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id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">American economic and business historian (1936–2024)</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="fn">Robert Hessen</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Robert_Hessen.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/5/5a/Robert_Hessen.jpeg/220px-Robert_Hessen.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="284" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/5/5a/Robert_Hessen.jpeg 1.5x" data-file-width="278" data-file-height="359" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data">September 1936<span style="display:none"> (<span class="dtstart bday">1936-09</span>)</span><br /><div style="display:inline" class="birthplace"><a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City, New York</a>, U.S.</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">April 15, 2024<span style="display:none">(2024-04-15)</span> (aged 87)<br /><div style="display:inline" class="deathplace"><a href="/wiki/Stanford,_California" title="Stanford, California">Stanford, California</a>, U.S.</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Academic background</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Alma_mater" title="Alma mater">Alma mater</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Queens_College" class="mw-redirect" title="Queens College">Queens College</a> <small>(<a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Arts" title="Bachelor of Arts">BA</a>)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a> <small>(<a href="/wiki/Master_of_Arts" title="Master of Arts">MA</a>)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columbia_University" title="Columbia 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width="82" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Ayn_Rand_%281943_Talbot_portrait%29.jpg/124px-Ayn_Rand_%281943_Talbot_portrait%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Ayn_Rand_%281943_Talbot_portrait%29.jpg/165px-Ayn_Rand_%281943_Talbot_portrait%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="831" data-file-height="1008" /></a></span><div class="sidebar-caption"><a href="/wiki/Ayn_Rand" title="Ayn Rand">Ayn Rand</a></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Philosophy</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Objectivism" title="Objectivism">Objectivism</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Rational_egoism" title="Rational egoism">Rational egoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romantic_realism" title="Romantic realism">Romantic realism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Category:Objectivist_organizations" title="Category:Objectivist organizations">Organizations</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ayn_Rand_Institute" title="Ayn Rand Institute">Ayn Rand Institute</a><br /><a href="/wiki/The_Atlas_Society" title="The Atlas Society">The Atlas Society</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_Branden_Institute" title="Nathaniel Branden Institute">Nathaniel Branden Institute</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Objectivist_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivist Party">Objectivist Party</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Liberal_People%27s_Party_(Norway)" title="Liberal People's Party (Norway)">Liberal People's Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianz" title="Libertarianz">Libertarianz</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Category:Objectivism_scholars" title="Category:Objectivism scholars">Theorists</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ayn_Rand" title="Ayn Rand">Ayn Rand</a></li></ul> <p><b>Ayn Rand Institute</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leonard_Peikoff" title="Leonard Peikoff">Leonard Peikoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allan_Gotthelf" title="Allan Gotthelf">Allan Gotthelf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_Binswanger" title="Harry Binswanger">Harry Binswanger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tara_Smith_(philosopher)" title="Tara Smith (philosopher)">Tara Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Bernstein_(philosopher)" title="Andrew Bernstein (philosopher)">Andrew Bernstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yaron_Brook" title="Yaron Brook">Yaron Brook</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Ridpath" title="John Ridpath">John Ridpath</a></li></ul> <p><b>Other</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/David_Kelley" title="David Kelley">David Kelley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Reisman" title="George Reisman">George Reisman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibor_Machan" title="Tibor Machan">Tibor Machan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Hicks" title="Stephen Hicks">Stephen Hicks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_Branden" title="Nathaniel Branden">Nathaniel Branden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alan_Greenspan" title="Alan Greenspan">Alan Greenspan</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_Ayn_Rand_and_Objectivism" title="Bibliography of Ayn Rand and Objectivism">Literature</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;;font-style:italic;"><a href="/wiki/Capitalism:_The_Unknown_Ideal" title="Capitalism: The Unknown Ideal">Capitalism: The Unknown Ideal</a><br /><a href="/wiki/For_the_New_Intellectual" title="For the New Intellectual">For the New Intellectual</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Introduction_to_Objectivist_Epistemology" title="Introduction to Objectivist Epistemology">Introduction to Objectivist Epistemology</a><br /><a href="/wiki/The_New_Left:_The_Anti-Industrial_Revolution" title="The New Left: The Anti-Industrial Revolution">The New Left</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Objectivism:_The_Philosophy_of_Ayn_Rand" title="Objectivism: The Philosophy of Ayn Rand">Objectivism: The Philosophy of Ayn Rand</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Philosophy:_Who_Needs_It" title="Philosophy: Who Needs It">Philosophy: Who Needs It</a><br /><a href="/wiki/The_Romantic_Manifesto" title="The Romantic Manifesto">The Romantic Manifesto</a><br /><a href="/wiki/The_Virtue_of_Selfishness" title="The Virtue of Selfishness">The Virtue of Selfishness</a><br /><span class="noitalic"><a href="/wiki/Objectivist_periodicals" title="Objectivist periodicals">Objectivist periodicals</a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/The_Journal_of_Ayn_Rand_Studies" title="The Journal of Ayn Rand Studies">The Journal of Ayn Rand Studies</a><br /><a href="/wiki/The_Fountainhead" title="The Fountainhead">The Fountainhead</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Atlas_Shrugged" title="Atlas Shrugged">Atlas Shrugged</a></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Objectivism_and_homosexuality" title="Objectivism and homosexuality">Objectivism and homosexuality</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Objectivism_and_libertarianism" title="Objectivism and libertarianism">Objectivism and libertarianism</a><br />Objectivism's rejection of the primitive<br /><a href="/wiki/Randian_hero" title="Randian hero">Randian hero</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="padding-top:0.15em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Objectivist_movement" title="Template:Objectivist movement"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Objectivist_movement" title="Template talk:Objectivist movement"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Objectivist_movement" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Objectivist movement"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Robert Hessen</b> (September 1936 – April 15, 2024) was an American <a href="/wiki/Economic_history" title="Economic history">economic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Business_history" title="Business history">business historian</a>. He was a professor at the <a href="/wiki/Stanford_Graduate_School_of_Business" title="Stanford Graduate School of Business">Graduate School of Business</a> at <a href="/wiki/Stanford_University" title="Stanford University">Stanford University</a> and a senior <a href="/wiki/Research_fellow" title="Research fellow">research fellow</a> at Stanford's <a href="/wiki/Hoover_Institution" title="Hoover Institution">Hoover Institution</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was an <a href="/wiki/Objectivism" title="Objectivism">Objectivist</a> and authored several books, analyzing business and economic issues from an Objectivist perspective. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_life_and_education">Early life and education</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_Hessen&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Early life and education"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Robert Hessen was born in <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a>. He received his <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Arts" title="Bachelor of Arts">Bachelor of Arts</a> from <a href="/wiki/Queens_College" class="mw-redirect" title="Queens College">Queens College</a>, his <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Arts" title="Master of Arts">Master of Arts</a> from <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a>, and then his <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Philosophy" title="Doctor of Philosophy">Doctor of Philosophy</a> from <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University" title="Columbia University">Columbia University</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Career">Career</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_Hessen&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Career"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox" style="clear: right; float:right;margin:0 0 1.5em 1.5em"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:115%">External videos</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align: left"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="video icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></span></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=90CP7sWBrTI">Remarks on Ayn Rand—Excepts of an interview with Hessen</a> for the 2005 documentary <i>Birth of Objectivism</i> by Duncan Scott.</td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Prior to joining the Hoover Institution and taking his position at Stanford, he taught at the <a href="/wiki/Graduate_School_of_Business_at_Columbia_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Graduate School of Business at Columbia University">Graduate School of Business at Columbia University</a>. </p><p>He was associated with philosopher <a href="/wiki/Ayn_Rand" title="Ayn Rand">Ayn Rand</a> for 25 years, contributed articles to two of her periodicals, as well as her book, <i><a href="/wiki/Capitalism:_The_Unknown_Ideal" title="Capitalism: The Unknown Ideal">Capitalism: The Unknown Ideal</a></i>. He was a featured commentator on <a href="/wiki/Milton_Friedman" title="Milton Friedman">Milton Friedman</a>'s award-winning <a href="/wiki/PBS" title="PBS">PBS</a> television documentary series, <i><a href="/wiki/Free_to_Choose" title="Free to Choose">Free to Choose</a></i>. </p><p>In 1985, Hessen joined the Board of Advisors of the newly formed <a href="/wiki/Ayn_Rand_Institute" title="Ayn Rand Institute">Ayn Rand Institute</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-announcement_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-announcement-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2000, he joined the Board of Advisors of <a href="/wiki/The_Journal_of_Ayn_Rand_Studies" title="The Journal of Ayn Rand Studies">The Journal of Ayn Rand Studies</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Among the books he wrote are <i><a href="/wiki/Steel_Titan:_The_Life_of_Charles_M._Schwab" title="Steel Titan: The Life of Charles M. Schwab">Steel Titan: The Life of Charles M. Schwab</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/In_Defense_of_the_Corporation" title="In Defense of the Corporation">In Defense of the Corporation</a></i>. He was also the editor of the multi-volume series <i>Hoover Archival Documentaries</i>. He was featured in shorter works in such diverse publications as <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Barron%27s_(newspaper)" class="mw-redirect" title="Barron's (newspaper)">Barron's</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Business_History_Review" title="Business History Review">Business History Review</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Labor_History_(journal)" title="Labor History (journal)">Labor History</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Hastings_Law_Journal" class="mw-redirect" title="The Hastings Law Journal">The Hastings Law Journal</a></i> and the <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Law_and_Economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Journal of Law and Economics">Journal of Law and Economics</a></i>. His essays, discussing capitalism and presenting a private-property-and-contractual model of corporations, were published in the <i>Fortune Encyclopedia of Economics</i> and the <i><a href="/wiki/Liberty_Fund" title="Liberty Fund">Concise Encyclopedia of Economics</a></i>. </p><p>Hessen died at <a href="/wiki/Stanford_Hospital" class="mw-redirect" title="Stanford Hospital">Stanford Hospital</a> on April 15, 2024, at the age of 87.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Books">Books</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_Hessen&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Books"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Hessen's books include: </p> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Steel_Titan:_The_Life_of_Charles_M._Schwab" title="Steel Titan: The Life of Charles M. Schwab">Steel Titan: The Life of Charles M. Schwab</a></i> (University of Pittsburgh Press, 1975)<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/In_Defense_of_the_Corporation" title="In Defense of the Corporation">In Defense of the Corporation</a></i> (Hoover Institution Press, 1979)<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i>Does Big Business Rule America?</i> (edited, Ethics and Public Policy Center, 1982)<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i>Berlin Alert: The Memoirs and Reports of Truman Smith</i> (edited, Hoover Institution Press, 1984)<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i>Breaking with Communism: The Intellectual Odyssey of Bertram D. Wolfe</i> (edited, Hoover Institution Press, 1990)<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_Hessen&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFTupy,_Marian" class="citation web cs1">Tupy, Marian. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2016/03/bernie-sanders-democratic-socialism/471630/">"Bernie Is Not a Socialist and America Is Not Capitalist"</a>. <i>TheAtlantic.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 29,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=TheAtlantic.com&rft.atitle=Bernie+Is+Not+a+Socialist+and+America+Is+Not+Capitalist&rft.au=Tupy%2C+Marian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theatlantic.com%2Finternational%2Farchive%2F2016%2F03%2Fbernie-sanders-democratic-socialism%2F471630%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+Hessen" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-announcement-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-announcement_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">"Announcements". <i><a href="/wiki/The_Objectivist_Forum" class="mw-redirect" title="The Objectivist Forum">The Objectivist Forum</a></i>. <b>5</b> (6): <span class="nowrap">13–</span>15. December 1984.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Objectivist+Forum&rft.atitle=Announcements&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E13-%3C%2Fspan%3E15&rft.date=1984-12&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+Hessen" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aynrandstudies.com/advisors/">"Adisors - The Journal of Ayn Rand Studies"</a>. <i>The Journal of Ayn Rand Studies</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 17,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Hoover+Institution&rft.atitle=Robert+Hessen%3A+September+1936+%E2%80%93+April+15%2C+2024&rft.date=2024-04-17&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hoover.org%2Fnews%2Frobert-hessen-september-1936-april-15-2024&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+Hessen" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Reviews of <i>Steel Titan</i>: <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlberts1975" class="citation news cs1">Alberts, Robert C. 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"Review". <i><a href="/wiki/The_American_Historical_Review" title="The American Historical Review">The American Historical Review</a></i>. <b>81</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">986–</span>987. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1865061">10.2307/1865061</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1865061">1865061</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=Review&rft.volume=81&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E986-%3C%2Fspan%3E987&rft.date=1976-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1865061&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1865061%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Eggert&rft.aufirst=Gerald+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+Hessen" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEkirch1976" class="citation magazine cs1">Ekirch, Arthur (November 1976). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://reason.com/1976/11/01/steel-titan/">"Steel Titan: The Life of Charles M. Schwab"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Reason_(magazine)" title="Reason (magazine)">Reason</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reason&rft.atitle=Steel+Titan%3A+The+Life+of+Charles+M.+Schwab&rft.date=1976-11&rft.aulast=Ekirch&rft.aufirst=Arthur&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Freason.com%2F1976%2F11%2F01%2Fsteel-titan%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+Hessen" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLivesay1976" class="citation journal cs1">Livesay, Harold C. (Autumn 1976). "Review". <i><a href="/wiki/Business_History_Review" title="Business History Review">Business History Review</a></i>. <b>50</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">385–</span>387. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3113003">10.2307/3113003</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3113003">3113003</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:156354220">156354220</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Business+History+Review&rft.atitle=Review&rft.ssn=fall&rft.volume=50&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E385-%3C%2Fspan%3E387&rft.date=1976&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A156354220%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3113003%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3113003&rft.aulast=Livesay&rft.aufirst=Harold+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+Hessen" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPorter1976" class="citation journal cs1">Porter, Glenn (September 1976). "A Picture from Life's Other Side: Pocket Robber Baron". <i><a href="/wiki/Reviews_in_American_History" title="Reviews in American History">Reviews in American History</a></i>. <b>4</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">415–</span>420. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2701459">10.2307/2701459</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2701459">2701459</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reviews+in+American+History&rft.atitle=A+Picture+from+Life%27s+Other+Side%3A+Pocket+Robber+Baron&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E415-%3C%2Fspan%3E420&rft.date=1976-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2701459&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2701459%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Porter&rft.aufirst=Glenn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+Hessen" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimon1977" class="citation journal cs1">Simon, Roger D. (October 1977). "Review". <i><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_History:_A_Journal_of_Mid-Atlantic_Studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Pennsylvania History: A Journal of Mid-Atlantic Studies">Pennsylvania History: A Journal of Mid-Atlantic Studies</a></i>. <b>44</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">371–</span>372. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/27772488">27772488</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Pennsylvania+History%3A+A+Journal+of+Mid-Atlantic+Studies&rft.atitle=Review&rft.volume=44&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E371-%3C%2Fspan%3E372&rft.date=1977-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F27772488%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Simon&rft.aufirst=Roger+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+Hessen" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYates1976" class="citation journal cs1">Yates, W. 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Schwab"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Kirkus_Reviews" title="Kirkus Reviews">Kirkus Reviews</a></i>. November 1, 1976.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Kirkus+Reviews&rft.atitle=Steel+Titan%3A+The+Life+of+Charles+M.+Schwab&rft.date=1976-11-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.kirkusreviews.com%2Fbook-reviews%2Fa%2Frobert-hessen%2Fsteel-titan-the-life-of-charles-m-schwab%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+Hessen" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Reviews of <i>In Defense of the Corporation</i>: <ul><li>Richard D. Auster, <i>Southern Economic Journal</i>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1057263">1057263</a></li> <li>Barry D. Baysinger, <i>Public Choice</i>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/30023432">30023432</a></li> <li>Robert C. Downs, <i>UMKC Law Review</i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://heinonline.org/hol-cgi-bin/get_pdf.cgi?handle=hein.journals/umkc48&section=32">[1]</a></li> <li>John C. Goodman, <i>Journal of Economic Literature</i>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2723920">2723920</a></li> <li>Donald L. Kemmerer, <i>The Business History Review</i>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3114094">3114094</a></li> <li>F. G. Kempin Jr., <i>American Business Law Journal</i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://heinonline.org/hol-cgi-bin/get_pdf.cgi?handle=hein.journals/ambuslj18&section=17">[2]</a></li> <li>Edwin A. Locke, <i>The Academy of Management Review</i>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/257210">257210</a></li> <li>Henry G. Manne, <i>University of Miami Law Review</i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://repository.law.miami.edu/umlr/vol33/iss5/13">[3]</a></li> <li>Lee E. Preston, <i>The Bell Journal of Economics</i>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3003366">3003366</a></li> <li>Walter Werner, <i>Columbia Law Review</i>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1121936">1121936</a></li> <li><i>Studia Diplomatica</i>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/44834800">44834800</a></li></ul> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Review of <i>Does Big Business Rule America?</i>: <ul><li>James W. Brock, <i>Review of Industrial Organization</i>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41798264">41798264</a></li></ul> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Reviews of <i>Berlin Alert</i>: <ul><li>Justus D. 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