-Samawal al-Maghribi">Al-Samawal al-Maghribi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Salt" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu al-Salt">Abu al-Salt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Kammad" title="Ibn al-Kammad">Ibn al-Kammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jabir_ibn_Aflah" title="Jabir ibn Aflah">Jabir ibn Aflah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omar_Khayyam" title="Omar Khayyam">Omar Khayyam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharaf_al-Din_al-Tusi" title="Sharaf al-Din al-Tusi">Sharaf al-Din al-Tusi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">13th</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Banna%27_al-Marrakushi" title="Ibn al-Banna' al-Marrakushi">Ibn al-Banna' al-Marrakushi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al%E2%80%90Ha%27im_al%E2%80%90Ishbili" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn al‐Ha'im al‐Ishbili">Ibn al‐Ha'im al‐Ishbili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamal_ad-Din_Bukhari" title="Jamal ad-Din Bukhari">Jamal ad-Din</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alam_al-Din_al-Hanafi" title="Alam al-Din al-Hanafi">Alam al-Din al-Hanafi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Najm_al%E2%80%90Din_al%E2%80%90Misri" class="mw-redirect" title="Najm al‐Din al‐Misri">Najm al‐Din al‐Misri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhyi_al-Din_al-Maghribi" title="Muhyi al-Din al-Maghribi">Muhyi al-Din al-Maghribi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nasir_al-Din_al-Tusi" title="Nasir al-Din al-Tusi">Nasir al-Din al-Tusi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qutb_al-Din_al-Shirazi" title="Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi">Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shams_al-Din_al-Samarqandi" title="Shams al-Din al-Samarqandi">Shams al-Din al-Samarqandi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zakariya_al-Qazwini" title="Zakariya al-Qazwini">Zakariya al-Qazwini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mu%27ayyad_al-Din_al-Urdi" title="Mu'ayyad al-Din al-Urdi">al-Urdi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Athir_al-Din_al-Abhari" title="Athir al-Din al-Abhari">al-Abhari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Abi_Bakr_al%E2%80%90Farisi" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr al‐Farisi">Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr al‐Farisi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Ali_al-Hasan_al-Marrakushi" title="Abu Ali al-Hasan al-Marrakushi">Abu Ali al-Hasan al-Marrakushi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Ishaq_al-Tunisi" title="Ibn Ishaq al-Tunisi">Ibn Ishaq al-Tunisi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al%E2%80%90Raqqam" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn al‐Raqqam">Ibn al‐Raqqam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Ashraf_Umar_II" title="Al-Ashraf Umar II">Al-Ashraf Umar II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fakhr_al-Din_al-Akhlati" title="Fakhr al-Din al-Akhlati">Fakhr al-Din al-Akhlati</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">14th</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Shatir" title="Ibn al-Shatir">Ibn al-Shatir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shams_al-Din_Abu_Abd_Allah_al-Khalili" title="Shams al-Din Abu Abd Allah al-Khalili">Al-Khalili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Shuayb" title="Ibn Shuayb">Ibn Shuayb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Muqri_Mohammed_al-Battiwi" title="Abu Muqri Mohammed al-Battiwi"> al-Battiwi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ab%C5%AB_al%E2%80%90%CA%BFUq%C5%ABl" class="mw-redirect" title="Abū al‐ʿUqūl">Abū al‐ʿUqūl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Wabkanawi" title="Al-Wabkanawi">Al-Wabkanawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nizam_al-Din_al-Nisapuri" class="mw-redirect" title="Nizam al-Din al-Nisapuri">Nizam al-Din al-Nisapuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Rahman_al-Jadiri" title="Abd al-Rahman al-Jadiri"> al-Jadiri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sadr_al-Shari%27a_al-Asghar" title="Sadr al-Shari'a al-Asghar">Sadr al-Shari'a al-Asghar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fathullah_Shirazi" title="Fathullah Shirazi">Fathullah Shirazi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">15th</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Qushji" title="Ali Qushji">Ali Kuşçu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abd_al%E2%80%90Wajid" class="mw-redirect" title="Abd al‐Wajid">Abd al‐Wajid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamshid_al-Kashi" title="Jamshid al-Kashi">Jamshid al-Kashi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Q%C4%81%E1%B8%8D%C4%AB_Z%C4%81da_al-R%C5%ABm%C4%AB" title="Qāḍī Zāda al-Rūmī">Kadızade Rumi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulugh_Beg" title="Ulugh Beg">Ulugh Beg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sibt_al-Maridini" title="Sibt al-Maridini">Sibt al-Maridini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Majdi" title="Ibn al-Majdi">Ibn al-Majdi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%27Abd_al-%27Aziz_al-Wafa%27i" title="'Abd al-'Aziz al-Wafa'i">al-Wafa'i</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Ishaq_al-Kubunani" title="Abu Ishaq al-Kubunani">al-Kubunani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%27Abd_al-%27Aziz_al-Wafa%27i" title="'Abd al-'Aziz al-Wafa'i">'Abd al-'Aziz al-Wafa'i</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">16th</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Birjandi" title="Al-Birjandi">Al-Birjandi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shams_al-Din_al-Khafri" title="Shams al-Din al-Khafri">al-Khafri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baha%27_al-din_al-%27Amili" class="mw-redirect" title="Baha' al-din al-'Amili">Baha' al-din al-'Amili </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piri_Reis" title="Piri Reis">Piri Reis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taqi_ad-Din_Muhammad_ibn_Ma%27ruf" title="Taqi ad-Din Muhammad ibn Ma'ruf">Takiyüddin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">17th</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yang_Guangxian" title="Yang Guangxian">Yang Guangxian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ehmed%C3%AA_Xan%C3%AE" title="Ehmedê Xanî">Ehmedê Xanî</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al_Achsasi_al_Mouakket" title="Al Achsasi al Mouakket">Al Achsasi al Mouakket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_al-Rudani" title="Muhammad al-Rudani">Muhammad al-Rudani</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Topics</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Works" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Arabic_star_names" title="List of Arabic star names">Arabic star names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_calendar" title="Islamic calendar">Islamic calendar</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Aja%27ib_al-Makhluqat" title="Aja'ib al-Makhluqat">Aja'ib al-Makhluqat</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_the_Brethren_of_Purity" title="Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity">Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tabula_Rogeriana" title="Tabula Rogeriana">Tabula Rogeriana</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Book_of_Healing" title="The Book of Healing">The Book of Healing</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Remaining_Signs_of_Past_Centuries" title="The Remaining Signs of Past Centuries">The Remaining Signs of Past Centuries</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><i><a href="/wiki/Zij" title="Zij">Zij</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alfonsine_tables" title="Alfonsine tables">Alfonsine tables</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Huihui_Lifa" title="Huihui Lifa">Huihui Lifa</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Fixed_Stars" class="mw-redirect" title="Book of Fixed Stars">Book of Fixed Stars</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toledan_Tables" title="Toledan Tables">Toledan Tables</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Zij-i_Ilkhani" title="Zij-i Ilkhani">Zij-i Ilkhani</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Zij-i_Sultani" title="Zij-i Sultani">Zij-i Sultani</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sullam_al-sama%27" title="Sullam al-sama'">Sullam al-sama'</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Astronomy_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world#Instruments" title="Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world">Instruments</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alidade" title="Alidade">Alidade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analog_computer" title="Analog computer">Analog computer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aperture" title="Aperture">Aperture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armillary_sphere" title="Armillary sphere">Armillary sphere</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Astrolabe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astronomical_clock" title="Astronomical clock">Astronomical clock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armillary_sphere" title="Armillary sphere">Celestial globe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compass" title="Compass">Compass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compass_rose" title="Compass rose">Compass rose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dioptra" title="Dioptra">Dioptra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equatorial_ring" title="Equatorial ring">Equatorial ring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equatorium" title="Equatorium">Equatorium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globe" title="Globe">Globe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graph_paper" title="Graph paper">Graph paper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mural_instrument" title="Mural instrument">Mural instrument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mariner%27s_astrolabe" title="Mariner's astrolabe">Navigational astrolabe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Octant_(instrument)" title="Octant (instrument)">Octant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planisphere" title="Planisphere">Planisphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quadrant_(instrument)" title="Quadrant (instrument)">Quadrant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sextant_(astronomy)" title="Sextant (astronomy)">Sextant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shadow_square" title="Shadow square">Shadow square</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sundial" title="Sundial">Sundial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schema_for_horizontal_dials" title="Schema for horizontal dials">Schema for horizontal sundials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triquetrum_(astronomy)" title="Triquetrum (astronomy)">Triquetrum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Almucantar" title="Almucantar">Almucantar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apsis" title="Apsis">Apogee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrology_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Astrology in the medieval Islamic world">Astrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrophysics" title="Astrophysics">Astrophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axial_tilt" title="Axial tilt">Axial tilt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azimuth" title="Azimuth">Azimuth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celestial_mechanics" title="Celestial mechanics">Celestial mechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celestial_spheres" title="Celestial spheres">Celestial spheres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circular_orbit" title="Circular orbit">Circular orbit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deferent_and_epicycle" title="Deferent and epicycle">Deferent and epicycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_rotation" title="Earth's rotation">Earth's rotation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_eccentricity" title="Orbital eccentricity">Eccentricity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecliptic" title="Ecliptic">Ecliptic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elliptic_orbit" title="Elliptic orbit">Elliptic orbit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equant" title="Equant">Equant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galaxy" title="Galaxy">Galaxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geocentric_model" title="Geocentric model">Geocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravitational_energy" title="Gravitational energy">Gravitational energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravity" title="Gravity">Gravity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heliocentrism" title="Heliocentrism">Heliocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inertia" title="Inertia">Inertia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmology_in_medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmology in medieval Islam">Islamic cosmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moonlight" title="Moonlight">Moonlight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiverse" title="Multiverse">Multiverse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muwaqqit" title="Muwaqqit">Muwaqqit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axial_tilt" title="Axial tilt">Obliquity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parallax" title="Parallax">Parallax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precession" title="Precession">Precession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qibla" title="Qibla">Qibla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salah_times" title="Salah times">Salah times</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Specific_gravity" class="mw-redirect" title="Specific gravity">Specific gravity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spherical_Earth" title="Spherical Earth">Spherical Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sublunary_sphere" title="Sublunary sphere">Sublunary sphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunlight" title="Sunlight">Sunlight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supernova" title="Supernova">Supernova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temporal_finitism" title="Temporal finitism">Temporal finitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trepidation" title="Trepidation">Trepidation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triangulation" title="Triangulation">Triangulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tusi_couple" title="Tusi couple">Tusi couple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">Universe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Institutions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Azhar_University" title="Al-Azhar University">Al-Azhar University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Knowledge" title="House of Knowledge">House of Knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Wisdom" title="House of Wisdom">House of Wisdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_al-Qarawiyyin" title="University of al-Qarawiyyin">University of al-Qarawiyyin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astronomy_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world#Observatories" title="Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world">Observatories</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Constantinople_observatory_of_Taqi_ad-Din" title="Constantinople observatory of Taqi ad-Din">Constantinople (Taqi al-Din)</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Maragheh_observatory" title="Maragheh observatory">Maragheh</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Ulugh_Beg_Observatory" title="Ulugh Beg Observatory">Samarkand (Ulugh Beg)</a></span></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Influences</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_astronomy" title="Babylonian astronomy">Babylonian astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_astronomy" title="Egyptian astronomy">Egyptian astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_astronomy#Hellenistic_astronomy" title="Ancient Greek astronomy">Hellenistic astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_astronomy" title="Indian astronomy">Indian astronomy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Influenced</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_science" title="Byzantine science">Byzantine science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_astronomy" title="Chinese astronomy">Chinese astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_science_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="European science in the Middle Ages">Medieval European science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_astronomy" title="Indian astronomy">Indian astronomy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ancient_Greek_astronomy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ancient_Greek_astronomy" title="Template:Ancient Greek astronomy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ancient_Greek_astronomy" title="Template talk:Ancient Greek astronomy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient_Greek_astronomy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient Greek astronomy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ancient_Greek_astronomy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_astronomy" title="Ancient Greek astronomy">Ancient Greek astronomy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Greek_astronomers" title="List of ancient Greek astronomers">Astronomers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aglaonice" title="Aglaonice">Aglaonice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agrippa_(astronomer)" title="Agrippa (astronomer)">Agrippa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anaximander" title="Anaximander">Anaximander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andronicus_of_Cyrrhus" title="Andronicus of Cyrrhus">Andronicus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apollonius_of_Perga" title="Apollonius of Perga">Apollonius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aratus" title="Aratus">Aratus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristarchus_of_Samos" title="Aristarchus of Samos">Aristarchus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristyllus" title="Aristyllus">Aristyllus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attalus_of_Rhodes" title="Attalus of Rhodes">Attalus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autolycus_of_Pitane" title="Autolycus of Pitane">Autolycus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bion_of_Abdera" title="Bion of Abdera">Bion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Callippus" title="Callippus">Callippus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleomedes" title="Cleomedes">Cleomedes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleostratus" title="Cleostratus">Cleostratus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conon_of_Samos" title="Conon of Samos">Conon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eratosthenes" title="Eratosthenes">Eratosthenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euctemon" title="Euctemon">Euctemon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eudoxus_of_Cnidus" title="Eudoxus of Cnidus">Eudoxus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geminus" title="Geminus">Geminus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heraclides_Ponticus" title="Heraclides Ponticus">Heraclides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hicetas" title="Hicetas">Hicetas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hipparchus" title="Hipparchus">Hipparchus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippocrates_of_Chios" title="Hippocrates of Chios">Hippocrates of Chios</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypsicles" title="Hypsicles">Hypsicles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menelaus_of_Alexandria" title="Menelaus of Alexandria">Menelaus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meton_of_Athens" title="Meton of Athens">Meton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oenopides" title="Oenopides">Oenopides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_of_Opus" title="Philip of Opus">Philip of Opus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philolaus" title="Philolaus">Philolaus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posidonius" title="Posidonius">Posidonius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pytheas" title="Pytheas">Pytheas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucus_of_Seleucia" title="Seleucus of Seleucia">Seleucus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sosigenes_of_Alexandria" class="mw-redirect" title="Sosigenes of Alexandria">Sosigenes of Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sosigenes_the_Peripatetic" title="Sosigenes the Peripatetic">Sosigenes the Peripatetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thales_of_Miletus" title="Thales of Miletus">Thales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodosius_of_Bithynia" title="Theodosius of Bithynia">Theodosius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theon_of_Alexandria" title="Theon of Alexandria">Theon of Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theon_of_Smyrna" title="Theon of Smyrna">Theon of Smyrna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timocharis" title="Timocharis">Timocharis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Almagest" title="Almagest"><i>Almagest</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(Ptolemy)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catasterismi" title="Catasterismi"><i>Catasterismi</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(Eratosthenes)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Sizes_and_Distances_(Hipparchus)" title="On Sizes and Distances (Hipparchus)"><i>On Sizes and Distances</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(Hipparchus)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Sizes_and_Distances_(Aristarchus)" title="On the Sizes and Distances (Aristarchus)"><i>On the Sizes and Distances</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(Aristarchus)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Heavens" title="On the Heavens"><i>On the Heavens</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(Aristotle)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Instruments</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antikythera_mechanism" title="Antikythera mechanism">Antikythera mechanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armillary_sphere" title="Armillary sphere">Armillary sphere</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Astrolabe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dioptra" title="Dioptra">Dioptra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equatorial_ring" title="Equatorial ring">Equatorial ring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnomon" title="Gnomon">Gnomon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mural_instrument" title="Mural instrument">Mural instrument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triquetrum_(astronomy)" title="Triquetrum (astronomy)">Triquetrum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Callippic_cycle" title="Callippic cycle">Callippic cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celestial_spheres" title="Celestial spheres">Celestial spheres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circle_of_latitude" title="Circle of latitude">Circle of latitude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-Earth" title="Counter-Earth">Counter-Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deferent_and_epicycle" title="Deferent and epicycle">Deferent and epicycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equant" title="Equant">Equant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geocentric_model" title="Geocentric model">Geocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heliocentrism" title="Heliocentrism">Heliocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hipparchic_cycle" title="Hipparchic cycle">Hipparchic cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inferior_and_superior_planets" title="Inferior and superior planets">Inferior and superior planets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metonic_cycle" title="Metonic cycle">Metonic cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Octaeteris" title="Octaeteris">Octaeteris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solstice" title="Solstice">Solstice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spherical_Earth" title="Spherical Earth">Spherical Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sublunary_sphere" title="Sublunary sphere">Sublunary sphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zodiac" title="Zodiac">Zodiac</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Influences</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_astronomy" title="Babylonian astronomy">Babylonian astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_astronomy" title="Egyptian astronomy">Egyptian astronomy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Influenced</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/European_science_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="European science in the Middle Ages">Medieval European science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_astronomy" title="Indian astronomy">Indian astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astronomy_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world">Medieval Islamic astronomy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output 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.portal-bar-content-related{border-top:none;margin:0;list-style:none}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.sister-bar{margin-top:-1px}</style><div class="portal-bar noprint metadata noviewer portal-bar-bordered" role="navigation" aria-label="Portals"><span class="portal-bar-header"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Portals</a>:</span><ul class="portal-bar-content"><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Crab_Nebula.jpg/19px-Crab_Nebula.jpg" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" 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class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/RocketSunIcon.svg/19px-RocketSunIcon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/RocketSunIcon.svg/29px-RocketSunIcon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/RocketSunIcon.svg/38px-RocketSunIcon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Spaceflight" title="Portal:Spaceflight">Spaceflight</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Earth-moon.jpg/21px-Earth-moon.jpg" decoding="async" width="21" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Earth-moon.jpg/32px-Earth-moon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Earth-moon.jpg/42px-Earth-moon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2400" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Outer_space" title="Portal:Outer space">Outer space</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Solar_system.jpg/15px-Solar_system.jpg" decoding="async" width="15" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Solar_system.jpg/23px-Solar_system.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Solar_system.jpg/30px-Solar_system.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4500" data-file-height="5600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Solar_System" title="Portal:Solar System">Solar System</a></li></ul></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q164992#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q164992#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q164992#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4003304-1">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85008890">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Astrolabes"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119316440">France</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Astrolabes"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119316440">BnF data</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00576833">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="astroláby"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph137440&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007294947805171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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