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id="mw-head-base" class="noprint"></div> <div id="content" class="mw-body" role="main"> <a id="top"></a> <div id="siteNotice"></div> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading" lang="en">Photosynthetic picoplankton</h1> <div id="bodyContent" class="mw-body-content"> <div id="siteSub">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> <div id="contentSub"></div> <div id="jump-to-nav" class="mw-jump"> Jump to: <a href="#mw-head">navigation</a>, <a href="#p-search">search</a> </div> <div id="mw-content-text" lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"><div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:302px;"><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Picoplancton_fluorescence_Pacific.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150325113847im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Picoplancton_fluorescence_Pacific.jpg/300px-Picoplancton_fluorescence_Pacific.jpg" width="300" height="202" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150325113847im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Picoplancton_fluorescence_Pacific.jpg/450px-Picoplancton_fluorescence_Pacific.jpg 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150325113847im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Picoplancton_fluorescence_Pacific.jpg/600px-Picoplancton_fluorescence_Pacific.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="688"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Picoplancton_fluorescence_Pacific.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div> Picoplankton observed by epifluorescence</div> </div> </div> <p><b>Photosynthetic picoplankton</b> is the fraction of the <a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phytoplankton" title="Phytoplankton">phytoplankton</a> performing <a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a> composed by <a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">cells</a> between 0.2 and 2 µm (<a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Picoplankton" title="Picoplankton">picoplankton</a>). It is especially important in the central <a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oligotroph" title="Oligotroph">oligotrophic</a> regions of the world oceans that have very low concentration of <a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nutrients" title="Nutrients" class="mw-redirect">nutrients</a>.</p> <p></p> <div id="toc" class="toc"> <div id="toctitle"> <h2>Contents</h2> </div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#History"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">History</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Methods_of_study"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Methods of study</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3"><a href="#Composition"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Composition</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-4"><a href="#Ecology"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Ecology</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-5"><a href="#Genomics"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Genomics</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-6"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-7"><a href="#Notes_and_references"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Notes and references</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-8"><a href="#Bibliography"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">Bibliography</span></a></li> </ul> </div> <p></p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="History">History</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Photosynthetic_picoplankton&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <ul> <li>1952: Description of the first truly picoplanktonic species, <i>Chromulina pusilla</i>, by Butcher.<sup id="cite_ref-Butcher_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Butcher-1"><span>[</span>1<span>]</span></a></sup> This species was renamed in 1960 to <i><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micromonas" title="Micromonas">Micromonas</a> pusilla</i><sup id="cite_ref-Manton_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Manton-2"><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup> and a few studies have found it to be abundant in temperate oceanic waters, although very little such quantification data exists for eukaryotic picophytoplankton.</li> <li>1979 : Discovery of marine <i><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synechococcus" title="Synechococcus">Synechococcus</a></i> by Waterbury<sup id="cite_ref-Waterbury_79_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Waterbury_79-3"><span>[</span>3<span>]</span></a></sup> and confirmation with electron microscopy by Johnson and Sieburth.<sup id="cite_ref-Johnson_79_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Johnson_79-4"><span>[</span>4<span>]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1982 : The same Johnson and Sieburth demonstrate the importance of small eukaryotes by electron microscopy.<sup id="cite_ref-Johnson_82_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Johnson_82-5"><span>[</span>5<span>]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1983 : W.K. Li and Platt show that a large fraction of marine primary production is due to organisms smaller than 2 µm.<sup id="cite_ref-Li_83_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Li_83-6"><span>[</span>6<span>]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1986 : Discovery of "prochlorophytes" by Chisholm and Olson in the Sargasso Sea,<sup id="cite_ref-Chisholm_88_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chisholm_88-7"><span>[</span>7<span>]</span></a></sup> named in 1992 as <i><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prochlorococcus" title="Prochlorococcus">Prochlorococcus</a> marinus</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Chisholm_92_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chisholm_92-8"><span>[</span>8<span>]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1994 : Discovery in the Thau lagoon in France of the smallest photosynthetic eukaryote known to date, <i><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostreococcus" title="Ostreococcus">Ostreococcus</a> tauri</i>, by Courties.<sup id="cite_ref-Courties_95_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Courties_95-9"><span>[</span>9<span>]</span></a></sup></li> <li>2001 : Through sequencing of the <a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ribosomal_RNA" title="Ribosomal RNA">ribosomal RNA</a> gene extracted from marine samples, several European teams discover that eukaryotic picoplankton are highly <a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">diverse</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Lopez_01_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lopez_01-10"><span>[</span>10<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Moon_01_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moon_01-11"><span>[</span>11<span>]</span></a></sup> This finding followed on the first discovery of such eukaryotic diversity in 1998 by Rappe and colleagues at Oregon State University, who were the first to apply rRNA sequencing to eukaryotic plankton in the open-ocean, where they discovered sequences that seemed distant from known phytoplankton<sup id="cite_ref-Rappe_98_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rappe_98-12"><span>[</span>12<span>]</span></a></sup> The cells containing DNA matching one of these novel sequences were recently visualized and further analyzed using specific probes and found to be broadly distributed.<sup id="cite_ref-Kim_2011_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kim_2011-13"><span>[</span>13<span>]</span></a></sup></li> </ul> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Methods_of_study">Methods of study</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Photosynthetic_picoplankton&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Methods of study">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Picoplancton_cytometrie.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150325113847im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Picoplancton_cytometrie.jpg/220px-Picoplancton_cytometrie.jpg" width="220" height="155" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150325113847im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Picoplancton_cytometrie.jpg/330px-Picoplancton_cytometrie.jpg 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150325113847im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Picoplancton_cytometrie.jpg/440px-Picoplancton_cytometrie.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="424"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Picoplancton_cytometrie.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div> Analysis of picoplankton by flow cytometry</div> </div> </div> <p>Because of its very small size, picoplankton is difficult to study by classic methods such as optical microscopy. More sophisticated methods are needed.</p> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorescence_microscope" title="Fluorescence microscope">Epifluorescence microscopy</a> allows to detect certain groups of cells possessing <a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorescence" title="Fluorescence">fluorescent</a> pigments such as <i><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synechococcus" title="Synechococcus">Synechococcus</a></i> which possess <a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phycoerythrin" title="Phycoerythrin">phycoerythrin</a>.</li> <li><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flow_cytometry" title="Flow cytometry">Flow cytometry</a> measures the size (" forward scatter ") and fluorescence of 1,000 in 10,000 cells per second. It allows one to determine very easily the concentration of the various picoplankton populations on marine samples. Three groups of cells (<i><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prochlorococcus" title="Prochlorococcus">Prochlorococcus</a></i>,<i><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synechococcus" title="Synechococcus">Synechococcus</a></i> and picoeukaryotes) can be distinguished. For example <i>Synechococcus</i> is characterized by the double fluorescence of its pigments: orange for phycoerythrin and red for <a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlorophyll" title="Chlorophyll">chlorophyll</a>. Flow cytometry also allows to sort out specific populations (for example <i>Synechococcus</i>) in order put them in culture, or to make more detailed analyses.</li> <li>Analysis of photosynthetic <a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_pigment" title="Biological pigment">pigments</a> such as chlorophyll or <a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carotenoids" title="Carotenoids" class="mw-redirect">carotenoids</a> by high precision chromatography (<a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-performance_liquid_chromatography" title="High-performance liquid chromatography">HPLC</a>) allows to determine the various groups of algae present in a sample.</li> <li><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_biology#Techniques_of_molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">Molecular biology techniques</a>:</li> </ul> <dl> <dd> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloning" title="Cloning">Cloning</a> and <a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sequencing" title="Sequencing">sequencing</a> of <a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genes" title="Genes" class="mw-redirect">genes</a> such as that of <a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ribosomal_RNA" title="Ribosomal RNA">ribosomal RNA</a>, which allows to determine total diversity within a sample</li> <li><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DGGE" title="DGGE" class="mw-redirect">DGGE</a> (Denaturing Gel Electrophoresis), that is faster than the previous approach allows to have an idea of the global diversity within a sample</li> <li>In situ hybridization (<a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorescent_in_situ_hybridization" title="Fluorescent in situ hybridization" class="mw-redirect">FISH</a>) uses fluorescent probes recognizing specific <a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxon" title="Taxon">taxon</a>, for example a <a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a>, a <a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genus" title="Genus">genus</a> or a <a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Class_(biology)" title="Class (biology)">class</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Not_04_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Not_04-14"><span>[</span>14<span>]</span></a></sup> This original description as a species is now thought to be composed of a number of different cryptic species, a finding that has been confirmed by a genome sequencing project of two strains led by researchers at the <a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monterey_Bay_Aquarium_Research_Institute" title="Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute">Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute</a><sup id="cite_ref-Worden_2009_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Worden_2009-15"><span>[</span>15<span>]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantitative_PCR" title="Quantitative PCR" class="mw-redirect">Quantitative PCR</a> can be used, as FISH, to determine, the abundance of specific groups. It has the main advantage to allow the rapid analysis of a large number of samples simultaneously,<sup id="cite_ref-Johnson_06_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Johnson_06-16"><span>[</span>16<span>]</span></a></sup> but requires more sophisticated controls and calibrations.</li> </ul> </dd> </dl> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Composition">Composition</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Photosynthetic_picoplankton&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Composition">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <p>Three major groups of organisms constitute photosynthetic picoplankton...</p> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria">Cyanobacteria</a> belonging to the genus <i><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synechococcus" title="Synechococcus">Synechococcus</a></i> of a size of 1 µm (micrometer) were first discovered in 1979 by J. Waterbury<sup id="cite_ref-Waterbury_79_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Waterbury_79-3"><span>[</span>3<span>]</span></a></sup> (<a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woods_Hole_Oceanographic_Institution" title="Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution">Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution</a>). They are quite ubiquitous, but most abundant in relatively mesotrophic waters.</li> <li>Cyanobacteria belonging to the genus <i><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prochlorococcus" title="Prochlorococcus">Prochlorococcus</a></i> are particularly remarkable. With a typical size of 0.6 µm, <i>Prochlorococcus</i> was discovered only in 1988<sup id="cite_ref-Chisholm_88_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chisholm_88-7"><span>[</span>7<span>]</span></a></sup> by two American researchers, <a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sallie_W._(Penny)_Chisholm" title="Sallie W. (Penny) Chisholm" class="mw-redirect">Sallie W. (Penny) Chisholm</a> (<a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a>) and R.J. Olson (<a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woods_Hole_Oceanographic_Institution" title="Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution">Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution</a>). In spite of its small size, this photosynthetic organism is undoubtedly the most abundant of the planet: indeed its density can reach up to 100 million cells per liter and it can be found down to a depth of 150 m in all the intertropical belt.<sup id="cite_ref-Partensky_99_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Partensky_99-17"><span>[</span>17<span>]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Picoplanktonic <a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eukaryotes" title="Eukaryotes" class="mw-redirect">eukaryotes</a> are the least well known, as demonstrated by the recent discovery of major groups. Andersen created in 1993 a new <a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Class_(biology)" title="Class (biology)">class</a> of brown algae, the <a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pelagophyceae" title="Pelagophyceae">Pelagophyceae</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Andersen_93_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Andersen_93-18"><span>[</span>18<span>]</span></a></sup> More surprising still, the discovery in 1994<sup id="cite_ref-Courties_95_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Courties_95-9"><span>[</span>9<span>]</span></a></sup> of a eukaryote of very small size, <i><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostreococcus" title="Ostreococcus">Ostreococcus</a> tauri</i>, dominating the phytoplanktonic biomass of a French brackish lagoon (étang de <a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150325113847/http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thau" class="extiw" title="fr:Thau">Thau</a>), shows that these organisms can also play a major ecological role in coastal environments. In 1999, yet a new class of alga was discovered,<sup id="cite_ref-Guillou_99a_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Guillou_99a-19"><span>[</span>19<span>]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolidophyceae" title="Bolidophyceae" class="mw-redirect">Bolidophyceae</a>, very close genetically of <a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diatoms" title="Diatoms" class="mw-redirect">diatoms</a>, but quite different morphologically. At the present time, about 50 species are known belonging to several classes.</li> </ul> <div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Picoeukaryotes" title="Picoeukaryotes" class="mw-redirect">Picoeukaryotes</a></div> <dl> <dd> <dl> <dd> <dl> <dd> <table class="wikitable" align="center" bgcolor="#F6FFB2"> <caption><b>Algal classes containing picoplankton species</b></caption> <tr> <th>Classes</th> <th>Picoplanktonic genera</th> </tr> <tr> <td><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlorophyceae" title="Chlorophyceae">Chlorophyceae</a></td> <td><i>Nannochloris</i></td> </tr> <tr> <td><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prasinophyceae" title="Prasinophyceae">Prasinophyceae</a></td> <td><i>Micromonas</i>, <i>Ostreococcus</i>, <i>Pycnococcus</i></td> </tr> <tr> <td><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prymnesiophyceae" title="Prymnesiophyceae">Prymnesiophyceae</a></td> <td><i>Imantonia</i></td> </tr> <tr> <td><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pelagophyceae" title="Pelagophyceae">Pelagophyceae</a></td> <td><i>Pelagomonas</i></td> </tr> <tr> <td><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolidophyceae" title="Bolidophyceae" class="mw-redirect">Bolidophyceae</a></td> <td><i>Bolidomonas</i></td> </tr> <tr> <td><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictyochophyceae" title="Dictyochophyceae" class="mw-redirect">Dictyochophyceae</a></td> <td><i>Florenciella</i></td> </tr> </table> </dd> </dl> </dd> </dl> </dd> </dl> <p>The use of molecular approaches implemented since the 1990s for bacteria, were applied to the photosynthetic picoeukaryotes only 10 years later around 2000. They revealed a very wide diversity<sup id="cite_ref-Lopez_01_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lopez_01-10"><span>[</span>10<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Moon_01_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moon_01-11"><span>[</span>11<span>]</span></a></sup> and brought to light the importance of the following groups in the picoplankton :</p> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prasinophyceae" title="Prasinophyceae">Prasinophyceae</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haptophyta" title="Haptophyta" class="mw-redirect">Haptophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptophyta" title="Cryptophyta" class="mw-redirect">Cryptophyta</a></li> </ul> <p>In temperate coastal environment, the genus <i><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micromonas" title="Micromonas">Micromonas</a></i> (Prasinophyceae) seems dominant.<sup id="cite_ref-Not_04_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Not_04-14"><span>[</span>14<span>]</span></a></sup> However, in numerous oceanic environments, the dominant species of eukaryotic picoplankton remain still unknown.<sup id="cite_ref-Worden_2008_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Worden_2008-20"><span>[</span>20<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Ecology">Ecology</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Photosynthetic_picoplankton&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Ecology">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Picoplankton_profile_Pacific.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150325113847im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Picoplankton_profile_Pacific.jpg/220px-Picoplankton_profile_Pacific.jpg" width="220" height="243" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150325113847im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Picoplankton_profile_Pacific.jpg/330px-Picoplankton_profile_Pacific.jpg 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150325113847im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b7/Picoplankton_profile_Pacific.jpg 2x" data-file-width="341" data-file-height="376"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Picoplankton_profile_Pacific.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div> Vertical distribution of picoplankton in the Pacific Ocean</div> </div> </div> <p>Each picoplanktonic population occupies a specific <a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_niche" title="Ecological niche">ecological niche</a> in the oceanic environment.</p> <ul> <li>The <i><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synechococcus" title="Synechococcus">Synechococcus</a></i> cyanobacterium is generally abundant in <a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesotrophic_lake" title="Mesotrophic lake" class="mw-redirect">mesotrophic</a> environments, for example in the vicinity of the equatorial <a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upwelling" title="Upwelling">upwelling</a> or in coastal regions.</li> <li>The <i><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prochlorococcus" title="Prochlorococcus">Prochlorococcus</a></i> cyanobacterium replaces it when the waters becomes impoverished in nutrients (i.e. <a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oligotroph" title="Oligotroph">oligotrophic</a>). On the other hand in temperate region (for example in the North Atlantic Ocean),<i>Prochlorococcus</i> is absent because the cold waters prevent its development.</li> <li>The diversity of eukaryotes, corresponds undoubtedly to a big variety of environments. In oceanic regions, they are often observed at depth at the base of the well-lit layer (the "euphotic" layer). In coastal regions, certain sorts of picoeukaryotes such as "Micromonas" dominate. Their abundance follows a seasonal cycle, as the plankton of bigger size, with a maximum in summer.</li> </ul> <p>Thirty years ago, it was hypothesized that the speed of <a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_division" title="Cell division">division</a> for micro-organisms in central oceanic ecosystems was very slow, of the order of one week or one month. This hypothesis was consolidated by the fact that the <a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomass" title="Biomass">biomass</a> (estimated for example by the contents of <a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlorophyll" title="Chlorophyll">chlorophyll</a>) was very stable over time. However with the discovery of the picoplankton, it was found that the system was much more dynamic than previously thought. In particular, small <a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predator" title="Predator" class="mw-redirect">predators</a> of a size of a few micrometres which ingest picoplanktonic algae as quickly as they were produced, were found to be ubiquitous. This extremely sophisticated predator-prey system is practically always at equilibrium and results in a quasi-constant picoplankton biomass. This perfect equivalence between production and consumption makes it however extremely difficult to measure precisely the speed at which the system turns over.</p> <p>In 1988, two American researchers, Carpenter and Chang, had suggested estimating the speed of cell division of phytoplankton by following the course of <a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_replication" title="DNA replication">DNA replication</a> by microscopy. By replacing the microscope by a <a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flow_cytometer" title="Flow cytometer" class="mw-redirect">flow cytometer</a>, it is possible to follow the DNA content of picoplankton cells over time. This allowed to establish that picoplankton cells are extremely synchronous: they replicate their DNA and then divide all at the same time at the end of the day. This synchronization could be due to the presence of an <a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circadian_rhythm" title="Circadian rhythm">internal biological clock</a>.</p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Genomics">Genomics</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Photosynthetic_picoplankton&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Genomics">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <p>In the 2000s, <a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genomics" title="Genomics">genomics</a> allowed to cross a supplementary stage. Genomics consists in determining the complete sequence of <a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">genome</a> of an organism and to list every <a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">gene</a> present. It is then possible to get an idea of the metabolic capacities of the targeted organisms and understand how it adapts to its environment. To date, the genomes of several types of <i><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prochlorococcus" title="Prochlorococcus">Prochlorococcus</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-Rocap_03_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rocap_03-21"><span>[</span>21<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Dufresne_03_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dufresne_03-22"><span>[</span>22<span>]</span></a></sup> and <i><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synechococcus" title="Synechococcus">Synechococcus</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-Palenik_03_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Palenik_03-23"><span>[</span>23<span>]</span></a></sup> and of a strain of <i><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostreococcus" title="Ostreococcus">Ostreococcus</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-Derelle_06_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Derelle_06-24"><span>[</span>24<span>]</span></a></sup> have been determined. The complete genomes of two different Micromonas strains revealed that they were quite different (different species) - and had similarities with land plants.<sup id="cite_ref-Worden_2009_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Worden_2009-15"><span>[</span>15<span>]</span></a></sup> Several other cyanobacteria and of small eukaryotes (<i>Bathycoccus</i>, <i>Pelagomonas</i>) are under sequencing. In parallel, genome analyses begin to be done directly from oceanic samples (ecogenomics or métagenomics),<sup id="cite_ref-Venter_04_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Venter_04-25"><span>[</span>25<span>]</span></a></sup> allowing us to access to large sets of gene for uncultivated organisms.</p> <dl> <dd> <dl> <dd> <dl> <dd> <table align="center" class="wikitable"> <caption>Genomes of photosynthetic picoplankton strains<br/> that have been sequenced to date</caption> <tr> <th>Genus</th> <th>Strain</th> <th>Sequencing center</th> <th>Remark</th> </tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prochlorococcus" title="Prochlorococcus">Prochlorococcus</a></i></td> <td>MED4</td> <td><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joint_Genome_Institute" title="Joint Genome Institute">JGI</a></td> <td></td> </tr> <tr> <td></td> <td>SS120</td> <td><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genoscope" title="Genoscope">Genoscope</a></td> <td></td> </tr> <tr> <td></td> <td>MIT9312</td> <td>JGI</td> <td></td> </tr> <tr> <td></td> <td>MIT9313</td> <td>JGI</td> <td></td> </tr> <tr> <td></td> <td>NATL2A</td> <td>JGI</td> <td></td> </tr> <tr> <td></td> <td>CC9605</td> <td>JGI</td> <td></td> </tr> <tr> <td></td> <td>CC9901</td> <td>JGI</td> <td></td> </tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synechococcus" title="Synechococcus">Synechococcus</a></i></td> <td>WH8102</td> <td>JGI</td> <td></td> </tr> <tr> <td></td> <td>WH7803</td> <td>Genoscope</td> <td></td> </tr> <tr> <td></td> <td>RCC307</td> <td>Génoscope</td> <td></td> </tr> <tr> <td></td> <td>CC9311</td> <td><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Institute_for_Genomic_Research" title="The Institute for Genomic Research" class="mw-redirect">TIGR</a></td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span>[</span>26<span>]</span></a></sup></td> </tr> <tr> <td><i>Ostreococcus</i></td> <td>OTTH95</td> <td>Genoscope</td> <td></td> </tr> <tr> <td><i>Micromonas</i></td> <td>RCC299 and CCMP1545</td> <td>JGI</td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-Worden_2009_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Worden_2009-15"><span>[</span>15<span>]</span></a></sup></td> </tr> </table> </dd> </dl> </dd> </dl> </dd> </dl> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Photosynthetic_picoplankton&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacterioplankton" title="Bacterioplankton">Bacterioplankton</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_eukaryotic_picoplankton_species" title="List of eukaryotic picoplankton species">List of eukaryotic picoplankton species</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phytoplankton" title="Phytoplankton">Phytoplankton</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Picoeukaryote" title="Picoeukaryote">Picoeukaryote</a></li> </ul> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Notes_and_references">Notes and references</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Photosynthetic_picoplankton&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Notes and references">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <div class="reflist columns references-column-count references-column-count-2" style="-moz-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-count: 2; column-count: 2; list-style-type: decimal;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Butcher-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Butcher_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Butcher, R. (1952). Contributions to our knowledge of the smaller marine algae. <i>Journal of the Marine Biological Association UK</i> <b>31</b>: 175-91.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-Manton-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Manton_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Manton, I. & Parke, M. (1960). Further observations on small green flagellates with special reference to possible relatives of <i>Chromulina pusilla</i> Butcher. <i>Journal of the Marine Biological Association UK</i> <b>39</b>: 275-98.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-Waterbury_79-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Waterbury_79_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Waterbury_79_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Waterbury, J. B. <i>et al.</i> (1979). 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Ultrastructure and 18S rRNA gene sequence for <i>Pelagomonas calceolata</i> gen. and sp. nov. and the description of a new algal class, the Pelagophyceae classis nov. <i>Journal of Phycology</i> <b>29</b>: 701-15.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-Guillou_99a-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Guillou_99a_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Guillou, L. <i>et al.</i> (1999). <i>Bolidomonas</i>: a new genus with two species belonging to a new algal class, the Bolidophyceae (Heterokonta). <i>Journal of Phycology</i> <b>35</b>: 368-81.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-Worden_2008-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Worden_2008_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Worden, A.Z. & Not, F.(2008) Ecology and Diversity of Picoeukaryotes. Book Chapter in: Microbial Ecology of the Ocean, 2nd Edition. Ed. D. Kirchman. Wiley.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-Rocap_03-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Rocap_03_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rocap, G. <i>et al.</i> (2003). Genome divergence in two <i>Prochlorococcus</i> ecotypes reflects oceanic niche differentiation. <i>Nature</i> <b>424</b>: 1042-7.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-Dufresne_03-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Dufresne_03_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dufresne, A. <i>et al.</i> (2003). Genome sequence of the cyanobacterium <i>Prochlorococcus marinus</i> SS120, a nearly minimal oxyphototrophic genome. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America</i> <b>100</b>: 10020-5.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-Palenik_03-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Palenik_03_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Palenik, B. <i>et al.</i> (2003). The genome of a motile marine <i>Synechococcus</i>. <i>Nature</i> <b>424</b>: 1037-42.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-Derelle_06-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Derelle_06_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Derelle, E. <i>et al.</i> (2006). Genome analysis of the smallest free-living eukaryote <i>Ostreococcus tauri</i> unveils many unique features. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America</i> <b>103</b>: 11647-52.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-Venter_04-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Venter_04_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Venter, J. C. <i>et al.</i> (2004). Environmental genome shotgun sequencing of the Sargasso Sea. <i>Science</i> <b>304</b>: 66-74.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Palenik, B. <i>et al.</i> (2006). Genome sequence of <i>Synechococcus</i> CC9311: Insights into adaptation to a coastal environment. <i>PNAS</i> <b>103</b>: 13555-9.</span></li> </ol> </div> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Bibliography">Bibliography</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Photosynthetic_picoplankton&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Bibliography">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <div class="refbegin columns references-column-count references-column-count-2" style="-moz-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-count: 2; column-count: 2;"> <dl> <dt>Cyanobacteria</dt> </dl> <ul> <li>Zehr, J. P., Waterbury, J. B., Turner, P. J., Montoya, J. P., Omoregie, E., Steward, G. F., Hansen, A. & Karl, D. M. 2001. Unicellular cyanobacteria fix N2 in the subtropical North Pacific Ocean. Nature 412:635-8</li> </ul> <dl> <dt>Eukaryotes</dt> </dl> <ul> <li>Butcher, R. 1952. Contributions to our knowledge of the smaller marine algae. J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. UK. 31:175-91.</li> <li>Manton, I. & Parke, M. 1960. Further observations on small green flagellates with special reference to possible relatives of Chromulina pusilla Butcher. J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. UK. 39:275-98.</li> <li>Eikrem, W., Throndsen, J. 1990. The ultrastructure of <i>Bathycoccus</i> gen. nov. and <i>B. prasinos</i> sp. nov., a non-motile picoplanktonic alga (Chlorophyta, Prasinophyceae) from the Mediterranean and Atlantic. Phycologia 29:344-350</li> <li>Chrétiennot-Dinet, M. J., Courties, C., Vaquer, A., Neveux, J., Claustre, H., <i>et al.</i> 1995. A new marine picoeucaryote: <i>Ostreococcus tauri</i> gen et sp nov (Chlorophyta, Prasinophyceae). Phycologia 34:285-292</li> <li>Sieburth, J. M., M. D. Keller, P. W. Johnson, and S. M. Myklestad. 1999. Widespread occurrence of the oceanic ultraplankter, <i>Prasinococcus capsulatus</i> (Prasinophyceae), the diagnostic "Golgi-decapore complex" and the newly described polysaccharide "capsulan". J. Phycol. 35: 1032-1043.</li> <li>Not, F., Valentin, K., Romari, K., Lovejoy, C., Massana, R., Töbe, K., Vaulot, D. & Medlin, L. K. 2007. Picobiliphytes, a new marine picoplanktonic algal group with unknown affinities to other eukaryotes. Science 315:252-4.</li> <li>Vaulot, D., Eikrem, W., Viprey, M. & Moreau, H. 2008. The diversity of small eukaryotic phytoplankton (≤3 μm) in marine ecosystems. FEMS Microbiol. Rev. 32:795-820.</li> </ul> <dl> <dt>Ecology</dt> </dl> <ul> <li>Platt, T., Subba-Rao, D. V. & Irwin, B. 1983. Photosynthesis of picoplankton in the oligotrophic ocean. Nature 300:701-4.</li> <li>Stomp M, Huisman J, de Jongh F, Veraart AJ, Gerla D, Rijkeboer M, Ibelings BW, Wollenzien UIA, Stal LJ. 2004. Adaptive divergence in pigment composition promotes phytoplankton biodiversity. Nature 432: 104-107.</li> <li>Campbell, L., Nolla, H. A. & Vaulot, D. 1994. The importance of <i>Prochlorococcus</i> to community structure in the central North Pacific Ocean. Limnol. Oceanogr. 39:954-61.</li> </ul> <dl> <dt>Molecular Biology and Genomes</dt> </dl> <ul> <li>Rappé, M. S., P. F. Kemp, and S. J. Giovannoni. 1995. Chromophyte plastid 16S ribosomal RNA genes found in a clone library from Atlantic Ocean seawater. J. Phycol. 31: 979-988.</li> </ul> </div> <table class="navbox" style="border-spacing:0"> <tr> <td style="padding:2px"> <table class="nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"> <tr> <th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"> <div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"> <ul> <li class="nv-view"><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Plankton" title="Template:Plankton"><span title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">v</span></a></li> <li class="nv-talk"><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Plankton" title="Template talk:Plankton"><span title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">t</span></a></li> <li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Plankton&action=edit"><span title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">e</span></a></li> </ul> </div> <div style="font-size:110%"><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plankton" title="Plankton">Plankton</a></div> </th> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group">About <a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plankton" title="Plankton">plankton</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algal_bloom" title="Algal bloom">Algal bloom</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CLAW_hypothesis" title="CLAW hypothesis">CLAW hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:High_lipid_content_microalgae" title="Category:High lipid content microalgae">High lipid content microalgae</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holoplankton" title="Holoplankton">Holoplankton</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meroplankton" title="Meroplankton">Meroplankton</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milky_seas_effect" title="Milky seas effect">Milky seas effect</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paradox_of_the_plankton" title="Paradox of the plankton">Paradox of the plankton</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planktology" title="Planktology">Planktology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_tide" title="Red tide">Red tide</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spring_bloom" title="Spring bloom">Spring bloom</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thin_layers_(oceanography)" title="Thin layers (oceanography)">Thin layers</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Planktology" title="Category:Planktology">More...</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> <td class="navbox-image" rowspan="13" style="width:0%;padding:0px 0px 0px 2px"> <div><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Diatoms_through_the_microscope.jpg" class="image"><img alt="Diatoms through the microscope.jpg" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150325113847im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Diatoms_through_the_microscope.jpg/140px-Diatoms_through_the_microscope.jpg" width="140" height="92" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150325113847im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Diatoms_through_the_microscope.jpg/210px-Diatoms_through_the_microscope.jpg 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150325113847im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Diatoms_through_the_microscope.jpg/280px-Diatoms_through_the_microscope.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1796" data-file-height="1180"/></a></div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group">By size</th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_eukaryotic_picoplankton_species" title="List of eukaryotic picoplankton species">Eukaryotic picoplankton</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heterotrophic_picoplankton" title="Heterotrophic picoplankton">Heterotrophic picoplankton</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microphyte" title="Microphyte">Microphyte (microalgae)</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanophytoplankton" title="Nanophytoplankton">Nanophytoplankton</a></li> <li><strong class="selflink">Photosynthetic picoplankton</strong></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Picobiliphyte" title="Picobiliphyte">Picobiliphyte</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Picoeukaryote" title="Picoeukaryote">Picoeukaryote</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Picoplankton" title="Picoplankton">Picoplankton</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacterioplankton" title="Bacterioplankton">Bacterioplankton</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><i><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteriastrum" title="Bacteriastrum">Bacteriastrum</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeromonas_salmonicida" title="Aeromonas salmonicida">Aeromonas salmonicida</a></i></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria">Cyanobacteria</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanobiont" title="Cyanobiont">Cyanobiont</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanotoxin" title="Cyanotoxin">Cyanotoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enteric_redmouth_disease" title="Enteric redmouth disease">Enteric redmouth disease</a></li> <li><i><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flavobacterium" title="Flavobacterium">Flavobacterium</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flavobacterium_columnare" title="Flavobacterium columnare">Flavobacterium columnare</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pelagibacter_ubique" title="Pelagibacter ubique">Pelagibacter ubique</a></i></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_bacteriophage" title="Marine bacteriophage">Marine bacteriophage</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SAR11_clade" title="SAR11 clade">SAR11 clade</a></li> <li><i><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Streptococcus_iniae" title="Streptococcus iniae">Streptococcus iniae</a></i></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phytoplankton" title="Phytoplankton">Phytoplankton</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div> <table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auxospore" title="Auxospore">Auxospore</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axodine" title="Axodine">Axodine</a></li> <li><i><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaetoceros" title="Chaetoceros">Chaetoceros</a></i></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaetocerotaceae" title="Chaetocerotaceae">Chaetocerotaceae</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coccolithophore" title="Coccolithophore">Coccolithophore</a></li> <li><i><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emiliania_huxleyi" title="Emiliania huxleyi">Emiliania huxleyi</a></i></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eustigmatophyte" title="Eustigmatophyte">Eustigmatophyte</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frustule" title="Frustule">Frustule</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heterokont" title="Heterokont">Heterokont</a></li> <li><i><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nannochloropsis" title="Nannochloropsis">Nannochloropsis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navicula" title="Navicula">Navicula</a></i></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prasinophyceae" title="Prasinophyceae">Prasinophyceae</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raphidophyte" title="Raphidophyte">Raphidophyte</a></li> <li><i><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thalassiosira_pseudonana" title="Thalassiosira pseudonana">Thalassiosira pseudonana</a></i></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diatom" title="Diatom">Diatom orders</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coscinodiscophyceae" title="Coscinodiscophyceae">Centrales</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pennales" title="Pennales">Pennales</a></li> <li>(Classes: <a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coscinodiscophyceae" title="Coscinodiscophyceae">Coscinodiscophyceae</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fragilariophyceae" title="Fragilariophyceae">Fragilariophyceae</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacillariophyceae" title="Bacillariophyceae" class="mw-redirect">Bacillariophyceae</a>)</li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flagellate" title="Flagellate">Flagellates</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brevetoxin" title="Brevetoxin">Brevetoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Choanoflagellate" title="Choanoflagellate">Choanoflagellates</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinoflagellate" title="Dinoflagellate">Dinoflagellates</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flagellum" title="Flagellum">Flagellum</a></li> <li><i><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pfiesteria_piscicida" title="Pfiesteria piscicida">Pfiesteria piscicida</a></i></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxitoxin" title="Saxitoxin">Saxitoxin</a></li> <li><i><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbiodinium" title="Symbiodinium">Symbiodinium</a></i></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velvet_(fish_disease)" title="Velvet (fish disease)">Velvet (fish disease)</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zooplankton" title="Zooplankton">Zooplankton</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div> <table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaetognatha" title="Chaetognatha">Chaetognatha</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ciguatera" title="Ciguatera">Ciguatera</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ctenophora" title="Ctenophora">Ctenophora</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gelatinous_zooplankton" title="Gelatinous zooplankton">Gelatinous zooplankton</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hunting_copepods" title="Hunting copepods" class="mw-redirect">Hunting copepods</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ichthyoplankton" title="Ichthyoplankton">Ichthyoplankton</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jellyfish" title="Jellyfish">Jellyfish</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_larval_ecology" title="Marine larval ecology">Marine larvae</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crustacean_larvae" title="Crustacean larvae">Crustacean larvae</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salmon_louse" title="Salmon louse">Salmon louse</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_louse" title="Sea louse">Sea louse</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copepod" title="Copepod">Copepod orders</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calanoida" title="Calanoida">Calanoida</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclopoida" title="Cyclopoida">Cyclopoida</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harpacticoida" title="Harpacticoida">Harpacticoida</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monstrilloida" title="Monstrilloida">Monstrilloida</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poecilostomatoida" title="Poecilostomatoida">Poecilostomatoida</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siphonostomatoida" title="Siphonostomatoida">Siphonostomatoida</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Copepods" title="Category:Copepods">More...</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Related topics</th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" 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pump">Biological pump</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diel_vertical_migration" title="Diel vertical migration">Diel vertical migration</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimethylsulfoniopropionate" title="Dimethylsulfoniopropionate">Dimethylsulfoniopropionate</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F-ratio" title="F-ratio">f-ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fish_diseases_and_parasites" title="Fish diseases and parasites">Fish diseases and parasites</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heterotroph" title="Heterotroph">Heterotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-Nutrient,_low-chlorophyll" title="High-Nutrient, low-chlorophyll">HNLC</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325113847/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macroalgae" title="Macroalgae" 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