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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Water_pollution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Water pollution </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Water_pollution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Air_pollution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Air_pollution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Air pollution </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Air_pollution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Private_jet_travel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Private_jet_travel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Private jet travel </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Private_jet_travel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mitigation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mitigation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Mitigation </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Mitigation-sublist" 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Available in 13 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-13" aria-hidden="true" > 13 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B7%D9%8A%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86_%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A6%D8%A9" title="الطيران والبيئة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الطيران والبيئة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B6%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8_%E0%A6%9A%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9A%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AC" title="পরিবেশের উপর বিমান চলাচলের প্রভাব – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="পরিবেশের উপর বিমান চলাচলের প্রভাব" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environment%C3%A1ln%C3%AD_dopady_letectv%C3%AD" title="Environmentální dopady letectví – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Environmentální dopady letectví" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umweltauswirkungen_des_Luftverkehrs" title="Umweltauswirkungen des Luftverkehrs – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Umweltauswirkungen des Luftverkehrs" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lennunduse_keskkonnam%C3%B5jud" title="Lennunduse keskkonnamõjud – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Lennunduse keskkonnamõjud" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impacto_ambiental_de_la_aviaci%C3%B3n" title="Impacto ambiental de la aviación – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Impacto ambiental de la aviación" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hegazkintzaren_ingurumenaren_gaineko_eragin" title="Hegazkintzaren ingurumenaren gaineko eragin – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Hegazkintzaren ingurumenaren gaineko eragin" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%AF%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D8%B2%DB%8C%D8%B3%D8%AA%E2%80%8C%D9%85%D8%AD%DB%8C%D8%B7%DB%8C_%D9%87%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%AF%DB%8C" title="پیامدهای زیست‌محیطی هوانوردی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="پیامدهای زیست‌محیطی هوانوردی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_climatique_du_transport_a%C3%A9rien" title="Impact climatique du transport aérien – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Impact climatique du transport aérien" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%A9%D7%A4%D7%A2%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%A1%D7%91%D7%99%D7%91%D7%AA%D7%99%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%A9%D7%9C_%D7%AA%D7%A2%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%94" title="השפעות סביבתיות של תעופה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="השפעות סביבתיות של תעופה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impactos_ambientais_da_avia%C3%A7%C3%A3o" title="Impactos ambientais da aviação – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Impactos ambientais da aviação" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_aviation" title="Environmental impact of aviation – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Environmental impact of aviation" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%88%AA%E7%A9%BA%E6%A5%AD%E5%B0%8D%E7%92%B0%E5%A2%83%E7%9A%84%E5%BD%B1%E9%9F%BF" title="航空業對環境的影響 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="航空業對環境的影響" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet 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searchaux" style="display:none">Effect of emissions from aircraft engines</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CO2_emissions_fraction_of_Aviation_(%25).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/CO2_emissions_fraction_of_Aviation_%28%25%29.png/290px-CO2_emissions_fraction_of_Aviation_%28%25%29.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="207" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/CO2_emissions_fraction_of_Aviation_%28%25%29.png/435px-CO2_emissions_fraction_of_Aviation_%28%25%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/CO2_emissions_fraction_of_Aviation_%28%25%29.png/580px-CO2_emissions_fraction_of_Aviation_%28%25%29.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="429" /></a><figcaption>Between 1940 and 2018, aviation <a href="/wiki/CO2_emissions" class="mw-redirect" title="CO2 emissions">CO2 emissions</a> grew from 0.7% to 2.65% 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title="Green waste">Green waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazardous_waste" title="Hazardous waste">Hazardous waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_waste" title="Industrial waste">Industrial waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Litter" title="Litter">Litter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_mining" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of mining">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipal_solid_waste" title="Municipal solid waste">Municipal solid waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollution_from_nanomaterials" title="Pollution from nanomaterials">Nanomaterials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastic_pollution" title="Plastic pollution">Plastic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Packaging_waste" title="Packaging waste">Packaging waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-consumer_waste" title="Post-consumer waste">Post-consumer waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_management" title="Waste management">Waste management</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Space</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space_debris" title="Space debris">Space debris</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Thermal_pollution" title="Thermal pollution">Thermal</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urban_heat_island" title="Urban heat island">Urban heat island</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Visual_pollution" title="Visual pollution">Visual</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_travel" title="Air travel">Air travel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clutter_(advertising)" title="Clutter (advertising)">Advertising clutter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overhead_power_line" title="Overhead power line">Overhead power lines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traffic_sign" title="Traffic sign">Traffic signs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_blight" class="mw-redirect" title="Urban blight">Urban blight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vandalism" title="Vandalism">Vandalism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_war" title="Environmental impact of war">War</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_warfare" title="Chemical warfare">Chemical warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbicidal_warfare" title="Herbicidal warfare">Herbicidal warfare</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agent_Orange" title="Agent Orange">Agent Orange</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_holocaust" title="Nuclear holocaust">Nuclear holocaust</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fallout" title="Nuclear fallout">Nuclear fallout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_famine" title="Nuclear famine">Nuclear famine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_winter" title="Nuclear winter">Nuclear winter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scorched_earth" title="Scorched earth">Scorched earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unexploded_ordnance" title="Unexploded ordnance">Unexploded ordnance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_and_environmental_law" title="War and environmental law">War and environmental law</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">Water</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_wastewater_treatment" title="Agricultural wastewater treatment">Agricultural wastewater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosolids" title="Biosolids">Biosolids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waterborne_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Waterborne diseases">Diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eutrophication" title="Eutrophication">Eutrophication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firewater_(fire_fighting)" title="Firewater (fire fighting)">Firewater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_environmental_quality_parameters" title="Freshwater environmental quality parameters">Freshwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groundwater_pollution" title="Groundwater pollution">Groundwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypoxia_(environmental)" title="Hypoxia (environmental)">Hypoxia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_wastewater_treatment" title="Industrial wastewater treatment">Industrial wastewater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_pollution" title="Marine pollution">Marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_monitoring" title="Environmental monitoring">Monitoring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonpoint_source_pollution" title="Nonpoint source pollution">Nonpoint source</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutrient_pollution" title="Nutrient pollution">Nutrient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">Ocean acidification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_spill" title="Oil spill">Oil spill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_pharmaceuticals_and_personal_care_products" title="Environmental impact of pharmaceuticals and personal care products">Pharmaceuticals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_salinization" title="Freshwater salinization">Freshwater salinization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Septic_tank" title="Septic tank">Septic tanks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewage" title="Sewage">Sewage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_shipping" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of shipping">Shipping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sludge" title="Sludge">Sludge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_stagnation" title="Water stagnation">Stagnation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfur_water" title="Sulfur water">Sulfur water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_runoff" title="Surface runoff">Surface runoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turbidity" title="Turbidity">Turbidity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_runoff" title="Urban runoff">Urban runoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_quality" title="Water quality">Water quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wastewater" title="Wastewater">Wastewater</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_environmental_pollution" title="History of environmental pollution">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollutant" title="Pollutant">Pollutants</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heavy_metals" title="Heavy metals">Heavy metals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paint" title="Paint">Paint</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Misc</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Area_source_pollution" title="Area source pollution">Area source</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brain_health_and_pollution" title="Brain health and pollution">Brain health and pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debris" title="Debris">Debris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dust" title="Dust">Dust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garbology" title="Garbology">Garbology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_pollution" title="Legacy pollution">Legacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midden" title="Midden">Midden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Point_source_pollution" title="Point source pollution">Point source</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste" title="Waste">Waste</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Toxic_waste" title="Toxic waste">Toxic</a></li></ul></li></ul> <table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Lists</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pollution-related_diseases" title="List of pollution-related diseases">Diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_environmental_laws_by_country" title="List of environmental laws by country">Law by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_most-polluted_cities_by_particulate_matter_concentration" title="List of most-polluted cities by particulate matter concentration">Most polluted cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_least_polluted_cities_by_particulate_matter_concentration" class="mw-redirect" title="List of least polluted cities by particulate matter concentration">Least polluted cities by PM2.5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_international_environmental_agreements" title="List of international environmental agreements">Treaties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_most-polluted_rivers" title="List of most-polluted rivers">Most polluted rivers</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Categories</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pollution_by_country" title="Category:Pollution by country">By country</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg/16px-Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg/24px-Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg/32px-Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="700" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Environment" title="Portal:Environment">Environment portal</a></li> <li><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Earth_Day_Flag.png/16px-Earth_Day_Flag.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Earth_Day_Flag.png/24px-Earth_Day_Flag.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Earth_Day_Flag.png/32px-Earth_Day_Flag.png 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4000" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Ecology" title="Portal:Ecology">Ecology portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Pollution_sidebar" title="Template:Pollution sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Pollution_sidebar" title="Template talk:Pollution sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Pollution_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Pollution sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <a href="/wiki/Aircraft_engine" title="Aircraft engine">Aircraft engines</a> produce gases, <a href="/wiki/Aircraft_noise" class="mw-redirect" title="Aircraft noise">noise</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Particulates" title="Particulates">particulates</a> from <a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">fossil fuel</a> combustion, raising <a href="/wiki/Environment_(biophysical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Environment (biophysical)">environmental</a> concerns over their global effects and their effects on local air quality.<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> <a href="/wiki/Jet_airliners" class="mw-redirect" title="Jet airliners">Jet airliners</a> contribute to <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a> by emitting <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> (CO2), the best understood <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">greenhouse gas</a>, and, with less <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific understanding</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_oxides" class="mw-redirect" title="Nitrogen oxides">nitrogen oxides</a>, <a href="/wiki/Condensation_trails" class="mw-redirect" title="Condensation trails">contrails</a> and particulates. Their <a href="/wiki/Radiative_forcing" title="Radiative forcing">radiative forcing</a> is estimated at 1.3–1.4 that of CO2 alone, excluding induced <a href="/wiki/Cirrus_cloud" title="Cirrus cloud">cirrus cloud</a> with a very low level of scientific understanding. In 2018, global commercial operations generated 2.4% of all CO2 emissions.<a href="#cite_note-ICCTsep2019-3">[3]</a> Jet airliners have become 70% more fuel efficient between 1967 and 2007, and CO2 emissions per revenue <a href="/wiki/Ton-kilometer" class="mw-redirect" title="Ton-kilometer">ton-kilometer</a> (RTK) in 2018 were 47% of those in 1990. In 2018, CO2 emissions averaged 88 grams of CO2 per revenue passenger per km. While the <a href="/wiki/Aviation" title="Aviation">aviation</a> industry is more <a href="/wiki/Fuel_efficient" class="mw-redirect" title="Fuel efficient">fuel efficient</a>, overall emissions have risen as the volume of <a href="/wiki/Air_travel" title="Air travel">air travel</a> has increased. By 2020, aviation emissions were 70% higher than in 2005 and they could grow by 300% by 2050.<a href="#cite_note-EC-aviation-4">[4]</a> <a href="/wiki/Aircraft_noise_pollution" title="Aircraft noise pollution">Aircraft noise pollution</a> disrupts <a href="/wiki/Sleep" title="Sleep">sleep</a>, children's education and could increase <a href="/wiki/Cardiovascular_risk" class="mw-redirect" title="Cardiovascular risk">cardiovascular risk</a>. <a href="/wiki/Airports" class="mw-redirect" title="Airports">Airports</a> can generate <a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">water pollution</a> due to their extensive handling of <a href="/wiki/Jet_fuel" title="Jet fuel">jet fuel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Deicing" title="Deicing">deicing</a> chemicals if not <a href="/wiki/Spill_containment" title="Spill containment">contained</a>, contaminating nearby water bodies. Aviation activities emit <a href="/wiki/Ozone" title="Ozone">ozone</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ultrafine_particles" class="mw-redirect" title="Ultrafine particles">ultrafine particles</a>, both of which are <a href="/wiki/Health_hazard" class="mw-redirect" title="Health hazard">health hazards</a>. Piston engines used in <a href="/wiki/General_aviation" title="General aviation">general aviation</a> burn <a href="/wiki/Avgas" title="Avgas">Avgas</a>, releasing <a href="/wiki/Lead_poisoning" title="Lead poisoning">toxic lead</a>. Aviation's environmental footprint can be reduced by better <a href="/wiki/Fuel_economy_in_aircraft" title="Fuel economy in aircraft">fuel economy in aircraft</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Air_traffic_control" title="Air traffic control">air traffic control</a> and <a href="/wiki/Airway_(aviation)" title="Airway (aviation)">flight routes</a> can be optimized to lower non-CO2 effects on climate from NO x, particulates or contrails. <a href="/wiki/Aviation_biofuel" title="Aviation biofuel">Aviation biofuel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Emissions_trading" title="Emissions trading">emissions trading</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carbon_offsetting" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon offsetting">carbon offsetting</a>, part of the <a href="/wiki/ICAO" class="mw-redirect" title="ICAO">ICAO</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Carbon_Offsetting_and_Reduction_Scheme_for_International_Aviation" title="Carbon Offsetting and Reduction Scheme for International Aviation">CORSIA</a>, can lower CO2 emissions. Aviation usage can be lowered by <a href="/wiki/Short-haul_flight_ban" title="Short-haul flight ban">short-haul flight bans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Airport_rail_link#Mainline_rail" title="Airport rail link">train connections</a>, <a href="/wiki/Flight_shame" title="Flight shame">personal choices</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aviation_taxation_and_subsidies" title="Aviation taxation and subsidies">aviation taxation and subsidies</a>. Fuel-powered aircraft may be replaced by <a href="/wiki/Hybrid_electric_aircraft" title="Hybrid electric aircraft">hybrid electric aircraft</a> and <a href="/wiki/Electric_aircraft" title="Electric aircraft">electric aircraft</a> or by <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen-powered_aircraft" title="Hydrogen-powered aircraft">hydrogen-powered aircraft</a>. Since 2021, the <a href="/wiki/International_Air_Transport_Association" title="International Air Transport Association">IATA</a> members plan net-zero carbon emissions by 2050, followed by the <a href="/wiki/International_Civil_Aviation_Organization" title="International Civil Aviation Organization">ICAO</a> in 2022. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Climate_change">Climate change</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_aviation&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Climate change">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Factors">Factors</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_aviation&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Factors">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aviation_Effective_Radiative_Forcing_components,_2018_(mW_per_m%C2%B2).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Aviation_Effective_Radiative_Forcing_components%2C_2018_%28mW_per_m%C2%B2%29.svg/300px-Aviation_Effective_Radiative_Forcing_components%2C_2018_%28mW_per_m%C2%B2%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="185" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Aviation_Effective_Radiative_Forcing_components%2C_2018_%28mW_per_m%C2%B2%29.svg/450px-Aviation_Effective_Radiative_Forcing_components%2C_2018_%28mW_per_m%C2%B2%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Aviation_Effective_Radiative_Forcing_components%2C_2018_%28mW_per_m%C2%B2%29.svg/600px-Aviation_Effective_Radiative_Forcing_components%2C_2018_%28mW_per_m%C2%B2%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="609" data-file-height="376" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Radiative_forcing" title="Radiative forcing">Radiative forcings</a> from aviation emissions, estimated in 2020<a href="#cite_note-Lee2020-1">[1]</a></figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Radiative_forcing" title="Radiative forcing">radiative forcing</a></div> Airplanes emit gases (<a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a>, <a href="/wiki/Water_vapor" title="Water vapor">water vapor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_oxide" title="Nitrogen oxide">nitrogen oxides</a> or <a href="/wiki/Carbon_monoxide" title="Carbon monoxide">carbon monoxide</a> − bonding with <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> to become CO2 upon release) and <a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_particulate_matter" class="mw-redirect" title="Atmospheric particulate matter">atmospheric particulates</a> (incompletely burned <a href="/wiki/Hydrocarbons" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrocarbons">hydrocarbons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sulfur_oxide" title="Sulfur oxide">sulfur oxides</a>, <a href="/wiki/Black_carbon" title="Black carbon">black carbon</a>), interacting among themselves and with the atmosphere.<a href="#cite_note-ACCRI2016April-5">[5]</a> While the main <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">greenhouse gas</a> emission from powered aircraft is CO2, <a href="/wiki/Jet_airliners" class="mw-redirect" title="Jet airliners">jet airliners</a> contribute to <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a> in four ways as they fly in the <a href="/wiki/Tropopause" title="Tropopause">tropopause</a>:<a href="#cite_note-IPCC-1999-6">[6]</a> <dl><dt>Carbon dioxide (CO2)</dt> <dd>CO2 emissions are the most significant and best understood contribution to climate change.<a href="#cite_note-Sausen-aug-2005-7">[7]</a> The effects of CO2 emissions are similar regardless of altitude. <a href="/wiki/Airport" title="Airport">Airport</a> ground vehicles, those used by passengers and staff to access airports, emissions generated by airport construction and <a href="/wiki/Aircraft" title="Aircraft">aircraft</a> manufacturing also contribute to the <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">greenhouse gas emissions</a> from the aviation industry.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a></dd></dl> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_oxides" class="mw-redirect" title="Nitrogen oxides">Nitrogen oxides</a> (NO x, <a href="/wiki/Nitric_oxide" title="Nitric oxide">nitric oxide</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_dioxide" title="Nitrogen dioxide">nitrogen dioxide</a>)</dt> <dd>In the tropopause, emissions of NO x favor <a href="/wiki/Ozone" title="Ozone">ozone</a> (O 3) formation in the upper <a href="/wiki/Troposphere" title="Troposphere">troposphere</a>. At altitudes from 8 to 13 km (26,000 to 43,000 ft), NO x emissions result in greater concentrations of O 3 than surface NO x emissions and these in turn have a greater global warming effect. The effect of O 3 surface concentrations are regional and local, but it becomes well mixed globally at mid and upper tropospheric levels.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> NO x emissions also reduce ambient levels of <a href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane">methane</a>, another greenhouse gas, resulting in a climate cooling effect, though not offsetting the O 3 forming effect. Aircraft <a href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">sulfur</a> and water emissions in the <a href="/wiki/Stratosphere" title="Stratosphere">stratosphere</a> tend to deplete O 3, partially offsetting the NO x-induced O 3 increases, although these effects have not been quantified.<a href="#cite_note-IPCC-1999-4-10">[10]</a> Light aircraft and small commuter aircraft fly lower in the troposphere, not in the tropopause.</dd></dl> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Contrails.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Contrails.jpg/220px-Contrails.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Contrails.jpg/330px-Contrails.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/85/Contrails.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="263" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Condensation_trails" class="mw-redirect" title="Condensation trails">Contrails</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cirrus_cloud" title="Cirrus cloud">cirrus clouds</a></figcaption></figure> <dl><dt>Contrails and cirrus clouds</dt> <dd>Fuel burning produces water vapor, which condenses at high altitude, under cold and humid conditions, into visible line clouds: condensation trails (contrails). They are thought to have a global warming effect, though less significant than CO2 emissions.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> Contrails are uncommon from lower-altitude aircraft. Cirrus clouds can develop after the formation of persistent contrails and can have an additional global warming effect.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> Their global warming contribution is uncertain and estimating aviation's overall contribution often excludes cirrus cloud enhancement.<a href="#cite_note-Sausen-aug-2005-7">[7]</a></dd></dl> <dl><dt>Particulates</dt> <dd>Compared with other emissions, <a href="/wiki/Sulfate" title="Sulfate">sulfate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Soot" title="Soot">soot</a> particles have a smaller direct effect: sulfate particles have a cooling effect and reflect radiation, while soot has a warming effect and absorbs heat, while the clouds' properties and formation are influenced by particles.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> Contrails and cirrus clouds evolving from particles may have a greater <a href="/wiki/Radiative_forcing" title="Radiative forcing">radiative forcing</a> effect than CO2 emissions.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> As soot particles are large enough to serve as condensation nuclei, they are thought to cause the most contrail formation. Soot production may be decreased by reducing the <a href="/wiki/Aromatic_compound" title="Aromatic compound">aromatic compound</a> of jet fuel.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a></dd></dl> In 1999, the <a href="/wiki/Intergovernmental_Panel_on_Climate_Change" title="Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change">IPCC</a> estimated aviation's radiative forcing in 1992 to be 2.7 (2 to 4) times that of CO2 alone − excluding the potential effect of cirrus cloud enhancement.<a href="#cite_note-IPCC-1999-6">[6]</a> This was updated for 2000, with aviation's radiative forcing estimated at 47.8 mW/m2, 1.9 times the effect of CO2 emissions alone, 25.3 mW/m2.<a href="#cite_note-Sausen-aug-2005-7">[7]</a> In 2005, research by David S. Lee, et al., published in the scientific journal <a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_Environment" title="Atmospheric Environment">Atmospheric Environment</a> estimated the cumulative radiative forcing effect of aviation as 55 mW/m2, which is twice the 28 mW/m2 radiative forcing effect of the cumulative CO2 emissions alone, excluding induced cirrus clouds.<a href="#cite_note-Lee2009-18">[18]</a> In 2012, research from <a href="/wiki/Chalmers_university" class="mw-redirect" title="Chalmers university">Chalmers university</a> estimated this weighting factor at 1.3–1.4 if aviation induced cirrus is not included, 1.7–1.8 if they are included (within a range of 1.3–2.9).<a href="#cite_note-Azar2012Apr-19">[19]</a> This ratio depends on how aviation activity grows. If the growth is exponential then the ratio is constant. But if the growth stops, the ratio will go down because the CO2 in the atmosphere due to aviation will continue to go up, whereas the other effects will stagnate.<a href="#cite_note-Lee2020-1">[1]</a> Uncertainties remain on the NOx–O3–CH4 interactions, aviation-produced contrails formation, the effects of soot aerosols on cirrus clouds and measuring non-CO2 radiative forcing.<a href="#cite_note-ACCRI2016April-5">[5]</a> In 2018, CO2 represented 34.3 mW/m2 of aviation's effective radiative forcing (ERF, on the surface), with a high <a href="/wiki/Confidence_level" class="mw-redirect" title="Confidence level">confidence level</a> (± 6 mW/m2), <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1123817410">.mw-parser-output .template-chem2-su{display:inline-block;font-size:80%;line-height:1;vertical-align:-0.35em}.mw-parser-output .template-chem2-su>span{display:block;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output sub.template-chem2-sub{font-size:80%;vertical-align:-0.35em}.mw-parser-output sup.template-chem2-sup{font-size:80%;vertical-align:0.65em}</style>NOx 17.5 mW/m2 with a low confidence level (± 14) and contrail cirrus 57.4 mW/m2, also with a low confidence level (± 40).<a href="#cite_note-Lee2020-1">[1]</a> All factors combined represented 43.5 mW/m2 (1.27 that of CO2 alone) excluding contrail cirrus and 101 mW/m2 (±45) including them, 3.5% of the anthropogenic ERF of 2290 mW/m2 (± 1100).<a href="#cite_note-Lee2020-1">[1]</a> Again, it must be remembered that the effect of CO2 accumulates from year to year, unlike the effect of contrails and cirrus clouds. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Volume">Volume</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_aviation&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Volume">edit</a>]</div> By 2018, <a href="/wiki/Airline" title="Airline">airline</a> traffic reached 4.3 billion passengers with 37.8 million departures, an average of 114 passengers per flight and 8.26 trillion <a href="/wiki/Revenue_Passenger_Kilometer" class="mw-redirect" title="Revenue Passenger Kilometer">RPKs</a>, an average journey of 1,920 km (1,040 nmi), according to <a href="/wiki/ICAO" class="mw-redirect" title="ICAO">ICAO</a>.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> The traffic was experiencing continuous growth, doubling every 15 years, despite external shocks − a 4.3% average yearly growth and <a href="/wiki/Airbus" title="Airbus">Airbus</a> forecasts expect the growth to continue.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> While the <a href="/wiki/Aviation" title="Aviation">aviation</a> industry is more <a href="/wiki/Fuel_economy_in_aircraft" title="Fuel economy in aircraft">fuel efficient</a>, halving the amount of fuel burned per flight compared to 1990 through <a href="/wiki/Technological_advancement" class="mw-redirect" title="Technological advancement">technological advancement</a> and operations improvements, overall emissions have risen as the volume of <a href="/wiki/Air_travel" title="Air travel">air travel</a> has increased.<a href="#cite_note-ATAG-22">[22]</a> Between 1960 and 2018, RPKs increased from 109 to 8,269 billion.<a href="#cite_note-Lee2020-1">[1]</a> In 1992, aircraft emissions represented 2% of all man-made CO2 emissions, having accumulated a little more than 1% of the total man-made CO2 increase over 50 years.<a href="#cite_note-IPCC-1999-4-10">[10]</a> By 2015, aviation accounted for 2.5% of global CO2 emissions.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> In 2018, global commercial operations emitted 918 million <a href="/wiki/Tonne" title="Tonne">tonnes</a> (Mt) of CO2, 2.4% of all CO2 emissions: 747 Mt for passenger transport and 171 Mt for freight operations.<a href="#cite_note-ICCTsep2019-3">[3]</a> Between 1960 and 2018, CO2 emissions increased 6.8 times from 152 to 1,034 million tonnes per year.<a href="#cite_note-Lee2020-1">[1]</a> Emissions from flights rose by 32% between 2013 and 2018.<a href="#cite_note-BBC19feb2020-24">[24]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aviation_GHG_emissions_in_the_EU_ETS_and_the_top_10_emitters_in_aviation_2013-2019-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Aviation_GHG_emissions_in_the_EU_ETS_and_the_top_10_emitters_in_aviation_2013-2019-en.svg/220px-Aviation_GHG_emissions_in_the_EU_ETS_and_the_top_10_emitters_in_aviation_2013-2019-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Aviation_GHG_emissions_in_the_EU_ETS_and_the_top_10_emitters_in_aviation_2013-2019-en.svg/330px-Aviation_GHG_emissions_in_the_EU_ETS_and_the_top_10_emitters_in_aviation_2013-2019-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Aviation_GHG_emissions_in_the_EU_ETS_and_the_top_10_emitters_in_aviation_2013-2019-en.svg/440px-Aviation_GHG_emissions_in_the_EU_ETS_and_the_top_10_emitters_in_aviation_2013-2019-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="638" data-file-height="414" /></a><figcaption>Aviation GHG emissions within the European Economic Area for the <a href="/wiki/European_Union_Emissions_Trading_System" title="European Union Emissions Trading System">EU ETS</a>, showing the top 10 emitters (2013–2019).<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a></figcaption></figure> Between 1990 and 2006, greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87% in the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a>.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> In 2010, about 60% of aviation emissions came from international flights, which are outside the emission reduction targets of the <a href="/wiki/Kyoto_Protocol" title="Kyoto Protocol">Kyoto Protocol</a>.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> International flights are not covered by the <a href="/wiki/Paris_Agreement" title="Paris Agreement">Paris Agreement</a>, either, to avoid a patchwork of individual country regulations. That agreement was adopted by the <a href="/wiki/International_Civil_Aviation_Organization" title="International Civil Aviation Organization">International Civil Aviation Organization</a>, however, capping airlines carbon emissions to the year 2020 level, while allowing airlines to buy <a href="/wiki/Carbon_credits" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon credits">carbon credits</a> from other industries and projects.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> In 1992, aircraft <a href="/wiki/Radiative_forcing" title="Radiative forcing">radiative forcing</a> was estimated by the IPCC at 3.5% of the total man-made radiative forcing.<a href="#cite_note-IPCC-1999-4.8-29">[29]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Per_passenger">Per passenger</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_aviation&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Per passenger">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aviation_Efficiency_(RPK_per_kg_CO2).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Aviation_Efficiency_%28RPK_per_kg_CO2%29.svg/220px-Aviation_Efficiency_%28RPK_per_kg_CO2%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="203" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Aviation_Efficiency_%28RPK_per_kg_CO2%29.svg/330px-Aviation_Efficiency_%28RPK_per_kg_CO2%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Aviation_Efficiency_%28RPK_per_kg_CO2%29.svg/440px-Aviation_Efficiency_%28RPK_per_kg_CO2%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="553" /></a><figcaption>Between 1950 and 2018, efficiency per passenger grew from 0.4 to 8.2 RPK per kg of CO2.<a href="#cite_note-Lee2020-1">[1]</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Fuel_economy_in_aircraft" title="Fuel economy in aircraft">fuel economy in aircraft</a></div> As it accounts for a large share of their costs, 28% by 2007, airlines have a strong incentive to lower their fuel consumption, reducing their environmental footprint.<a href="#cite_note-NYT20sep2007-30">[30]</a> Jet airliners have become 70% more fuel efficient between 1967 and 2007.<a href="#cite_note-NYT20sep2007-30">[30]</a> Jetliner <a href="/wiki/Fuel_efficiency" title="Fuel efficiency">fuel efficiency</a> improves continuously, 40% of the improvement come from engines and 30% from airframes.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> Efficiency gains were larger early in the <a href="/wiki/Jet_age" class="mw-redirect" title="Jet age">jet age</a> than later, with a 55–67% gain from 1960 to 1980 and a 20–26% gain from 1980 to 2000.<a href="#cite_note-Peeters-2005-32">[32]</a> The average fuel burn of new aircraft fell 45% from 1968 to 2014, a compounded annual reduction of 1.3% with variable reduction rate.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> By 2018, CO2 emissions per revenue <a href="/wiki/Ton-kilometer" class="mw-redirect" title="Ton-kilometer">ton-kilometer</a> (RTK) were more than halved compared to 1990, at 47%.<a href="#cite_note-IATA2019Dec-34">[34]</a> The aviation <a href="/wiki/Energy_intensity" title="Energy intensity">energy intensity</a> went from 21.2 to 12.3 MJ/RTK between 2000 and 2019, a 42% reduction.<a href="#cite_note-IEAreport20202-35">[35]</a> In 2018, CO2 emissions totalled 747 million tonnes for passenger transport, for 8.5 trillion <a href="/wiki/Revenue_passenger_kilometre" class="mw-redirect" title="Revenue passenger kilometre">revenue passenger kilometres</a> (RPK), giving an average of 88 gram CO2 per RPK.<a href="#cite_note-ICCTsep2019-3">[3]</a> The UK's Department for <abbr title="Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy">BEIS</abbr> calculate a long-haul flight release 102 g of CO2 per passenger kilometre, and 254 g of CO2 equivalent, including non-CO2 greenhouse gas emissions, water vapor etc.; for a domestic flight in Britain.<a href="#cite_note-BBC19feb2020-24">[24]</a> The ICAO targets a 2% efficiency improvement per year between 2013 and 2050, while the IATA targets 1.5% for 2009–2020 and to cut net CO2 emissions in half by 2050 relative to 2005.<a href="#cite_note-IEAreport20202-35">[35]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Evolution">Evolution</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_aviation&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Evolution">edit</a>]</div> In 1999, the IPCC estimated aviation's radiative forcing may represent 190 mW/m2 or 5% of the total man-made radiative forcing in 2050, with the uncertainty ranging from 100 to 500 mW/m2.<a href="#cite_note-IPCC-1999-6.6-36">[36]</a> If other industries achieve significant reductions in greenhouse gas emissions over time, aviation's share, as a proportion of the remaining emissions, could rise. <a href="/wiki/Alice_Bows-Larkin" class="mw-redirect" title="Alice Bows-Larkin">Alice Bows-Larkin</a> estimated that the annual global CO2 emissions budget would be entirely consumed by aviation emissions to keep the climate change temperature increase below 2 °C by mid-century.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> Given that growth projections indicate that aviation will generate 15% of global CO2 emissions, even with the most advanced technology forecast, she estimated that to hold the risks of dangerous climate change to under 50% by 2050 would exceed the entire carbon budget in conventional scenarios.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> In 2013, the National Center for Atmospheric Science at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Reading" title="University of Reading">University of Reading</a> forecast that increasing CO2 levels will result in a significant increase in in-flight <a href="/wiki/Turbulence" title="Turbulence">turbulence</a> experienced by <a href="/wiki/Transatlantic_flight" title="Transatlantic flight">transatlantic</a> airline flights by the middle of the 21st century.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> This prediction is supported by data showing that incidents of severe turbulence increased by 55% between 1979 and 2020, attributed to changes in <a href="/wiki/Wind_speed" title="Wind speed">wind velocity</a> at <a href="/wiki/Altitude" title="Altitude">high altitudes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> Aviation CO2 emissions grow despite efficiency innovations to aircraft, powerplants and flight operations.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> Air travel continue to grow.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> In 2015, the <a href="/wiki/Center_for_Biological_Diversity" title="Center for Biological Diversity">Center for Biological Diversity</a> estimated that aircraft could generate 43 <a href="/wiki/Tonne" title="Tonne">Gt</a> of carbon dioxide emissions through 2050, consuming almost 5% of the remaining global carbon budget. Without regulation, global aviation emissions may triple by mid-century and could emit more than 3 Gt of carbon annually under a high-growth, <a href="/wiki/Business_as_usual_(business)" title="Business as usual (business)">business-as-usual</a> scenario. Many countries have pledged emissions reductions for the Paris Agreement, but the sum of these efforts and pledges remains insufficient and not addressing airplane pollution would be a failure despite technological and operational advancements.<a href="#cite_note-paradee-2015-45">[45]</a> The <a href="/wiki/International_Energy_Agency" title="International Energy Agency">International Energy Agency</a> projects aviation share of global CO2 emissions may grow from 2.5% in 2019 to 3.5% by 2030.<a href="#cite_note-IEA18mar2019-46">[46]</a> By 2020, global international aviation emissions were around 70% higher than in 2005 and the ICAO forecasts they could grow by over further 300% by 2050 in the absence of additional measures.<a href="#cite_note-EC-aviation-4">[4]</a> By 2050, aviation's negative effects on climate could be decreased by a 2% increase in fuel efficiency and a decrease in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410">NOx emissions, due to advanced aircraft technologies, operational procedures and <a href="/wiki/Aviation_biofuel" title="Aviation biofuel">renewable alternative fuels</a> decreasing radiative forcing due to sulfate aerosol and black carbon.<a href="#cite_note-ACCRI2016April-5">[5]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Noise">Noise</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_aviation&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Noise">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Aircraft_noise_pollution" title="Aircraft noise pollution">Aircraft noise pollution</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:L%C3%A4rmkarte_Flughafen_Berlin-Tegel.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/L%C3%A4rmkarte_Flughafen_Berlin-Tegel.png/310px-L%C3%A4rmkarte_Flughafen_Berlin-Tegel.png" decoding="async" width="310" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/L%C3%A4rmkarte_Flughafen_Berlin-Tegel.png/465px-L%C3%A4rmkarte_Flughafen_Berlin-Tegel.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/L%C3%A4rmkarte_Flughafen_Berlin-Tegel.png/620px-L%C3%A4rmkarte_Flughafen_Berlin-Tegel.png 2x" data-file-width="2150" data-file-height="1066" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Noise_map" title="Noise map">Noise map</a> of <a href="/wiki/Berlin_Tegel_Airport" title="Berlin Tegel Airport">Berlin Tegel Airport</a> </figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Air_traffic" class="mw-redirect" title="Air traffic">Air traffic</a> causes <a href="/wiki/Aircraft_noise" class="mw-redirect" title="Aircraft noise">aircraft noise</a>, which disrupts sleep, adversely affects children's school performance and could increase <a href="/wiki/Cardiovascular_risk" class="mw-redirect" title="Cardiovascular risk">cardiovascular risk</a> for airport neighbours.<a href="#cite_note-Basner2017-47">[47]</a> Sleep disruption can be reduced by banning or <a href="/wiki/Night_flying_restrictions" title="Night flying restrictions">restricting flying at night</a>, but disturbance progressively decreases and legislation differs across countries.<a href="#cite_note-Basner2017-47">[47]</a> The <a href="/wiki/ICAO" class="mw-redirect" title="ICAO">ICAO</a> Chapter 14 noise standard applies for aeroplanes submitted for certification after 31 December 2017, and after 31 December 2020 for aircraft below 55 t (121,000 lb), 7 EPNdB (cumulative) quieter than Chapter4.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> The <a href="/wiki/FAA" class="mw-redirect" title="FAA">FAA</a> Stage 5 noise standards are equivalent.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> Higher <a href="/wiki/Bypass_ratio" title="Bypass ratio">bypass ratio</a> engines produce less noise. The <a href="/wiki/PW1000G" class="mw-redirect" title="PW1000G">PW1000G</a> is presented as 75% quieter than previous engines.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> Serrated edges or <a href="/wiki/Chevron_(aerospace)" class="mw-redirect" title="Chevron (aerospace)">'chevrons'</a> on the back of the <a href="/wiki/Nacelle" title="Nacelle">nacelle</a> reduce noise.<a href="#cite_note-Rolls1996-51">[51]</a> A <a href="/wiki/Continuous_Descent_Approach" class="mw-redirect" title="Continuous Descent Approach">Continuous Descent Approach</a> (CDA) is quieter as less noise is produced while the engines are near idle power.<a href="#cite_note-CDA-52">[52]</a> CDA can reduce noise on the ground by ~1–5 dB per flight.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Water_pollution">Water pollution</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_aviation&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Water pollution">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_U.S._Army_C-37B_aircraft_transporting_Army_Chief_of_Staff_Gen._Raymond_T._Odierno,_gets_de-iced_before_it_departs_Joint_Base_Elmendorf-Richardson,_Alaska.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/A_U.S._Army_C-37B_aircraft_transporting_Army_Chief_of_Staff_Gen._Raymond_T._Odierno%2C_gets_de-iced_before_it_departs_Joint_Base_Elmendorf-Richardson%2C_Alaska.jpg/220px-A_U.S._Army_C-37B_aircraft_transporting_Army_Chief_of_Staff_Gen._Raymond_T._Odierno%2C_gets_de-iced_before_it_departs_Joint_Base_Elmendorf-Richardson%2C_Alaska.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/A_U.S._Army_C-37B_aircraft_transporting_Army_Chief_of_Staff_Gen._Raymond_T._Odierno%2C_gets_de-iced_before_it_departs_Joint_Base_Elmendorf-Richardson%2C_Alaska.jpg/330px-A_U.S._Army_C-37B_aircraft_transporting_Army_Chief_of_Staff_Gen._Raymond_T._Odierno%2C_gets_de-iced_before_it_departs_Joint_Base_Elmendorf-Richardson%2C_Alaska.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/A_U.S._Army_C-37B_aircraft_transporting_Army_Chief_of_Staff_Gen._Raymond_T._Odierno%2C_gets_de-iced_before_it_departs_Joint_Base_Elmendorf-Richardson%2C_Alaska.jpg/440px-A_U.S._Army_C-37B_aircraft_transporting_Army_Chief_of_Staff_Gen._Raymond_T._Odierno%2C_gets_de-iced_before_it_departs_Joint_Base_Elmendorf-Richardson%2C_Alaska.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2313" data-file-height="1542" /></a><figcaption>Excess aircraft <a href="/wiki/Deicing" title="Deicing">deicing</a> fluid may contaminate nearby water bodies</figcaption></figure> Airports can generate significant <a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">water pollution</a> due to their extensive use and handling of jet fuel, lubricants and other chemicals. Chemical spills can be mitigated or prevented by <a href="/wiki/Spill_containment" title="Spill containment">spill containment</a> structures and clean-up equipment such as vacuum trucks, portable berms and absorbents.<a href="#cite_note-EPA2006dec-54">[54]</a> <a href="/wiki/Deicing" title="Deicing">Deicing</a> fluids used in cold weather can pollute water, as most of them fall to the ground and <a href="/wiki/Surface_runoff" title="Surface runoff">surface runoff</a> can carry them to nearby streams, rivers or coastal waters.<a href="#cite_note-EPA-2012-TDD-55">[55]</a>: 101  Deicing fluids are based on <a href="/wiki/Ethylene_glycol" title="Ethylene glycol">ethylene glycol</a> or <a href="/wiki/Propylene_glycol" title="Propylene glycol">propylene glycol</a>.<a href="#cite_note-EPA-2012-TDD-55">[55]</a>: 4  Airports use pavement deicers on paved surfaces including runways and taxiways, which may contain <a href="/wiki/Potassium_acetate" title="Potassium acetate">potassium acetate</a>, glycol compounds, <a href="/wiki/Sodium_acetate" title="Sodium acetate">sodium acetate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Urea" title="Urea">urea</a> or other chemicals.<a href="#cite_note-EPA-2012-TDD-55">[55]</a>: 42  During degradation in surface waters, ethylene and propylene glycol exert high levels of <a href="/wiki/Biochemical_oxygen_demand" title="Biochemical oxygen demand">biochemical oxygen demand</a>, consuming oxygen needed by aquatic life. Microbial populations decomposing propylene glycol consume large quantities of <a href="/wiki/Dissolved_oxygen" class="mw-redirect" title="Dissolved oxygen">dissolved oxygen</a> (DO) in the <a href="/wiki/Water_column" title="Water column">water column</a>.<a href="#cite_note-EPA-apr-2012-56">[56]</a>: 2–23  Fish, <a href="/wiki/Macroinvertebrate" class="mw-redirect" title="Macroinvertebrate">macroinvertebrates</a> and other aquatic organisms need sufficient dissolved oxygen levels in surface waters. Low oxygen concentrations reduce usable aquatic habitat because organisms die if they cannot move to areas with sufficient oxygen levels. <a href="/wiki/Bottom_feeder" title="Bottom feeder">Bottom feeder</a> populations can be reduced or eliminated by low DO levels, changing a community's species profile or altering critical <a href="/wiki/Food-web" class="mw-redirect" title="Food-web">food-web</a> interactions.<a href="#cite_note-EPA-apr-2012-56">[56]</a>: 2–30  Glycol-based deicing fluids are toxic to humans and other mammals.<a href="#cite_note-FAAapr2010-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> Research into non-toxic alternative deicing fluids is ongoing.<a href="#cite_note-FAAapr2010-57">[57]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Aircraft_deicing_fluid" title="Aircraft deicing fluid">Aircraft deicing fluid</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Air_pollution">Air pollution</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_aviation&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Air pollution">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Air_pollution" title="Air pollution">Air pollution</a> and <a href="/wiki/Avgas#environmental_regulation" title="Avgas">Avgas § environmental regulation</a></div> Aviation is the main human source of ozone, a respiratory <a href="/wiki/Health_hazard" class="mw-redirect" title="Health hazard">health hazard</a>, causing an estimated 6,800 premature deaths per year.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> Aircraft engines emit <a href="/wiki/Ultrafine_particles" class="mw-redirect" title="Ultrafine particles">ultrafine particles</a> (UFPs) in and near airports, as does <a href="/wiki/Ground_support_equipment" title="Ground support equipment">ground support equipment</a>. During takeoff, 3 to 50 × 1015 particles were measured per kg of fuel burned,<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> while significant differences are observed depending on the engine.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> Other estimates include 4 to 200 × 1015 particles for 0.1–0.7 gram,<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> or 14 to 710 × 1015 particles,<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> or 0.1–10 × 1015 <a href="/wiki/Black_carbon" title="Black carbon">black carbon</a> particles for 0.046–0.941 g.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, 167,000 piston <a href="/wiki/Aircraft_engine" title="Aircraft engine">aircraft engines</a>, representing three-quarters of <a href="/wiki/General_aviation" title="General aviation">private airplanes</a>, burn <a href="/wiki/Avgas" title="Avgas">Avgas</a>, releasing <a href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">lead</a> into the air.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Environmental_Protection_Agency" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental Protection Agency">Environmental Protection Agency</a> estimated this released 34,000 tons of lead into the atmosphere between 1970 and 2007.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Federal_Aviation_Administration" title="Federal Aviation Administration">Federal Aviation Administration</a> recognizes inhaled or ingested lead leads to adverse effects on the nervous system, red blood cells, and cardiovascular and immune systems. Lead exposure in infants and young children may contribute to behavioral and learning problems and lower IQ.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Private_jet_travel">Private jet travel</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_aviation&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Private jet travel">edit</a>]</div> A 2024 study published in Communications Earth & Environment revealed that carbon dioxide emissions from private jet travel surged to 15.6 million tonnes in 2023, a 46% increase compared to 2019. Despite serving only 256,000 individuals—approximately 0.003% of the global population—the industry contributes significantly to greenhouse gas emissions.<a href="#cite_note-d970-68">[68]</a> The research further highlights that nearly half of these flights covered distances shorter than 500 kilometers. Moreover, many flights involved empty legs, where aircraft traveled without passengers, often for repositioning or ferry flights.<a href="#cite_note-d970-68">[68]</a> The private jet industry is poised for further growth, with projections indicating a 33% increase in the global fleet to 26,000 aircraft by 2033.<a href="#cite_note-d970-68">[68]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mitigation">Mitigation</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_aviation&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Mitigation">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Air_travel_demand_reduction" title="Air travel demand reduction">Air travel demand reduction</a>, <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">Climate change mitigation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electric_aircraft" title="Electric aircraft">Electric aircraft</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen-powered_aircraft" title="Hydrogen-powered aircraft">Hydrogen-powered aircraft</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ram_air_turbine" title="Ram air turbine">Ram air turbine</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Solar-powered_aircraft" title="Solar-powered aircraft">Solar-powered aircraft</a></div> Aviation's environmental footprint can be mitigated by reducing air travel, optimizing flight routes, capping emissions, restricting short-distance flights, increasing taxation and decreasing subsidies to the aviation industry. Technological innovation could also mitigate damage to the environment and climate, for example, through the development of electric aircraft, biofuels, and increased fuel efficiency. In 2016, the <a href="/wiki/International_Civil_Aviation_Organization" title="International Civil Aviation Organization">International Civil Aviation Organization</a> (ICAO) committed to improve aviation fuel efficiency by 2% per year and to keeping the <a href="/wiki/Carbon_emissions" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon emissions">carbon emissions</a> from 2020 onwards at the same level as those from 2010.<a href="#cite_note-ICAOdec2018-69">[69]</a> To achieve these goals, multiple measures were identified: more <a href="/wiki/Fuel_economy_in_aircraft#Future" title="Fuel economy in aircraft">fuel-efficient aircraft technology</a>; development and deployment of <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_aviation_fuel" class="mw-redirect" title="Sustainable aviation fuel">sustainable aviation fuels</a> (SAFs); improved <a href="/wiki/Air_traffic_management" title="Air traffic management">air traffic management</a> (ATM); market-based measures like <a href="/wiki/Emission_trading" class="mw-redirect" title="Emission trading">emission trading</a>, <a href="/wiki/Taxation" class="mw-redirect" title="Taxation">levies</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Carbon_offsetting" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon offsetting">carbon offsetting</a>,<a href="#cite_note-ICAOdec2018-69">[69]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Carbon_Offsetting_and_Reduction_Scheme_for_International_Aviation" title="Carbon Offsetting and Reduction Scheme for International Aviation">Carbon Offsetting and Reduction Scheme for International Aviation</a> (CORSIA).<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> In December 2020, the <a href="/wiki/Climate_Change_Committee" title="Climate Change Committee">UK Climate Change Committee</a> said that: "Mitigation options considered include demand management, improvements in aircraft efficiency (including use of <a href="/wiki/Hybrid_electric_aircraft" title="Hybrid electric aircraft">hybrid electric aircraft</a>), and use of sustainable aviation fuels (biofuels, biowaste to jet and synthetic jet fuels) to displace fossil jet fuel."<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> In February 2021, Europe's aviation sector unveiled its Destination 2050 sustainability initiative towards zero CO2 emissions by 2050: <ul><li>aircraft technology improvements for 37% emission reductions;</li> <li>SAFs for 34%;</li> <li>economic measures for 8%;</li> <li>ATM and operations improvements for 6%;</li></ul> while air traffic should grow by 1.4% per year between 2018 and 2050.<a href="#cite_note-11feb2021dest2050-72">[72]</a> The initiative is led by <a href="/wiki/Airports_Council_International_Europe" title="Airports Council International Europe">ACI Europe</a>, <a href="/wiki/AeroSpace_and_Defence_Industries_Association_of_Europe" title="AeroSpace and Defence Industries Association of Europe">ASD Europe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Airlines_for_Europe" title="Airlines for Europe">A4E</a>, <a href="/wiki/Civil_Air_Navigation_Services_Organization" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil Air Navigation Services Organization">CANSO</a> and <a href="/wiki/European_Regions_Airline_Association" title="European Regions Airline Association">ERA</a>.<a href="#cite_note-11feb2021dest2050-72">[72]</a> This would apply to flights within and departing the <a href="/wiki/European_single_market" title="European single market">European single market</a> and the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">UK</a>.<a href="#cite_note-11feb2021dest2050-72">[72]</a> In October 2021, the <a href="/wiki/International_Air_Transport_Association" title="International Air Transport Association">IATA</a> committed to net-zero carbon emissions by 2050.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> In 2022, the ICAO agreed to support a net-zero carbon emission target for 2050.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> The aviation sector could be decarbonized by 2050 with moderate demand growth, continuous <a href="/wiki/Fuel_economy_in_aircraft" title="Fuel economy in aircraft">efficiency</a> improvements, new short-haul engines, higher SAF production and <a href="/wiki/CO2_removal" class="mw-redirect" title="CO2 removal">CO2 removal</a> to compensate for non-CO2 forcing.<a href="#cite_note-nature30jan2023-75">[75]</a> With constant air transport demand and aircraft efficiency, decarbonizing aviation would require nearly five times the 2019 worldwide <a href="/wiki/Biofuel" title="Biofuel">biofuel</a> production, competing with other hard-to-decarbonize sectors, and 0.2 to 3.4 Gt of CO2 removal to compensate for non-CO2 forcing.<a href="#cite_note-nature30jan2023-75">[75]</a> Carbon offsets would be preferred if <a href="/wiki/Carbon_credit" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon credit">carbon credits</a> are less expensive than SAFs, but they may be unreliable, while specific routing could avoid <a href="/wiki/Contrail" title="Contrail">contrails</a>.<a href="#cite_note-nature30jan2023-75">[75]</a> As of 2023, fuel represents 20–30% of the <a href="/wiki/Airline" title="Airline">airlines</a>' operating costs, while SAF is 2–4 times more expensive than fossil <a href="/wiki/Jet_fuel" title="Jet fuel">jet fuel</a>.<a href="#cite_note-nature30jan2023-75">[75]</a> Projected cost decreases of <a href="/wiki/Green_hydrogen" title="Green hydrogen">green hydrogen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Direct_air_capture" title="Direct air capture">carbon capture</a> could make <a href="/wiki/Synthetic_fuel" title="Synthetic fuel">synthetic fuels</a> more affordable, and lower feedstock costs and higher conversion efficiencies would help FT and HEFA biofuels.<a href="#cite_note-nature30jan2023-75">[75]</a> Policy incentives like cleaner aviation fuel tax credits and low-carbon fuel standards could induce improvements, and <a href="/wiki/Carbon_pricing" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon pricing">carbon pricing</a> could render SAFs more competitive, accelerating their deployment and reducing their costs through <a href="/wiki/Learning_curve" title="Learning curve">learning</a> and <a href="/wiki/Economies_of_scale" title="Economies of scale">economies of scale</a>.<a href="#cite_note-nature30jan2023-75">[75]</a> According to a 2023 <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society" title="Royal Society">Royal Society</a> study, reaching net zero would need replacing fossil aviation fuel with a low or zero carbon energy source, as <a href="/wiki/Electric_battery" title="Electric battery">battery</a> technologies are unlikely to give enough <a href="/wiki/Specific_energy" title="Specific energy">specific energy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-RoyalSocFeb2023-76">[76]</a> <a href="/wiki/Biofuel" title="Biofuel">Biofuels</a> can be introduced quickly and with little aircraft modification, but are restricted by scale and feedstock availability, and few are low-carbon.<a href="#cite_note-RoyalSocFeb2023-76">[76]</a> Producing enough renewable electricity to produce <a href="/wiki/Green_hydrogen" title="Green hydrogen">green hydrogen</a> would be a costly challenge and would need substantial aircraft and infrastructure modification.<a href="#cite_note-RoyalSocFeb2023-76">[76]</a> <a href="/wiki/Synthetic_fuel" title="Synthetic fuel">Synthetic fuels</a> would need little aircraft modification, but necessitates green hydrogen feedstock and large scale direct CO2 air capture at high costs.<a href="#cite_note-RoyalSocFeb2023-76">[76]</a> Low-carbon <a href="/wiki/Ammonia" title="Ammonia">Ammonia</a> would also need costly green hydrogen at scale, and would need substantial aircraft and infrastructure modifications.<a href="#cite_note-RoyalSocFeb2023-76">[76]</a> In its <a href="/wiki/IPCC_Sixth_Assessment_Report" title="IPCC Sixth Assessment Report">Sixth Assessment Report</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Intergovernmental_Panel_on_Climate_Change" title="Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change">IPCC</a> notes that sustainable biofuels, low-emissions hydrogen, and derivatives (including ammonia and synthetic fuels) can support mitigation of CO2 emissions but some hard-to-abate residual <abbr title="greenhous gases">GHG</abbr> emissions remain and would need to be counterbalanced by deployment of <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_removal" title="Carbon dioxide removal">carbon dioxide removal</a> methods.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> On 29 March 2003, during a <a href="/wiki/Senate_hearing" class="mw-redirect" title="Senate hearing">Senate hearing</a>, hydrogen propulsion proponents like <a href="/wiki/ZeroAvia" title="ZeroAvia">ZeroAvia</a> or <a href="/wiki/Universal_Hydrogen" title="Universal Hydrogen">Universal Hydrogen</a> bemoaned that the incumbents like <a href="/wiki/GE_Aerospace" title="GE Aerospace">GE Aerospace</a> or <a href="/wiki/Boeing" title="Boeing">Boeing</a> were supporting sustainable aviation fuel (SAF) because it does not require major changes to existing infrastructure.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> An April 2023 report of the Sustainable Aero Lab estimate current in-production aircraft will be the vast majority of the 2050 fleet as <a href="/wiki/Electric_aircraft" title="Electric aircraft">electric aircraft</a> will not have enough range and <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_aircraft" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrogen aircraft">hydrogen aircraft</a> will not be available soon enough : the main decarbonisation drivers will be SAF; replacing <a href="/wiki/Regional_jet" title="Regional jet">regional jets</a> with <a href="/wiki/Turboprop" title="Turboprop">turboprop</a> aircraft; and incentives to replace older jets with new generation ones.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> The airline industry faces a significant climate challenge due to the scarcity of clean fuel options, exemplified by the recent establishment of LanzaJet Inc.'s $200 million facility in Georgia, the first to convert ethanol into jet engine-compatible fuel, with an annual production target of 9 million gallons of sustainable aviation fuel (SAF). This volume, however, is minuscule compared to the global demand, as evidenced by the world's airlines consuming 90 billion gallons of jet fuel last year, and even major airlines like <a href="/wiki/International_Airlines_Group" title="International Airlines Group">IAG SA</a> (parent company of <a href="/wiki/British_Airways" title="British Airways">British Airways</a>) using only 0.66% of their total fuel consumption as SAF, with a goal to increase this to 10% by 2030. Incentives such as the $1.75 per gallon SAF credit offered by the US <a href="/wiki/Inflation_Reduction_Act" title="Inflation Reduction Act">Inflation Reduction Act</a>, set to expire in 2027, aim to boost SAF usage, while <a href="/wiki/L.E.K._Consulting" title="L.E.K. Consulting">L.E.K. Consulting</a> forecasts that alcohol-to-jet technology will become the dominant source of SAF by the mid-next decade. Meanwhile, emerging technologies like e-kerosene, though potentially reducing climate impacts significantly, face economic challenges as they cost nearly seven times more than traditional jet fuel, and the future of 45 proposed power-to-liquids plants in Europe remains uncertain, according to <a href="/wiki/European_Federation_for_Transport_and_Environment" title="European Federation for Transport and Environment">Transport & Environment</a>.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Technology_improvements">Technology improvements</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_aviation&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Technology improvements">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Electric_aircraft">Electric aircraft</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_aviation&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Electric aircraft">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pipistrel_Velis_Electro_sn003_LJAJ_left.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Pipistrel_Velis_Electro_sn003_LJAJ_left.jpg/220px-Pipistrel_Velis_Electro_sn003_LJAJ_left.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Pipistrel_Velis_Electro_sn003_LJAJ_left.jpg/330px-Pipistrel_Velis_Electro_sn003_LJAJ_left.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Pipistrel_Velis_Electro_sn003_LJAJ_left.jpg/440px-Pipistrel_Velis_Electro_sn003_LJAJ_left.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3198" data-file-height="2214" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Velis_Electro" class="mw-redirect" title="Velis Electro">Velis Electro</a> was the first <a href="/wiki/Type_certification" class="mw-redirect" title="Type certification">type certificated</a> electric aircraft on 10 June 2020.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Electric_aircraft" title="Electric aircraft">Electric aircraft</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hybrid_electric_aircraft" title="Hybrid electric aircraft">Hybrid electric aircraft</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Electric_aircraft" title="Electric aircraft">Electric aircraft</a> operations do not produce any emissions and electricity can be generated by <a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">renewable energy</a>. <a href="/wiki/Lithium-ion_batteries" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithium-ion batteries">Lithium-ion batteries</a> including packaging and accessories gives a 160 Wh/kg <a href="/wiki/Energy_density" title="Energy density">energy density</a> while aviation fuel gives 12,500 Wh/kg.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> As electric machines and converters are more efficient, their shaft power available is closer to 145 Wh/kg of battery while a <a href="/wiki/Gas_turbine" title="Gas turbine">gas turbine</a> gives 6,555 Wh/kg of fuel: a 45:1 ratio.<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> For <a href="/wiki/Collins_Aerospace" title="Collins Aerospace">Collins Aerospace</a>, this 1:50 ratio forbids electric propulsion for long-<a href="/wiki/Range_(aeronautics)" title="Range (aeronautics)">range</a> aircraft.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> By November 2019, the <a href="/wiki/German_Aerospace_Center" title="German Aerospace Center">German Aerospace Center</a> estimated large electric planes could be available by 2040. Large, long-haul aircraft are unlikely to become electric before 2070 or within the 21st century, whilst smaller aircraft can be electrified.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> As of May 2020, the largest electric airplane was a <a href="/wiki/Cessna_208_Caravan#Experimental" title="Cessna 208 Caravan">modified Cessna 208B Caravan</a>. For the UK's Committee on Climate Change (CCC), huge technology shifts are uncertain, but consultancy <a href="/wiki/Roland_Berger_(company)" title="Roland Berger (company)">Roland Berger</a> points to 80 new electric aircraft programmes in 2016–2018, all-electric for the smaller two-thirds and <a href="/wiki/Hybrid_electric_aircraft" title="Hybrid electric aircraft">hybrid</a> for larger aircraft, with forecast commercial service dates in the early 2030s on short-haul routes like London to Paris, with all-electric aircraft not expected before 2045.<a href="#cite_note-Flight7jan2019-85">[85]</a> Berger predicts a 24% CO2 share for aviation by 2050 if fuel efficiency improves by 1% per year and if there are no electric or hybrid aircraft, dropping to 3–6% if 10-year-old aircraft are replaced by electric or hybrid aircraft due to regulatory constraints, starting in 2030, to reach 70% of the 2050 fleet.<a href="#cite_note-Flight7jan2019-85">[85]</a> This would greatly reduce the value of the existing fleet of aircraft, however.<a href="#cite_note-Flight7jan2019-85">[85]</a> Limits to the supply of battery cells could hamper their aviation adoption, as they compete with other industries like <a href="/wiki/Electric_vehicle" title="Electric vehicle">electric vehicles</a>. <a href="/wiki/Lithium-ion_batteries" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithium-ion batteries">Lithium-ion batteries</a> have proven fragile and fire-prone and their capacity deteriorates with age. However, alternatives are being pursued, such as <a href="/wiki/Sodium-ion_battery" title="Sodium-ion battery">sodium-ion batteries</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Flight7jan2019-85">[85]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Hydrogen-powered_aircraft">Hydrogen-powered aircraft</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_aviation&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Hydrogen-powered aircraft">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen-powered_aircraft" title="Hydrogen-powered aircraft">Hydrogen-powered aircraft</a></div> In 2020, Airbus unveiled liquid-<a href="/wiki/Hydrogen-powered_aircraft" title="Hydrogen-powered aircraft">hydrogen-powered aircraft</a> concepts as zero-emissions airliners, poised for 2035.<a href="#cite_note-AvWeek4feb2021-86">[86]</a> Aviation, like industrial processes that cannot be electrified, could use primarily Hydrogen-based fuel.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> A 2020 study by the EU <a href="/wiki/Clean_Sky" title="Clean Sky">Clean Sky</a> 2 and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Fuel_Cells_and_Hydrogen_Joint_Undertaking&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Undertaking (page does not exist)">Fuel Cells and Hydrogen</a> 2 Joint Undertakings found that hydrogen could power aircraft by 2035 for <a href="/wiki/Flight_length" title="Flight length">short-range aircraft</a>.<a href="#cite_note-cleansky2020May-88">[88]</a> A short-range aircraft (< 2,000 km, 1,100 nmi) with hybrid <a href="/wiki/Fuel_cell" title="Fuel cell">Fuel cell</a>/Turbines could reduce climate impact by 70–80% for a 20–30% additional cost, a medium-range airliner with H2 turbines could have a 50–60% reduced climate impact for a 30–40% overcost, and a long-range aircraft (> 7,000 km, 3,800 nmi) also with H2 turbines could reduce climate impact by 40–50% for a 40–50% additional cost.<a href="#cite_note-cleansky2020May-88">[88]</a> Research and development would be required, in aircraft technology and into hydrogen infrastructure, regulations and certification standards.<a href="#cite_note-cleansky2020May-88">[88]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sustainable_aviation_fuels_(SAF)">Sustainable aviation fuels (SAF)</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_aviation&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Sustainable aviation fuels (SAF)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Aviation_biofuel" title="Aviation biofuel">Aviation biofuel</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Refuel_EC-KNM_Iberia_(6218464950).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Refuel_EC-KNM_Iberia_%286218464950%29.jpg/260px-Refuel_EC-KNM_Iberia_%286218464950%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Refuel_EC-KNM_Iberia_%286218464950%29.jpg/390px-Refuel_EC-KNM_Iberia_%286218464950%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Refuel_EC-KNM_Iberia_%286218464950%29.jpg/520px-Refuel_EC-KNM_Iberia_%286218464950%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="708" /></a><figcaption>Refueling an <a href="/wiki/Airbus_A320" class="mw-redirect" title="Airbus A320">Airbus A320</a> with <a href="/wiki/Biofuel" title="Biofuel">biofuel</a> in 2011</figcaption></figure> An aviation biofuel (also known as bio-jet fuel,<a href="#cite_note-IU4dec2020-89">[89]</a> sustainable aviation fuel (SAF) or bio-aviation fuel (BAF)<a href="#cite_note-Doliente2020-90">[90]</a>) is a <a href="/wiki/Biofuel" title="Biofuel">biofuel</a> used to power <a href="/wiki/Aircraft" title="Aircraft">aircraft</a>. The <a href="/wiki/International_Air_Transport_Association" title="International Air Transport Association">International Air Transport Association</a> (IATA) considers it a key element in reducing the <a class="mw-selflink selflink">environmental impact of aviation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> Aviation biofuel is used to <a href="/wiki/Low-carbon_economy" title="Low-carbon economy">decarbonize</a> medium and long-haul air travel. These types of travel generate the most emissions, and could extend the life of older aircraft types by lowering their carbon footprint. Synthetic paraffinic kerosene (SPK) refers to any non-petroleum-based fuel designed to replace kerosene <a href="/wiki/Jet_fuel" title="Jet fuel">jet fuel</a>, which is often, but not always, made from biomass. Biofuels are <a href="/wiki/Biomass" title="Biomass">biomass</a>-derived fuels from plants, animals, or waste; depending on which type of biomass is used, they could lower <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410">CO2 emissions by 20–98% compared to <a href="/wiki/Jet_A1" class="mw-redirect" title="Jet A1">conventional jet fuel</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Bauen2009-92">[92]</a> The first test flight using blended biofuel was in 2008, and in 2011, blended fuels with 50% biofuels were allowed on commercial flights. In 2023 SAF production was 600 million liters, representing 0.2% of global jet fuel use.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> Aviation biofuel can be produced from plant or animal sources such as <a href="/wiki/Jatropha" title="Jatropha">Jatropha</a>, <a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">algae</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tallows" class="mw-redirect" title="Tallows">tallows</a>, waste oils, <a href="/wiki/Palm_oil" title="Palm oil">palm oil</a>, <a href="/wiki/Babassu_oil" title="Babassu oil">Babassu</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Camelina" title="Camelina">Camelina</a> (bio-SPK); from solid <a href="/wiki/Biomass" title="Biomass">biomass</a> using <a href="/wiki/Pyrolysis" title="Pyrolysis">pyrolysis</a> processed with a <a href="/wiki/Fischer%E2%80%93Tropsch_process" title="Fischer–Tropsch process">Fischer–Tropsch process</a> (FT-SPK); with an <a href="/wiki/Alcohol_(chemistry)" title="Alcohol (chemistry)">alcohol</a>-to-jet (ATJ) process from waste fermentation; or from <a href="/wiki/Synthetic_biology" title="Synthetic biology">synthetic biology</a> through a <a href="/wiki/Chemical_reactor" title="Chemical reactor">solar reactor</a>. Small piston engines can be modified to burn <a href="/wiki/Ethanol" title="Ethanol">ethanol</a>. <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_biofuel" title="Sustainable biofuel">Sustainable biofuels</a> are an alternative to <a href="/wiki/Electrofuels" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrofuels">electrofuels</a>.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> Sustainable aviation fuel is certified as being <a href="/wiki/Sustainable" class="mw-redirect" title="Sustainable">sustainable</a> by a third-party organisation. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Electrofuels_(e-fuels)">Electrofuels (e-fuels)</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_aviation&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Electrofuels (e-fuels)">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Potsdam_Institute_for_Climate_Impact_Research" title="Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research">Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research</a> reported a €800–1,200 mitigation cost per ton of CO2 for hydrogen-based <a href="/wiki/Electrofuel" title="Electrofuel">e-fuels</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Nature6may2021-95">[95]</a> Those could be reduced to €20–270 per ton of CO2 in 2050, but maybe not early enough to replace <a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuels" class="mw-redirect" title="Fossil fuels">fossil fuels</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Nature6may2021-95">[95]</a> <a href="/wiki/Politics_of_climate_change" title="Politics of climate change">Climate policies</a> could bear the risk of e-fuel <a href="/wiki/Scalability" title="Scalability">uncertain availability</a>, and Hydrogen and e-fuels may be prioritised when direct <a href="/wiki/Electrification" title="Electrification">electrification</a> is inaccessible.<a href="#cite_note-Nature6may2021-95">[95]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Aircraft_with_lower_design_speed_and_altitude">Aircraft with lower design speed and altitude</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_aviation&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Aircraft with lower design speed and altitude">edit</a>]</div> According to a research project focusing on short to medium range passenger aircraft, design for subsonic instead of transonic speed (about 15% less speed) would save 21% of fuel compared to an aircraft of conventional design speed and similar characteristics in terms of size, range and expected general technology improvements. The lower mach number and turboprop instead of turbofan propulsion leads to lower flight altitude with a disproportionately high reduction in Non-CO2 emissions. Thus, over 60% climate impact reduction can be potentially achieved by such advanced turboprop aircraft compared to current short to medium range passenger aircraft, yet before switching to synthetic fuels. <a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reducing_air_travel">Reducing air travel</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_aviation&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Reducing air travel">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Air_travel_demand_reduction" title="Air travel demand reduction">Air travel demand reduction</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Annual_air_transport_consumption_in_the_UK_by_income_quintile,_1920%E2%80%932019.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Annual_air_transport_consumption_in_the_UK_by_income_quintile%2C_1920%E2%80%932019.jpg/220px-Annual_air_transport_consumption_in_the_UK_by_income_quintile%2C_1920%E2%80%932019.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Annual_air_transport_consumption_in_the_UK_by_income_quintile%2C_1920%E2%80%932019.jpg/330px-Annual_air_transport_consumption_in_the_UK_by_income_quintile%2C_1920%E2%80%932019.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Annual_air_transport_consumption_in_the_UK_by_income_quintile%2C_1920%E2%80%932019.jpg/440px-Annual_air_transport_consumption_in_the_UK_by_income_quintile%2C_1920%E2%80%932019.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1720" data-file-height="1112" /></a><figcaption>UK air travel by income quintile through time<a href="#cite_note-10.1016/j.enpol.2022.113278-98">[98]</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Global_distribution_of_aviation_fuel_use.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Global_distribution_of_aviation_fuel_use.jpg/220px-Global_distribution_of_aviation_fuel_use.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Global_distribution_of_aviation_fuel_use.jpg/330px-Global_distribution_of_aviation_fuel_use.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Global_distribution_of_aviation_fuel_use.jpg/440px-Global_distribution_of_aviation_fuel_use.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2389" data-file-height="1199" /></a><figcaption>Global distribution of aviation fuel use<a href="#cite_note-10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2020.102194-99">[99]</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="excerpt-block"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><div class="excerpt"> <a href="/wiki/Aviation" title="Aviation">Aviation</a> is one of three sectors identified in a study where "demand-side options" can have a large effect in "reaching <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style>SDS levels".<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> According to a study, the attainment of the 1.5–2 °C global temperature goal necessitates substantial demand reductions in the critical sectors of aviation, shipping, road freight, and industry, should large-scale negative emissions not be realized.<a href="#cite_note-10.1080/14693062.2020.1831430-101">[101]</a> According to the IMAGE model used to project scenarios aimed at limiting global temperature increases to 1.5 °C and 2 °C, it is suggested that achieving deep decarbonization within the aviation sector within the specified timeframe is contingent upon a reduction in air travel in certain markets.<a href="#cite_note-10.1080/14693062.2020.1831430-101">[101]</a> The decreases in carbon intensity of aviation energy in net-zero scenarios "are heavily dependent on projected changes in aviation demand and energy intensity".<a href="#cite_note-10.1038/s41893-022-01046-9-102">[102]</a> The significant challenges of sustainable aviation fuel expansion, including <a href="/wiki/Food_security" title="Food security">food security</a>, local community impacts, and land use issues, underscore the importance of simultaneous demand reduction efforts.<a href="#cite_note-10.1038/s41893-022-01046-9-102">[102]</a> For instance, according to a report by the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society" title="Royal Society">Royal Society</a>, to produce enough biofuel to supply the UK's aviation industry would require using half of Britain's farming land which would put major pressures on food supplies.<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a><a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> <a href="/wiki/Tourism" title="Tourism">Tourism</a> is projected to generate up to 40% of total global CO2 emissions by 2050.<a href="#cite_note-10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.10.100-105">[105]</a> Of climate change mitigation <a href="/wiki/Individual_action_on_climate_change" title="Individual action on climate change">consumption options</a> investigated by a review, the consumption options with "the highest mitigation potential advocate reduction in car and air travel".<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> A study projected a potential reduction of "transport direct CO2 emissions by around 50% in the end of the century compared to the baseline" via combined behavioral factors.<a href="#cite_note-10.1016/j.tra.2013.01.046-107">[107]</a></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Measures">Measures</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_aviation&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Measures">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Taiwan_High_Speed_Rail_(0291).JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Taiwan_High_Speed_Rail_%280291%29.JPG/220px-Taiwan_High_Speed_Rail_%280291%29.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Taiwan_High_Speed_Rail_%280291%29.JPG/330px-Taiwan_High_Speed_Rail_%280291%29.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Taiwan_High_Speed_Rail_%280291%29.JPG/440px-Taiwan_High_Speed_Rail_%280291%29.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2304" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Taiwan_High_Speed_Rail" title="Taiwan High Speed Rail">Taiwan High Speed Rail</a> in 2007</figcaption></figure> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><div class="excerpt"> According to the <a href="/wiki/IPCC_Sixth_Assessment_Report" title="IPCC Sixth Assessment Report">IPCC Sixth Assessment Report</a>, "the greatest Avoid potential" in demand-side mitigation, which consists of Avoid-Shift-Improve (ASI) options, "comes from reducing long-haul aviation and providing short-distance low-carbon urban infrastructure".<a href="#cite_note-Air_travel_demand_reduction_ipcc6-108">[108]</a> It lists the following related mobility measures:<a href="#cite_note-Air_travel_demand_reduction_ipcc6-108">[108]</a> <ul><li>Avoid: integrate transport & land use planning, tele-working, fewer long-haul flights, local <a href="/wiki/Holiday" title="Holiday">holidays</a><a href="#cite_note-Air_travel_demand_reduction_ipcc6-108">[108]</a></li> <li>Shift: from air travel to <a href="/wiki/High-speed_rail" title="High-speed rail">high-speed rail</a><a href="#cite_note-Air_travel_demand_reduction_ipcc6-108">[108]</a></li></ul> It found that socio-cultural factors promoting a preference for train travel over long-haul flights have the potential to reduce aviation greenhouse gas emissions by 10% to 40% by 2050.<a href="#cite_note-Air_travel_demand_reduction_ipcc6-108">[108]</a></div></div> The <abbr title="International Council on Clean Transportation">ICCT</abbr> estimates that 3% of the global population take regular flights.<a href="#cite_note-BBC19feb2020-24">[24]</a> Stefan Gössling of the <a href="/wiki/Western_Norway_Research_Institute" title="Western Norway Research Institute">Western Norway Research Institute</a> estimates 1% of the world population emits half of commercial aviation's CO2, while close to 90% does not fly in a given year.<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Per-capita-co2-aviation-adjusted.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Per-capita-co2-aviation-adjusted.svg/220px-Per-capita-co2-aviation-adjusted.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Per-capita-co2-aviation-adjusted.svg/330px-Per-capita-co2-aviation-adjusted.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Per-capita-co2-aviation-adjusted.svg/440px-Per-capita-co2-aviation-adjusted.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="850" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Per capita emissions from domestic and international flights</figcaption></figure> In early 2022, the <a href="/wiki/European_Investment_Bank" title="European Investment Bank">European Investment Bank</a> published the results of its 2021–2022 Climate Survey, showing that 52% of Europeans under 30, 37% of people between 30 and 64 and 25% for people aged 65 and above plan to travel by air for their summer holidays in 2022; and 27% of those under 30, 17% for people aged 30–64 and 12% for people aged 65 and above plan to travel by air to a faraway destination.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> <dl><dt>Short-haul flight ban</dt></dl> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Short-haul_flight_ban" title="Short-haul flight ban">Short-haul flight ban</a></div> <dl><dd>A short-haul flight ban is a prohibition imposed by <a href="/wiki/Government" title="Government">governments</a> on <a href="/wiki/Airline" title="Airline">airlines</a> to establish and maintain a <a href="/wiki/Aviation" title="Aviation">flight connection</a> over a <a href="/wiki/Flight_length" title="Flight length">certain distance</a>, or by organisations or companies on their employees for <a href="/wiki/Business_travel" title="Business travel">business travel</a> using existing flight connections over a certain distance, in order to <a href="/wiki/Mitigation" title="Mitigation">mitigate</a> the <a class="mw-selflink selflink">environmental impact of aviation</a> (most notably to reduce anthropogenic <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">greenhouse gas emissions</a> which is the leading cause of <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a>). In the 21st century, several governments, organisations and companies have imposed restrictions and even prohibitions on short-haul flights, stimulating or pressuring travellers to opt for <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_transport" title="Sustainable transport">more environmentally friendly means of transportation</a>, especially <a href="/wiki/Train" title="Train">trains</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Wabl-111">[111]</a></dd></dl> <dl><dt>Flight shame</dt> <dd>In Sweden the concept of "<a href="/wiki/Flight_shame" title="Flight shame">flight shame</a>" or "flygskam" has been cited as a cause of falling air travel.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> Swedish rail company <a href="/wiki/SJ_AB" title="SJ AB">SJ AB</a> reports that twice as many Swedish people chose to travel by train instead of by air in summer 2019 compared with the previous year.<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> Swedish airports operator <a href="/wiki/Swedavia" title="Swedavia">Swedavia</a> reported 4% fewer passengers across its 10 airports in 2019 compared to the previous year: a 9% drop for domestic passengers and 2% for international passengers.<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a></dd></dl> <dl><dt>Personal allowances</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">Climate change mitigation</a> can be backed by <a href="/wiki/Personal_carbon_allowance" class="mw-redirect" title="Personal carbon allowance">Personal carbon allowances</a> (PCAs) where all adults receive "an equal, <a href="/wiki/Emissions_trading" title="Emissions trading">tradable carbon allowance</a> that reduces over time in line with national targets."<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a><a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a><a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Bundling_citations" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">excessive citations</a>] Everyone would have a share of allowed carbon emissions and would need to trade further emissions allowances.<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:What_Wikipedia_is_not#Encyclopedic_content" title="Wikipedia:What Wikipedia is not">importance?</a>] An alternative would be <a href="/wiki/Rationing" title="Rationing">rationing</a> everyone's flights: an "individual cap on air travel, that people can trade with each other".<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economic_measures">Economic measures</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_aviation&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Economic measures">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Emissions_trading">Emissions trading</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_aviation&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Emissions trading">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:EUA_future_real_price.pdf" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/EUA_future_real_price.pdf/page1-220px-EUA_future_real_price.pdf.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="134" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/EUA_future_real_price.pdf/page1-330px-EUA_future_real_price.pdf.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/EUA_future_real_price.pdf/page1-440px-EUA_future_real_price.pdf.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1050" data-file-height="639" /></a><figcaption>CO2 price in the <a href="/wiki/European_Union_Emission_Trading_Scheme" class="mw-redirect" title="European Union Emission Trading Scheme">European Union Emission Trading Scheme</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/ICAO" class="mw-redirect" title="ICAO">ICAO</a> has endorsed <a href="/wiki/Emissions_trading" title="Emissions trading">emissions trading</a> to reduce aviation CO2 emission, guidelines were to be presented to the 2007 ICAO Assembly.<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> Within the European Union, the <a href="/wiki/European_Commission" title="European Commission">European Commission</a> has included aviation in the <a href="/wiki/European_Union_Emissions_Trading_Scheme" class="mw-redirect" title="European Union Emissions Trading Scheme">European Union Emissions Trading Scheme</a> operated since 2012, capping airline emissions, providing incentives to lower emissions through more efficient technology or to buy <a href="/wiki/Carbon_credit" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon credit">carbon credits</a> from other companies.<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a><a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> The Centre for Aviation, Transport and Environment at <a href="/wiki/Manchester_Metropolitan_University" title="Manchester Metropolitan University">Manchester Metropolitan University</a> estimates the only way to lower emissions is to put a <a href="/wiki/Carbon_price" title="Carbon price">price on carbon</a> and to use <a href="/wiki/Market-based_environmental_policy_instruments" title="Market-based environmental policy instruments">market-based measures</a> like the EU ETS.<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Taxation_and_subsidies">Taxation and subsidies</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_aviation&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Taxation and subsidies">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Aviation_taxation_and_subsidies" title="Aviation taxation and subsidies">Aviation taxation and subsidies</a></div> Financial measures can discourage airline passengers and promote other <a href="/wiki/Transportation_mode" class="mw-redirect" title="Transportation mode">transportation modes</a> and motivates airlines to improve fuel efficiency. Aviation taxation include: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_passenger_tax" class="mw-redirect" title="Air passenger tax">air passenger taxes</a>, paid by passengers for environmental reasons, may be variable by distance and include domestic flights;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Departure_tax" title="Departure tax">departure taxes</a>, paid by passengers leaving the country, sometimes also applies outside aviation;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jet_fuel_tax" class="mw-redirect" title="Jet fuel tax">jet fuel taxes</a>, paid by airlines for the consumed jet fuel. Jet fuel taxation is applied <a href="/wiki/Fuel_taxes_in_the_United_States" title="Fuel taxes in the United States">in the United States</a>, but <a href="/wiki/Jet_fuel_taxation_in_the_European_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Jet fuel taxation in the European Union">banned in the European Union</a>.</li></ul> Consumer behavior can be influenced by cutting subsidies for unsustainable aviation and subsidising the development of sustainable alternatives. By September–October 2019, a carbon tax on flights would be supported by 72% of the EU citizens, in a poll conducted for the <a href="/wiki/European_Investment_Bank" title="European Investment Bank">European Investment Bank</a>.<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> Aviation taxation could reflect all its <a href="/wiki/External_costs" class="mw-redirect" title="External costs">external costs</a> and could be included in an <a href="/wiki/Emissions_trading_scheme" class="mw-redirect" title="Emissions trading scheme">emissions trading scheme</a>.<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> International aviation emissions escaped international regulation until the <a href="/wiki/International_Civil_Aviation_Organization" title="International Civil Aviation Organization">ICAO</a> triennial conference in 2016 agreed on the <a href="/wiki/Carbon_Offsetting_and_Reduction_Scheme_for_International_Aviation" title="Carbon Offsetting and Reduction Scheme for International Aviation">CORSIA</a> offset scheme.<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> Due to low or nonexistent <a href="/wiki/Aviation_fuel#Tax" title="Aviation fuel">taxes on aviation fuel</a>, air travel has a competitive advantage over other transportation modes.<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a><a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Carbon_offsetting">Carbon offsetting</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_aviation&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Carbon offsetting">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Windmill_D1_(Thornton_Bank).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Windmill_D1_%28Thornton_Bank%29.jpg/170px-Windmill_D1_%28Thornton_Bank%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="256" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Windmill_D1_%28Thornton_Bank%29.jpg/255px-Windmill_D1_%28Thornton_Bank%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Windmill_D1_%28Thornton_Bank%29.jpg/340px-Windmill_D1_%28Thornton_Bank%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2803" data-file-height="4226" /></a><figcaption>Money generated by carbon offsets from airlines often go to fund green-energy projects such as <a href="/wiki/Wind_turbine" title="Wind turbine">wind farms</a>.</figcaption></figure> A carbon offset is a means of compensating aviation emissions by saving enough carbon or absorbing carbon back into plants through <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a> (for example, by <a href="/wiki/Tree_planting" title="Tree planting">planting trees</a> through <a href="/wiki/Reforestation" title="Reforestation">reforestation</a> or <a href="/wiki/Afforestation" title="Afforestation">afforestation</a>) to balance the carbon emitted by a particular action. However, carbon credits <a href="/wiki/Carbon_offset#Criteria_of_Quality" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon offset">permanence and additionality</a> can be questionable.<a href="#cite_note-nature30jan2023-75">[75]</a> More than 90% of rainforest offset credits certified by Verra's <a href="/wiki/Verified_Carbon_Standard" title="Verified Carbon Standard">Verified Carbon Standard</a> may not represent genuine carbon reductions.<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Consumer_option">Consumer option</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_aviation&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Consumer option">edit</a>]</div> Some airlines offer carbon offsets to passengers to cover the emissions created by their flight, invested in <a href="/wiki/Green_technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Green technology">green technology</a> such as renewable energy and research into future technology. Airlines offering carbon offsets include <a href="/wiki/British_Airways" title="British Airways">British Airways</a>,<a href="#cite_note-BA-130">[130]</a> <a href="/wiki/Continental_Airlines" title="Continental Airlines">Continental Airlines</a>,<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a><a href="#cite_note-BBW-132">[132]</a> <a href="/wiki/EasyJet" title="EasyJet">easyJet</a>,;<a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a> and also <a href="/wiki/Air_Canada" title="Air Canada">Air Canada</a>, <a href="/wiki/Air_New_Zealand" title="Air New Zealand">Air New Zealand</a>, <a href="/wiki/Delta_Air_Lines" title="Delta Air Lines">Delta Air Lines</a>, <a href="/wiki/Emirates_Airlines" class="mw-redirect" title="Emirates Airlines">Emirates Airlines</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gulf_Air" title="Gulf Air">Gulf Air</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jetstar" title="Jetstar">Jetstar</a>, Lufthansa, <a href="/wiki/Qantas" title="Qantas">Qantas</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_Airlines" title="United Airlines">United Airlines</a> and <a href="/wiki/Virgin_Australia" title="Virgin Australia">Virgin Australia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a> Consumers can also purchase offsets on the individual market. There are certification standards for these,<a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a> including the <a href="/wiki/Gold_Standard_(carbon_offset_standard)" title="Gold Standard (carbon offset standard)">Gold Standard</a><a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a> and the Green-e.<a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="National_carbon_budgets">National carbon budgets</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_aviation&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: National carbon budgets">edit</a>]</div> In UK, transportation replaced power generation as the largest emissions source. This includes aviation's 4% contribution. This is expected to expand until 2050 and passenger demand may need to be reduced.<a href="#cite_note-Flight7jan2019-85">[85]</a> For the UK <a href="/wiki/Committee_on_Climate_Change" class="mw-redirect" title="Committee on Climate Change">Committee on Climate Change</a> (CCC), the UK target of an 80% reduction from 1990 to 2050 was still achievable from 2019, but the committee suggests that the Paris Agreement should tighten its emission targets.<a href="#cite_note-Flight7jan2019-85">[85]</a> Their position is that emissions in problematic sectors, like aviation, should be offset by <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_removal" class="mw-redirect" title="Greenhouse gas removal">greenhouse gas removal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carbon_capture_and_storage" title="Carbon capture and storage">carbon capture and storage</a> and reforestation.<a href="#cite_note-Flight7jan2019-85">[85]</a> The UK will include international aviation and shipping in their <a href="/wiki/Carbon_budget" title="Carbon budget">carbon budgets</a> and hopes other countries will too.<a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Airline_offsets">Airline offsets</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_aviation&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Airline offsets">edit</a>]</div> Some airlines have been carbon-neutral like Costa Rican <a href="/wiki/Nature_Air" title="Nature Air">Nature Air</a>,<a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a> or claim to be, like Canadian <a href="/wiki/Harbour_Air_Seaplanes" class="mw-redirect" title="Harbour Air Seaplanes">Harbour Air Seaplanes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a> Long-haul low-cost venture <a href="/w/index.php?title=Fly_POP&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Fly POP (page does not exist)">Fly POP</a> aims to be carbon neutral.<a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a> In 2019, Air France announced it would offset CO2 emissions on its 450 daily domestic flights, that carry 57,000 passengers, from January 2020, through certified projects. The company will also offer its customers the option to voluntarily compensate for all their flights and aims to reduce its emissions by 50% per pax/km by 2030, compared to 2005.<a href="#cite_note-AF1oct2019-142">[142]</a> Starting in November 2019, UK budget carrier EasyJet decided to offset carbon emissions for all its flights, through investments in <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth%27s_atmosphere" title="Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere">atmospheric carbon</a> reduction projects. It claims to be the first major operator to be carbon neutral, at a cost of £25 million for its 2019–2020 financial year. Its CO2 emissions were 77 g per passenger in its 2018–2019 financial year, down from 78.4 g the previous year.<a href="#cite_note-Flight19nov2019-143">[143]</a> From January 2020, British Airways began offsetting its 75 daily domestic flights emissions through carbon-reduction project investments. The airline seeks to become carbon neutral by 2050 with fuel-efficient aircraft, sustainable fuels and operational changes. Passengers flying overseas can offset their flights for £1 to Madrid in economy or £15 to New York in business-class.<a href="#cite_note-Flight3jan2020-144">[144]</a> US low-cost carrier <a href="/wiki/JetBlue" title="JetBlue">JetBlue</a> planned to use offsets for its emissions from domestic flights starting in July 2020, the first major US airline to do so. It also plans to use sustainable aviation fuel made from waste by Finnish refiner <a href="/wiki/Neste" title="Neste">Neste</a> starting in mid-2020.<a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a> In August 2020, JetBlue became entirely carbon-neutral for its U.S. domestic flights, using efficiency improvements and carbon offsets. Delta Air Lines pledged to do the same within ten years.<a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a> To become carbon neutral by 2050, United Airlines invests to build in the US the largest <a href="/wiki/Carbon_capture_and_storage" title="Carbon capture and storage">carbon capture and storage</a> facility through the company 1PointFive, jointly owned by <a href="/wiki/Occidental_Petroleum" title="Occidental Petroleum">Occidental Petroleum</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Rusheen_Capital_Management&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rusheen Capital Management (page does not exist)">Rusheen Capital Management</a>, with <a href="/wiki/Carbon_Engineering" title="Carbon Engineering">Carbon Engineering</a> technology, aiming for nearly 10% offsets.<a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Air_traffic_management_improvements">Air traffic management improvements</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_aviation&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Air traffic management improvements">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:European_airways.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/European_airways.svg/220px-European_airways.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="183" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/European_airways.svg/330px-European_airways.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/European_airways.svg/440px-European_airways.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="714" data-file-height="594" /></a><figcaption>Improved <a href="/wiki/Air_Traffic_Control" class="mw-redirect" title="Air Traffic Control">Air Traffic Control</a> would allow more direct routes</figcaption></figure> An improved <a href="/wiki/Air_traffic_management" title="Air traffic management">air traffic management</a> system, with more direct routes than suboptimal <a href="/wiki/Air_corridor" class="mw-redirect" title="Air corridor">air corridors</a> and optimized cruising altitudes, would allow airlines to reduce their emissions by up to 18%.<a href="#cite_note-NYT20sep2007-30">[30]</a> In the European Union, a <a href="/wiki/Single_European_Sky" title="Single European Sky">Single European Sky</a> has been proposed since 1999 to avoid overlapping airspace restrictions between EU countries and to reduce emissions.<a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a> By 2007, 12 million tons of CO2 emissions per year were caused by the lack of a Single European Sky.<a href="#cite_note-NYT20sep2007-30">[30]</a> As of September 2020, the Single European Sky has still not been completely achieved, costing 6 billion euros in delays and causing 11.6 million tonnes of excess CO2 emissions.<a href="#cite_note-149">[149]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Operations_improvements">Operations improvements</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_aviation&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Operations improvements">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Air_traffic_optimal_climat-cost_relation.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Air_traffic_optimal_climat-cost_relation.jpg/220px-Air_traffic_optimal_climat-cost_relation.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Air_traffic_optimal_climat-cost_relation.jpg/330px-Air_traffic_optimal_climat-cost_relation.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Air_traffic_optimal_climat-cost_relation.jpg/440px-Air_traffic_optimal_climat-cost_relation.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1111" data-file-height="886" /></a><figcaption>Economic cost and climate influence relation for transatlantic traffic</figcaption></figure> <dl><dt>Non-CO2 emissions</dt> <dd>Besides carbon dioxide, aviation produces nitrogen oxides (NO x), particulates, <a href="/wiki/Unburned_hydrocarbon" title="Unburned hydrocarbon">unburned hydrocarbons</a> (UHC) and <a href="/wiki/Contrail" title="Contrail">contrails</a>. <a href="/wiki/Airway_(aviation)" title="Airway (aviation)">Flight routes</a> can be <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_optimization" title="Mathematical optimization">optimized</a>: modelling CO2, H 2O and NO x effects of <a href="/wiki/Transatlantic_flight" title="Transatlantic flight">transatlantic flights</a> in winter shows westbound flights climate forcing can be lowered by up to 60% and ~25% for <a href="/wiki/Jet_stream" title="Jet stream">jet stream</a>-following eastbound flights, costing 10–15% more due to longer distances and lower altitudes consuming more fuel, but 0.5% costs increase can reduce climate forcing by up to 25%.<a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a> A 2000 feet (~600 m) lower cruise altitude than the optimal altitude has a 21% lower radiative forcing, while a 2000 feet higher cruise altitude 9% higher radiative forcing.<a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a></dd></dl> <dl><dt>Nitrogen oxides (NO x)</dt> <dd>As designers work to reduce NO x emissions from <a href="/wiki/Jet_engine" title="Jet engine">jet engines</a>, they fell by over 40% between 1997 and 2003.<a href="#cite_note-Rolls1996-51">[51]</a> Cruising at a 2,000 ft (610 m) lower altitude could reduce NO x-caused radiative forcing from 5 mW/m2 to ~3 mW/m2.<a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a></dd></dl> <dl><dt>Particulates</dt> <dd>Modern engines are designed so that no smoke is produced at any point in the flight while particulates and smoke were a problem with early jet engines at high power settings.<a href="#cite_note-Rolls1996-51">[51]</a></dd></dl> <dl><dt>Unburned hydrocarbons (UHC)</dt> <dd>Produced by <a href="/wiki/Incomplete_combustion" class="mw-redirect" title="Incomplete combustion">incomplete combustion</a>, more unburned hydrocarbons are produced with low compressor pressures and/or relatively low combustor temperatures, they have been eliminated in modern jet engines through improved design and technology, like particulates.<a href="#cite_note-Rolls1996-51">[51]</a></dd></dl> <dl><dt>Contrails</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Contrail" title="Contrail">Contrail</a> formation would be reduced by lowering the <a href="/wiki/Cruise_altitude" class="mw-redirect" title="Cruise altitude">cruise altitude</a> with slightly increased flight times, but this would be limited by <a href="/wiki/Airspace" title="Airspace">airspace</a> capacity, especially in Europe and North America, and increased fuel burn due to lower efficiency at lower altitudes, increasing CO2 emissions by 4%.<a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a> Contrail radiative forcing could be minimized by <a href="/wiki/Public_transport_timetable" title="Public transport timetable">schedules</a>: <a href="/wiki/Red-eye_flight" title="Red-eye flight">night flights</a> cause 60–80% of the forcing for only 25% of the air traffic, while <a href="/wiki/Winter" title="Winter">winter</a> flights contribute half of the forcing for only 22% of the air traffic.<a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a> As 2% of flights are responsible for 80% of contrail radiative forcing, changing a flight altitude by 2,000 ft (610 m) to avoid high <a href="/wiki/Humidity" title="Humidity">humidity</a> for 1.7% of flights would reduce contrail formation by 59%.<a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a> <a href="/wiki/German_Aerospace_Center" title="German Aerospace Center">DLR</a>'s ECLIF3 study, flying an <a href="/wiki/Airbus_A350" title="Airbus A350">Airbus A350</a>, show sustainable aviation fuel reduces contrail ice-crystal formation by 56% and soot particle by 35%, maybe due to lower <a href="/wiki/Petroleum_geochemistry#Sulphur_Content" title="Petroleum geochemistry">sulphur content</a>, as well as low <a href="/wiki/Aromatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Aromatic">aromatic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Naphthalene" title="Naphthalene">naphthalene</a> content.<a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_aviation&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 25em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aviation_Environment_Federation" title="Aviation Environment Federation">Aviation Environment Federation</a>, UK concerned organization</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airport#Environmental_concerns_and_sustainability" title="Airport">Construction of solar photovoltaic arrays on airport roofs to offset their electricity use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_jet" title="Business jet">Business jet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_efficiency_in_transport" title="Energy efficiency in transport">Energy efficiency in transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Green_Deal" title="European Green Deal">European Green Deal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_aviation_in_the_United_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of aviation in the United Kingdom">Environmental effects of aviation in the United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of transport">Environmental effects of transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flying_Matters" title="Flying Matters">Flying Matters</a>, UK former pro-aviation coalition</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_hazards_of_air_travel" title="Health hazards of air travel">Health hazards of air travel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individual_action_on_climate_change" title="Individual action on climate change">Individual action on climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plane_Mad" title="Plane Mad">Plane Mad</a>, Irish concerned action group</li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_aviation&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output 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Nature. 441 (7095): 864–867. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006Natur.441..864S">2006Natur.441..864S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature04877">10.1038/nature04877</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16778887">16778887</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4348401">4348401</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230308135742/https://www.nature.com/articles/nature04877.epdf">Archived</a> from the original on 8 March 2023. Retrieved 25 November 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=The+importance+of+the+diurnal+and+annual+cycle+of+air+traffic+for+contrail+radiative+forcing&rft.volume=441&rft.issue=7095&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E864-%3C%2Fspan%3E867&rft.date=2006-06-15&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature04877&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4348401%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16778887&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2006Natur.441..864S&rft.au=Nicola+Stuber&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Farticles%2Fnature04877.epdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+impact+of+aviation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCaroline_Brogan2020" class="citation news cs1">Caroline Brogan (12 February 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.imperial.ac.uk/news/195294/small-altitude-changes-could-contrail-impact/">"Small altitude changes could cut contrail impact of flights by up to 59 per cent"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Imperial_College" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial College">Imperial College</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230720064610/https://www.imperial.ac.uk/news/195294/small-altitude-changes-could-contrail-impact/">Archived</a> from the original on 20 July 2023. Retrieved 22 February 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Small+altitude+changes+could+cut+contrail+impact+of+flights+by+up+to+59+per+cent&rft.date=2020-02-12&rft.au=Caroline+Brogan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.imperial.ac.uk%2Fnews%2F195294%2Fsmall-altitude-changes-could-contrail-impact%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+impact+of+aviation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavid_Kaminski-Morrow2024" class="citation news cs1">David Kaminski-Morrow (6 June 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.flightglobal.com/air-transport/a350-flights-with-100-saf-suggest-lower-soot-cuts-contrail-ice-formation/158676.article">"A350 flights with 100% SAF suggest lower soot cuts contrail ice formation"</a>. Flightglobal. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240607052840/https://www.flightglobal.com/air-transport/a350-flights-with-100-saf-suggest-lower-soot-cuts-contrail-ice-formation/158676.article">Archived</a> from the original on 7 June 2024. Retrieved 7 June 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Flightglobal&rft.atitle=A350+flights+with+100%25+SAF+suggest+lower+soot+cuts+contrail+ice+formation&rft.date=2024-06-06&rft.au=David+Kaminski-Morrow&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.flightglobal.com%2Fair-transport%2Fa350-flights-with-100-saf-suggest-lower-soot-cuts-contrail-ice-formation%2F158676.article&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+impact+of+aviation" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Works_cited">Works cited</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_aviation&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Works cited">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIPCC_AR6_WG32022" class="citation book cs1">IPCC (2022). Shukla P, Skea J, Slade R, Al Khourdajie A, et al. (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg3/">Climate Change 2022: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change</a>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Climate+Change+2022%3A+Mitigation+of+Climate+Change.+Contribution+of+Working+Group+III+to+the+Sixth+Assessment+Report+of+the+Intergovernmental+Panel+on+Climate+Change&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2022&rft.au=IPCC&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ipcc.ch%2Freport%2Far6%2Fwg3%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+impact+of+aviation" class="Z3988">.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_aviation&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <dl><dt>Institutional</dt></dl> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.faa.gov/regulations_policies/policy_guidance/envir_policy/media/primer_jan2015.pdf">"Aviation Emissions, Impacts & Mitigation: A Primer"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/FAA" class="mw-redirect" title="FAA">FAA</a> Office of Environment and Energy. January 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Aviation+Emissions%2C+Impacts+%26+Mitigation%3A+A+Primer&rft.pub=FAA+Office+of+Environment+and+Energy&rft.date=2015-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.faa.gov%2Fregulations_policies%2Fpolicy_guidance%2Fenvir_policy%2Fmedia%2Fprimer_jan2015.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+impact+of+aviation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200718095125if_/https://www.acare4europe.org/sites/acare4europe.org/files/document/ACARE-Strategic-Research-Innovation-Volume-1.pdf">"Strategic Research & Innovation Agenda"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Advisory_Council_for_Aeronautics_Research_in_Europe" title="Advisory Council for Aeronautics Research in Europe">Advisory Council for Aviation Research and Innovation in Europe</a>. 2017. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.acare4europe.org/sites/acare4europe.org/files/document/ACARE-Strategic-Research-Innovation-Volume-1.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 18 July 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Strategic+Research+%26+Innovation+Agenda&rft.pub=Advisory+Council+for+Aviation+Research+and+Innovation+in+Europe&rft.date=2017&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.acare4europe.org%2Fsites%2Facare4europe.org%2Ffiles%2Fdocument%2FACARE-Strategic-Research-Innovation-Volume-1.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+impact+of+aviation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190316045910if_/https://www.easa.europa.eu/eaer/system/files/usr_uploaded/219473_EASA_EAER_2019_WEB_HI-RES_190311.pdf">"European Aviation Environmental Report"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/EASA" class="mw-redirect" title="EASA">EASA</a>. 2019. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.easa.europa.eu/eaer/system/files/usr_uploaded/219473_EASA_EAER_2019_WEB_HI-RES_190311.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 16 March 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=European+Aviation+Environmental+Report&rft.pub=EASA&rft.date=2019&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.easa.europa.eu%2Feaer%2Fsystem%2Ffiles%2Fusr_uploaded%2F219473_EASA_EAER_2019_WEB_HI-RES_190311.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+impact+of+aviation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.icao.int/environmental-protection/Pages/envrep2019.aspx">"Environmental Report"</a>. <a href="/wiki/ICAO" class="mw-redirect" title="ICAO">ICAO</a>. 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Environmental+Report&rft.pub=ICAO&rft.date=2019&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.icao.int%2Fenvironmental-protection%2FPages%2Fenvrep2019.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+impact+of+aviation" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <dl><dt>Concerns</dt></dl> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.airportwatch.org.uk/">"airportwatch.org.uk"</a>. <a href="/wiki/AirportWatch" title="AirportWatch">AirportWatch</a>. <q>oppose any expansion of aviation and airports likely to damage the human or natural environment, and to promote an aviation policy for the UK which is in full accordance with the principles of sustainable development</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=airportwatch.org.uk&rft.pub=AirportWatch&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.airportwatch.org.uk%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+impact+of+aviation" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <dl><dt>Industry</dt></dl> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://aviationbenefits.org/">"Aviation: Benefits Beyond Borders"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Air_Transport_Action_Group" title="Air Transport Action Group">Air Transport Action Group</a>. <q>information on the many industry measures underway to limit the impact of aviation on the environment</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Aviation%3A+Benefits+Beyond+Borders&rft.pub=Air+Transport+Action+Group&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Faviationbenefits.org%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+impact+of+aviation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sustainableaviation.co.uk">"sustainableaviation.co.uk"</a>. Sustainable Aviation. <q>collective approach of UK aviation to tackling the challenge of ensuring a sustainable future</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=sustainableaviation.co.uk&rft.pub=Sustainable+Aviation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sustainableaviation.co.uk&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+impact+of+aviation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://aviationbenefits.org/media/136876/CATF_Version-One_WEB.pdf">"The aviation sector's climate action framework"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Air_Transport_Action_Group" title="Air Transport Action Group">Air Transport Action Group</a>. November 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+aviation+sector%27s+climate+action+framework&rft.pub=Air+Transport+Action+Group&rft.date=2015-11&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Faviationbenefits.org%2Fmedia%2F136876%2FCATF_Version-One_WEB.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+impact+of+aviation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://missionpossiblepartnership.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/01/Making-Net-Zero-Aviation-possible.pdf">"Making Net-Zero Aviation Possible"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Mission_Possible_Partnership" class="mw-redirect" title="Mission Possible Partnership">Mission Possible Partnership</a>. July 2022. <q>An industry-backed, 1.5°C-aligned transition strategy</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Mission+Possible+Partnership&rft.atitle=Making+Net-Zero+Aviation+Possible&rft.date=2022-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmissionpossiblepartnership.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2023%2F01%2FMaking-Net-Zero-Aviation-possible.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+impact+of+aviation" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <dl><dt>Research</dt></dl> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ascent.aero/">"Aviation Sustainability Center"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Washington_State_University" title="Washington State University">Washington State University</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Aviation+Sustainability+Center&rft.pub=Washington+State+University+and+the+Massachusetts+Institute+of+Technology&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fascent.aero%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+impact+of+aviation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lae.mit.edu/">"Laboratory for Aviation and the Environment"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Laboratory+for+Aviation+and+the+Environment&rft.pub=Massachusetts+Institute+of+Technology&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flae.mit.edu%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+impact+of+aviation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://partner.mit.edu/">"Partnership for Air Transportation Noise and Emissions Reduction"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Partnership+for+Air+Transportation+Noise+and+Emissions+Reduction&rft.pub=Massachusetts+Institute+of+Technology&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpartner.mit.edu%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+impact+of+aviation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sustainablesky.com">"Sustainable Sky Institute"</a>. Sustainable Sky Institute.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Sustainable+Sky+Institute&rft.pub=Sustainable+Sky+Institute&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sustainablesky.com&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+impact+of+aviation" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <dl><dt>Studies</dt></dl> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKivitsCharlesRyan2010" class="citation journal cs1">Kivits R, Charles MB, Ryan N (2010). "A post-carbon aviation future: Airports and the transition to a cleaner aviation sector". Futures. 42 (3): 199–211. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.futures.2009.11.005">10.1016/j.futures.2009.11.005</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Futures&rft.atitle=A+post-carbon+aviation+future%3A+Airports+and+the+transition+to+a+cleaner+aviation+sector&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E199-%3C%2Fspan%3E211&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.futures.2009.11.005&rft.aulast=Kivits&rft.aufirst=Robbert&rft.au=Charles%2C+Michael+B.&rft.au=Ryan%2C+Neal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+impact+of+aviation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThe_Heinrich_Böll_Foundation_and_the_Airbus_Group2016" class="citation web cs1">The <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_B%C3%B6ll_Foundation" title="Heinrich Böll Foundation">Heinrich Böll Foundation</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Airbus_Group" title="Airbus Group">Airbus Group</a> (May 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.boell.de/sites/default/files/20160530_aloft_an_inflight_review.pdf">"Aloft – An Inflight Review"</a> (PDF).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Aloft+%E2%80%93+An+Inflight+Review&rft.date=2016-05&rft.au=The+Heinrich+B%C3%B6ll+Foundation+and+the+Airbus+Group&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.boell.de%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2F20160530_aloft_an_inflight_review.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+impact+of+aviation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAntoine_Gelain2016" class="citation news cs1">Antoine Gelain (10 August 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://aviationweek.com/commercial-aviation/opinion-uncomfortable-truth-about-aviation-emissions">"Opinion: The Uncomfortable Truth About Aviation Emissions"</a>. Aviation Week & Space Technology.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Aviation+Week+%26+Space+Technology&rft.atitle=Opinion%3A+The+Uncomfortable+Truth+About+Aviation+Emissions&rft.date=2016-08-10&rft.au=Antoine+Gelain&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Faviationweek.com%2Fcommercial-aviation%2Fopinion-uncomfortable-truth-about-aviation-emissions&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+impact+of+aviation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.iea.org/reports/aviation">"Tracking report: Aviation"</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Energy_Agency" title="International Energy Agency">International Energy Agency</a>. June 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Tracking+report%3A+Aviation&rft.date=2020-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.iea.org%2Freports%2Faviation&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+impact+of+aviation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHannah_Ritchie2020" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hannah_Ritchie" title="Hannah Ritchie">Hannah Ritchie</a> (22 October 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ourworldindata.org/co2-emissions-from-aviation">"Climate change and flying: what share of global CO2 emissions come from aviation?"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Our_World_in_Data" title="Our World in Data">Our World in Data</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Our+World+in+Data&rft.atitle=Climate+change+and+flying%3A+what+share+of+global+CO%3Csub+style%3D%22font-size%3A+80%25%3Bvertical-align%3A+-0.35em%22%3E2%3C%2Fsub%3E+emissions+come+from+aviation%3F&rft.date=2020-10-22&rft.au=Hannah+Ritchie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fourworldindata.org%2Fco2-emissions-from-aviation&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+impact+of+aviation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.economist.com/business/2023/05/14/the-aviation-industry-wants-to-be-net-zero-but-not-soon">"The aviation industry wants to be net zero—but not soon"</a>. The Economist. 14 May 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Economist&rft.atitle=The+aviation+industry+wants+to+be+net+zero%E2%80%94but+not+soon&rft.date=2023-05-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.economist.com%2Fbusiness%2F2023%2F05%2F14%2Fthe-aviation-industry-wants-to-be-net-zero-but-not-soon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+impact+of+aviation" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output 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</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Causes567" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_climate_change" title="Causes of climate change">Causes</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Overview</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_system" title="Climate system">Climate system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_effect" title="Greenhouse effect">Greenhouse effect</a> (<a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth%27s_atmosphere" title="Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere">Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_consensus_on_climate_change" title="Scientific consensus on climate change">Scientific consensus on climate change</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Sources</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_and_climate_change" title="Deforestation and climate change">Deforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">Fossil fuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">Greenhouse gases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">Greenhouse gas emissions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_accounting" title="Carbon accounting">Carbon accounting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_footprint" title="Carbon footprint">Carbon footprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_leakage" title="Carbon leakage">Carbon leakage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions_from_agriculture" title="Greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture">from agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions_from_wetlands" title="Greenhouse gas emissions from wetlands">from wetlands</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_energy_supply_and_consumption" title="World energy supply and consumption">World energy supply and consumption</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="History567" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">History</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_climate_change_policy_and_politics" title="History of climate change policy and politics">History of climate change policy and politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_climate_change_science" title="History of climate change science">History of climate change science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svante_Arrhenius" title="Svante Arrhenius">Svante Arrhenius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Hansen" title="James Hansen">James Hansen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_David_Keeling" title="Charles David Keeling">Charles David Keeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Climate_Change_conference" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations Climate Change conference">United Nations Climate Change conferences</a></li> <li>Years in climate change <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2019_in_climate_change" title="2019 in climate change">2019</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020_in_climate_change" title="2020 in climate change">2020</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021_in_climate_change" title="2021 in climate change">2021</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2022_in_climate_change" title="2022 in climate change">2022</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2023_in_climate_change" title="2023 in climate change">2023</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2024_in_climate_change" title="2024 in climate change">2024</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Effects_and_issues567" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change" title="Effects of climate change">Effects and issues</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Physical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abrupt_climate_change" title="Abrupt climate change">Abrupt climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anoxic_event" title="Anoxic event">Anoxic event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_methane_emissions" title="Arctic methane emissions">Arctic methane emissions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_sea_ice_decline" title="Arctic sea ice decline">Arctic sea ice decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_meridional_overturning_circulation" title="Atlantic meridional overturning circulation">Atlantic meridional overturning circulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drought" title="Drought">Drought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extreme_weather" title="Extreme weather">Extreme weather</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flood" title="Flood">Flood</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_flooding" title="Coastal flooding">Coastal flooding</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_wave" title="Heat wave">Heat wave</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_heatwave" title="Marine heatwave">Marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_heat_island" title="Urban heat island">Urban heat island</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_oceans" title="Effects of climate change on oceans">Oceans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">acidification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_deoxygenation" title="Ocean deoxygenation">deoxygenation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_heat_content" title="Ocean heat content">heat content</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_surface_temperature" title="Sea surface temperature">sea surface temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_stratification" title="Ocean stratification">stratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_temperature" title="Ocean temperature">temperature</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ozone_depletion" title="Ozone depletion">Ozone depletion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permafrost#Impacts_of_climate_change" title="Permafrost">Permafrost thaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retreat_of_glaciers_since_1850" title="Retreat of glaciers since 1850">Retreat of glaciers since 1850</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise">Sea level rise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Season_creep" title="Season creep">Season creep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tipping_points_in_the_climate_system" title="Tipping points in the climate system">Tipping points in the climate system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclones_and_climate_change" title="Tropical cyclones and climate change">Tropical cyclones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_the_water_cycle" title="Effects of climate change on the water cycle">Water cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_wildfires" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change and wildfires">Wildfires</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Flora and fauna</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_biomes" title="Effects of climate change on biomes">Biomes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mass_mortality_event" title="Mass mortality event">Mass mortality event</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_birds" title="Climate change and birds">Birds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change" title="Extinction risk from climate change">Extinction risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_dieback" title="Forest dieback">Forest dieback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_invasive_species" title="Climate change and invasive species">Invasive species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_marine_life#Climate_change" title="Human impact on marine life">Marine life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_plant_biodiversity" title="Effects of climate change on plant biodiversity">Plant biodiversity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Social and economic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_agriculture" title="Effects of climate change on agriculture">Agriculture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_livestock" title="Effects of climate change on livestock">Livestock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiple_breadbasket_failure" title="Multiple breadbasket failure">Multi-breadbasket failure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="Climate change and agriculture in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_children" title="Climate change and children">Children</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_cities" title="Climate change and cities">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_civilizational_collapse" title="Climate change and civilizational collapse">Civilizational collapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_crime" title="Climate change and crime">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_areas_depopulated_due_to_climate_change" title="List of areas depopulated due to climate change">Depopulation of settlements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_landmarks_destroyed_or_damaged_by_climate_change" title="List of landmarks destroyed or damaged by climate change">Destruction of cultural heritage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_and_climate_change" title="Disability and climate change">Disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_analysis_of_climate_change" title="Economic analysis of climate change">Economic impacts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_insurance_in_the_United_States" title="Climate change and insurance in the United States">U.S. insurance industry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_fisheries" title="Climate change and fisheries">Fisheries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_gender" title="Climate change and gender">Gender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_human_health" title="Effects of climate change on human health">Health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_mental_health" title="Effects of climate change on mental health">Mental health</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_and_climate_change" title="Human rights and climate change">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_Indigenous_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change and Indigenous peoples">Indigenous peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_infectious_diseases" title="Climate change and infectious diseases">Infectious diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_migration" title="Climate migration">Migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_poverty" title="Climate change and poverty">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_impact_of_climate_change" title="Psychological impact of climate change">Psychological impacts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_security" title="Climate security">Security and conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_flooding" title="Urban flooding">Urban flooding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_scarcity" title="Water scarcity">Water scarcity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_security" title="Water security">Water security</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em"><a href="/wiki/Template:Climate_change_regions" title="Template:Climate change regions">By country and region</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Africa" title="Climate change in Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Americas" title="Climate change in the Americas">Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Antarctica" title="Climate change in Antarctica">Antarctica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Arctic" title="Climate change in the Arctic">Arctic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Asia" title="Climate change in Asia">Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Australia" title="Climate change in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Caribbean" title="Climate change in the Caribbean">Caribbean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Europe" title="Climate change in Europe">Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Middle_East_and_North_Africa" title="Climate change in the Middle East and North Africa">Middle East and North Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_small_island_countries" title="Effects of climate change on small island countries">Small island countries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Climate_change_by_country" title="Category:Climate change by country">by individual country</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Mitigation567" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">Mitigation</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em"><a href="/wiki/Economic_analysis_of_climate_change" title="Economic analysis of climate change">Economics and finance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_budget" title="Carbon budget">Carbon budget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_emission_trading" title="Carbon emission trading">Carbon emission trading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_offsets_and_credits" title="Carbon offsets and credits">Carbon offsets and credits</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gold_Standard_(carbon_offset_standard)" title="Gold Standard (carbon offset standard)">Gold Standard (carbon offset standard)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_price" title="Carbon price">Carbon price</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_tax" title="Carbon tax">Carbon tax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_debt" title="Climate debt">Climate debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_finance" title="Climate finance">Climate finance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_risk_insurance" title="Climate risk insurance">Climate risk insurance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Co-benefits_of_climate_change_mitigation" class="mw-redirect" title="Co-benefits of climate change mitigation">Co-benefits of climate change mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics_of_climate_change_mitigation" class="mw-redirect" title="Economics of climate change mitigation">Economics of climate change mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel_divestment" title="Fossil fuel divestment">Fossil fuel divestment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Climate_Fund" title="Green Climate Fund">Green Climate Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low-carbon_economy" title="Low-carbon economy">Low-carbon economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Net_zero_emissions" class="mw-redirect" title="Net zero emissions">Net zero emissions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Energy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_capture_and_storage" title="Carbon capture and storage">Carbon capture and storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_transition" title="Energy transition">Energy transition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel_phase-out" title="Fossil fuel phase-out">Fossil fuel phase-out</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">Nuclear power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">Renewable energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_energy" title="Sustainable energy">Sustainable energy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Preserving and enhancing <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sink" title="Carbon sink">carbon sinks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blue_carbon" title="Blue carbon">Blue carbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_removal" title="Carbon dioxide removal">Carbon dioxide removal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration" title="Carbon sequestration">Carbon sequestration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_air_capture" title="Direct air capture">Direct air capture</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_farming" title="Carbon farming">Carbon farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate-smart_agriculture" title="Climate-smart agriculture">Climate-smart agriculture</a></li> <li>Forest management <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afforestation" title="Afforestation">afforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration#Forestry" title="Carbon sequestration">forestry for carbon sequestration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/REDD_and_REDD%2B" title="REDD and REDD+">REDD and REDD+</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reforestation" title="Reforestation">reforestation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_use,_land-use_change,_and_forestry" title="Land use, land-use change, and forestry">Land use, land-use change, and forestry</a> (LULUCF and AFOLU)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature-based_solutions" title="Nature-based solutions">Nature-based solutions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Personal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Individual_action_on_climate_change" title="Individual action on climate change">Individual action on climate change</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant-based_diet" title="Plant-based diet">Plant-based diet</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Society_and_adaptation567" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Society and <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation" title="Climate change adaptation">adaptation</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Society</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Business_action_on_climate_change" title="Business action on climate change">Business action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_action" title="Climate action">Climate action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_emergency_declaration" title="Climate emergency declaration">Climate emergency declaration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_movement" title="Climate movement">Climate movement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/School_Strike_for_Climate" class="mw-redirect" title="School Strike for Climate">School Strike for Climate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_denial" title="Climate change denial">Denial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_grief" title="Ecological grief">Ecological grief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_governance" title="Climate governance">Governance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_justice" title="Climate justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_litigation" title="Climate change litigation">Litigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_climate_change" title="Politics of climate change">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_opinion_on_climate_change" title="Public opinion on climate change">Public opinion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_climate_change" title="Women in climate change">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em"><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation" title="Climate change adaptation">Adaptation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation_strategies_on_the_German_coast" title="Climate change adaptation strategies on the German coast">Adaptation strategies on the German coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adaptive_capacity" title="Adaptive capacity">Adaptive capacity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disaster_risk_reduction" title="Disaster risk reduction">Disaster risk reduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem-based_adaptation" title="Ecosystem-based adaptation">Ecosystem-based adaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flood_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Flood control">Flood control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loss_and_damage_(climate_change)" title="Loss and damage (climate change)">Loss and damage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Managed_retreat" title="Managed retreat">Managed retreat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature-based_solutions" title="Nature-based solutions">Nature-based solutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_resilience" title="Climate resilience">Resilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_risk" title="Climate risk">Risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_vulnerability" title="Climate change vulnerability">Vulnerability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Adaptation_Fund" title="The Adaptation Fund">The Adaptation Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Adaptation_Programme_of_Action" title="National Adaptation Programme of Action">National Adaptation Programme of Action</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em"><a href="/wiki/Climate_communication" title="Climate communication">Communication</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_Change_Performance_Index" title="Climate Change Performance Index">Climate Change Performance Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_crisis" title="Climate crisis">Climate crisis (term)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_spiral" title="Climate spiral">Climate spiral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_education" title="Climate change education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_coverage_of_climate_change" title="Media coverage of climate change">Media coverage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_popular_culture" title="Climate change in popular culture">Popular culture depictions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_art" title="Climate change art">art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_fiction" title="Climate fiction">fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_climate_change_video_games" class="mw-redirect" title="List of climate change video games">video games</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warming_stripes" title="Warming stripes">Warming stripes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">International agreements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glasgow_Climate_Pact" title="Glasgow Climate Pact">Glasgow Climate Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyoto_Protocol" title="Kyoto Protocol">Kyoto Protocol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paris_Agreement" title="Paris Agreement">Paris Agreement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cooperative_Mechanisms_under_Article_6_of_the_Paris_Agreement" title="Cooperative Mechanisms under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement">Cooperative Mechanisms under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationally_determined_contribution" title="Nationally determined contribution">Nationally determined contributions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_Development_Goal_13" title="Sustainable Development Goal 13">Sustainable Development Goal 13</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Framework_Convention_on_Climate_Change" title="United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change">United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Background_and_theory567" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Background and theory</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Measurements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Global_surface_temperature" title="Global surface temperature">Global surface temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instrumental_temperature_record" class="mw-redirect" title="Instrumental temperature record">Instrumental temperature record</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proxy_(climate)" title="Proxy (climate)">Proxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_temperature_measurement" title="Satellite temperature measurement">Satellite temperature measurement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Theory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albedo" title="Albedo">Albedo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_cycle" title="Carbon cycle">Carbon cycle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_carbon_cycle" title="Atmospheric carbon cycle">atmospheric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_pump" title="Biological pump">biologic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_carbon_cycle" title="Oceanic carbon cycle">oceanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permafrost_carbon_cycle" title="Permafrost carbon cycle">permafrost</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_sink" title="Carbon sink">Carbon sink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_sensitivity" title="Climate sensitivity">Climate sensitivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_variability_and_change" title="Climate variability and change">Climate variability and change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloud_feedback" title="Cloud feedback">Cloud feedback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloud_forcing" class="mw-redirect" title="Cloud forcing">Cloud forcing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fixed_anvil_temperature_hypothesis" title="Fixed anvil temperature hypothesis">Fixed anvil temperature hypothesis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryosphere" title="Cryosphere">Cryosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_energy_budget" title="Earth's energy budget">Earth's energy budget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extreme_event_attribution" title="Extreme event attribution">Extreme event attribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_feedbacks" title="Climate change feedbacks">Feedbacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_warming_potential" title="Global warming potential">Global warming potential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illustrative_model_of_greenhouse_effect_on_climate_change" title="Illustrative model of greenhouse effect on climate change">Illustrative model of greenhouse effect on climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_forcing" title="Orbital forcing">Orbital forcing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiative_forcing" title="Radiative forcing">Radiative forcing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Research and modelling</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_scenario" title="Climate change scenario">Climate change scenario</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_model" title="Climate model">Climate model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coupled_Model_Intercomparison_Project" title="Coupled Model Intercomparison Project">Coupled Model Intercomparison Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intergovernmental_Panel_on_Climate_Change" title="Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change">Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/IPCC_Sixth_Assessment_Report" title="IPCC Sixth Assessment Report">IPCC Sixth Assessment Report</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleoclimatology" title="Paleoclimatology">Paleoclimatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Representative_Concentration_Pathway" title="Representative Concentration Pathway">Representative Concentration Pathway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shared_Socioeconomic_Pathways" title="Shared Socioeconomic Pathways">Shared Socioeconomic Pathways</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Climate_change_icon.png/16px-Climate_change_icon.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Climate_change_icon.png/24px-Climate_change_icon.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Climate_change_icon.png/32px-Climate_change_icon.png 2x" data-file-width="1112" data-file-height="1056" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Climate_change" title="Portal:Climate change">Climate change portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Climate_change" title="Category:Climate change">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_climate_change" title="Glossary of climate change">Glossary</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Index_of_climate_change_articles" title="Index of climate change articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Human_impact_on_the_environment505" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Anthropogenic_effects_on_the_environment" title="Template:Anthropogenic effects on the environment"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Anthropogenic_effects_on_the_environment" title="Template talk:Anthropogenic effects on the environment"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Anthropogenic_effects_on_the_environment" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Anthropogenic effects on the environment"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Human_impact_on_the_environment505" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">Human impact on the environment</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropocene" title="Anthropocene">Anthropocene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_footprint" title="Ecological footprint">Ecological footprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_assessment" title="Environmental impact assessment">Environmental impact assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues" title="Environmental issues">Environmental issues</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_environmental_issues" title="List of environmental issues">list of issues</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">Human impact</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_marine_life" title="Human impact on marine life">on marine life</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_global_issues" title="List of global issues">List of global issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_assessment" title="Environmental impact assessment">Impact assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_boundaries" title="Planetary boundaries">Planetary boundaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_ecology_(ethics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Social ecology (ethics)">Social ecology (ethics)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Causes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_climate_change" title="Causes of climate change">Causes of climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_agriculture" title="Environmental impact of agriculture">Agriculture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impacts_of_animal_agriculture" title="Environmental impacts of animal agriculture">animal agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_cannabis_cultivation" title="Environmental impact of cannabis cultivation">cannabis cultivation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_irrigation" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of irrigation">irrigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_meat_production" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental impact of meat production">meat production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_cocoa_production" title="Environmental impact of cocoa production">cocoa production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_and_environmental_impact_of_palm_oil" title="Social and environmental impact of palm oil">palm oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="Climate change and agriculture in the United States">(US)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_bitcoin" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of bitcoin">Bitcoin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_behavior" class="mw-redirect" title="Corporate behavior">Corporate behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_and_climate_change" title="Deforestation and climate change">Deforestation and climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_the_energy_industry" title="Environmental impact of the energy industry">Energy industry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indirect_land_use_change_impacts_of_biofuels" title="Indirect land use change impacts of biofuels">biofuels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_biodiesel" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental impact of biodiesel">biodiesel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_and_environmental_impact_of_the_coal_industry" title="Health and environmental impact of the coal industry">coal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_electricity_generation" title="Environmental impact of electricity generation">electricity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_the_energy_industry" title="Environmental impact of the energy industry">energy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_fashion" title="Environmental impact of fashion">fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_fracking_in_the_United_States" title="Environmental impact of fracking in the United States">fracking (US)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_nuclear_power" title="Environmental impact of nuclear power">nuclear power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_the_oil_shale_industry" title="Environmental impact of the oil shale industry">oil shale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_the_petroleum_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental impact of the petroleum industry">petroleum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_reservoirs" title="Environmental impact of reservoirs">reservoirs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental impact of transport">transport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_pollution" title="Genetic pollution">Genetic pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_crime" title="Environmental crime">Environmental crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_impact_of_explosives" title="Ecological impact of explosives">Explosives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrialisation" title="Industrialisation">Industrialisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_use#Environment" title="Land use">Land use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manufacturing" title="Manufacturing">Manufacturing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_cleaning_products" title="Environmental impact of cleaning products">cleaning agents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_concrete" title="Environmental impact of concrete">concrete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_fashion" title="Environmental impact of fashion">fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastic#Environmental_effects" title="Plastic">plastics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_of_nanotechnology" title="Impact of nanotechnology">nanotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_paint" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of paint">paint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_paper" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of paper">paper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_pesticides" title="Environmental impact of pesticides">pesticides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_pharmaceuticals_and_personal_care_products" title="Environmental impact of pharmaceuticals and personal care products">pharmaceuticals and personal care</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_marine_life" title="Human impact on marine life">Marine life</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_fishing" title="Environmental impact of fishing">fishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fishing_down_the_food_web" title="Fishing down the food web">fishing down the food web</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_pollution" title="Marine pollution">marine pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overfishing" title="Overfishing">overfishing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_mining" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of mining">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overconsumption" class="mw-redirect" title="Overconsumption">Overconsumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overdrafting" title="Overdrafting">Overdrafting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overexploitation" title="Overexploitation">Overexploitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overgrazing" title="Overgrazing">Overgrazing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particulates" title="Particulates">Particulates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollution" title="Pollution">Pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quarry" title="Quarry">Quarrying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_reservoirs" title="Environmental impact of reservoirs">Reservoirs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impacts_of_tourism" title="Impacts of tourism">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of transport">Transport</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_aviation" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of aviation">aviation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_rail" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of rail">rail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Road_ecology" title="Road ecology">roads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_shipping" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of shipping">shipping</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urbanization" title="Urbanization">Urbanization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urban_sprawl" title="Urban sprawl">urban sprawl</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_war" title="Environmental impact of war">War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Effects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity_threats" class="mw-redirect" title="Biodiversity threats">Biodiversity threats</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity_loss" title="Biodiversity loss">biodiversity loss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decline_in_amphibian_populations" title="Decline in amphibian populations">decline in amphibian populations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decline_in_insect_populations" title="Decline in insect populations">decline in insect populations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">Climate change</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tipping_points_in_the_climate_system" title="Tipping points in the climate system">runaway climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_United_States" title="Climate change in the United States">in the United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">Deforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defaunation" title="Defaunation">Defaunation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desertification" title="Desertification">Desertification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecocide" title="Ecocide">Ecocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_crisis" title="Ecological crisis">Ecological crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change" title="Effects of climate change">Effects of climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_agriculture" title="Effects of climate change on agriculture">Effects of climate change on agriculture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Multiple_breadbasket_failure" title="Multiple breadbasket failure">Multiple breadbasket failure</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_livestock" title="Effects of climate change on livestock">Effects of climate change on livestock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_security" title="Environmental security">Environmental insecurity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_the_United_States" title="Environmental issues in the United States">Environmental issues in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs" title="Environmental issues with coral reefs">Coral reefs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Externality" title="Externality">Externality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_dieback" title="Forest dieback">Forest dieback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_degradation" title="Environmental degradation">Environmental degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">Erosion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Freshwater cycle">Freshwater cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">Greenhouse gas emissions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat_destruction" title="Habitat destruction">Habitat destruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocene_extinction" title="Holocene extinction">Holocene extinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_nitrogen_cycle" title="Human impact on the nitrogen cycle">Nitrogen cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_degradation" title="Land degradation">Land degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_consumption" title="Land consumption">Land consumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_surface_effects_on_climate" title="Land surface effects on climate">Land surface effects on climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loss_and_damage" class="mw-redirect" title="Loss and damage">Loss and damage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_belt" title="Green belt">Loss of green belts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phosphorus_cycle#Human_influences" title="Phosphorus cycle">Phosphorus cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification#Possible_impacts" title="Ocean acidification">Ocean acidification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ozone_depletion" title="Ozone depletion">Ozone depletion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_depletion" title="Resource depletion">Resource depletion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclones_and_climate_change" title="Tropical cyclones and climate change">Tropical cyclones and climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_degradation" class="mw-redirect" title="Water degradation">Water degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">Water pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_scarcity" title="Water scarcity">Water scarcity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mitigation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_fuel_vehicle" title="Alternative fuel vehicle">Alternative fuel vehicle propulsion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birth_control" title="Birth control">Birth control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleaner_production" title="Cleaner production">Cleaner production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">Climate change mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_resilience" title="Community resilience">Community resilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultured_meat" title="Cultured meat">Cultured meat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eco-economic_decoupling" title="Eco-economic decoupling">Decoupling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_engineering" title="Ecological engineering">Ecological engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_engineering" title="Environmental engineering">Environmental engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_mitigation" title="Environmental mitigation">Environmental mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_ecology" title="Industrial ecology">Industrial ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitigation_banking" title="Mitigation banking">Mitigation banking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_farming" title="Organic farming">Organic farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recycling" title="Recycling">Recycling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reforestation" title="Reforestation">Reforestation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urban_reforestation" title="Urban reforestation">urban</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restoration_ecology" class="mw-redirect" title="Restoration ecology">Restoration ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability" title="Sustainability">Sustainability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_consumption" title="Sustainable consumption">Sustainable consumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_minimisation" title="Waste minimisation">Waste minimization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Environmental_impact" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Environmental impact">Commons</a></li> <li> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Environmental_impact_by_source" title="Category:Environmental impact by source">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Environmental_impact_by_country" title="Category:Environmental impact by country">by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Environmental_impact_assessment" title="Category:Environmental impact assessment">assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Environmental_mitigation" title="Category:Environmental mitigation">mitigation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Commercial_aviation380" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Commercial_air_travel" title="Template:Commercial air travel"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Commercial_air_travel" title="Template talk:Commercial air travel"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Commercial_air_travel" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Commercial air travel"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Commercial_aviation380" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Commercial_aviation" title="Commercial aviation">Commercial aviation</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Airline" title="Airline">Airlines</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Airline_codes" title="Airline codes">Airline codes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_airline_holding_companies" title="List of airline holding companies">Airline holding companies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cargo_airline" title="Cargo airline">Cargo airline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_charter_airlines" title="List of charter airlines">Charter airlines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_carrier" title="Flag carrier">Flag carriers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_low-cost_airlines" title="List of low-cost airlines">Low-cost airlines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-scheduled_airline" title="Non-scheduled airline">Non-scheduled airline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_passenger_airlines" title="List of passenger airlines">Passenger airlines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_regional_airlines" title="List of regional airlines">Regional airlines</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Airline_alliance" title="Airline alliance">Alliances</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oneworld" title="Oneworld">Oneworld</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SkyTeam" title="SkyTeam">SkyTeam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Star_Alliance" title="Star Alliance">Star Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value_Alliance" title="Value Alliance">Value Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vanilla_Alliance" title="Vanilla Alliance">Vanilla Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U-FLY_Alliance" title="U-FLY Alliance">U-FLY Alliance</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Trade_association" title="Trade association">Trade groups</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>International <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Airline_Cooperative" title="The Airline Cooperative">ACO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_Transport_Action_Group" title="Air Transport Action Group">ATAG</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Air_Transport_Association" title="International Air Transport Association">IATA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Association_of_Travel_Agents_Network" title="International Association of Travel Agents Network">IATAN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Federation_of_Air_Line_Pilots%27_Associations" title="International Federation of Air Line Pilots' Associations">IFALPA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Society_of_Transport_Aircraft_Trading" title="International Society of Transport Aircraft Trading">ISTAT</a></li></ul></li> <li>United States <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Airlines_for_America" title="Airlines for America">A4A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_Airline_Association" title="Regional Airline Association">RAA</a></li></ul></li> <li>Europe <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Airlines_for_Europe" title="Airlines for Europe">A4E</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AeroSpace_and_Defence_Industries_Association_of_Europe" title="AeroSpace and Defence Industries Association of Europe">ASD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Cockpit_Association" title="European Cockpit Association">ECA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Business_Aviation_Association" title="European Business Aviation Association">EBAA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Regions_Airline_Association" title="European Regions Airline Association">ERA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Transport_Workers%27_Federation" title="European Transport Workers' Federation">ETWF</a></li></ul></li> <li>Other regions <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Air_Carriers%27_Organization" title="Arab Air Carriers' Organization">AACO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Association_of_Asia_Pacific_Airlines" title="Association of Asia Pacific Airlines">AAPA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Airlines_Association" title="African Airlines Association">AFRAA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_Aviation_Association_of_Australia" title="Regional Aviation Association of Australia">RAAA</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Aircrew" title="Aircrew">Aircrew</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pilot_in_command" title="Pilot in command">Pilot in command (Captain)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_officer_(aviation)" title="First officer (aviation)">First officer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_officer_(aviation)" title="Second officer (aviation)">Second officer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_officer_(aviation)" title="Third officer (aviation)">Third officer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In-flight_crew_relief" title="In-flight crew relief">Relief crew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flight_attendant" title="Flight attendant">Flight attendant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flight_engineer" title="Flight engineer">Flight engineer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loadmaster" title="Loadmaster">Loadmaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aircraft_pilot" title="Aircraft pilot">Aircraft pilot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purser#Aircraft" title="Purser">Purser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dead_mileage" title="Dead mileage">Dead mileage</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Airliner" title="Airliner">Airliner</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Travel_class" title="Travel class">Travel class</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_class_(aviation)" title="First class (aviation)">First class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_class" title="Business class">Business class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Premium_economy_class" title="Premium economy class">Premium economy class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_class" title="Economy class">Economy class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basic_economy_class" title="Basic economy class">Basic economy class</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aircraft_cabin" title="Aircraft cabin">Aircraft cabin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aircraft_lavatory" title="Aircraft lavatory">Aircraft lavatory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aircraft_seat_map" title="Aircraft seat map">Aircraft seat map</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airline_meal" title="Airline meal">Airline meal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airline_seat" title="Airline seat">Airline seat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buy_on_board" title="Buy on board">Buy on board</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crew_rest_compartment" title="Crew rest compartment">Crew rest compartment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In-flight_entertainment" title="In-flight entertainment">In-flight entertainment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inflight_smoking" title="Inflight smoking">Inflight smoking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galley_(kitchen)" title="Galley (kitchen)">Galley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sickness_bag" title="Sickness bag">Sickness bag</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Airport" title="Airport">Airport</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aerodrome" title="Aerodrome">Aerodrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airline_hub" title="Airline hub">Airline hub</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airport_check-in" title="Airport check-in">Airport check-in</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airport_lounge" title="Airport lounge">Airport lounge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airport_rail_link" title="Airport rail link">Airport rail link</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airport_terminal" title="Airport terminal">Airport terminal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airside_pass" class="mw-redirect" title="Airside pass">Airside pass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airstair" title="Airstair">Airstair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boarding_(transport)" title="Boarding (transport)">Boarding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_airport" title="Domestic airport">Domestic airport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gate_(airport)" title="Gate (airport)">Gate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_airport" title="International airport">International airport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jet_bridge" title="Jet bridge">Jet bridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low-cost_carrier_terminal" title="Low-cost carrier terminal">Low-cost carrier terminal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Runway" title="Runway">Runway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transit_hotel" title="Transit hotel">Transit hotel</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Customs" title="Customs">Customs</a> / <a href="/wiki/Immigration" title="Immigration">Immigration</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arrival_card" title="Arrival card">Arrival card</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Border_control" title="Border control">Border control</a> (<a href="/wiki/Internal_border_control" title="Internal border control">internal</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Departure_card" title="Departure card">Departure card</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passport" title="Passport">Passport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timatic" title="Timatic">Timatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Travel_document" title="Travel document">Travel document</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Travel_visa" title="Travel visa">Travel visa</a> <a href="/wiki/Electronic_visa" title="Electronic visa">(Electronic)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_aviation" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of aviation">Environmental effects</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hypermobility_(travel)" title="Hypermobility (travel)">Hypermobility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_aviation" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of aviation">Environmental effects of aviation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Aviation_law" title="Aviation law">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_transport_agreement" title="Air transport agreement">Air transport agreement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_route_authority_between_the_United_States_and_China" title="Air route authority between the United States and China">Air route authority between the United States and China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bermuda_Agreement" title="Bermuda Agreement">Bermuda Agreement</a> (UK–US, 1946–1978)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bermuda_II_Agreement" title="Bermuda II Agreement">Bermuda II Agreement</a> (UK–US, 1978–2008)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-strait_charter" title="Cross-strait charter">Cross-strait charter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beijing_Convention" title="Beijing Convention">Beijing Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cape_Town_Treaty" title="Cape Town Treaty">Cape Town Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Convention_on_International_Civil_Aviation" class="mw-redirect" title="Chicago Convention on International Civil Aviation">Chicago Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_on_the_Marking_of_Plastic_Explosives" title="Convention on the Marking of Plastic Explosives">Convention on the Marking of Plastic Explosives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Common_Aviation_Area" title="European Common Aviation Area">European Common Aviation Area</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flight_permit" title="Flight permit">Flight permit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedoms_of_the_air" title="Freedoms of the air">Freedoms of the air</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/EU%E2%80%93US_Open_Skies_Agreement" title="EU–US Open Skies Agreement">EU–US Open Skies Agreement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hague_Hijacking_Convention" title="Hague Hijacking Convention">Hague Hijacking Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hague_Protocol" title="Hague Protocol">Hague Protocol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montreal_Convention" title="Montreal Convention">Montreal Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paris_Convention_of_1919" title="Paris Convention of 1919">Paris Convention of 1919</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rome_Convention_on_Damage_Caused_by_Foreign_Aircraft_to_Third_Parties_on_the_Surface" title="Rome Convention on Damage Caused by Foreign Aircraft to Third Parties on the Surface">Rome Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_for_the_Suppression_of_Unlawful_Acts_against_the_Safety_of_Civil_Aviation" title="Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Civil Aviation">Sabotage Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tokyo_Convention" title="Tokyo Convention">Tokyo Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Convention" title="Warsaw Convention">Warsaw Convention</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/International_organization" title="International organization">Intergovernmental organizations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_Civil_Aviation_Organization" title="International Civil Aviation Organization">ICAO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Civil_Aviation_Conference" title="European Civil Aviation Conference">ECAC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurocontrol" title="Eurocontrol">Eurocontrol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Union_Aviation_Safety_Agency" title="European Union Aviation Safety Agency">EASA</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/European_Network_of_Civil_Aviation_Safety_Investigation_Authorities" title="European Network of Civil Aviation Safety Investigation Authorities">ENCASIA</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Baggage" title="Baggage">Baggage</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bag_tag" title="Bag tag">Bag tag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baggage_allowance" title="Baggage allowance">Baggage allowance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baggage_carousel" title="Baggage carousel">Baggage carousel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baggage_cart" title="Baggage cart">Baggage cart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baggage_reclaim" title="Baggage reclaim">Baggage reclaim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baggage_handler" title="Baggage handler">Baggage handler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baggage_handling_system" title="Baggage handling system">Baggage handling system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baggage_sizer" title="Baggage sizer">Baggage sizer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Checked_baggage" title="Checked baggage">Checked baggage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hand_luggage" title="Hand luggage">Hand luggage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lost_luggage" title="Lost luggage">Lost luggage</a> (<a href="/wiki/WorldTracer" title="WorldTracer">WorldTracer</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luggage_lock" title="Luggage lock">Luggage lock</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Aviation_safety" title="Aviation safety">Aviation safety</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_rage" title="Air rage">Air rage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_traffic_control" title="Air traffic control">Air traffic control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_traffic_service" title="Air traffic service">Air traffic service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aircraft_safety_card" title="Aircraft safety card">Aircraft safety card</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airport_authority" title="Airport authority">Airport authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airport_crash_tender" title="Airport crash tender">Airport crash tender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airport_police" title="Airport police">Airport police</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airport_security" title="Airport security">Airport security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airspace_class" title="Airspace class">Airspace class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Area_control_center" title="Area control center">Area control center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brace_position" title="Brace position">Brace position</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_aviation_authority" title="Civil aviation authority">Civil aviation authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Control_area_(aviation)" title="Control area (aviation)">Control area</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Control_zone" title="Control zone">Control zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Controlled_airspace" title="Controlled airspace">Controlled airspace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evacuation_slide" title="Evacuation slide">Evacuation slide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flight_information_region" title="Flight information region">Flight information region</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flight_information_service" title="Flight information service">Flight information service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flight_recorder" title="Flight recorder">Flight recorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instrument_flight_rules" title="Instrument flight rules">Instrument flight rules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overwing_exits" class="mw-redirect" title="Overwing exits">Overwing exits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-flight_safety_demonstration" title="Pre-flight safety demonstration">Pre-flight safety demonstration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sky_marshal" title="Sky marshal">Sky marshal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_use_airspace" title="Special use airspace">Special use airspace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_visual_flight_rules" title="Special visual flight rules">Special visual flight rules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terminal_control_area" title="Terminal control area">Terminal control area</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terminal_control_center" class="mw-redirect" title="Terminal control center">Terminal control center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uncontrolled_airspace" title="Uncontrolled airspace">Uncontrolled airspace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upper_information_region" title="Upper information region">Upper information region</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_flight_rules" title="Visual flight rules">Visual flight rules</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Airline_ticket" title="Airline ticket">Airline tickets</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Airline_booking_ploys" title="Airline booking ploys">Airline booking ploys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airline_reservations_system" title="Airline reservations system">Airline reservations system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airline_ticket" title="Airline ticket">Airline ticket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airline_timetable" title="Airline timetable">Airline timetable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bereavement_flight" title="Bereavement flight">Bereavement flight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boarding_pass" title="Boarding pass">Boarding pass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Codeshare_agreement" title="Codeshare agreement">Codeshare agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continent_pass" title="Continent pass">Continent pass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_ticket" title="Electronic ticket">Electronic ticket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fare_basis_code" title="Fare basis code">Fare basis code</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flight_cancellation_and_delay" title="Flight cancellation and delay">Flight cancellation and delay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frequent-flyer_program" title="Frequent-flyer program">Frequent-flyer program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_contract_flight" title="Government contract flight">Government contract flight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One-way_travel" title="One-way travel">One-way travel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open-jaw_ticket" title="Open-jaw ticket">Open-jaw ticket</a></li> <li>Overbooking (<a href="/wiki/Overselling" title="Overselling">Overselling</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passenger_name_record" title="Passenger name record">Passenger name record</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red-eye_flight" title="Red-eye flight">Red-eye flight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Round-the-world_ticket" title="Round-the-world ticket">Round-the-world ticket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standby_(air_travel)" title="Standby (air travel)">Standby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flight_tracking" title="Flight tracking">Tracking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Travel_agency" title="Travel agency">Travel agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Travel_website" title="Travel website">Travel website</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ground_crew" title="Ground crew">Ground crew</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aircraft_maintenance_technician" title="Aircraft maintenance technician">Aircraft maintenance technician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aircraft_ground_handling" title="Aircraft ground handling">Aircraft ground handling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baggage_handler" title="Baggage handler">Baggage handler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flight_dispatcher" title="Flight dispatcher">Flight dispatcher</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_cargo" title="Air cargo">Air cargo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_travel" title="Air travel">Air travel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aviation_taxation_and_subsidies" title="Aviation taxation and subsidies">Aviation taxation and subsidies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mile_high_club" title="Mile high club">Mile high club</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid 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