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<span>Toggle Implications for organizational management subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Implications_for_organizational_management-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Complexity_theory_and_knowledge_management" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Complexity_theory_and_knowledge_management"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Complexity theory and knowledge management</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Complexity_theory_and_knowledge_management-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Complexity_theory_and_project_management" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Complexity_theory_and_project_management"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Complexity theory and project management</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Complexity_theory_and_project_management-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Recommendations_for_managers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Recommendations_for_managers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Recommendations for managers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Recommendations_for_managers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Practical_examples" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Practical_examples"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Practical examples</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Practical_examples-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul 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div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the application of <a href="/wiki/Complex_system" title="Complex system">complexity science</a> to strategy. For its application to the problems of economics, see <a href="/wiki/Complexity_economics" title="Complexity economics">Complexity economics</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Complexity_theory_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Complexity theory (disambiguation)">Complexity theory (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p><b>Complexity theory and organizations</b>, also called <b>complexity strategy</b> or <b>complex adaptive organizations</b>, is the use of the study of <a href="/wiki/Complex_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Complex systems">complexity systems</a> in the field of <a href="/wiki/Strategic_management" title="Strategic management">strategic management</a> and <a href="/wiki/Organizational_studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Organizational studies">organizational studies</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-CAS-T-32_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CAS-T-32-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CAS-T-33_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CAS-T-33-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CAS-T-31_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CAS-T-31-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CAS-T-29_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CAS-T-29-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It draws from research in the natural sciences that examines uncertainty and non-linearity.<sup id="cite_ref-Grobman,_Gary_M_2005_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grobman,_Gary_M_2005-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Complexity theory emphasizes interactions and the accompanying <a href="/wiki/Feedback" title="Feedback">feedback</a> loops that constantly change systems. While it proposes that systems are unpredictable, they are also constrained by order-generating rules.<sup id="cite_ref-Burnes,_Bernard_2005_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burnes,_Bernard_2005-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 74">: 74 </span></sup> </p><p>Complexity theory has been used in the fields of <a href="/wiki/Strategic_management" title="Strategic management">strategic management</a> and <a href="/wiki/Organizational_studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Organizational studies">organizational studies</a>. Application areas include understanding how <a href="/wiki/Organizations" class="mw-redirect" title="Organizations">organizations</a> or firms adapt to their environments and how they cope with conditions of uncertainty. Organizations have complex structures in that they are <a href="/wiki/Dynamic_network_analysis" title="Dynamic network analysis">dynamic networks</a> of interactions, and their relationships are not aggregations of the individual static entities. They are adaptive; in that, the individual and <a href="/wiki/Collective_behavior" title="Collective behavior">collective behavior</a> mutate and <a href="/wiki/Self-organizing" class="mw-redirect" title="Self-organizing">self-organize</a> corresponding to a change-initiating micro-event or collection of events.<sup id="cite_ref-CAS-T-01_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CAS-T-01-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CAS-T-02_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CAS-T-02-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Key_concepts">Key concepts</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Complexity_theory_and_organizations&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Key concepts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Complex_adaptive_systems">Complex adaptive systems</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Complexity_theory_and_organizations&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Complex adaptive systems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Organizations can be treated as <a href="/wiki/Complex_adaptive_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Complex adaptive systems">complex adaptive systems</a> (CAS) as they exhibit fundamental CAS principles like self-organization, <a href="/wiki/Complexity" title="Complexity">complexity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Emergence" title="Emergence">emergence</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-CAS-T-13_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CAS-T-13-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> interdependence, space of possibilities, co-evolution,<sup id="cite_ref-CAS-T-37_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CAS-T-37-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-terra_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-terra-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-TerraPassador2019_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TerraPassador2019-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Chaos_theory" title="Chaos theory">chaos</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-CAS-T-30_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CAS-T-30-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CAS-T-34_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CAS-T-34-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-terra_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-terra-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-TerraPassador2019_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TerraPassador2019-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Self-similarity" title="Self-similarity">self-similarity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-CAS-T-01_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CAS-T-01-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CAS-T-03_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CAS-T-03-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-terra_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-terra-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-TerraPassador2019_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TerraPassador2019-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>CAS are contrasted with ordered and <a href="/wiki/Chaotic_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Chaotic systems">chaotic systems</a> by the relationship that exists between the system and the agents which act within it.<sup id="cite_ref-CAS-T-30_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CAS-T-30-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In an ordered system the level of constraint means that all agent behavior is limited to the rules of the system. In a chaotic system, the agents are unconstrained and susceptible to statistical and other analyses. In a CAS, the system and the agents co-evolve; the system lightly constrains agent behavior, but the agents modify the system by their interaction with it. This <a href="/wiki/Self-organizing" class="mw-redirect" title="Self-organizing">self-organizing</a> nature is an important characteristic of CAS; and its ability to learn to adapt, differentiate it from other self-organizing systems.<sup id="cite_ref-CAS-T-01_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CAS-T-01-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CAS-T-30_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CAS-T-30-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CAS-T-34_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CAS-T-34-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-terra_11-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-terra-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-TerraPassador2019_12-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TerraPassador2019-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Organizational environments can be viewed as complex adaptive systems where <a href="/wiki/Coevolution" title="Coevolution">coevolution</a> generally occurs near the <a href="/wiki/Edge_of_chaos" title="Edge of chaos">edge of chaos</a>, and it should maintain a balance between flexibility and stability to avoid organizational failure.<sup id="cite_ref-CAS-T-35_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CAS-T-35-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CAS-T-30_13-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CAS-T-30-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CAS-T-29_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CAS-T-29-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CAS-T-37_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CAS-T-37-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-terra_11-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-terra-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-TerraPassador2019_12-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TerraPassador2019-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a response to coping with turbulent environments; businesses bring out <a href="/wiki/Flexibility" class="mw-redirect" title="Flexibility">flexibility</a>, <a href="/wiki/Creativity" title="Creativity">creativity</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-CAS-T-36_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CAS-T-36-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Agility" title="Agility">agility</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Innovation" title="Innovation">innovation</a> near the edge of chaos; provided the organizational structure has sufficient <a href="/wiki/Decentralized" class="mw-redirect" title="Decentralized">decentralized</a>, <a href="/wiki/Flat_organization" title="Flat organization">non-hierarchical network</a> structures.<sup id="cite_ref-CAS-T-35_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CAS-T-35-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CAS-T-30_13-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CAS-T-30-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CAS-T-29_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CAS-T-29-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-terra_11-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-terra-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Implications_for_organizational_management">Implications for organizational management</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Complexity_theory_and_organizations&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Implications for organizational management"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>CAS approaches to strategy seek to understand the nature of system constraints and agent interaction and generally takes an evolutionary or naturalistic approach to strategy. Some research integrates <a href="/wiki/Computer_simulation_and_organizational_studies" title="Computer simulation and organizational studies">computer simulation and organizational studies</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Complexity_theory_and_knowledge_management">Complexity theory and knowledge management</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Complexity_theory_and_organizations&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Complexity theory and knowledge management"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Complexity theory also relates to <a href="/wiki/Knowledge_management" title="Knowledge management">knowledge management</a> (KM) and <a href="/wiki/Organizational_learning" title="Organizational learning">organizational learning</a> (OL). "Complex systems are, by any other definition, learning organizations."<sup id="cite_ref-CAS-T-28_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CAS-T-28-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Complexity Theory, KM, and OL are all complementary and co-dependent.<sup id="cite_ref-CAS-T-28_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CAS-T-28-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> “KM and OL each lack a theory of how cognition happens in human social systems – complexity theory offers this missing piece”.<sup id="cite_ref-CAS-T-28_18-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CAS-T-28-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Complexity_theory_and_project_management">Complexity theory and project management</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Complexity_theory_and_organizations&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Complexity theory and project management"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Complexity theory is also being used to better understand new ways of doing <a href="/wiki/Project_management" title="Project management">project management</a>, as traditional models have been found lacking to current challenges.<sup id="cite_ref-Saynisch_2010_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Saynisch_2010-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 23">: 23 </span></sup> This approaches advocates forming a "culture of trust" that "welcomes outsiders, embraces new ideas, and promotes cooperation."<sup id="cite_ref-Saynisch_2010_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Saynisch_2010-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 35">: 35 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Recommendations_for_managers">Recommendations for managers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Complexity_theory_and_organizations&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Recommendations for managers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Complexity Theory implies approaches that focus on flatter, more flexible organizations, rather than top-down, command-and-control styles of management.<sup id="cite_ref-Burnes,_Bernard_2005_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burnes,_Bernard_2005-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 84">: 84 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CAS-T-29_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CAS-T-29-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CAS-T-35_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CAS-T-35-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Practical_examples">Practical examples</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Complexity_theory_and_organizations&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Practical examples"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A typical example for an organization behaving as CAS is <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia" title="Wikipedia">Wikipedia</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-CAS-T-11_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CAS-T-11-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which is collaborated and managed by a loosely organized management structure<sup id="cite_ref-CAS-T-11_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CAS-T-11-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that is composed of a complex mix of <a href="/wiki/Human%E2%80%93computer_interaction" title="Human–computer interaction">human–computer interactions</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-CAS-T-16_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CAS-T-16-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CAS-T-17_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CAS-T-17-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CAS-T-18_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CAS-T-18-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By managing behavior, and not only content, Wikipedia uses simple rules to produce a complex, evolving knowledge base that has largely replaced older sources in popular use.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Other examples include: </p> <ul><li>the complex <a href="/wiki/Macroeconomics" title="Macroeconomics">global macroeconomic network</a> within a country or group of countries;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stock_market" title="Stock market">stock market</a> and complex web of <a href="/wiki/Cross-border_cooperation" title="Cross-border cooperation">cross-border</a> <a href="/wiki/Holding_companies" class="mw-redirect" title="Holding companies">holding companies</a>;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manufacturing" title="Manufacturing">manufacturing businesses</a>;</li> <li>and any human social group-based endeavor in a particular <a href="/wiki/Ideology" title="Ideology">ideology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Social_system" title="Social system">social system</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Political_party" title="Political party">political parties</a>, <a href="/wiki/Community" title="Community">communities</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geopolitical" class="mw-redirect" title="Geopolitical">geopolitical</a> organizations, and <a href="/wiki/Terrorist_network_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Terrorist network analysis">terrorist networks</a> of both hierarchical and <a href="/wiki/Leaderless_resistance" title="Leaderless resistance">leaderless</a> nature.<sup id="cite_ref-GT-33_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GT-33-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>This new macro level state may create difficulty for an observer in explaining and describing the collective behavior in terms of its constituent parts, as a result of the complex dynamic networks of interactions, outlined earlier.<sup id="cite_ref-CAS-T-01_7-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CAS-T-01-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Complexity_theory_and_organizations&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Complexity_theory_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Complexity theory (disambiguation)">Complexity theory (disambiguation)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cynefin" class="mw-redirect" title="Cynefin">Cynefin</a> Centre for Organisational Complexity</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Santa_Fe_Institute" title="Santa Fe Institute">Santa Fe Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_brain" title="Global brain">Global brain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-organization" title="Self-organization">Self-organization</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/New_England_Complex_Systems_Institute" title="New England Complex Systems Institute">New England Complex Systems Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Douglas_Stacey" class="mw-redirect" title="Ralph Douglas Stacey">Ralph Douglas Stacey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Complex_Adaptive_Leadership" class="mw-redirect" title="Complex Adaptive Leadership">Complex Adaptive Leadership</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Complexity_theory_and_organizations&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-CAS-T-32-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-CAS-T-32_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFM._EisenhardtMcKelvey2011" class="citation book cs1">M. Eisenhardt, Kathleen; McKelvey, Bill (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BfO1OTuZmPkC"><i>Section 29, Complexity Theory and Corporate Strategy, from book - The SAGE Handbook of Complexity and Management edited by Peter Allen, Steve Maguire, Bill McKelvey</i></a>. SAGE, 2011. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/e7eb/ce4b9b802d0cd9437a114ad047a7aa622a19.pdf">506</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781446209745" title="Special:BookSources/9781446209745"><bdi>9781446209745</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 August</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Section+29%2C+Complexity+Theory+and+Corporate+Strategy%2C+from+book+-+The+SAGE+Handbook+of+Complexity+and+Management+edited+by+Peter+Allen%2C+Steve+Maguire%2C+Bill+McKelvey&rft.pages=506&rft.pub=SAGE%2C+2011&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9781446209745&rft.aulast=M.+Eisenhardt&rft.aufirst=Kathleen&rft.au=McKelvey%2C+Bill&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBfO1OTuZmPkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComplexity+theory+and+organizations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-CAS-T-33-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-CAS-T-33_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFForguesThietart2011" class="citation book cs1">Forgues, Bérnard; Thietart, Alain (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BfO1OTuZmPkC&pg=PA53"><i>Section 2, Complexity science and organization, from book - The SAGE Handbook of Complexity and Management edited by Peter Allen, Steve Maguire, Bill McKelvey</i></a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 August</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=D.+Calvin+Andrus&rft.atitle=Toward+a+Complex+Adaptive+Intelligence+Community+The+Wiki+and+the+Blog&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cia.gov%2Flibrary%2Fcenter-for-the-study-of-intelligence%2Fcsi-publications%2Fcsi-studies%2Fstudies%2Fvol49no3%2Fhtml_files%2FWik_and_%2520Blog_7.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComplexity+theory+and+organizations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Complexity_theory_and_organizations&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Axelrod, R. A., & Cohen, M. D., 2000. <i>Harnessing Complexity: Organizational Implications of a Scientific Frontier.</i> New York: The Free Press</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yaneer_Bar-Yam" title="Yaneer Bar-Yam">Yaneer Bar-Yam</a> (2005). <i>Making Things Work: Solving Complex Problems in a Complex World.</i> Cambridge, MA: Knowledge Press</li> <li>Beautement, P. & Broenner, C. 2010. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.beautement.com/Books/Complexity_Demystified/complexity_demystified.html">Complexity Demystified: A Guide for Practitioners</a>. Originally published in Axminster: Triarchy Press</li> <li>Biermann, F. & Kim, R.E. (Eds). 2020. <a href="//doi.org/10.1017/9781108784641" class="extiw" title="doi:10.1017/9781108784641"><i>Architectures of Earth System Governance: Institutional Complexity and Structural Transformation</i></a>. Cambridge University Press.</li> <li>Brown, S. L., & Eisenhardt, K. M. 1997. The Art of Continuous Change: Linking Complexity Theory and Time-paced Evolution in Relentlessly Shifting Organizations. <i>Administrative Science Quarterly</i>, 42: 1–34</li> <li>Burns, S., & Stalker, G. M. 1961. The Management of Innovation. London: Tavistock Publications</li> <li>Davis, J. P., Eisenhardt, K. M., & Bingham, C. B. 2009. Optimal Structure, Market Dynamism, and the Strategy of Simple Rules. <i>Administrative Science Quarterly</i>, 54: 413–452</li> <li>De Toni, A.F., Comello, L., 2010. Journey into Complexity. Udine: Lulu Publisher</li> <li>Fonseca, J. (2001). Complexity and Innovation in Organizations. London: Routledge</li> <li>Douma, S. & H. Schreuder, Economic Approaches to Organizations, 6th edition, Harlow: Pearson.</li> <li>Gell-Mann, M. 1994. The Quark and the Jaguar: Adventures in the Simple and the Complex. New York: WH Freeman</li> <li>Kauffman, S. 1993. <i>The Origins of Order</i>. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.</li> <li>Levinthal, D. 1997. Adaptation on Rugged Landscapes. <i>Management Science</i>, 43: 934–950</li> <li>Liang, T.Y. 2016. Complexity-Intelligence Strategy: A New Paradigmatic Shift. Singapore: World Scientific Publishing.</li> <li>March, J. G. 1991. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sjbae.pbworks.com/f/march+1991.pdf">Exploration and Exploitation in Organizational Learning</a>. <i>Organization Science</i>, 2(1): 71–87</li> <li>McKelvey, B. 1999. Avoiding Complexity Catastrophe in Coevolutionary Pockets: Strategies for Rugged Landscapes. <i>Organization Science</i>, 10(3): 249–321</li> <li>McMillan, E. 2004 Complexity, Organizations and Change. Routledge.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/041531447X" title="Special:BookSources/041531447X">041531447X</a> Hardback. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-39502-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-39502-X">0-415-39502-X</a> Paperback</li> <li>Moffat, James. 2003. Complexity Theory and Network Centric Warfare.</li> <li>Obolensky N. 2010 Complex Adaptive Leadership - Embracing Paradox and Uncertainty</li> <li>Perrow, C. Complex Organizations: A Critical Essay Scott, Forseman & Co., Glenville, Illinois</li> <li>Rivkin, J., W. 2000. Imitation of Complex Strategies. <i>Management Science</i>, 46(6): 824–844</li> <li>Rivkin, J. and Siggelkow, N. 2003. Balancing Search and Stability: Interdependencies Among Elements of Organizational Design. <i>Management Science</i>, 49, pp. 290–311</li> <li>Rudolph, J., & Repenning, N. 2002. Disaster Dynamics: Understanding the Role of Quantity in Organizational Collapse. <i>Administrative Science Quarterly</i>, 47: 1–30</li> <li>Schilling, M. A. 2000. Toward a General Modular Systems Theory and its Applicability to Interfirm Product Modularity. <i>Academy of Management Review</i>, 25(2): 312–334</li> <li>Siggelkow, S. 2002. Evolution toward Fit. <i>Administrative Science Quarterly</i>, 47, pp. 125–159</li> <li>Simon, H. 1996 (1969; 1981) The Sciences of the Artificial (3rd Edition) MIT Press</li> <li>Smith, Edward. 2006. Complexity, Networking, and Effects Based Approaches to Operations] by Edward</li> <li>Snowden, D.J. Boone, M. 2007. "A Leader's Framework for Decision Making". Harvard Business Review, November 2007, pp. 69–76.</li> <li>Weick, K. E. 1976. 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class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 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href="/wiki/Organization" title="Organization">organizations</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_architecture" title="Organizational architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_behavior" title="Organizational behavior">Behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blame#In_organizations" title="Blame">Blame</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_capital" title="Organizational capital">Capital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_organizational_structure" title="Cellular organizational structure">Cells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_chart" title="Organizational chart">Chart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_citizenship_behavior" title="Organizational citizenship behavior">Citizenship behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organisation_climate" title="Organisation climate">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_commitment" title="Organizational commitment">Commitment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_communication" title="Organizational communication">Communication</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Complexity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_conflict" title="Organizational conflict">Conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_culture" title="Organizational culture">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_architecture" title="Organizational architecture">Design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organization_development" title="Organization development">Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_diagnostics" title="Organizational diagnostics">Diagnostics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_dissent" title="Organizational dissent">Dissent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_ecology" title="Organizational ecology">Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_effectiveness" title="Organizational effectiveness">Effectiveness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_engineering" title="Organizational engineering">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_ethics" title="Organizational ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_field" title="Organizational field">Field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchical_organization" title="Hierarchical organization">Hierarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_identification" title="Organizational identification">Identification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_intelligence" title="Organizational intelligence">Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_justice" title="Organizational justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_learning" title="Organizational learning">Learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_life_cycle" title="Organizational life cycle">Life cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machiavellianism_in_the_workplace" title="Machiavellianism in the workplace">Machiavellianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narcissism_in_the_workplace" title="Narcissism in the workplace">Narcissism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_network_analysis" title="Organizational network analysis">Network analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_ombudsman" title="Organizational ombudsman">Ombudsman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_patterns" title="Organizational patterns">Patterns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perceived_organizational_support" title="Perceived organizational support">Perceived support</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_performance" class="mw-redirect" title="Organizational performance">Performance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_and_organizational_psychology" title="Industrial and organizational psychology">Psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resilience_(organizational)" class="mw-redirect" title="Resilience (organizational)">Resilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_retaliatory_behavior" class="mw-redirect" title="Organizational retaliatory behavior">Retaliatory behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_safety" title="Organizational safety">Safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_space" title="Organizational space">Space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_storytelling" title="Organizational storytelling">Storytelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_structure" title="Organizational structure">Structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_theory" title="Organizational theory">Theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organization_workshop" title="Organization workshop">Workshop</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_organizations" title="History of organizations">History of organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organization_studies" title="Organization studies">Organization studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_organizational_theory" title="Outline of organizational theory">Outline of organizational theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <dl><dt><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Template"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Symbol_template_class_pink.svg/16px-Symbol_template_class_pink.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Symbol_template_class_pink.svg/23px-Symbol_template_class_pink.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Symbol_template_class_pink.svg/31px-Symbol_template_class_pink.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" 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