CINXE.COM
Encyclopedia - Engineering and Technology History Wiki
<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head><script type="text/javascript" src="/_static/js/bundle-playback.js?v=HxkREWBo" charset="utf-8"></script> <script type="text/javascript" src="/_static/js/wombat.js?v=txqj7nKC" charset="utf-8"></script> <script>window.RufflePlayer=window.RufflePlayer||{};window.RufflePlayer.config={"autoplay":"on","unmuteOverlay":"hidden"};</script> <script type="text/javascript" src="/_static/js/ruffle/ruffle.js"></script> <script type="text/javascript"> __wm.init("https://web.archive.org/web"); __wm.wombat("https://ethw.org/Encyclopedia","20210704211046","https://web.archive.org/","web","/_static/", "1625433046"); </script> <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="/_static/css/banner-styles.css?v=S1zqJCYt" /> <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="/_static/css/iconochive.css?v=3PDvdIFv" /> <!-- End Wayback Rewrite JS Include --> <meta charset="UTF-8"/> <title>Encyclopedia - Engineering and Technology History Wiki</title> <script>document.documentElement.className="client-js";RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":!1,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy","wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"YOIj1rb9@FlcbGtPIw4uKwAAAA4","wgCSPNonce":!1,"wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":!1,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Encyclopedia","wgTitle":"Encyclopedia","wgCurRevisionId":178336,"wgRevisionId":178336,"wgArticleId":33958,"wgIsArticle":!0,"wgIsRedirect":!1,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":[],"wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Encyclopedia","wgRelevantArticleId":33958,"wgIsProbablyEditable":!1,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":!1,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgULSAcceptLanguageList":["en-us","en"],"wgULSCurrentAutonym":"English", "wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgPageFormsTargetName":null,"wgPageFormsAutocompleteValues":[],"wgPageFormsAutocompleteOnAllChars":!1,"wgPageFormsFieldProperties":[],"wgPageFormsCargoFields":[],"wgPageFormsDependentFields":[],"wgPageFormsCalendarValues":[],"wgPageFormsCalendarParams":[],"wgPageFormsCalendarHTML":null,"wgPageFormsGridValues":[],"wgPageFormsGridParams":[],"wgPageFormsContLangYes":null,"wgPageFormsContLangNo":null,"wgPageFormsContLangMonths":[],"wgPageFormsHeightForMinimizingInstances":800,"wgPageFormsShowOnSelect":[],"wgPageFormsScriptPath":"/w/extensions/PageForms","edgValues":null,"wgPageFormsEDSettings":null,"wgAmericanDates":!1,"egMapsScriptPath":"/w/extensions/Maps/","egMapsDebugJS":!1,"egMapsAvailableServices":["leaflet","googlemaps3"],"egMapsLeafletLayersApiKeys":{"MapBox":"","MapQuestOpen":"","Thunderforest":"","GeoportailFrance":""},"wgMjSize":100,"wgULSPosition":"personal", "wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":!1};RLSTATE={"site.styles":"ready","noscript":"ready","user.styles":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","mediawiki.toc.styles":"ready","mediawiki.skinning.content":"ready","zzz.ext.bootstrap.styles":"ready","ext.uls.pt":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.smw.style":"ready","ext.smw.tooltip.styles":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.smw.style","ext.smw.tooltips","ext.MjCDN","ext.MjCDN.mobile","smw.entityexaminer","site","mediawiki.page.startup","mediawiki.page.ready","mediawiki.toc","ext.uls.interface","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.ethw","ext.bootstrap.scripts"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.implement("user.options@1hzgi",function($,jQuery,require,module){/*@nomin*/mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); });});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/web/20210704211046cs_/https://ethw.org/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.smw.style%7Cext.smw.tooltip.styles&only=styles&skin=chameleon"/> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/web/20210704211046cs_/https://ethw.org/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.uls.pt%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cmediawiki.skinning.content%7Cmediawiki.toc.styles%7Czzz.ext.bootstrap.styles&only=styles&skin=chameleon"/> <script async="" src="/web/20210704211046js_/https://ethw.org/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=chameleon"></script> <style>#mw-indicator-mw-helplink {display:none;}</style> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""/> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/web/20210704211046cs_/https://ethw.org/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=chameleon"/> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.35.1"/> <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1, shrink-to-fit=no"/> <link rel="alternate" type="application/rdf+xml" title="Encyclopedia" href="/web/20210704211046/https://ethw.org/w/index.php?title=Special:ExportRDF/Encyclopedia&xmlmime=rdf"/> <link rel="shortcut icon" href="/web/20210704211046im_/https://ethw.org/w/favicon.ico"/> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/web/20210704211046/https://ethw.org/w/opensearch_desc.php" title="ETHW (en)"/> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="https://ethw.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"/> <!--[if lt IE 9]><script src="/w/resources/lib/html5shiv/html5shiv.js"></script><![endif]--> </head> <body class="mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Encyclopedia rootpage-Encyclopedia layout-navhead_ethw skin-chameleon action-view"> <!-- navigation bar --> <nav class="p-navbar collapsible" role="navigation" id="mw-navigation"> <!-- logo and main page link --> <div id="p-logo" class="navbar-brand p-logo" role="banner"> <a href="/web/20210704211046/https://ethw.org/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page"><img src="/web/20210704211046im_/https://ethw.org/w/logo.png" alt="ETHW"/></a> </div> <button type="button" class="navbar-toggler" data-toggle="collapse" data-target="#gs5lzt2631"></button> <div class="collapse navbar-collapse gs5lzt2631" id="gs5lzt2631"> <div class="navbar-nav"> <!-- Go --> <div class="nav-item dropdown"> <a href="#" class="nav-link dropdown-toggle" data-toggle="dropdown" data-boundary="viewport">Go</a> <div class="dropdown-menu p-Go" id="p-Go"> <div id="n-Browse-by-Subject"><a href="/web/20210704211046/https://ethw.org/ETHW:Subject_browse" class="nav-link n-Browse-by-Subject">Browse by Subject</a></div> <div id="n-Encyclopedia"><a href="/web/20210704211046/https://ethw.org/Encyclopedia" class="nav-link n-Encyclopedia">Encyclopedia</a></div> <div id="n-Oral-Histories"><a href="/web/20210704211046/https://ethw.org/Oral-History:List_of_all_Oral_Histories" class="nav-link n-Oral-Histories">Oral Histories</a></div> <div id="n-First-Hand-Histories"><a href="/web/20210704211046/https://ethw.org/First-Hand:List_of_First_Hand_Histories" class="nav-link n-First-Hand-Histories">First Hand Histories</a></div> <div id="n-Landmarks.2FMilestones"><a href="/web/20210704211046/https://ethw.org/Landmarks" class="nav-link n-Landmarks.2FMilestones">Landmarks/Milestones</a></div> <div id="n-Archives"><a href="/web/20210704211046/https://ethw.org/Archives:Archival_Collections" class="nav-link n-Archives">Archives</a></div> <div id="n-Education"><a href="/web/20210704211046/https://ethw.org/ETHW:About-Education" class="nav-link n-Education">Education</a></div> <div id="n-Random-page"><a href="/web/20210704211046/https://ethw.org/Special:Random" class="nav-link n-Random-page">Random page</a></div> <div id="n-Special-pages"><a href="/web/20210704211046/https://ethw.org/Special:SpecialPages" class="nav-link n-Special-pages">Special pages</a></div> <div id="n-Recent-changes"><a href="/web/20210704211046/https://ethw.org/Special:RecentChanges" class="nav-link n-Recent-changes">Recent changes</a></div> <div id="n-New-pages"><a href="/web/20210704211046/https://ethw.org/Special:NewPages" class="nav-link n-New-pages">New pages</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- User assistance --> <div class="nav-item dropdown"> <a href="#" class="nav-link dropdown-toggle" data-toggle="dropdown" data-boundary="viewport">User assistance</a> <div class="dropdown-menu p-User assistance" id="p-User assistance"> <div id="n-help"><a href="/web/20210704211046/https://ethw.org/Help:Contents" title="The place to find out" class="nav-link n-help">Help</a></div> <div id="n-Contact-us"><a href="/web/20210704211046/https://ethw.org/Special:Contact" class="nav-link n-Contact-us">Contact us</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- toolbox --> <div class="nav-item p-tb-dropdown"> <a href="#" class="nav-link dropdown-toggle p-tb-toggle" data-toggle="dropdown" data-boundary="viewport">Tools</a> <div class="dropdown-menu"> <div id="t-whatlinkshere" class="nav-item"><a href="/web/20210704211046/https://ethw.org/Special:WhatLinksHere/Encyclopedia" title="A list of all wiki pages that link here [j]" accesskey="j" class="nav-link t-whatlinkshere">What links here</a></div> <div id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="nav-item"><a href="/web/20210704211046/https://ethw.org/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Encyclopedia" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k" class="nav-link t-recentchangeslinked">Related changes</a></div> <div id="t-specialpages" class="nav-item"><a href="/web/20210704211046/https://ethw.org/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q" class="nav-link t-specialpages">Special pages</a></div> <div id="t-print" class="nav-item"><a href="javascript:print();" rel="alternate" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p" class="nav-link t-print">Printable version</a></div> <div id="t-permalink" class="nav-item"><a href="/web/20210704211046/https://ethw.org/w/index.php?title=Encyclopedia&oldid=178336" title="Permanent link to this revision of the page" class="nav-link t-permalink">Permanent link</a></div> <div id="t-info" class="nav-item"><a href="/web/20210704211046/https://ethw.org/w/index.php?title=Encyclopedia&action=info" title="More information about this page" class="nav-link t-info">Page information</a></div> <div id="t-smwbrowselink" class="nav-item"><a href="/web/20210704211046/https://ethw.org/Special:Browse/:Encyclopedia" rel="search" class="nav-link t-smwbrowselink">Browse properties</a></div> <div id="t-smwbrowselink" class="nav-item"><a href="/web/20210704211046/https://ethw.org/Special:Browse/:Encyclopedia" rel="search" class="nav-link t-smwbrowselink">Browse properties</a></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="navbar-nav right"> <!-- page tools --> <div class="navbar-tools navbar-nav flex-row"> <div class="navbar-tool dropdown"> <a data-toggle="dropdown" data-boundary="viewport" class="navbar-more-tools" href="#" title="Page tools"></a> <!-- Content navigation --> <div class="flex-row navbar-pagetools dropdown-menu p-contentnavigation" id="p-contentnavigation"> <!-- namespaces --> <div id="ca-talk" class="new"><a href="/web/20210704211046/https://ethw.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Encyclopedia&action=edit&redlink=1" rel="discussion" title="Discussion about the content page (page does not exist) [t]" accesskey="t" class="new ca-talk">Discussion</a></div> <!-- views --> <div id="ca-viewsource"><a href="/web/20210704211046/https://ethw.org/w/index.php?title=Encyclopedia&action=edit" title="This page is protected. You can view its source [e]" accesskey="e" class="ca-viewsource">View source</a></div> <div id="ca-history"><a href="/web/20210704211046/https://ethw.org/w/index.php?title=Encyclopedia&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h" class="ca-history">History</a></div> </div> </div> </div> <!-- search form --> <div id="p-search" class="p-search order-first order-cmln-0 navbar-form" role="search"> <form id="searchform" class="mw-search" action="/web/20210704211046/https://ethw.org/w/index.php"> <input type="hidden" name="title" value=" Special:Search"/> <div class="input-group"> <input name="search" placeholder="Search ETHW" title="Search ETHW [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" class="form-control"/> <div class="input-group-append"> <button value="Go" id="searchGoButton" name="go" type="submit" class="search-btn searchGoButton" aria-label="Go to page" title="Go to a page with this exact name if it exists"></button> </div> </div> </form> </div> <!-- personal tools --> <div class="navbar-tools navbar-nav"> <div class="navbar-tool dropdown"> <a class="navbar-usernotloggedin" href="#" data-toggle="dropdown" data-boundary="viewport" title="You are not logged in."> </a> <div class="p-personal-tools dropdown-menu"> <div id="pt-uls" class="active"><a href="#" class="uls-trigger pt-uls">English</a></div> <div id="pt-login"><a href="/web/20210704211046/https://ethw.org/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Encyclopedia" title="You are encouraged to log in; however, it is not mandatory [o]" accesskey="o" class="pt-login">Log in</a></div> <div id="pt-createaccount"><a href="/web/20210704211046/https://ethw.org/Special:RequestAccount" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class="pt-createaccount">Request account</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div class="flex-fill container"> <div class="row"> <div class="col"> </div> </div> <div class="row"> <div class="col"> <!-- start the content area --> <div id="content" class="mw-body content"><a id="top" class="top"></a> <div id="mw-indicators" class="mw-indicators"> <div id="mw-indicator-smw-entity-examiner" class="mw-indicator mw-indicator-smw-entity-examiner"><div class="smw-entity-examiner smw-indicator-vertical-bar-loader" data-subject="Encyclopedia#0##" data-dir="ltr" data-uselang="" title="Running an examiner in the background"></div></div> </div> <div class="contentHeader"> <!-- title of the page --> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading">Encyclopedia</h1> <!-- tagline; usually goes something like "From WikiName" primary purpose of this seems to be for printing to identify the source of the content --> <div id="siteSub" class="siteSub">From ETHW</div><div id="jump-to-nav" class="mw-jump jump-to-nav">Jump to:<a href="#mw-navigation">navigation</a>, <a href="#p-search">search</a></div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="bodyContent"> <!-- body text --> <div id="mw-content-text" lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"><div class="mw-parser-output"><p>Encyclopedia articles are 3rd person articles neutral in tone which make up the bulk of the ETHW's content. As the scope of the ETHW includes the history of technology and its related fields, encyclopedic articles can widely vary in content. The articles can deal with biographies of individuals, histories of engineering societies, histories of certain technologies and the organizations which developed them. The ETHW aims to collect all material within its scope regardless of notability, so do not feel discouraged from contributing if you have detailed knowledge about a very specific subject or individual. The only criteria beyond fitting within engineering and its related fields of interest are that the article must be historic in nature, either by presenting a history of some subject, or the subject in question being 25 years older or more. </p><p>See a list of <a href="/web/20210704211046/https://ethw.org/Special:AllPages" title="Special:AllPages">all pages</a> or <a href="/web/20210704211046/https://ethw.org/ETHW:Subject_browse" title="ETHW:Subject browse">browse by subject</a>. </p><p>Have an article you'd like to submit? <a href="/web/20210704211046/https://ethw.org/Create" title="Create">Add a page to the ETHW here</a> </p> <div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none"/><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#STARS_articles"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">STARS articles</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Suggested_articles"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Suggested articles</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Oceanic_Engineering"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Oceanic Engineering</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Publications"><span class="tocnumber">2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Publications</span></a></li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="STARS_articles">STARS articles</span></h2> <p>STARS articles are signed, peer-reviewed articles on the history of major developments in electrical and computer sciences and technologies. They are written for a general audience with a level of accuracy and insight that satisfies knowledgeable professionals. Below are the current STARS articles: </p> <ul><li><a href="/web/20210704211046/https://ethw.org/Underwater_Cables" title="Underwater Cables">Cables, Underwater</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20210704211046/https://ethw.org/Electronic_Calculators:_Desktop_to_Pocket" title="Electronic Calculators: Desktop to Pocket">Calculators, Electronic: Desktop to Pocket</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20210704211046/https://ethw.org/Inventing_the_Computer" title="Inventing the Computer">Computer, Inventing the</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20210704211046/https://ethw.org/Early_Popular_Computers,_1950_-_1970" title="Early Popular Computers, 1950 - 1970">Computers, Early Popular 1950-1970</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20210704211046/https://ethw.org/Differential_Analyzers" title="Differential Analyzers">Differential Analyzers</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20210704211046/https://ethw.org/Electrocardiography" title="Electrocardiography">Electrocardiography</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20210704211046/https://ethw.org/Fax_Machines" title="Fax Machines">Fax Machines</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20210704211046/https://ethw.org/IBM_System/360" title="IBM System/360">IBM System/360</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20210704211046/https://ethw.org/Creating_Magnetic_Disk_Storage_at_IBM" title="Creating Magnetic Disk Storage at IBM">Magnetic Disk Storage at IBM, Creating</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20210704211046/https://ethw.org/Maxwell%27s_Equations" title="Maxwell's Equations">Maxwell's Equations</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20210704211046/https://ethw.org/Scanning_Probe_Microscopy" title="Scanning Probe Microscopy">Microscopy, Probe</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20210704211046/https://ethw.org/Rise_and_Fall_of_Minicomputers" title="Rise and Fall of Minicomputers">Minicomputer, Rise and Fall of</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20210704211046/https://ethw.org/Motion_Pictures" title="Motion Pictures">Motion Pictures</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20210704211046/https://ethw.org/Pacemakers" title="Pacemakers">Pacemakers</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20210704211046/https://ethw.org/Early_Punched_Card_Equipment,_1880_-_1951" title="Early Punched Card Equipment, 1880 - 1951">Punched Card Equipment, Early</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20210704211046/https://ethw.org/Software_Industry" title="Software Industry">Software Industry</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20210704211046/https://ethw.org/Electromechanical_Telephone-Switching" title="Electromechanical Telephone-Switching">Telephone-Switching, Electromechanical</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20210704211046/https://ethw.org/Telephone_Transmission" title="Telephone Transmission">Telephone Transmission</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20210704211046/https://ethw.org/Telephones" title="Telephones">Telephones</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20210704211046/https://ethw.org/Word_Processing_for_the_Japanese_Language" title="Word Processing for the Japanese Language">Word Processing for the Japanese Language</a></li></ul> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Suggested_articles">Suggested articles</span></h2> <p>Looking for ideas on how to contribute? The ETHW currently has no or stub pages pages on the following subjects and needs your help to improve them. <a href="/web/20210704211046/https://ethw.org/Special:UserLogin" title="Special:UserLogin">Log in with your ETHW account</a> and click on any topic below to start to edit! </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Oceanic_Engineering">Oceanic Engineering</span></h3> <ul><li><a href="/web/20210704211046/https://ethw.org/w/index.php?title=Submerged_vacuum_tubes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Submerged vacuum tubes (page does not exist)">Submerged vacuum tubes</a></li></ul> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Publications">Publications</span></h3> <ul><li><a href="/web/20210704211046/https://ethw.org/w/index.php?title=Electrical_Engineering&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Electrical Engineering (page does not exist)">Electrical Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20210704211046/https://ethw.org/w/index.php?title=Electrical_World&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Electrical World (page does not exist)">Electrical World</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20210704211046/https://ethw.org/w/index.php?title=AIEE_Transactions&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="AIEE Transactions (page does not exist)">AIEE Transactions</a></li></ul> <!-- NewPP limit report Cached time: 20210704180827 Cache expiry: 86400 Dynamic content: false Complications: [] [SMW] In鈥恡ext annotation parser time: 0.001 seconds CPU time usage: 0.014 seconds Real time usage: 0.016 seconds Preprocessor visited node count: 37/1000000 Post鈥恊xpand include size: 0/2097152 bytes Template argument size: 0/2097152 bytes Highest expansion depth: 2/40 Expensive parser function count: 0/100 Unstrip recursion depth: 0/20 Unstrip post鈥恊xpand size: 0/5000000 bytes --> <!-- Transclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template) 100.00% 0.000 1 -total --> <!-- Saved in parser cache with key mediawiki:pcache:idhash:33958-0!canonical and timestamp 20210704180827 and revision id 178336 --> </div></div><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210704211046/https://ethw.org/w/index.php?title=Encyclopedia&oldid=178336">https://ethw.org/w/index.php?title=Encyclopedia&oldid=178336</a>"</div> <!-- end body text --> <!-- data blocks which should go somewhere after the body text, but not before the catlinks block--> </div> <!-- category links --> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks catlinks-allhidden" data-mw="interface"></div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="mb-2 mt-4 container-fluid"> <div class="row"> <div class="col"> <!-- navigation bar --> <nav class="p-navbar not-collapsible small mb-2" role="navigation" id="mw-navigation-gs5lzt26dl"> <div class="navbar-nav"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="row"> <div class="col"> <!-- footer links --> <div id="footer-info" class="footer-info"> <!-- info --> <div> This page was last edited on 19 February 2020, at 16:34.</div> </div> <!-- places --> <div id="footer-places" class="footer-places"> <div><a href="/web/20210704211046/https://ethw.org/ETHW:About" title="ETHW:About">About ETHW</a></div> <div><a href="/web/20210704211046/https://ethw.org/ETHW:Policies" title="ETHW:Policies">Policies and disclaimers</a></div> </div> </div> <div class="col"> <!-- footer icons --> <div id="footer-icons" class="justify-content-end footer-icons"> <!-- poweredby --> <div><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210704211046/https://www.mediawiki.org/" target="_blank"><img src="/web/20210704211046im_/https://ethw.org/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki_88x31.png" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" srcset="/web/20210704211046im_/https://ethw.org/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /web/20210704211046im_/https://ethw.org/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"/></a></div> <div><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210704211046/https://www.semantic-mediawiki.org/wiki/Semantic_MediaWiki" target="_blank"><img src="data:image/png;base64,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" alt="Powered by Semantic MediaWiki" class="smw-footer" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"/></a></div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.log.warn("This page is using the deprecated ResourceLoader module \"mediawiki.skinning.content\".\nYour default skin ResourceLoader class should use ResourceLoaderSkinModule::class");mw.config.set({"wgPageParseReport":{"smw":{"limitreport-intext-parsertime":0.001},"limitreport":{"cputime":"0.014","walltime":"0.016","ppvisitednodes":{"value":37,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":0,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":0,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":2,"limit":40},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":0,"limit":100},"unstrip-depth":{"value":0,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":0,"limit":5000000},"timingprofile":["100.00% 0.000 1 -total"]},"cachereport":{"timestamp":"20210704180827","ttl":86400,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script> (function(i,s,o,g,r,a,m){i['GoogleAnalyticsObject']=r;i[r]=i[r]||function(){ (i[r].q=i[r].q||[]).push(arguments)},i[r].l=1*new Date();a=s.createElement(o), m=s.getElementsByTagName(o)[0];a.async=1;a.src=g;m.parentNode.insertBefore(a,m) })(window,document,'script','//web.archive.org/web/20210704211046/https://www.google-analytics.com/analytics.js','ga'); ga('create', 'UA-22814006-1', 'auto'); ga('set', 'anonymizeIp', true); ga('send', 'pageview'); </script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgBackendResponseTime":63});});</script></body> </html><!-- FILE ARCHIVED ON 21:10:46 Jul 04, 2021 AND RETRIEVED FROM THE INTERNET ARCHIVE ON 09:40:26 Nov 27, 2024. JAVASCRIPT APPENDED BY WAYBACK MACHINE, COPYRIGHT INTERNET ARCHIVE. ALL OTHER CONTENT MAY ALSO BE PROTECTED BY COPYRIGHT (17 U.S.C. SECTION 108(a)(3)). --> <!-- playback timings (ms): captures_list: 1.017 exclusion.robots: 0.045 exclusion.robots.policy: 0.027 esindex: 0.018 cdx.remote: 7.485 LoadShardBlock: 85.453 (3) PetaboxLoader3.datanode: 94.11 (4) PetaboxLoader3.resolve: 116.504 (2) load_resource: 145.253 -->