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Né à Paris , Louis-Philippe était le fils aîné du duc d'Orléans (dit plus tard Philippe-Égalité), qui avait confié l'éducation de ses enfants à sa maîtresse, la comtesse de Genlis ; elle eut le mérite de leur..." /> <meta property="og:url" content="https://www.universalis.fr/encyclopedie/louis-philippe-ier/" /> <meta property="og:locale" content="fr_FR" /> <meta property="og:site_name" content="Encyclopædia Universalis" /> <meta property="og:type" content="website" /> <meta property="og:image" content="https://www.universalis.fr/_web/static/icons/favicon.png" /> <meta property="og:image:width" content="256" /> <meta property="og:image:height" content="252" /> <meta name="twitter:title" content="Biographie de LOUIS-PHILIPPE Ier (1773-1850) roi des Français (1830-1848)" /> <meta name="twitter:description" content="Biographie de LOUIS-PHILIPPE Ier (1773-1850) roi des Français (1830-1848). 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<div class="user-welcome"></div> <div class="login-form-wrapper-mobile"> <div class="login-form"> <div class="btn btn-sm btn-primary keep-label-space-top"> <i aria-hidden="true" class="fa fa-user"></i> Mon Compte </div> </div> </div> <div id="ad_topslot" class="pub-container text-center"> <div class="pub-placeholder"></div> </div> <div class="d-lg-none text-center mb-3"> <a href="/abonnement" title="Je m'abonne" data-matomo-category="CTA" data-matomo-name="Clic" data-matomo-value="Top (mobile)"> <img src="/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/1/6/csm_banner-cta_4de68c3a6b.webp" width="728" height="90" alt="Abonnez-vous à Universalis pour 1 euro" class="img-max shadow-sm"/> </a> </div> <div class="row"> <div id="main-content" class="col-lg-8 col-xl-9 pb-4"> <h1 class="mb-1"> <strong>LOUIS-PHILIPPE I<sup>er</sup> </strong><span class="rm">(1773-1850)</span><span class="label-sub"> roi des Français (1830-1848)</span> </h1> <ul class="pagination justify-content-center public-links "><li class="page-item active"><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 1" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">1</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 2" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">2</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 3" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">3</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 4" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">4</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 5" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">5</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 6" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">6</a></li></ul><div class="content whole type-biographie" ><div class="block_1" data-ucode="yT312334_0"><i class="anchor" id="yT312334_0"></i><div class="clearfix"></div><div class="media-container float-md-start me-2 col-md-3 text-center"><figure class="figure text-center w-100 mb-0 p-1" style="position: relative"><a data-ucode="PH998017" data-showMediaPlayer="1" class="protected media-reference-copy " title="Média : Louis-Philippe" href="/media/louis-philippe-ph998017/"><img id="PH998017" loading="lazy" src="/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/6/d/csm_ph998017_162cb38ee0.webp" class="figure-img rounded mx-auto media_resized" alt="Louis-Philippe - crédits : Hulton Royals Collection/ Hulton Archive/ Getty Images" data-description="Louis-Philippe (1773-1850), ici vers 1800, futur roi des Français (1830-1848)." data-copyright="Hulton Royals Collection/ Hulton Archive/ Getty Images" width="1024" height="664" /></a><figcaption class="figure-caption"><p class="m-0 mt-1 fw-bold text-gray-700 text-truncate"> Louis-Philippe </p><p class="m-0 copyright text-sm text-gray-700 text-truncate"> Hulton Royals Collection/ Hulton Archive/ Getty Images </p></figcaption></figure></div><p> Né à <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="Un certain nombre de villes du monde ont donné naissance à des mythes ; quelques-uns ont acquis une portée universelle, en se détachant des caractères fondamentaux du pays lui-même pour exalter la Ville en tant qu'individu. Il en est ainsi de Rome et de Paris . On a maintes fois signalé cette sorte de familiarité amoureuse, avec ses éclats de haine ou d'adoration, que Paris a toujou..." title="Article : PARIS" href="/encyclopedie/paris/">Paris</a>, Louis-Philippe était le fils aîné du duc d'Orléans (dit plus tard Philippe-Égalité), qui avait confié l'éducation de ses enfants à sa maîtresse, la comtesse de Genlis ; elle eut le mérite de leur donner une formation à la vie pratique en même temps qu'une culture plus poussée que celle des princes de ce temps. Le jeune duc de Chartres — c'était son titre — embrassa comme son père le parti de la Révolution et fut membre du <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="Le 30 avril 1789, à Versailles, les députés du tiers état de Bretagne , parmi lesquels Le Chapelier, Lanjuinais, Coroller et Defermon, se réunissent pour débattre ensemble de leur attitude cinq jours avant l'ouverture des États généraux . C'est l'origine du Club breton auquel s'agrégeront très vite des députés « patriotes » venus d'autres provinces : Mounier et Robespierre parm..." title="Article : CLUB DES JACOBINS" href="/encyclopedie/club-des-jacobins/">club des Jacobins</a>. Heureusement pour lui, il s'en alla servir aux armées et participa aux batailles de Valmy et de Jemmapes dans l'état-major de Dumouriez. Lorsque ce dernier tenta en vain de mener son armée contre la Convention et lorsqu'il passa dans les rangs des Autrichiens, le prince suivit son sort (avril 1793). Il connut alors des jours difficiles, proscrit par la France républicaine et objet de haine pour les royalistes émigrés ; il vécut d'abord caché en Suisse sous un faux nom, donnant des leçons de mathématiques ; puis il passa en Suède et aux États-Unis, où il demeura trois ans. En 1800, il revint en Angleterre et se réconcilia avec ses cousins de la branche aînée. Il épousa en 1809 Marie-Amélie, fille du roi de Naples, alors réfugié en Sicile où il vécut jusqu'à la <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="De 1814 à 1830, hors le bref épisode des Cent-Jours, les deux frères de Louis XVI règnent sur la France, sous les noms de Louis XVIII et Charles X . Cette restauration de la maison de Bourbon devait être aussi, dans l'esprit de ceux qui l'ont souhaitée, une restauration de l' Ancien Régime dans l'ordre politique et social. Mais le fossé creusé par la Révolution, dont l'Empire a co..." title="Article : RESTAURATION" href="/encyclopedie/restauration/">Restauration</a> sous la protection des Anglais. Rentré en France avec Louis XVIII, il passa les quinze années de la Restauration à rassembler, avec un sens très avisé des affaires, les débris de l'immense fortune de la famille d'Orléans. En même temps, il courtisait discrètement l'opposition libérale, marquant ses distances d'avec le régime. Cette politique se révéla payante lorsqu'en juillet 1830 Charles X fut chassé par l'opposition du pays légal soutenue par l'insurrection parisienne. Le duc d'Orléans apparut alors comme la solution idéale à ceux qui craignaient de voir instaurer une république qui entrerait en conflit avec le reste de l'Europe. Le prince accepta d'abord le titre de lieutenant-général puis celui de roi des Français, consacrant ainsi le principe de la <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="Le principe de souveraineté occupe une place essentielle dans la théorie politique : c'est autour de lui que s'ordonne la pensée du politique à partir du xvi e siècle. La souveraineté apparaît ainsi comme le fondement de la modernité politique et permet en grande partie d'expliquer le processus historique de construction de l' État . En dégageant peu à peu le politique de sa di..." title="Article : SOUVERAINETÉ" href="/encyclopedie/souverainete/">souveraineté</a> nationale. Avec quelques modifications de détail, le système gouvernemental de la Charte de 1814 fut maintenu. Louis-Philippe s'en servit pour établir son pouvoir personnel en jouant des ambitions des hommes politiques et en s'appuyant sur le désir d'ordre et de paix des classes possédantes, auxquelles le nouveau système électoral censitaire réservait le droit de vote. Les souverains d'Europe avaient accepté à contre-cœur la <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="Étymologiquement, le terme signifie commandement par un seul. Dans la classification des types de gouvernements, formalisée par Aristote et considérée comme le modèle des classifications, la monarchie est une forme de gouvernement caractérisée par l'unicité du titulaire du pouvoir, mais aussi par l'exercice de ce pouvoir au bénéfice de tous. Le choix de ce critère par Aristote est..." title="Article : MONARCHIE" href="/encyclopedie/monarchie/">monarchie</a> de Juillet, mais la France resta pratiquement isolée, malgré la bienveillance intermittente de l'Angleterre. Louis-Philippe réussit à maintenir la paix mais ce succès même contribua à le rendre impopulaire auprès d'un peuple qui ne parvenait pas à oublier l'éclat des victoires de Napoléon. Alexis de Tocqueville, qui eut plusieurs fois l'occasion de s'entretenir avec lui, a tracé du roi, dans ses <em>Souvenirs </em>un portrait célèbre : « Quoique le prince fût issu de la race la plus noble de l'Europe, qu'au fond de son âme il en cachât tout l'orgueil héréditaire [...] il possédait cependant la plupart des qualités et des défauts qui appartiennent plus particulièrement aux rangs subalternes de la société [...]. Il était rangé dans sa conduite, simple dans ses habitudes, mesuré dans ses goûts ; [...] humain sans être sensible, cupide et doux ; point de passions bruyantes ; point de faiblesses ruineuses ; point de vices éclatants ; une seule vertu de roi, le courage [...]. Éclairé, fin, souple et tenace, tourné seulement vers l'utile et rempli d'un mépris si profond pour la vérité et d'une si grande incrédulité dans la vertu que ses <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="Malgré les travaux de Paul Hazard, les analyses d' Ernst Cassirer ou de Peter Gay, qui en proposaient une définition et en faisaient un modèle, la philosophie des Lumières se trouve aujourd'hui mise en question. Dans sa réalité même, comme ensemble cohérent, paradigmatique de la pensée du xviii e siècle, dans son histoire conçue comme une suite d'images et d'usages contradictoires..." title="Article : LUMIÈRES" href="/encyclopedie/lumieres/">lumières</a> en étaient obscurcies [...]. Placé à la tête d'une aristocratie, il eût peut-être exercé<a href="javascript:" title="Lire la suite" class="read-more ms-1">[...]</a></p></div><div class="clearfix"></div></div><ul class="pagination justify-content-center public-links "><li class="page-item active"><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 1" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">1</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 2" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">2</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 3" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">3</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 4" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" 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data-matomo-value="Block bottom">Découvrez nos offres </a></p><p class="text-center text-sm"> Déjà abonné ? <a href="/identification/" id="folio-login">Se connecter</a></p></div><div id="ad_mpuslot" class="pub-container text-center"><div class="pub-placeholder"></div></div><section class="mt-3 mb-5"><i class="anchor" id="T312334_AUTHORS"></i><p class="title-minor">Écrit par</p><ul class="list-group"><li class="list-group-item" data-dc-author="BERTHIER DE SAUVIGNY, Guillaume de"><a title="Auteur : Guillaume de BERTHIER DE SAUVIGNY" rel="author" href="/auteurs/g.-de-berthier-de-sauvigny/"><strong>Guillaume de BERTHIER DE SAUVIGNY</strong></a> : professeur à l'Institut catholique de Paris </li></ul></section><section class="mb-5"><div class="text-center mb-3 d-print-none"><a class="d-inline-flex flex-row justify-content-center align-items-center btn btn-light btn-large text-start" title="Carte mentale : LOUIS-PHILIPPE Ier (1773-1850) roi des Français (1830-1848)" href="/carte-mentale/louis-philippe-ier/"><i class="fa fa-sitemap fa-rotate-270 me-1 fs-1 text-universalis"></i><p class="m-0"><strong class="fs-4">Carte mentale</strong><br /> Élargissez votre recherche dans Universalis </p></a></div></section> <section class="mb-5 article-classification" data-print-label="la classification" data-print-target=".article-classification"> <i class="anchor" id="yT312334_ROOT_LINES"></i> <p class="title-minor">Classification</p> <nav aria-label="Classification 1"> <ol class="breadcrumb"> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Histoire" href="/classification/histoire/"> Histoire </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Personnages historiques" href="/classification/histoire/personnages-historiques/"> Personnages historiques </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item active" data-dc-subject="Personnages historiques, xixe s."> <a title="Classification : Personnages historiques, xixe s." href="/classification/histoire/personnages-historiques/personnages-historiques-xixe-s/"> Personnages historiques, <span class="pc">xix</span><sup>e</sup> s. </a> </li> </ol> </nav> <nav aria-label="Classification 2"> <ol class="breadcrumb"> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Histoire" href="/classification/histoire/"> Histoire </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Histoire par régions et pays" href="/classification/histoire/histoire-par-regions-et-pays/"> Histoire par régions et pays </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Histoire de l'Europe occidentale" href="/classification/histoire/histoire-par-regions-et-pays/histoire-de-l-europe-occidentale/"> Histoire de l'Europe occidentale </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item active" data-dc-subject="France, histoire"> <a title="Classification : France, histoire" href="/classification/histoire/histoire-par-regions-et-pays/histoire-de-l-europe-occidentale/france-histoire/"> France, histoire </a> </li> </ol> </nav> </section> <section class="mb-5 d-print-none"> <i class="anchor" id="yT312334_MEDIAS"></i> <p class="title-minor">Média</p> <div class="row"> <div class="col-12 col-md-12 text-center p-1"> <figure class="figure text-center w-100 mb-0 p-1" style="position: relative"> <a data-ucode="PH998017" data-showMediaPlayer="1" class="protected media-reference-copy " title="Média : Louis-Philippe" href="/media/louis-philippe-ph998017/"> <img id="PH998017" loading="lazy" src="/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/6/d/csm_ph998017_162cb38ee0.webp" class="figure-img rounded mx-auto media_resized" alt="Louis-Philippe - crédits : Hulton Royals Collection/ Hulton Archive/ Getty Images" data-description="Louis-Philippe (1773-1850), ici vers 1800, futur roi des Français (1830-1848)." data-copyright="Hulton Royals Collection/ Hulton Archive/ Getty Images" width="1024" height="664" /> </a> <figcaption class="figure-caption"> <p class="m-0 mt-1 fw-bold text-gray-700 text-truncate"> Louis-Philippe </p> <p class="m-0 copyright text-sm text-gray-700 text-truncate"> Hulton Royals Collection/ Hulton Archive/ Getty Images </p> </figcaption> </figure> </div> </div> </section> <section class="mb-5 d-print-none learn-more"> <i class="anchor" id="yT312334_REFERENCES"></i> <p class="title-minor">Autres références</p> <ul class="list-group"> <li class="list-group-item"> <h3 class="fs-5 m-0 mt-1"> <a href="/encyclopedie/le-charivari/"> <span class="rg">CHARIVARI </span><span class="pc">LE </span><span class="rm">(1832-1937)</span> </a> </h3> <ul class="list-inline list-inline-bullet mb-1 text-muted"> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">Écrit par <span rel="author">Marc THIVOLET</span> </li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">730 mots</li> </ul> <div class="snippet-content mt-3"> <p> L'existence du <em>Charivari</em>, quotidien de caractère polémique, ne peut être dissociée de celle d'un autre journal, <em>La Caricature</em>, dont la durée fut éphémère mais qui joua un rôle déterminant dans la naissance de la grande <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="La caricature (de l'italien caricare , charger) est l'expression la plus évidente de la satire dans le graphisme , la peinture et même la statuaire. Elle fut longtemps confondue avec les manifestations du grotesque, mais depuis la fin des années 1950 on a cherché à préciser son domaine.. Dans la caricature, il convient de distinguer le portrait en charge, qui utilise la déformation p..." title="Article : CARICATURE" href="/encyclopedie/caricature/">caricature</a> française. Ce fut, en effet, dans <em>La Caricature...</em></p> </div> </li> <li class="list-group-item"> <h3 class="fs-5 m-0 mt-1"> <a href="/encyclopedie/choses-vues/#c21418"> <span class="rg">CHOSES VUES, </span><span class="rm">Victor Hugo - Fiche de lecture</span> </a> </h3> <ul class="list-inline list-inline-bullet mb-1 text-muted"> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">Écrit par <span rel="author">Philippe DULAC</span> </li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">1 184 mots</li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">1 média </li> </ul> <div class="d-none d-md-inline-block float-start me-3"> <a class="protected" title="Article : CHOSES VUES, Victor Hugo - Fiche de lecture" href="/encyclopedie/choses-vues/"> <img class="rounded shadow" loading="lazy" alt="Victor Hugo à Guernesey en 1870 - crédits : Andre/ Henry Guttmann Collection/ Hulton Archive/ Getty Images" width="125" height="125" src="/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/b/f/csm_ph991798_30fc9a0083.webp"/> </a> </div> <div class="snippet-content mt-3"> ...1848 ou l'élection de Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte. Là, Hugo fait œuvre de journaliste et relate les faits à l'instant même où ils entrent dans l'Histoire. Ainsi de la fuite de Louis-Philippe : « Chemin faisant, le roi ôta son faux toupet et se coiffa d'un bonnet de soie jusqu'aux yeux. Sa barbe n'était pas... </div> </li> <li class="list-group-item"> <h3 class="fs-5 m-0 mt-1"> <a href="/encyclopedie/honore-daumier/#c21418"> <span class="rg">DAUMIER </span><span class="pc">HONORÉ </span><span class="rm">(1808-1879)</span> </a> </h3> <ul class="list-inline list-inline-bullet mb-1 text-muted"> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">Écrit par <span rel="author">Robert FOHR</span> </li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">2 952 mots</li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">3 médias </li> </ul> <div class="d-none d-md-inline-block float-start me-3"> <a class="protected" title="Article : DAUMIER HONOR&Eacute; (1808-1879)" href="/encyclopedie/honore-daumier/"> <img class="rounded shadow" loading="lazy" alt="Don Quichotte, H. Daumier - crédits : Pierre Tetrel/ Gamma-Rapho/ Getty Images" width="125" height="125" src="/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/6/f/csm_0017746_23c6e9c9ed.webp"/> </a> </div> <div class="snippet-content mt-3"> ...de l'époque, <em>La Caricature</em>, fondé le 4 novembre 1830, l'« enragé Philipon », auquel nous sommes redevables de la fameuse représentation de Louis-Philippe en poire. Daumier, rappelons-le, compte parmi les tout premiers collaborateurs de <em>La Caricature</em> : d'emblée, ses lithographies y connaissent... </div> </li> <li class="list-group-item"> <h3 class="fs-5 m-0 mt-1"> <a href="/encyclopedie/du-premier-empire-a-la-iiie-republique-reperes-chronologiques/"> <span class="rg">DU PREMIER EMPIRE À LA III<sup class="sup">e</sup> RÉPUBLIQUE - </span><span class="rm">(repères chronologiques)</span> </a> </h3> <ul class="list-inline list-inline-bullet mb-1 text-muted"> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">Écrit par <span rel="author">Sylvain VENAYRE</span> </li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">186 mots</li> </ul> <div class="snippet-content mt-3"> <p><strong>1815 </strong> Rétablissement de la <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="Étymologiquement, le terme signifie commandement par un seul. Dans la classification des types de gouvernements, formalisée par Aristote et considérée comme le modèle des classifications, la monarchie est une forme de gouvernement caractérisée par l'unicité du titulaire du pouvoir, mais aussi par l'exercice de ce pouvoir au bénéfice de tous. Le choix de ce critère par Aristote est..." title="Article : MONARCHIE" href="/encyclopedie/monarchie/">monarchie</a>.</p><p><strong>1830 </strong> « Trois Glorieuses » (27-29 juillet) : chute de <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="Biographie de CHARLES X (1757-1836) roi de France (1824-1830). . Roi de France de 1824 à 1830, sous la Restauration .. Né à Versailles le 9 octobre 1757, Charles était le quatrième fils du dauphin Louis (fils de Louis XV, mort en 1765 sans avoir régné). À la cour de Versailles, la vie du jeune comte d'Artois (tel était son titre) fut celle d'un écervelé aimable et libertin. Au début..." title="Article : CHARLES X (1757-1836) roi de France (1824-1830)" href="/encyclopedie/charles-x/">Charles X</a>, avènement de Louis-Philippe.</p><p><strong>Février 1848 </strong> Chute de Louis-Philippe, proclamation de la II<sup>e</sup> République.</p><p><strong>2 décembre 1851 </strong> Coup d'État de Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte.</p><p><strong>2 décembre 1852...</strong></p> </div> </li> <li class="list-unstyled text-center mt-3"> <a class="btn btn-sm btn-primary" title="Afficher la liste complète des références" rel="related" href="/index/louis-philippe-ier/"> Afficher les 14 références <i aria-hidden="true" class="fa fa-fw fa-chevron-right"></i> </a> </li> </ul> </section> </div> <div class="col-lg-4 col-xl-3 px-0 d-none d-lg-block side-bar position-relative"> <div id="ad_rightslot" class="pub-container text-center"> <div class="pub-placeholder"></div> </div> <div id="ad_rightslot2" class="pub-container text-center"> <div class="pub-placeholder"></div> </div> <a class="wrapper cta" href="/abonnement" title="Abonnez-vous à Universalis pour 1 euro" data-matomo-category="CTA" data-matomo-name="Clic" data-matomo-value="Col right"> <img src="/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/b/6/csm_abo-3_f303c484f7.webp" class="full-height" loading="lazy" width="290" height="476" alt="Abonnez-vous à Universalis pour 1 euro"> </a> <div id="newsletter_subscription" class="wrapper p-3"> <p class="fs-3 fw-bold text-center text-light mb-1">Rejoignez-nous</p> <p class="text-center"> Inscrivez-vous à notre <strong>newsletter</strong></p> <div class="input-group mb-3"> <input type="text" class="form-control" placeholder="votre email"> <div class="input-group-append"> <button id="newsletter_subscription_button" class="btn btn-primary text-uppercase" type="button"> <strong>S'inscrire</strong></button> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </main> <div id="bandeau-footer"> <div class="container"> <p><a href="/abonnement" title="Abonnez-vous à Universalis pour 1 euro">Accédez à l'intégralité d'Universalis.fr <strong>sans publicité</strong></a></p> </div> </div> <footer class="container footer text-center d-print-none"> <ul class="list-inline list-inline-bullet mb-2"> <li class="list-inline-item"> <a href="http://www.encyclopaedia-universalis.fr/" title="Encyclopædia Universalis" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Encyclopædia Universalis </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item"> <a href="https://www.encyclopaedia-universalis.fr/nous-contacter/infos/" title="Contactez-nous" rel="noopener nofollow" target="_blank">Contact</a></li> <li class="list-inline-item"> <a title="Mentions légales" rel="nofollow" href="/mentions-legales/">Mentions légales et politique de confidentialité</a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item"> <a href="https://abonnement.universalis.fr/typo3conf/ext/mailer/Resources/Public/Pdf/cgv.pdf" rel="noopener nofollow" target="_blank" title="Conditions générales de vente">CGV</a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item d-none d-md-inline-block"> <a href="javascript:" id="rgpd" rel="nofollow" title="Consentement RGPD">RGPD</a> </li> </ul> <p class="mb-2">Consulter le <a title="Dictionnaire de l'Encyclopædia Universalis" href="/dictionnaire/"> dictionnaire de l'Encyclopædia Universalis </a> </p> <p class="mb-3">© 2024 Encyclopædia Universalis France. 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