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margin: 0 0 0.5em 0.5em; text-align:left; border: 1px solid #4b7351; width:175px;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="font-size: 95%; text-align:center; color:White; background-color:#4b7351"><b>Eyes wearing <br />inverted lenses</b><br /><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science"><font size="4" color="White"><b>Philosophy of science</b></font></a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#FFFFFF;" align="center"><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_of_science" title="Category:Philosophy of science"><img alt="Icon philosophy of science.svg" src="/w/images/thumb/c/cf/Icon_philosophy_of_science.svg/100px-Icon_philosophy_of_science.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" srcset="/w/images/thumb/c/cf/Icon_philosophy_of_science.svg/150px-Icon_philosophy_of_science.svg.png 1.5x, /w/images/thumb/c/cf/Icon_philosophy_of_science.svg/200px-Icon_philosophy_of_science.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200" /></a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="font-size: 95%; color:White; background-color:#4b7351; text-align:center;"><b>Foundations</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="font-size: 95%; background-color:#FFFFFF;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methodological_naturalism" title="Methodological naturalism">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="font-size: 95%; color:White; background-color:#4b7351; text-align:center;"><b>Method</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="font-size: 95%; background-color:#FFFFFF;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Scientific method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_thinking" title="Critical thinking">Critical thinking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori"><i>A priori</i> and <i>a posteriori</i></a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Evidence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsifiability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproducibility" title="Reproducibility">Reproducibility</a></li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="font-size: 95%; color:White; background-color:#4b7351; text-align:center;"><b>Conclusions</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="font-size: 95%; background-color:#FFFFFF;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_theory" title="Scientific theory">Theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_law" title="Scientific law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">Science</a></li></ul> <div class="vte plainlinks" style="font-size:smaller; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophyscience" title="Template:Philosophyscience">v</a> - <a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophyscience" title="Template talk:Philosophyscience">t</a> - <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://rationalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Philosophyscience&action=edit">e</a></div> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Evidence</b> is an observation, fact or document that tends to make more likely the conclusion which the evidence is offered to prove. When offered as <a href="/wiki/Proof" title="Proof">proof</a> of a conclusion, evidence should be reliable and meet a rigorous <a href="/wiki/Burden_of_proof" title="Burden of proof">burden of proof</a>. Different professions have different standards for evaluating evidence as meeting, or falling short of, this burden. </p> <div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none" /><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Medical_and_scientific_evidence"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Medical and scientific evidence</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#The_legal_evaluation_of_expert_scientific_testimony"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">The legal evaluation of expert scientific testimony</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-4"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li> </ul> </div> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Medical_and_scientific_evidence">Medical and scientific evidence</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evidence&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Medical and scientific evidence">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <p><b>Evidence</b>, as used in medicine and similar fields, refers to <b>objective findings that help make predictions</b>. This includes weighing the quality of the evidence itself. </p><p>The quality of evidence depends on the methodology used. For most interventions in clinical medicine the <a href="/wiki/Gold_standard_(science)" title="Gold standard (science)">gold standard</a> is the <a href="/wiki/Randomized_controlled_trial" title="Randomized controlled trial">randomized controlled trial</a>, in which a treatment or lack of treatment can be applied to a sample of people who are randomly chosen to receive or not receive the treatment. For the highest-quality evidence, the sample must be similar to the population in question and must be big enough to have good statistical power.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></sup> </p><p>Some types of data are not amenable to randomized controlled trials, for instance, epidemiologic studies. Epidemiologists usually carry out <a href="/wiki/Case-control_study" title="Case-control study"> case-control studies</a>. </p><p>Another type of non-randomized study is the <a href="/wiki/Cohort_study" title="Cohort study">cohort study</a>, in which researchers observe groups of people for the existence of a disease. </p><p>The lowest quality of clinical evidence comes from case reports<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a></sup> and from <a href="/wiki/Testimonial" title="Testimonial">testimonials</a>, that is, from the anecdotal reporting of the experiences of an individual or of a small group of individuals. <a href="/wiki/Statistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Statistic"> Statistically</a>, these reports are meaningless <a href="/wiki/Anecdote" class="mw-redirect" title="Anecdote">anecdotes</a>, but they can aid in identifying problems for study. </p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="The_legal_evaluation_of_expert_scientific_testimony">The legal evaluation of expert scientific testimony</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evidence&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: The legal evaluation of expert scientific testimony">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <p>Anyone who frequents forums of Internet debate on subjects involving science will understand immediately the power of the "expert." When invoked to support a proposition, whether properly used or not, the name of an expert lends the ring of credibility to even absurd subjects.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a></sup> </p><p>Courts recognize this force: allowing "expert testimony" in court on matters of science, medicine, or other technical subjects has an extremely prejudicial effect and tends to persuade a naive jury more by authority than by actual reasoning. In short, junk science may hide behind fancy degrees. To avoid this prejudicial effect, courts have recently begun to hold <i>gatekeeping hearings</i> to prevent the introduction of junk science.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a></sup> The court's gatekeeping duty, inferred from Federal Rule of Evidence 702, "imposes a special obligation upon a trial judge to 'ensure that any and all scientific testimony . . . is not only relevant but reliable.'"<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a></sup> If expert testimony is not reliable, it will run the risk of prejudicing the jury one way or another; thus, the expert testimony should not only be discredited and ignored by the jury, but it should not <i>even be presented to the jury</i>. </p><p><i>Daubert</i> and its progeny lay out factors to consider when deciding whether or not evidence is reliable. Courts use a four-factor test, asking: </p> <ol><li>Whether a theory or technique can be or has been tested,</li> <li>Whether the expert's testimony has passed through the processes of peer review and publication,</li> <li>Whether there is a high error rate in a theory or technique, and whether standards for evaluating such errors exist, and, most importantly,</li> <li>"Whether the theory or technique enjoys 'general acceptance' within a 'relevant scientific community.'"<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a></sup></li></ol> <p>Thus, expert testimony (scientific or otherwise) must pass a rigorous test to even be admitted at trial. An expert's <i>ipse dixit</i> statements — i.e. "I am an expert, and I say this, therefore it must be true" — are not admissible of their own accord.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a></sup> In short, experts should use in the courtroom the same degree of logical scrutiny demanded by their field.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a></sup> Every step of the expert's analysis is subject to this exacting inquiry; no logical leaps are allowed, and the court should be able to follow an expert's reasoning from start to finish.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a></sup> Further, where an expert draws support for a statement from a published study or other <i>corpus</i> of knowledge, the statement cannot run counter to the study: swearing one way based on a study that suggests the other is not allowed.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a></sup> </p><p>Zealous guardianship, therefore, characterizes the manner in which American courts treat scientific evidence. The highest scientific standards are applied to any testimony by a so-called expert; no arguments from authority are allowed; and peer review, along with general scientific acceptance, is a <i>must</i>. </p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evidence&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proof" title="Proof">Proof</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Scientific method</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Rules_of_Evidence" class="extiw" title="wp:Federal Rules of Evidence" rel="nofollow"><span style="color:#477979 !important;" title="Wikipedia: Federal Rules of Evidence">Federal Rules of Evidence</span></a><sup><img alt="" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Wikipedia%27s_W.svg/12px-Wikipedia%27s_W.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Wikipedia%27s_W.svg/18px-Wikipedia%27s_W.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Wikipedia%27s_W.svg/24px-Wikipedia%27s_W.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></sup></li></ul> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evidence&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: References">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <div class="references-small" style="font-size:90%;"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-1">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">See the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia" title="Wikipedia">Wikipedia</a> article on <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical_power" class="extiw" title="wp:Statistical power" rel="nofollow">Statistical power</a>. </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-2">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"> See the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia" title="Wikipedia">Wikipedia</a> article on <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Case_report" class="extiw" title="wp:Case report" rel="nofollow">Case report</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-3">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">See Ken DeMeyer's attempts to use arguments from authority <a href="/wiki/Essay:Social_Effects_of_the_Theory_of_Evolution" title="Essay:Social Effects of the Theory of Evolution">here</a>. All those fancy titles sound impressive, until taken apart.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-4">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc.</i>, 509 U.S. 579 (1993) (defining the court's gatekeeping function).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-5">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Kumho Tire Co. v. Carmichael</i>, 526 U.S. 137, 147 (U.S. 1999) (citing <i>Daubert</i>, 509 U.S. at 586).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-6">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Kumho</i>, 526 U.S. at 150 (citing <i>Daubert</i>, 509 U.S. at 592-594).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-7">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Kumho</i>, 526 U.S. at 157.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-8">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Vargas v. Lee</i>, 317 F.3d 498, 500 (5th Cir. 2003).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-9">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Knight v. Kirby Inland Marine</i>, 482 F.3d 347, 355 (5th Cir. 2007).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-10">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Doe v. Dallas Ind. Sch. Dist.</i>, 220 F.3d 380, 386 (5th Cir. 2000).</span> </li> </ol></div></div>    </div></div><div class="printfooter">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://rationalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Evidence&oldid=2391261">https://rationalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Evidence&oldid=2391261</a>"</div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Special:Categories" title="Special:Categories">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_of_science" title="Category:Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Law" title="Category:Law">Law</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Science" title="Category:Science">Science</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </div> <div id="mw-navigation"> <h2>Navigation menu</h2> <div id="mw-head">  <nav id="p-personal" class="vector-menu" aria-labelledby="p-personal-label" role="navigation" > <h3 id="p-personal-label"> <span>Personal 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