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<ul id="toc-Terrestrial_albedo-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-White-sky,_black-sky,_and_blue-sky_albedo" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#White-sky,_black-sky,_and_blue-sky_albedo"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>White-sky, black-sky, and blue-sky albedo</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-White-sky,_black-sky,_and_blue-sky_albedo-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Changes_to_albedo_due_to_human_activities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Changes_to_albedo_due_to_human_activities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Changes to albedo due to human activities</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Changes_to_albedo_due_to_human_activities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Examples_of_terrestrial_albedo_effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Examples_of_terrestrial_albedo_effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Examples of terrestrial albedo effects</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Examples_of_terrestrial_albedo_effects-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Examples of terrestrial albedo effects subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Examples_of_terrestrial_albedo_effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Illumination" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Illumination"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Illumination</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Illumination-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Insolation_effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Insolation_effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Insolation effects</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Insolation_effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Climate_and_weather" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Climate_and_weather"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Climate and weather</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Climate_and_weather-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Albedo–temperature_feedback" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Albedo–temperature_feedback"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Albedo–temperature feedback</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Albedo–temperature_feedback-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Snow" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Snow"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Snow</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Snow-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Small-scale_effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Small-scale_effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Small-scale effects</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Small-scale_effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Solar_photovoltaic_effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Solar_photovoltaic_effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>Solar photovoltaic effects</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Solar_photovoltaic_effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trees" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trees"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.8</span> <span>Trees</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trees-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Water" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Water"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.9</span> <span>Water</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Water-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Clouds" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Clouds"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.10</span> <span>Clouds</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Clouds-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aerosol_effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aerosol_effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.11</span> <span>Aerosol effects</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aerosol_effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Black_carbon" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Black_carbon"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.12</span> <span>Black carbon</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Black_carbon-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Astronomical_albedo" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Astronomical_albedo"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Astronomical albedo</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Astronomical_albedo-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Astronomical albedo subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Astronomical_albedo-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Optical_or_visual_albedo" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Optical_or_visual_albedo"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Optical or visual albedo</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Optical_or_visual_albedo-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Radar_albedo" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Radar_albedo"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Radar albedo</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Radar_albedo-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Radar_albedos_of_Solar_System_objects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Radar_albedos_of_Solar_System_objects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.1</span> <span>Radar albedos of Solar System objects</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Radar_albedos_of_Solar_System_objects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Relationship_to_surface_bulk_density" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relationship_to_surface_bulk_density"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.2</span> <span>Relationship to surface bulk density</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relationship_to_surface_bulk_density-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Albedo</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 79 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-79" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">79 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo" title="Albedo – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Albedo" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo" title="Albedo – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Albedo" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%83%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="عاكسية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="عاكسية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo" title="Albedo – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Albedo" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedu" title="Albedu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Albedu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo" title="Albedo – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Albedo" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AB%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%A8_%E0%A6%85%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A4" title="প্রতিফলন অনুপাত – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="প্রতিফলন অনুপাত" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B0" title="Альбеда – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Альбеда" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BE" title="Албедо – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Албедо" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo" title="Albedo – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Albedo" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo" title="Albedo – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Albedo" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo" title="Albedo – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Albedo" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo" title="Albedo – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Albedo" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo" title="Albedo – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Albedo" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo" title="Albedo – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Albedo" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albeedo" title="Albeedo – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Albeedo" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9B%CE%B5%CF%85%CE%BA%CE%B1%CF%8D%CE%B3%CE%B5%CE%B9%CE%B1" title="Λευκαύγεια – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Λευκαύγεια" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo" title="Albedo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Albedo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo" title="Albedo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Albedo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo" title="Albedo – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Albedo" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%BE%DB%8C%D8%AF%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C" title="سپیدایی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="سپیدایی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alb%C3%A9do" title="Albédo – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Albédo" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ailb%C3%A9ideacht" title="Ailbéideacht – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Ailbéideacht" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo" title="Albedo – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Albedo" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B0%98%EC%82%AC%EC%9C%A8" title="반사율 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="반사율" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D5%AC%D5%A2%D5%A5%D5%A4%D5%B8" title="Ալբեդո – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ալբեդո" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4" title="प्रकाशानुपात – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="प्रकाशानुपात" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo" title="Albedo – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Albedo" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo" title="Albedo – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Albedo" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endurskinsh%C3%A6fni" title="Endurskinshæfni – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Endurskinshæfni" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo" title="Albedo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Albedo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%91%D7%93%D7%95" title="אלבדו – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אלבדו" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%86%E0%B2%B2%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AC%E0%B3%86%E0%B2%A1%E0%B3%8A" title="ಆಲ್ಬೆಡೊ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಆಲ್ಬೆಡೊ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%91%E1%83%94%E1%83%93%E1%83%9D" title="ალბედო – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ალბედო" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BE" title="Альбедо – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Альбедо" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weupe" title="Weupe – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Weupe" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo" title="Albedo – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Albedo" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BE" title="Альбедо – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Альбедо" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo" title="Albedo – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Albedo" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo" title="Albedo – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Albedo" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo" title="Albedo – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Albedo" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedas" title="Albedas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Albedas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo" title="Albedo – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Albedo" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albed%C3%B3" title="Albedó – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Albedó" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BE" title="Албедо – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Албедо" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%85%E0%B5%BD%E0%B4%AC%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A1%E0%B5%8B" title="അൽബിഡോ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="അൽബിഡോ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo" title="Albedo – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Albedo" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo" title="Albedo – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Albedo" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A2%E3%83%AB%E3%83%99%E3%83%89" title="アルベド – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="アルベド" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BE" title="Альбедо – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Альбедо" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Нохчийн</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo" title="Albedo – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Albedo" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo" title="Albedo – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Albedo" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo" title="Albedo – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Albedo" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo" title="Albedo – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Albedo" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%DB%90%DA%89%D9%88" title="البېډو – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="البېډو" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo" title="Albedo – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Albedo" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo" title="Albedo – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Albedo" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo" title="Albedo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Albedo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo" title="Albedo – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Albedo" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BE" title="Альбедо – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Альбедо" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedoja" title="Albedoja – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Albedoja" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo" title="Albedo – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Albedo" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo" title="Albedo – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Albedo" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo" title="Albedo – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Albedo" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cu mw-list-item"><a href="https://cu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D2%84%D1%8C%D0%B1%D1%94%D0%B4%D0%BE" title="Ал҄ьбєдо – Church Slavic" lang="cu" hreflang="cu" data-title="Ал҄ьбєдо" data-language-autonym="Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ" data-language-local-name="Church Slavic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BE" title="Албедо – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Албедо" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo" title="Albedo – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Albedo" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo" title="Albedo – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Albedo" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo" title="Albedo – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Albedo" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo" title="Albedo – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Albedo" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%B5%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%8E%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%B1%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="வெண் எகிர்சிதறல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="வெண் எகிர்சிதறல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BE" title="Альбедо – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Альбедо" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AA%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%97%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%99" title="อัตราส่วนสะท้อน – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="อัตราส่วนสะท้อน" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yans%C4%B1tabilirlik" title="Yansıtabilirlik – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Yansıtabilirlik" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BE" title="Альбедо – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Альбедо" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Su%E1%BA%A5t_ph%E1%BA%A3n_chi%E1%BA%BFu" title="Suất phản chiếu – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Suất phản chiếu" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%8D%E7%85%A7%E7%8E%87" title="反照率 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="反照率" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%8D%E7%85%A7%E7%8E%87" title="反照率 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="反照率" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%8D%E7%85%A7%E7%8E%87" title="反照率 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="反照率" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span 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data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Albedo_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Albedo (disambiguation)">Albedo (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Greenland_Albedo_Change.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Greenland_Albedo_Change.png/220px-Greenland_Albedo_Change.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="242" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Greenland_Albedo_Change.png/330px-Greenland_Albedo_Change.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Greenland_Albedo_Change.png/440px-Greenland_Albedo_Change.png 2x" data-file-width="1438" data-file-height="1584" /></a><figcaption>Albedo change in <a href="/wiki/Greenland" title="Greenland">Greenland</a>: the map shows the difference between the amount of sunlight <a href="/wiki/Greenland" title="Greenland">Greenland</a> reflected in the summer of 2011 versus the average percent it reflected between 2000 and 2006. Some areas reflect close to 20 percent less light than a decade ago.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p><b>Albedo</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/æ/: 'a' in 'bad'">æ</span><span title="'l' in 'lie'">l</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'b' in 'buy'">b</span><span title="/iː/: 'ee' in 'fleece'">iː</span><span title="'d' in 'dye'">d</span><span title="/oʊ/: 'o' in 'code'">oʊ</span></span>/</a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key"><i title="English pronunciation respelling">al-<span style="font-size:90%">BEE</span>-doh</i></a>; from <a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a> <i> albedo</i> 'whiteness') is the fraction of <a href="/wiki/Sunlight" title="Sunlight">sunlight</a> that is <a href="/wiki/Diffuse_reflection" title="Diffuse reflection">diffusely reflected</a> by a body. It is measured on a scale from 0 (corresponding to a <a href="/wiki/Black_body" title="Black body">black body</a> that absorbs all incident radiation) to 1 (corresponding to a body that reflects all incident radiation). <i>Surface albedo</i> is defined as the ratio of <a href="/wiki/Radiosity_(radiometry)" title="Radiosity (radiometry)">radiosity</a> <i>J</i><sub>e</sub> to the <a href="/wiki/Irradiance" title="Irradiance">irradiance</a> <i>E</i><sub>e</sub> (flux per unit area) received by a surface.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The proportion reflected is not only determined by properties of the surface itself, but also by the spectral and angular distribution of solar radiation reaching the Earth's surface.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These factors vary with atmospheric composition, geographic location, and time (see <a href="/wiki/Position_of_the_Sun" title="Position of the Sun">position of the Sun</a>). </p><p>While directional-hemispherical <a href="/wiki/Reflectance" title="Reflectance">reflectance</a> factor is calculated for a single angle of incidence (i.e., for a given position of the Sun), albedo is the directional integration of reflectance over all solar angles in a given period. The temporal resolution may range from seconds (as obtained from flux measurements) to daily, monthly, or annual averages. </p><p>Unless given for a specific wavelength (spectral albedo), albedo refers to the entire spectrum of solar radiation.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Due to measurement constraints, it is often given for the spectrum in which most solar energy reaches the surface (between 0.3 and 3 μm). This spectrum includes <a href="/wiki/Visible_spectrum" title="Visible spectrum">visible light</a> (0.4–0.7 μm), which explains why surfaces with a low albedo appear dark (e.g., trees absorb most radiation), whereas surfaces with a high albedo appear bright (e.g., snow reflects most radiation). </p><p><a href="/wiki/Ice%E2%80%93albedo_feedback" title="Ice–albedo feedback">Ice–albedo feedback</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Positive_feedback" title="Positive feedback">positive feedback</a> climate process where a change in the area of <a href="/wiki/Ice_caps" class="mw-redirect" title="Ice caps">ice caps</a>, <a href="/wiki/Glaciers" class="mw-redirect" title="Glaciers">glaciers</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sea_ice" title="Sea ice">sea ice</a> alters the albedo and surface temperature of a planet. <a href="/wiki/Ice" title="Ice">Ice</a> is very reflective, therefore it reflects far more solar energy back to space than the other types of land area or open water. Ice–albedo feedback plays an important role in global <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_(general_concept)" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change (general concept)">climate change</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Albedo is an important concept in <a href="/wiki/Climate_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate science">climate science</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Terrestrial_albedo">Terrestrial albedo</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Albedo&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Terrestrial albedo"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable floatright"> <caption>Sample albedos </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Surface </th> <th>Typical <br />albedo </th></tr> <tr> <td>Fresh asphalt</td> <td>0.04<sup id="cite_ref-heat_island_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-heat_island-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Open ocean </td> <td>0.06<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Worn asphalt</td> <td>0.12<sup id="cite_ref-heat_island_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-heat_island-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Conifer forest, <br />summer</td> <td>0.08,<sup id="cite_ref-Betts_1_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Betts_1-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 0.09 to 0.15<sup id="cite_ref-mmutrees_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mmutrees-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Deciduous_forest" class="mw-redirect" title="Deciduous forest">Deciduous forest</a></td> <td>0.15 to 0.18<sup id="cite_ref-mmutrees_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mmutrees-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Bare soil</td> <td>0.17<sup id="cite_ref-markvart_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-markvart-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Green grass</td> <td>0.25<sup id="cite_ref-markvart_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-markvart-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Desert sand</td> <td>0.40<sup id="cite_ref-Tetzlaff_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tetzlaff-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>New concrete</td> <td>0.55<sup id="cite_ref-markvart_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-markvart-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Ocean ice</td> <td>0.50 to 0.70<sup id="cite_ref-markvart_10-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-markvart-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Fresh snow</td> <td>0.80<sup id="cite_ref-markvart_10-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-markvart-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Aluminium" title="Aluminium">Aluminium</a></td> <td>0.85<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Any albedo in visible light falls within a range of about 0.9 for fresh snow to about 0.04 for charcoal, one of the darkest substances. Deeply shadowed cavities can achieve an effective albedo approaching the zero of a <a href="/wiki/Black_body" title="Black body">black body</a>. When seen from a distance, the ocean surface has a low albedo, as do most forests, whereas desert areas have some of the highest albedos among landforms. Most land areas are in an albedo range of 0.1 to 0.4.<sup id="cite_ref-PhysicsWorld_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PhysicsWorld-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The average albedo of <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a> is about 0.3.<sup id="cite_ref-Goode_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goode-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is far higher than for the ocean primarily because of the contribution of clouds. </p><p>Earth's surface albedo is regularly estimated via <a href="/wiki/Earth_observation" title="Earth observation">Earth observation</a> satellite sensors such as <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a>'s <a href="/wiki/MODIS" class="mw-redirect" title="MODIS">MODIS</a> instruments on board the <a href="/wiki/Terra_(satellite)" title="Terra (satellite)">Terra</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aqua_(satellite)" title="Aqua (satellite)">Aqua</a> satellites, and the CERES instrument on the <a href="/wiki/Suomi_NPP" title="Suomi NPP">Suomi NPP</a> and <a href="/wiki/Joint_Polar_Satellite_System" title="Joint Polar Satellite System">JPSS</a>. As the amount of reflected radiation is only measured for a single direction by satellite, not all directions, a mathematical model is used to translate a sample set of satellite reflectance measurements into estimates of <a href="/wiki/Directional-hemispherical_reflectance" title="Directional-hemispherical reflectance">directional-hemispherical reflectance</a> and bi-hemispherical reflectance (e.g.,<sup id="cite_ref-NASA_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NASA-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>). These calculations are based on the <a href="/wiki/Bidirectional_reflectance_distribution_function" title="Bidirectional reflectance distribution function">bidirectional reflectance distribution function</a> (BRDF), which describes how the reflectance of a given surface depends on the view angle of the observer and the solar angle. BDRF can facilitate translations of observations of reflectance into albedo.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Earth's average surface temperature due to its albedo and the <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_effect" title="Greenhouse effect">greenhouse effect</a> is currently about 15 °C (59 °F). If Earth were frozen entirely (and hence be more reflective), the average temperature of the planet would drop below −40 °C (−40 °F).<sup id="cite_ref-washington_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-washington-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If only the continental land masses became covered by glaciers, the mean temperature of the planet would drop to about 0 °C (32 °F).<sup id="cite_ref-clim-past_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-clim-past-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In contrast, if the entire Earth was covered by water – a so-called <a href="/wiki/Ocean_planet" class="mw-redirect" title="Ocean planet">ocean planet</a> – the average temperature on the planet would rise to almost 27 °C (81 °F).<sup id="cite_ref-Smith_Robin_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smith_Robin-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2021, scientists reported that Earth dimmed by ~0.5% over two decades (1998–2017) as measured by earthshine using modern photometric techniques. This may have both been co-caused by <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a> as well as a substantial increase in global warming. However, the link to climate change has not been explored to date and it is unclear whether or not this represents an ongoing trend.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="White-sky,_black-sky,_and_blue-sky_albedo"><span id="White-sky.2C_black-sky.2C_and_blue-sky_albedo"></span>White-sky, black-sky, and blue-sky albedo</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Albedo&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: White-sky, black-sky, and blue-sky albedo"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>For land surfaces, it has been shown that the albedo at a particular <a href="/wiki/Solar_zenith_angle" title="Solar zenith angle">solar zenith angle</a> <i>θ</i><sub><i>i</i></sub> can be approximated by the proportionate sum of two terms: </p> <ul><li>the <a href="/wiki/Directional-hemispherical_reflectance" title="Directional-hemispherical reflectance">directional-hemispherical reflectance</a> at that solar zenith angle, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {{\bar {\alpha }}(\theta _{i})}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mi>α</mi> <mo stretchy="false">¯</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mi>θ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {{\bar {\alpha }}(\theta _{i})}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/d21d2965b6b0594054d53e34fcd5c624c7f47cc7" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:5.187ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {{\bar {\alpha }}(\theta _{i})}}"></span>, sometimes referred to as black-sky albedo, and</li> <li>the <a href="/wiki/Bi-hemispherical_reflectance" title="Bi-hemispherical reflectance">bi-hemispherical reflectance</a>, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\bar {\bar {\alpha }}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mi>α</mi> <mo stretchy="false">¯</mo> </mover> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">¯</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\bar {\bar {\alpha }}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a2a19826b7107e707aead3e838e72304d5f90277" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.488ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\bar {\bar {\alpha }}}}"></span>, sometimes referred to as white-sky albedo.</li></ul> <p>with <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {1-D}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> <mo>−</mo> <mi>D</mi> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {1-D}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/fd202359a35c5d9ea37c6dd482127cb0691e1f92" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:5.927ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {1-D}}"></span> being the proportion of direct radiation from a given solar angle, and <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {D}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>D</mi> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {D}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/2b48bdc67a19ddefb0aa409e442e815517a87e7b" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.924ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {D}}"></span> being the proportion of diffuse illumination, the actual albedo <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\alpha }}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>α</mi> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\alpha }}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/6289622b3b197c568f6e73e678814e9cb4c8a81b" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.488ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\alpha }}"></span> (also called blue-sky albedo) can then be given as: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \alpha =(1-D){\bar {\alpha }}(\theta _{i})+D{\bar {\bar {\alpha }}}.}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>α</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mo>−</mo> <mi>D</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mi>α</mi> <mo stretchy="false">¯</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mi>θ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>+</mo> <mi>D</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mi>α</mi> <mo stretchy="false">¯</mo> </mover> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">¯</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>.</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \alpha =(1-D){\bar {\alpha }}(\theta _{i})+D{\bar {\bar {\alpha }}}.}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ae29d63f9daf13713460293e29346313642a5713" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:24.409ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \alpha =(1-D){\bar {\alpha }}(\theta _{i})+D{\bar {\bar {\alpha }}}.}"></span></dd></dl> <p>This formula is important because it allows the albedo to be calculated for any given illumination conditions from a knowledge of the intrinsic properties of the surface.<sup id="cite_ref-BlueskyAlbedo_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BlueskyAlbedo-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Changes_to_albedo_due_to_human_activities">Changes to albedo due to human activities</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Albedo&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Changes to albedo due to human activities"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:2000-_Albedo_(reflectivity)_of_Earth.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/2000-_Albedo_%28reflectivity%29_of_Earth.svg/220px-2000-_Albedo_%28reflectivity%29_of_Earth.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/2000-_Albedo_%28reflectivity%29_of_Earth.svg/330px-2000-_Albedo_%28reflectivity%29_of_Earth.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/2000-_Albedo_%28reflectivity%29_of_Earth.svg/440px-2000-_Albedo_%28reflectivity%29_of_Earth.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="750" /></a><figcaption>Earth’s albedo as monitored by the <a href="/wiki/Clouds_and_the_Earth%27s_Radiant_Energy_System" title="Clouds and the Earth's Radiant Energy System">CERES</a> satellite system shows a darkening of Earth that has caused 1.7<span class="nowrap"> </span>W/m<sup>2</sup> warming since 2010.<sup id="cite_ref-Hansen_20250203_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hansen_20250203-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> That amount, only some of which is <a href="/wiki/Radiative_forcing" title="Radiative forcing">climate forcing</a>, is equivalent to a 138 ppm increase of atmospheric carbon dioxide.<sup id="cite_ref-Hansen_20250203_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hansen_20250203-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ISS041-E-90107_-_View_of_Spain.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/ISS041-E-90107_-_View_of_Spain.jpg/220px-ISS041-E-90107_-_View_of_Spain.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/ISS041-E-90107_-_View_of_Spain.jpg/330px-ISS041-E-90107_-_View_of_Spain.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/ISS041-E-90107_-_View_of_Spain.jpg/440px-ISS041-E-90107_-_View_of_Spain.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4928" data-file-height="3280" /></a><figcaption>Greenhouses of El Ejido, Almería, Spain</figcaption></figure> <p>Human activities (e.g., deforestation, farming, and urbanization) change the albedo of various areas around the globe.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">Human impacts</a> to "the physical properties of the land surface can perturb the climate by altering the Earth’s radiative energy balance" even on a small scale or when undetected by satellites.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Urbanization" title="Urbanization">Urbanization</a> generally decreases albedo (commonly being 0.01–0.02 lower than adjacent <a href="/wiki/Croplands" class="mw-redirect" title="Croplands">croplands</a>), which contributes to <a href="/wiki/Global_warming" class="mw-redirect" title="Global warming">global warming</a>. Deliberately increasing albedo in urban areas can mitigate the <a href="/wiki/Urban_heat_island" title="Urban heat island">urban heat island</a> effect. An estimate in 2022 found that on a global scale, "an albedo increase of 0.1 in worldwide urban areas would result in a cooling effect that is equivalent to absorbing ~44 <a href="/wiki/Gigatons" class="mw-redirect" title="Gigatons">Gt</a> of CO<sub>2</sub> emissions."<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Intentionally enhancing the albedo of the Earth's surface, along with its daytime <a href="/wiki/Thermal_emittance" title="Thermal emittance">thermal emittance</a>, has been proposed as a <a href="/wiki/Solar_Radiation_Management" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar Radiation Management">solar radiation management</a> strategy to mitigate <a href="/wiki/Energy_crisis" title="Energy crisis">energy crises</a> and global warming known as <a href="/wiki/Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling" title="Passive daytime radiative cooling">passive daytime radiative cooling</a> (PDRC).<sup id="cite_ref-:1_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:5_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:02_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Efforts toward widespread implementation of PDRCs may focus on maximizing the albedo of surfaces from very low to high values, so long as a thermal emittance of at least 90% can be achieved.<sup id="cite_ref-:22_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:22-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The tens of thousands of <a href="/wiki/Hectare" title="Hectare">hectares</a> of greenhouses in <a href="/wiki/Province_of_Almer%C3%ADa" title="Province of Almería">Almería, Spain</a> form a large expanse of whitened plastic roofs. A 2008 study found that this anthropogenic change lowered the local surface area temperature of the high-albedo area, although changes were localized.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A follow-up study found that "CO2-eq. emissions associated to changes in surface albedo are a consequence of land transformation" and can reduce surface temperature increases associated with climate change.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Examples_of_terrestrial_albedo_effects">Examples of terrestrial albedo effects</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Albedo&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Examples of terrestrial albedo effects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Albedo-e_hg.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Albedo-e_hg.svg/290px-Albedo-e_hg.svg.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="405" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Albedo-e_hg.svg/435px-Albedo-e_hg.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Albedo-e_hg.svg/580px-Albedo-e_hg.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1588" data-file-height="2220" /></a><figcaption>The percentage of <a href="/wiki/Diffuse_reflection" title="Diffuse reflection">diffusely reflected</a> <a href="/wiki/Sunlight" title="Sunlight">sunlight</a> relative to various surface conditions</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Illumination">Illumination</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Albedo&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Illumination"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Albedo is not directly dependent on the illumination because changing the amount of incoming light proportionally changes the amount of reflected light, except in circumstances where a change in illumination induces a change in the Earth's surface at that location (e.g. through melting of reflective ice). However, albedo and illumination both vary by latitude. Albedo is highest near the poles and lowest in the subtropics, with a local maximum in the tropics.<sup id="cite_ref-Winston_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Winston-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Insolation_effects">Insolation effects</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Albedo&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Insolation effects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The intensity of albedo temperature effects depends on the amount of albedo and the level of local <a href="/wiki/Insolation" class="mw-redirect" title="Insolation">insolation</a> (<a href="/wiki/Solar_irradiance" title="Solar irradiance">solar irradiance</a>); high albedo areas in the <a href="/wiki/Arctic" title="Arctic">Arctic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Antarctic" title="Antarctic">Antarctic</a> regions are cold due to low insolation, whereas areas such as the <a href="/wiki/Sahara_Desert" class="mw-redirect" title="Sahara Desert">Sahara Desert</a>, which also have a relatively high albedo, will be hotter due to high insolation. <a href="/wiki/Tropical" class="mw-redirect" title="Tropical">Tropical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sub-tropical" class="mw-redirect" title="Sub-tropical">sub-tropical</a> <a href="/wiki/Rainforest" title="Rainforest">rainforest</a> areas have low albedo, and are much hotter than their <a href="/wiki/Temperate_forest" title="Temperate forest">temperate forest</a> counterparts, which have lower insolation. Because insolation plays such a big role in the heating and cooling effects of albedo, high insolation areas like the tropics will tend to show a more pronounced fluctuation in local temperature when local albedo changes.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Arctic regions notably release more heat back into space than what they absorb, effectively cooling the <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a>. This has been a concern since arctic ice and <a href="/wiki/Snow" title="Snow">snow</a> has been melting at higher rates due to higher temperatures, creating regions in the arctic that are notably darker (being water or ground which is darker color) and reflects less heat back into space. This <a href="/wiki/Ice%E2%80%93albedo_feedback" title="Ice–albedo feedback">feedback loop</a> results in a reduced albedo effect.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Climate_and_weather">Climate and weather</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Albedo&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Climate and weather"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_feedback" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change feedback">Climate change feedback</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:20220726_Feedbacks_affecting_global_warming_and_climate_change_-_block_diagram.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/20220726_Feedbacks_affecting_global_warming_and_climate_change_-_block_diagram.svg/330px-20220726_Feedbacks_affecting_global_warming_and_climate_change_-_block_diagram.svg.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="242" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/20220726_Feedbacks_affecting_global_warming_and_climate_change_-_block_diagram.svg/495px-20220726_Feedbacks_affecting_global_warming_and_climate_change_-_block_diagram.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/20220726_Feedbacks_affecting_global_warming_and_climate_change_-_block_diagram.svg/660px-20220726_Feedbacks_affecting_global_warming_and_climate_change_-_block_diagram.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1650" data-file-height="1210" /></a><figcaption> Some effects of global warming can either enhance (<a href="/wiki/Positive_feedback" title="Positive feedback">positive feedbacks</a> such as the ice-albedo feedback) or inhibit (<a href="/wiki/Negative_feedback" title="Negative feedback">negative feedbacks</a>) warming.<sup id="cite_ref-NASA_IntegratedSystem_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NASA_IntegratedSystem-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-IPCC_AR6_SGI_FigTS.17_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IPCC_AR6_SGI_FigTS.17-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Albedo affects <a href="/wiki/Climate" title="Climate">climate</a> by determining how much <a href="/wiki/Radiation" title="Radiation">radiation</a> a planet absorbs.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The uneven heating of Earth from albedo variations between land, ice, or ocean surfaces can drive <a href="/wiki/Weather" title="Weather">weather</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The response of the climate system to an initial forcing is modified by feedbacks: increased by <a href="/wiki/Positive_feedback" title="Positive feedback">"self-reinforcing" or "positive" feedbacks</a> and reduced by <a href="/wiki/Negative_feedback" title="Negative feedback">"balancing" or "negative" feedbacks</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The main reinforcing feedbacks are the <a href="/wiki/Water_vapour_feedback" class="mw-redirect" title="Water vapour feedback">water-vapour feedback</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Ice%E2%80%93albedo_feedback" title="Ice–albedo feedback">ice–albedo feedback</a>, and the net effect of clouds.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 58">: 58 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Albedo–temperature_feedback"><span id="Albedo.E2.80.93temperature_feedback"></span>Albedo–temperature feedback</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Albedo&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Albedo–temperature feedback"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Ice%E2%80%93albedo_feedback" title="Ice–albedo feedback">Ice–albedo feedback</a></div> <p>When an area's albedo changes due to snowfall, a snow–temperature <a href="/wiki/Feedback" title="Feedback">feedback</a> results. A layer of snowfall increases local albedo, reflecting away sunlight, leading to local cooling. In principle, if no outside temperature change affects this area (e.g., a warm <a href="/wiki/Air_mass" title="Air mass">air mass</a>), the raised albedo and lower temperature would maintain the current snow and invite further snowfall, deepening the snow–temperature feedback. However, because local <a href="/wiki/Weather" title="Weather">weather</a> is dynamic due to the change of <a href="/wiki/Season" title="Season">seasons</a>, eventually warm air masses and a more direct angle of sunlight (higher <a href="/wiki/Insolation" class="mw-redirect" title="Insolation">insolation</a>) cause melting. When the melted area reveals surfaces with lower albedo, such as grass, soil, or ocean, the effect is reversed: the darkening surface lowers albedo, increasing local temperatures, which induces more melting and thus reducing the albedo further, resulting in still more heating. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Snow">Snow</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Albedo&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Snow"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Snow albedo is highly variable, ranging from as high as 0.9 for freshly fallen snow, to about 0.4 for melting snow, and as low as 0.2 for dirty snow.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Over <a href="/wiki/Antarctica" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a>, snow albedo averages a little more than 0.8. If a marginally snow-covered area warms, snow tends to melt, lowering the albedo, and hence leading to more snowmelt because more radiation is being absorbed by the snowpack (referred to as the <a href="/wiki/Ice%E2%80%93albedo_feedback" title="Ice–albedo feedback">ice–albedo</a> <a href="/wiki/Positive_feedback" title="Positive feedback">positive feedback</a>). </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a>, the citizens have been protecting their glaciers with large white tarpaulins to slow down the ice melt. These large white sheets are helping to reject the rays from the sun and defecting the heat. Although this method is very expensive, it has been shown to work, reducing snow and ice melt by 60%.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Just as fresh snow has a higher albedo than does dirty snow, the albedo of snow-covered sea ice is far higher than that of sea water. Sea water absorbs more <a href="/wiki/Solar_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar radiation">solar radiation</a> than would the same surface covered with reflective snow. When sea ice melts, either due to a rise in sea temperature or in response to increased solar radiation from above, the snow-covered surface is reduced, and more surface of sea water is exposed, so the rate of energy absorption increases. The extra absorbed energy heats the sea water, which in turn increases the rate at which sea ice melts. As with the preceding example of snowmelt, the process of melting of sea ice is thus another example of a positive feedback.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both positive feedback loops have long been recognized as important for <a href="/wiki/Global_warming" class="mw-redirect" title="Global warming">global warming</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Cryoconite" title="Cryoconite">Cryoconite</a>, powdery windblown <a href="/wiki/Dust" title="Dust">dust</a> containing soot, sometimes reduces albedo on glaciers and ice sheets.<sup id="cite_ref-Nat._Geo_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nat._Geo-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The dynamical nature of albedo in response to positive feedback, together with the effects of small errors in the measurement of albedo, can lead to large errors in energy estimates. Because of this, in order to reduce the error of energy estimates, it is important to measure the albedo of snow-covered areas through <a href="/wiki/Remote_sensing" title="Remote sensing">remote sensing</a> techniques rather than applying a single value for albedo over broad regions.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Small-scale_effects">Small-scale effects</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Albedo&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Small-scale effects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Albedo works on a smaller scale, too. In sunlight, dark clothes absorb more heat and light-coloured clothes reflect it better, thus allowing some control over body temperature by exploiting the albedo effect of the colour of external clothing.<sup id="cite_ref-ranknfile-ue_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ranknfile-ue-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Solar_photovoltaic_effects">Solar photovoltaic effects</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Albedo&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Solar photovoltaic effects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Albedo can affect the <a href="/wiki/Electrical_energy" title="Electrical energy">electrical energy</a> output of solar <a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_system" title="Photovoltaic system">photovoltaic devices</a>. For example, the effects of a spectrally responsive albedo are illustrated by the differences between the spectrally weighted albedo of solar photovoltaic technology based on hydrogenated amorphous silicon (a-Si:H) and crystalline silicon (c-Si)-based compared to traditional spectral-integrated albedo predictions. Research showed impacts of over 10% for vertically (90°) mounted systems, but such effects were substantially lower for systems with lower surface tilts.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Spectral albedo strongly affects the performance of <a href="/wiki/Bifacial_solar_cells" title="Bifacial solar cells">bifacial solar cells</a> where rear surface performance gains of over 20% have been observed for c-Si cells installed above healthy vegetation.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An analysis on the bias due to the specular reflectivity of 22 commonly occurring surface materials (both human-made and natural) provided effective albedo values for simulating the performance of seven photovoltaic materials mounted on three common photovoltaic system topologies: industrial (solar farms), commercial flat rooftops and residential pitched-roof applications.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Trees">Trees</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Albedo&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Trees"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Update plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Update" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Ambox_current_red.svg/42px-Ambox_current_red.svg.png" decoding="async" width="42" height="34" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Ambox_current_red.svg/63px-Ambox_current_red.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Ambox_current_red.svg/84px-Ambox_current_red.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="360" data-file-height="290" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section needs to be <b>updated</b>. The reason given is: the references used are quite old; there must be more updated information available in the <a href="/wiki/IPCC_Sixth_Assessment_Report" title="IPCC Sixth Assessment Report">IPCC Sixth Assessment Report</a>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">March 2023</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Climate_change#Land_surface_changes" title="Climate change">Climate change § Land surface changes</a></div> <p>Forests generally have a low albedo because the majority of the ultraviolet and <a href="/wiki/Visible_spectrum" title="Visible spectrum">visible spectrum</a> is absorbed through <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a>. For this reason, the greater heat absorption by trees could offset some of the carbon benefits of <a href="/wiki/Afforestation" title="Afforestation">afforestation</a> (or offset the negative climate impacts of <a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">deforestation</a>). In other words: The <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">climate change mitigation</a> effect of <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration" title="Carbon sequestration">carbon sequestration</a> by forests is partially counterbalanced in that <a href="/wiki/Reforestation" title="Reforestation">reforestation</a> can decrease the reflection of sunlight (albedo).<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the case of evergreen forests with seasonal snow cover, albedo reduction may be significant enough for deforestation to cause a net cooling effect.<sup id="cite_ref-Betts_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Betts-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Trees also impact climate in extremely complicated ways through <a href="/wiki/Evapotranspiration" title="Evapotranspiration">evapotranspiration</a>. The water vapor causes cooling on the land surface, causes heating where it condenses, acts as strong greenhouse gas, and can increase albedo when it condenses into clouds.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scientists generally treat evapotranspiration as a net cooling impact, and the net climate impact of albedo and evapotranspiration changes from deforestation depends greatly on local climate.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Mid-to-high-latitude forests have a much lower albedo during snow seasons than flat ground, thus contributing to warming. Modeling that compares the effects of albedo differences between forests and grasslands suggests that expanding the land area of forests in temperate zones offers only a temporary mitigation benefit.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In seasonally snow-covered zones, winter albedos of treeless areas are 10% to 50% higher than nearby forested areas because snow does not cover the trees as readily. <a href="/wiki/Deciduous_trees" class="mw-redirect" title="Deciduous trees">Deciduous trees</a> have an albedo value of about 0.15 to 0.18 whereas <a href="/wiki/Coniferous_trees" class="mw-redirect" title="Coniferous trees">coniferous trees</a> have a value of about 0.09 to 0.15.<sup id="cite_ref-mmutrees_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mmutrees-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Variation in summer albedo across both forest types is associated with maximum rates of photosynthesis because plants with high growth capacity display a greater fraction of their foliage for direct interception of incoming radiation in the upper canopy.<sup id="cite_ref-Ollinger_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ollinger-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The result is that wavelengths of light not used in photosynthesis are more likely to be reflected back to space rather than being absorbed by other surfaces lower in the canopy. </p><p>Studies by the <a href="/wiki/Hadley_Centre" class="mw-redirect" title="Hadley Centre">Hadley Centre</a> have investigated the relative (generally warming) effect of albedo change and (cooling) effect of <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration" title="Carbon sequestration">carbon sequestration</a> on planting forests. They found that new forests in tropical and midlatitude areas tended to cool; new forests in high latitudes (e.g., Siberia) were neutral or perhaps warming.<sup id="cite_ref-Betts_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Betts-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Research in 2023, drawing from 176 flux stations globally, revealed a climate trade-off: increased carbon uptake from <a href="/wiki/Afforestation" title="Afforestation">afforestation</a> results in reduced albedo. Initially, this reduction may lead to moderate global warming over a span of approximately 20 years, but it is expected to transition into significant cooling thereafter.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Water">Water</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Albedo&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Water"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Water_reflectivity.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/7/7f/Water_reflectivity.jpg/290px-Water_reflectivity.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/7/7f/Water_reflectivity.jpg/435px-Water_reflectivity.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/7/7f/Water_reflectivity.jpg/580px-Water_reflectivity.jpg 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="720" /></a><figcaption>Reflectivity of smooth water at 20 °C (68 °F) (refractive index=1.333)</figcaption></figure> <p>Water reflects light very differently from typical terrestrial materials. The reflectivity of a water surface is calculated using the <a href="/wiki/Fresnel_equations" title="Fresnel equations">Fresnel equations</a>. </p><p>At the scale of the wavelength of light even wavy water is always smooth so the light is reflected in a locally <a href="/wiki/Specular_reflection" title="Specular reflection">specular manner</a> (not <a href="/wiki/Diffuse_reflection" title="Diffuse reflection">diffusely</a>). The glint of light off water is a commonplace effect of this. At small <a href="/wiki/Angle_of_incidence_(optics)" title="Angle of incidence (optics)">angles of incident</a> light, <a href="/wiki/Waviness" title="Waviness">waviness</a> results in reduced reflectivity because of the steepness of the reflectivity-vs.-incident-angle curve and a locally increased average incident angle.<sup id="cite_ref-Fresnel_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fresnel-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although the reflectivity of water is very low at low and medium angles of incident light, it becomes very high at high angles of incident light such as those that occur on the illuminated side of Earth near the <a href="/wiki/Terminator_(solar)" title="Terminator (solar)">terminator</a> (early morning, late afternoon, and near the poles). However, as mentioned above, waviness causes an appreciable reduction. Because light specularly reflected from water does not usually reach the viewer, water is usually considered to have a very low albedo in spite of its high reflectivity at high angles of incident light. </p><p>Note that white caps on waves look white (and have high albedo) because the water is foamed up, so there are many superimposed bubble surfaces which reflect, adding up their reflectivities. Fresh 'black' ice exhibits Fresnel reflection. Snow on top of this sea ice increases the albedo to 0.9.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Clouds">Clouds</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Albedo&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Clouds"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Cloud_albedo" title="Cloud albedo">Cloud albedo</a> has substantial influence over atmospheric temperatures. Different types of clouds exhibit different reflectivity, theoretically ranging in albedo from a minimum of near 0 to a maximum approaching 0.8. "On any given day, about half of Earth is covered by clouds, which reflect more sunlight than land and water. Clouds keep Earth cool by reflecting sunlight, but they can also serve as blankets to trap warmth."<sup id="cite_ref-livescience_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-livescience-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Albedo and climate in some areas are affected by artificial clouds, such as those created by the <a href="/wiki/Contrail" title="Contrail">contrails</a> of heavy commercial airliner traffic.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A study following the burning of the Kuwaiti oil fields during Iraqi occupation showed that temperatures under the burning oil fires were as much as 10 °C (18 °F) colder than temperatures several miles away under clear skies.<sup id="cite_ref-harvard_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-harvard-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aerosol_effects">Aerosol effects</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Albedo&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Aerosol effects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Aerosols" class="mw-redirect" title="Aerosols">Aerosols</a> (very fine particles/droplets in the atmosphere) have both direct and indirect effects on Earth's radiative balance. The direct (albedo) effect is generally to cool the planet; the indirect effect (the particles act as <a href="/wiki/Cloud_condensation_nuclei" title="Cloud condensation nuclei">cloud condensation nuclei</a> and thereby change cloud properties) is less certain.<sup id="cite_ref-girda_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-girda-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Black_carbon">Black carbon</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Albedo&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Black carbon"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Another albedo-related effect on the climate is from <a href="/wiki/Black_carbon" title="Black carbon">black carbon</a> particles. The size of this effect is difficult to quantify: the <a href="/wiki/Intergovernmental_Panel_on_Climate_Change" title="Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change">Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change</a> estimates that the global mean <a href="/wiki/Radiative_forcing" title="Radiative forcing">radiative forcing</a> for black carbon aerosols from fossil fuels is +0.2 W m<sup>−2</sup>, with a range +0.1 to +0.4 W m<sup>−2</sup>.<sup id="cite_ref-girda_1_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-girda_1-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Black carbon is a bigger cause of the melting of the polar ice cap in the Arctic than carbon dioxide due to its effect on the albedo.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="The material near this tag failed verification of its source citation(s). (January 2020)">failed verification</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Astronomical_albedo">Astronomical albedo</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Albedo&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Astronomical albedo"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Titan_and_Saturn_-_May_6_2012_-_combined_(35516187116).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Titan_and_Saturn_-_May_6_2012_-_combined_%2835516187116%29.jpg/260px-Titan_and_Saturn_-_May_6_2012_-_combined_%2835516187116%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="208" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Titan_and_Saturn_-_May_6_2012_-_combined_%2835516187116%29.jpg/390px-Titan_and_Saturn_-_May_6_2012_-_combined_%2835516187116%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Titan_and_Saturn_-_May_6_2012_-_combined_%2835516187116%29.jpg/520px-Titan_and_Saturn_-_May_6_2012_-_combined_%2835516187116%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1409" data-file-height="1125" /></a><figcaption>The moon <a href="/wiki/Titan_(moon)" title="Titan (moon)">Titan</a> is darker than <a href="/wiki/Saturn" title="Saturn">Saturn</a> even though they receive the same amount of sunlight. This is due to a difference in albedo (0.22 versus 0.499 in <a href="/wiki/Geometric_albedo" title="Geometric albedo">geometric albedo</a>).</figcaption></figure><p>In astronomy, the term <b>albedo</b> can be defined in several different ways, depending upon the application and the wavelength of electromagnetic radiation involved. </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Optical_or_visual_albedo">Optical or visual albedo</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Albedo&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Optical or visual albedo"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The albedos of <a href="/wiki/Planet" title="Planet">planets</a>, <a href="/wiki/Natural_satellite" title="Natural satellite">satellites</a> and <a href="/wiki/Minor_planet" title="Minor planet">minor planets</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Asteroid" title="Asteroid">asteroids</a> can be used to infer much about their properties. The study of albedos, their dependence on wavelength, lighting angle ("phase angle"), and variation in time composes a major part of the astronomical field of <a href="/wiki/Photometry_(astronomy)" title="Photometry (astronomy)">photometry</a>. For small and far objects that cannot be resolved by telescopes, much of what we know comes from the study of their albedos. For example, the absolute albedo can indicate the surface ice content of outer <a href="/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Solar System</a> objects, the variation of albedo with phase angle gives information about <a href="/wiki/Regolith" title="Regolith">regolith</a> properties, whereas unusually high radar albedo is indicative of high metal content in <a href="/wiki/Asteroid" title="Asteroid">asteroids</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Enceladus" title="Enceladus">Enceladus</a>, a moon of Saturn, has one of the highest known optical albedos of any body in the Solar System, with an albedo of 0.99. Another notable high-albedo body is <a href="/wiki/Eris_(dwarf_planet)" title="Eris (dwarf planet)">Eris</a>, with an albedo of 0.96.<sup id="cite_ref-sicardy_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sicardy-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many small objects in the outer Solar System<sup id="cite_ref-tnoalbedo_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tnoalbedo-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Asteroid_belt" title="Asteroid belt">asteroid belt</a> have low albedos down to about 0.05.<sup id="cite_ref-astalbedo_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-astalbedo-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A typical <a href="/wiki/Comet_nucleus" title="Comet nucleus">comet nucleus</a> has an albedo of 0.04.<sup id="cite_ref-dark_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dark-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such a dark surface is thought to be indicative of a primitive and heavily <a href="/wiki/Space_weathering" title="Space weathering">space weathered</a> surface containing some <a href="/wiki/Organic_compound" title="Organic compound">organic compounds</a>. </p><p>The overall albedo of the <a href="/wiki/Moon" title="Moon">Moon</a> is measured to be around 0.14,<sup id="cite_ref-CERESmoon_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CERESmoon-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but it is strongly directional and non-<a href="/wiki/Lambertian_reflectance" title="Lambertian reflectance">Lambertian</a>, displaying also a strong <a href="/wiki/Opposition_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Opposition effect">opposition effect</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-medkeff_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-medkeff-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although such reflectance properties are different from those of any terrestrial terrains, they are typical of the <a href="/wiki/Regolith" title="Regolith">regolith</a> surfaces of airless Solar System bodies. </p><p>Two common optical albedos that are used in astronomy are the (V-band) <a href="/wiki/Geometric_albedo" title="Geometric albedo">geometric albedo</a> (measuring brightness when illumination comes from directly behind the observer) and the <a href="/wiki/Bond_albedo" title="Bond albedo">Bond albedo</a> (measuring total proportion of electromagnetic energy reflected). Their values can differ significantly, which is a common source of confusion. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Planet </th> <th>Geometric </th> <th>Bond </th></tr> <tr> <td>Mercury </td> <td>0.142 <sup id="cite_ref-Mallama_et_al_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mallama_et_al-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>0.088 <sup id="cite_ref-Mallama_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mallama-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or 0.068 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Venus </td> <td>0.689 <sup id="cite_ref-Mallama_et_al_73-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mallama_et_al-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>0.76 <sup id="cite_ref-Haus_et_al_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haus_et_al-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or 0.77 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Earth </td> <td>0.434 <sup id="cite_ref-Mallama_et_al_73-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mallama_et_al-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>0.294 <sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Mars </td> <td>0.170 <sup id="cite_ref-Mallama_et_al_73-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mallama_et_al-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>0.250 <sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Jupiter </td> <td>0.538 <sup id="cite_ref-Mallama_et_al_73-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mallama_et_al-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>0.343±0.032 <sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and also 0.503±0.012 <sup id="cite_ref-Li_et_al_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Li_et_al-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Saturn </td> <td>0.499 <sup id="cite_ref-Mallama_et_al_73-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mallama_et_al-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>0.342 <sup id="cite_ref-Hanel_et_al_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hanel_et_al-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Uranus </td> <td>0.488 <sup id="cite_ref-Mallama_et_al_73-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mallama_et_al-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>0.300 <sup id="cite_ref-Pearl_et_al_Uranus_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pearl_et_al_Uranus-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Neptune </td> <td>0.442 <sup id="cite_ref-Mallama_et_al_73-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mallama_et_al-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>0.290 <sup id="cite_ref-Pearl_et_al_Neptune_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pearl_et_al_Neptune-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In detailed studies, the directional reflectance properties of astronomical bodies are often expressed in terms of the five <a href="/wiki/Hapke_parameters" title="Hapke parameters">Hapke parameters</a> which semi-empirically describe the variation of albedo with <a href="/wiki/Phase_angle_(astronomy)" title="Phase angle (astronomy)">phase angle</a>, including a characterization of the opposition effect of <a href="/wiki/Regolith" title="Regolith">regolith</a> surfaces. One of these five parameters is yet another type of albedo called the <a href="/wiki/Single-scattering_albedo" title="Single-scattering albedo">single-scattering albedo</a>. It is used to define scattering of electromagnetic waves on small particles. It depends on properties of the material (<a href="/wiki/Refractive_index" title="Refractive index">refractive index</a>), the size of the particle, and the wavelength of the incoming radiation. </p><p>An important relationship between an object's astronomical (geometric) albedo, <a href="/wiki/Absolute_magnitude#Absolute_magnitude_for_planets_(H)" title="Absolute magnitude">absolute magnitude</a> and diameter is given by:<sup id="cite_ref-bruton_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bruton-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-display mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle A=\left({\frac {1329\times 10^{-H/5}}{D}}\right)^{2},}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>A</mi> <mo>=</mo> <msup> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mn>1329</mn> <mo>×</mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mi>H</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mn>5</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> <mi>D</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mo>,</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle A=\left({\frac {1329\times 10^{-H/5}}{D}}\right)^{2},}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/0ab01ee571320948a61e4a2d02540e97ff1cc749" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.171ex; width:25.489ex; height:8.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle A=\left({\frac {1329\times 10^{-H/5}}{D}}\right)^{2},}"></span> where <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle A}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>A</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle A}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/7daff47fa58cdfd29dc333def748ff5fa4c923e3" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.743ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle A}"></span> is the astronomical albedo, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle D}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>D</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle D}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f34a0c600395e5d4345287e21fb26efd386990e6" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.924ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle D}"></span> is the diameter in kilometers, and <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle H}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>H</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle H}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/75a9edddcca2f782014371f75dca39d7e13a9c1b" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.064ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle H}"></span> is the absolute magnitude. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Radar_albedo">Radar albedo</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Albedo&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Radar albedo"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In planetary <a href="/wiki/Radar_astronomy" title="Radar astronomy">radar astronomy</a>, a microwave (or radar) pulse is transmitted toward a planetary target (e.g. Moon, asteroid, etc.) and the echo from the target is measured. In most instances, the transmitted pulse is <a href="/wiki/Circular_polarization" title="Circular polarization">circularly polarized</a> and the received pulse is measured in the same sense of polarization as the transmitted pulse (SC) and the opposite sense (OC).<sup id="cite_ref-Ostro_Planetary_Radar_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ostro_Planetary_Radar-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ostro_Asteroid_Radar_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ostro_Asteroid_Radar-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The echo power is measured in terms of <a href="/wiki/Radar_cross-section" class="mw-redirect" title="Radar cross-section">radar cross-section</a>, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\sigma }_{OC}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>σ</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>O</mi> <mi>C</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\sigma }_{OC}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/107b31648e019ce51d2abbaf442664f77a83da82" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:4.063ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\sigma }_{OC}}"></span>, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\sigma }_{SC}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>σ</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>S</mi> <mi>C</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\sigma }_{SC}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/990b21b1b84c4b5ea532d17d043cf81529b866c1" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:3.869ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\sigma }_{SC}}"></span>, or <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\sigma }_{T}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>σ</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>T</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\sigma }_{T}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/9bae3d334ea66ad564a5ba7e600c1446426c675e" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.717ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\sigma }_{T}}"></span> (total power, SC + OC) and is equal to the cross-sectional area of a metallic sphere (perfect reflector) at the same distance as the target that would return the same echo power.<sup id="cite_ref-Ostro_Planetary_Radar_84-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ostro_Planetary_Radar-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Those components of the received echo that return from first-surface reflections (as from a smooth or mirror-like surface) are dominated by the OC component as there is a reversal in polarization upon reflection. If the surface is rough at the wavelength scale or there is significant penetration into the regolith, there will be a significant SC component in the echo caused by multiple scattering.<sup id="cite_ref-Ostro_Asteroid_Radar_85-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ostro_Asteroid_Radar-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For most objects in the solar system, the OC echo dominates and the most commonly reported radar albedo parameter is the (normalized) OC radar albedo (often shortened to radar albedo):<sup id="cite_ref-Ostro_Planetary_Radar_84-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ostro_Planetary_Radar-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-display mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\hat {\sigma }}_{\text{OC}}={\frac {{\sigma }_{\text{OC}}}{\pi r^{2}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mi>σ</mi> <mo stretchy="false">^</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>OC</mtext> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>σ</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>OC</mtext> </mrow> </msub> <mrow> <mi>π</mi> <msup> <mi>r</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\hat {\sigma }}_{\text{OC}}={\frac {{\sigma }_{\text{OC}}}{\pi r^{2}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/44c3e09368cc1980602ce98e637090662fc0465f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.171ex; width:11.986ex; height:5.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\hat {\sigma }}_{\text{OC}}={\frac {{\sigma }_{\text{OC}}}{\pi r^{2}}}}"></span> </p><p>where the denominator is the effective cross-sectional area of the target object with mean radius, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle r}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>r</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle r}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/0d1ecb613aa2984f0576f70f86650b7c2a132538" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.049ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle r}"></span>. A smooth metallic sphere would have <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\hat {\sigma }}_{\text{OC}}=1}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mi>σ</mi> <mo stretchy="false">^</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>OC</mtext> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\hat {\sigma }}_{\text{OC}}=1}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/53be889f475cb87fa61cb03ae7366a7841e58d0f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:8.288ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\hat {\sigma }}_{\text{OC}}=1}"></span>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Radar_albedos_of_Solar_System_objects">Radar albedos of Solar System objects</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Albedo&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Radar albedos of Solar System objects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Object </th> <th><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\hat {\sigma }}_{\text{OC}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mi>σ</mi> <mo stretchy="false">^</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>OC</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\hat {\sigma }}_{\text{OC}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/3d3abb07334cc1fd61300dddb258404b5cc4a08c" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:4.027ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\hat {\sigma }}_{\text{OC}}}"></span> </th></tr> <tr> <td>Moon </td> <td>0.06 <sup id="cite_ref-Ostro_Planetary_Radar_84-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ostro_Planetary_Radar-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Mercury </td> <td>0.05 <sup id="cite_ref-Ostro_Planetary_Radar_84-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ostro_Planetary_Radar-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Venus </td> <td>0.10 <sup id="cite_ref-Ostro_Planetary_Radar_84-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ostro_Planetary_Radar-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Mars </td> <td>0.06 <sup id="cite_ref-Ostro_Planetary_Radar_84-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ostro_Planetary_Radar-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Avg. S-type asteroid </td> <td>0.14 <sup id="cite_ref-Magri2007_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Magri2007-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Avg. C-type asteroid </td> <td>0.13 <sup id="cite_ref-Magri2007_86-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Magri2007-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Avg. M-type asteroid </td> <td>0.26 <sup id="cite_ref-Shepard_et_al_2015_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shepard_et_al_2015-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Comet P/2005 JQ5 </td> <td>0.02 <sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The values reported for the Moon, Mercury, Mars, Venus, and Comet P/2005 JQ5 are derived from the total (OC+SC) radar albedo reported in those references. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Relationship_to_surface_bulk_density">Relationship to surface <a href="/wiki/Bulk_density" title="Bulk density">bulk density</a></h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Albedo&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Relationship to surface bulk density"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the event that most of the echo is from first surface reflections (<span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\hat {\sigma }}_{\text{OC}}<0.1}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mi>σ</mi> <mo stretchy="false">^</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>OC</mtext> </mrow> </msub> <mo><</mo> <mn>0.1</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\hat {\sigma }}_{\text{OC}}<0.1}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/8433da3ee1a21c0f626a72cabd500cffd27f918c" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:10.097ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\hat {\sigma }}_{\text{OC}}<0.1}"></span> or so), the OC radar albedo is a first-order approximation of the Fresnel reflection coefficient (aka reflectivity)<sup id="cite_ref-Ostro_Asteroid_Radar_85-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ostro_Asteroid_Radar-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and can be used to estimate the bulk density of a planetary surface to a depth of a meter or so (a few wavelengths of the radar wavelength which is typically at the decimeter scale) using the following empirical relationships:<sup id="cite_ref-Shepard_M2_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shepard_M2-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \rho ={\begin{cases}3.20{\text{ g cm}}^{-3}\ln \left({\frac {1+{\sqrt {0.83{\hat {\sigma }}_{\text{OC}}}}}{1-{\sqrt {0.83{\hat {\sigma }}_{\text{OC}}}}}}\right)&{\text{for }}{\hat {\sigma }}_{\text{OC}}\leq 0.07\\(6.944{\hat {\sigma }}_{\text{OC}}+1.083){\text{ g cm}}^{-3}&{\text{for }}{\hat {\sigma }}_{\text{OC}}>0.07\end{cases}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>ρ</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow> <mo>{</mo> <mtable columnalign="left left" rowspacing=".2em" columnspacing="1em" displaystyle="false"> <mtr> <mtd> <mn>3.20</mn> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext> g cm</mtext> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mi>ln</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mn>1</mn> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msqrt> <mn>0.83</mn> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mi>σ</mi> <mo stretchy="false">^</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>OC</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </msqrt> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>1</mn> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msqrt> <mn>0.83</mn> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mi>σ</mi> <mo stretchy="false">^</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>OC</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </msqrt> </mrow> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> </mtd> <mtd> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>for </mtext> </mrow> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mi>σ</mi> <mo stretchy="false">^</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>OC</mtext> </mrow> </msub> <mo>≤</mo> <mn>0.07</mn> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>6.944</mn> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mi>σ</mi> <mo stretchy="false">^</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>OC</mtext> </mrow> </msub> <mo>+</mo> <mn>1.083</mn> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext> g cm</mtext> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mtd> <mtd> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>for </mtext> </mrow> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mi>σ</mi> <mo stretchy="false">^</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>OC</mtext> </mrow> </msub> <mo>></mo> <mn>0.07</mn> </mtd> </mtr> </mtable> <mo fence="true" stretchy="true" symmetric="true"></mo> </mrow> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \rho ={\begin{cases}3.20{\text{ g cm}}^{-3}\ln \left({\frac {1+{\sqrt {0.83{\hat {\sigma }}_{\text{OC}}}}}{1-{\sqrt {0.83{\hat {\sigma }}_{\text{OC}}}}}}\right)&{\text{for }}{\hat {\sigma }}_{\text{OC}}\leq 0.07\\(6.944{\hat {\sigma }}_{\text{OC}}+1.083){\text{ g cm}}^{-3}&{\text{for }}{\hat {\sigma }}_{\text{OC}}>0.07\end{cases}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/3a02cbe620ac1338788fe887350e26b2a167bc18" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -4.671ex; width:52.442ex; height:10.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \rho ={\begin{cases}3.20{\text{ g cm}}^{-3}\ln \left({\frac {1+{\sqrt {0.83{\hat {\sigma }}_{\text{OC}}}}}{1-{\sqrt {0.83{\hat {\sigma }}_{\text{OC}}}}}}\right)&{\text{for }}{\hat {\sigma }}_{\text{OC}}\leq 0.07\\(6.944{\hat {\sigma }}_{\text{OC}}+1.083){\text{ g cm}}^{-3}&{\text{for }}{\hat {\sigma }}_{\text{OC}}>0.07\end{cases}}}"></span>.</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Albedo&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The term albedo was introduced into optics by <a href="/wiki/Johann_Heinrich_Lambert" title="Johann Heinrich Lambert">Johann Heinrich Lambert</a> in his 1760 work <i><a href="/wiki/Photometria" title="Photometria">Photometria</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Albedo&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bio-geoengineering" title="Bio-geoengineering">Bio-geoengineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cool_roof" class="mw-redirect" title="Cool roof">Cool roof</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daisyworld" title="Daisyworld">Daisyworld</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emissivity" title="Emissivity">Emissivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exitance" class="mw-redirect" title="Exitance">Exitance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_dimming" title="Global dimming">Global dimming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice%E2%80%93albedo_feedback" title="Ice–albedo feedback">Ice–albedo feedback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irradiance" title="Irradiance">Irradiance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kirchhoff%27s_law_of_thermal_radiation" title="Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation">Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opposition_surge" title="Opposition surge">Opposition surge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polar_see-saw" title="Polar see-saw">Polar see-saw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radar_astronomy" title="Radar astronomy">Radar astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_radiation_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar radiation management">Solar radiation management</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Albedo&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol 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K.; et al. (2010). "A radar survey of M- and X-class asteroids II. Summary and synthesis". <i>Icarus</i>. <b>208</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">221–</span>237. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010Icar..208..221S">2010Icar..208..221S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.icarus.2010.01.017">10.1016/j.icarus.2010.01.017</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Icarus&rft.atitle=A+radar+survey+of+M-+and+X-class+asteroids+II.+Summary+and+synthesis&rft.volume=208&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E221-%3C%2Fspan%3E237&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.icarus.2010.01.017&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2010Icar..208..221S&rft.aulast=Shepard&rft.aufirst=M.+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlbedo" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPerkins2019" class="citation journal cs1">Perkins, Sid (17 December 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6926063">"Albedo is a simple concept that plays complicated roles in climate and astronomy"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</i>. <b>116</b> (51): <span class="nowrap">25369–</span>25371. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1918770116">10.1073/pnas.1918770116</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6926063">6926063</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31848298">31848298</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=Albedo+is+a+simple+concept+that+plays+complicated+roles+in+climate+and+astronomy&rft.volume=116&rft.issue=51&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E25369-%3C%2Fspan%3E25371&rft.date=2019-12-17&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6926063%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31848298&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.1918770116&rft.aulast=Perkins&rft.aufirst=Sid&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6926063&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlbedo" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Albedo&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/albedo" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Special:Search/albedo">albedo</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sites.google.com/site/albedoproject/home">Albedo Project</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190403112715/https://sites.google.com/site/albedoproject/home">Archived</a> 3 April 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Additional archives: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20240303205102/https://sites.google.com/site/albedoproject/home">3 March 2024</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eoearth.org/article/Albedo">Albedo – Encyclopedia of Earth</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060505132944/http://www-modis.bu.edu/brdf/product.html">NASA MODIS BRDF/albedo product site</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/1bVUcTBiZ1B7KhcnYeJiz-zFmpzGtrele?usp=sharing">Ocean surface albedo look-up-table</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081125082044/http://www.eumetsat.int/Home/Main/Access_to_Data/Meteosat_Meteorological_Products/Product_List/SP_1125489019643?l=en">Surface albedo derived from Meteosat observations</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080523151225/http://jeff.medkeff.com/astro/lunar/obs_tech/albedo.htm">A discussion of Lunar albedos</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tvu.com/metalreflectivityLR.jpg">reflectivity of metals (chart)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304024228/http://www.tvu.com/metalreflectivityLR.jpg">Archived</a> 4 March 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl 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title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Climate_change" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Climate change"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Climate_change567" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">Climate change</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible expanded navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Overview567" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Overview</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_climate_change" title="Causes of climate change">Causes of climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change" title="Effects of climate change">Effects of climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">Climate change mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation" title="Climate change adaptation">Climate change adaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Climate_change_regions" title="Template:Climate change regions">By country and region</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Causes567" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_climate_change" title="Causes of climate change">Causes</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Overview</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_system" title="Climate system">Climate system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_effect" title="Greenhouse effect">Greenhouse effect</a> (<a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth%27s_atmosphere" title="Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere">Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_consensus_on_climate_change" title="Scientific consensus on climate change">Scientific consensus on climate change</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Sources</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_and_climate_change" title="Deforestation and climate change">Deforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">Fossil fuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">Greenhouse gases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">Greenhouse gas emissions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_accounting" title="Carbon accounting">Carbon accounting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_footprint" title="Carbon footprint">Carbon footprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_leakage" title="Carbon leakage">Carbon leakage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions_from_agriculture" title="Greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture">from agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions_from_wetlands" title="Greenhouse gas emissions from wetlands">from wetlands</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_energy_supply_and_consumption" title="World energy supply and consumption">World energy supply and consumption</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="History567" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">History</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_climate_change_policy_and_politics" title="History of climate change policy and politics">History of climate change policy and politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_climate_change_science" title="History of climate change science">History of climate change science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svante_Arrhenius" title="Svante Arrhenius">Svante Arrhenius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Hansen" title="James Hansen">James Hansen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_David_Keeling" title="Charles David Keeling">Charles David Keeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Climate_Change_conference" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations Climate Change conference">United Nations Climate Change conferences</a></li> <li>Years in climate change <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2019_in_climate_change" title="2019 in climate change">2019</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020_in_climate_change" title="2020 in climate change">2020</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021_in_climate_change" title="2021 in climate change">2021</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2022_in_climate_change" title="2022 in climate change">2022</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2023_in_climate_change" title="2023 in climate change">2023</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2024_in_climate_change" title="2024 in climate change">2024</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Effects_and_issues567" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change" title="Effects of climate change">Effects and issues</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Physical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abrupt_climate_change" title="Abrupt climate change">Abrupt climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anoxic_event" title="Anoxic event">Anoxic event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_methane_emissions" title="Arctic methane emissions">Arctic methane emissions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_sea_ice_decline" title="Arctic sea ice decline">Arctic sea ice decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_meridional_overturning_circulation" title="Atlantic meridional overturning circulation">Atlantic meridional overturning circulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drought" title="Drought">Drought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extreme_weather" title="Extreme weather">Extreme weather</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flood" title="Flood">Flood</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_flooding" title="Coastal flooding">Coastal flooding</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_wave" title="Heat wave">Heat wave</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_heatwave" title="Marine heatwave">Marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_heat_island" title="Urban heat island">Urban heat island</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_oceans" title="Effects of climate change on oceans">Oceans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">acidification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_deoxygenation" title="Ocean deoxygenation">deoxygenation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_heat_content" title="Ocean heat content">heat content</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_surface_temperature" title="Sea surface temperature">sea surface temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_stratification" title="Ocean stratification">stratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_temperature" title="Ocean temperature">temperature</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ozone_depletion" title="Ozone depletion">Ozone depletion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permafrost#Impacts_of_climate_change" title="Permafrost">Permafrost thaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retreat_of_glaciers_since_1850" title="Retreat of glaciers since 1850">Retreat of glaciers since 1850</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise">Sea level rise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Season_creep" title="Season creep">Season creep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tipping_points_in_the_climate_system" title="Tipping points in the climate system">Tipping points in the climate system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclones_and_climate_change" title="Tropical cyclones and climate change">Tropical cyclones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_the_water_cycle" title="Effects of climate change on the water cycle">Water cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_wildfires" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change and wildfires">Wildfires</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Flora and fauna</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_biomes" title="Effects of climate change on biomes">Biomes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mass_mortality_event" title="Mass mortality event">Mass mortality event</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_birds" title="Climate change and birds">Birds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change" title="Extinction risk from climate change">Extinction risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_dieback" title="Forest dieback">Forest dieback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_invasive_species" title="Climate change and invasive species">Invasive species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_marine_life#Climate_change" title="Human impact on marine life">Marine life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_plant_biodiversity" title="Effects of climate change on plant biodiversity">Plant biodiversity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Social and economic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_agriculture" title="Effects of climate change on agriculture">Agriculture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_livestock" title="Effects of climate change on livestock">Livestock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiple_breadbasket_failure" title="Multiple breadbasket failure">Multi-breadbasket failure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="Climate change and agriculture in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_children" title="Climate change and children">Children</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_cities" title="Climate change and cities">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_civilizational_collapse" title="Climate change and civilizational collapse">Civilizational collapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_crime" title="Climate change and crime">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_areas_depopulated_due_to_climate_change" title="List of areas depopulated due to climate change">Depopulation of settlements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_landmarks_destroyed_or_damaged_by_climate_change" title="List of landmarks destroyed or damaged by climate change">Destruction of cultural heritage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_and_climate_change" title="Disability and climate change">Disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_analysis_of_climate_change" title="Economic analysis of climate change">Economic impacts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_insurance_in_the_United_States" title="Climate change and insurance in the United States">U.S. insurance industry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_fisheries" title="Climate change and fisheries">Fisheries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_gender" title="Climate change and gender">Gender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_human_health" title="Effects of climate change on human health">Health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_mental_health" title="Effects of climate change on mental health">Mental health</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_and_climate_change" title="Human rights and climate change">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_Indigenous_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change and Indigenous peoples">Indigenous peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_infectious_diseases" title="Climate change and infectious diseases">Infectious diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_migration" title="Climate migration">Migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_poverty" title="Climate change and poverty">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_impact_of_climate_change" title="Psychological impact of climate change">Psychological impacts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_security" title="Climate security">Security and conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_flooding" title="Urban flooding">Urban flooding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_scarcity" title="Water scarcity">Water scarcity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_security" title="Water security">Water security</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em"><a href="/wiki/Template:Climate_change_regions" title="Template:Climate change regions">By country and region</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Africa" title="Climate change in Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Americas" title="Climate change in the Americas">Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Antarctica" title="Climate change in Antarctica">Antarctica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Arctic" title="Climate change in the Arctic">Arctic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Asia" title="Climate change in Asia">Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Australia" title="Climate change in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Caribbean" title="Climate change in the Caribbean">Caribbean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Europe" title="Climate change in Europe">Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Middle_East_and_North_Africa" title="Climate change in the Middle East and North Africa">Middle East and North Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_small_island_countries" title="Effects of climate change on small island countries">Small island countries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Climate_change_by_country" title="Category:Climate change by country">by individual country</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Mitigation567" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">Mitigation</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em"><a href="/wiki/Economic_analysis_of_climate_change" title="Economic analysis of climate change">Economics and finance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_budget" title="Carbon budget">Carbon budget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_emission_trading" title="Carbon emission trading">Carbon emission trading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_offsets_and_credits" title="Carbon offsets and credits">Carbon offsets and credits</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gold_Standard_(carbon_offset_standard)" title="Gold Standard (carbon offset standard)">Gold Standard (carbon offset standard)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_price" title="Carbon price">Carbon price</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_tax" title="Carbon tax">Carbon tax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_debt" title="Climate debt">Climate debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_finance" title="Climate finance">Climate finance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_risk_insurance" title="Climate risk insurance">Climate risk insurance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Co-benefits_of_climate_change_mitigation" class="mw-redirect" title="Co-benefits of climate change mitigation">Co-benefits of climate change mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics_of_climate_change_mitigation" class="mw-redirect" title="Economics of climate change mitigation">Economics of climate change mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel_divestment" title="Fossil fuel divestment">Fossil fuel divestment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Climate_Fund" title="Green Climate Fund">Green Climate Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low-carbon_economy" title="Low-carbon economy">Low-carbon economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Net_zero_emissions" class="mw-redirect" title="Net zero emissions">Net zero emissions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Energy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_capture_and_storage" title="Carbon capture and storage">Carbon capture and storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_transition" title="Energy transition">Energy transition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel_phase-out" title="Fossil fuel phase-out">Fossil fuel phase-out</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">Nuclear power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">Renewable energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_energy" title="Sustainable energy">Sustainable energy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Preserving and enhancing<br /> <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sink" title="Carbon sink">carbon sinks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blue_carbon" title="Blue carbon">Blue carbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_removal" title="Carbon dioxide removal">Carbon dioxide removal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration" title="Carbon sequestration">Carbon sequestration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_air_capture" title="Direct air capture">Direct air capture</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_farming" title="Carbon farming">Carbon farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate-smart_agriculture" title="Climate-smart agriculture">Climate-smart agriculture</a></li> <li>Forest management <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afforestation" title="Afforestation">afforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration#Forestry" title="Carbon sequestration">forestry for carbon sequestration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/REDD_and_REDD%2B" title="REDD and REDD+">REDD and REDD+</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reforestation" title="Reforestation">reforestation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_use,_land-use_change,_and_forestry" title="Land use, land-use change, and forestry">Land use, land-use change, and forestry</a> (LULUCF and AFOLU)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature-based_solutions" title="Nature-based solutions">Nature-based solutions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Personal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Individual_action_on_climate_change" title="Individual action on climate change">Individual action on climate change</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant-based_diet" title="Plant-based diet">Plant-based diet</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Society_and_adaptation567" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Society and <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation" title="Climate change adaptation">adaptation</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Society</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Business_action_on_climate_change" title="Business action on climate change">Business action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_action" title="Climate action">Climate action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_emergency_declaration" title="Climate emergency declaration">Climate emergency declaration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_movement" title="Climate movement">Climate movement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/School_Strike_for_Climate" class="mw-redirect" title="School Strike for Climate">School Strike for Climate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_denial" title="Climate change denial">Denial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_grief" title="Ecological grief">Ecological grief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_governance" title="Climate governance">Governance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_justice" title="Climate justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_litigation" title="Climate change litigation">Litigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_climate_change" title="Politics of climate change">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_opinion_on_climate_change" title="Public opinion on climate change">Public opinion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_climate_change" title="Women in climate change">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em"><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation" title="Climate change adaptation">Adaptation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation_strategies_on_the_German_coast" title="Climate change adaptation strategies on the German coast">Adaptation strategies on the German coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adaptive_capacity" title="Adaptive capacity">Adaptive capacity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disaster_risk_reduction" title="Disaster risk reduction">Disaster risk reduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem-based_adaptation" title="Ecosystem-based adaptation">Ecosystem-based adaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flood_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Flood control">Flood control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loss_and_damage_(climate_change)" title="Loss and damage (climate change)">Loss and damage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Managed_retreat" title="Managed retreat">Managed retreat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature-based_solutions" title="Nature-based solutions">Nature-based solutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_resilience" title="Climate resilience">Resilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_risk" title="Climate risk">Risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_vulnerability" title="Climate change vulnerability">Vulnerability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Adaptation_Fund" title="The Adaptation Fund">The Adaptation Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Adaptation_Programme_of_Action" title="National Adaptation Programme of Action">National Adaptation Programme of Action</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em"><a href="/wiki/Climate_communication" title="Climate communication">Communication</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_Change_Performance_Index" title="Climate Change Performance Index">Climate Change Performance Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_crisis" title="Climate crisis">Climate crisis (term)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_spiral" title="Climate spiral">Climate spiral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_education" title="Climate change education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_coverage_of_climate_change" title="Media coverage of climate change">Media coverage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_popular_culture" title="Climate change in popular culture">Popular culture depictions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_art" title="Climate change art">art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_fiction" title="Climate fiction">fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_climate_change_video_games" class="mw-redirect" title="List of climate change video games">video games</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warming_stripes" title="Warming stripes">Warming stripes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">International agreements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glasgow_Climate_Pact" title="Glasgow Climate Pact">Glasgow Climate Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyoto_Protocol" title="Kyoto Protocol">Kyoto Protocol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paris_Agreement" title="Paris Agreement">Paris Agreement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cooperative_Mechanisms_under_Article_6_of_the_Paris_Agreement" title="Cooperative Mechanisms under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement">Cooperative Mechanisms under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationally_determined_contribution" title="Nationally determined contribution">Nationally determined contributions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_Development_Goal_13" title="Sustainable Development Goal 13">Sustainable Development Goal 13</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Framework_Convention_on_Climate_Change" title="United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change">United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Background_and_theory567" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Background and theory</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Measurements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Global_surface_temperature" title="Global surface temperature">Global surface temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instrumental_temperature_record" class="mw-redirect" title="Instrumental temperature record">Instrumental temperature record</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proxy_(climate)" title="Proxy (climate)">Proxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_temperature_measurement" title="Satellite temperature measurement">Satellite temperature measurement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Theory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Albedo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_cycle" title="Carbon cycle">Carbon cycle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_carbon_cycle" title="Atmospheric carbon cycle">atmospheric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_pump" title="Biological pump">biologic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_carbon_cycle" title="Oceanic carbon cycle">oceanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permafrost_carbon_cycle" title="Permafrost carbon cycle">permafrost</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_sink" title="Carbon sink">Carbon sink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_sensitivity" title="Climate sensitivity">Climate sensitivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_variability_and_change" title="Climate variability and change">Climate variability and change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloud_feedback" title="Cloud feedback">Cloud feedback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloud_forcing" class="mw-redirect" title="Cloud forcing">Cloud forcing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fixed_anvil_temperature_hypothesis" title="Fixed anvil temperature hypothesis">Fixed anvil temperature hypothesis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryosphere" title="Cryosphere">Cryosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_energy_budget" title="Earth's energy budget">Earth's energy budget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extreme_event_attribution" title="Extreme event attribution">Extreme event attribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_feedbacks" title="Climate change feedbacks">Feedbacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_warming_potential" title="Global warming potential">Global warming potential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illustrative_model_of_greenhouse_effect_on_climate_change" title="Illustrative model of greenhouse effect on climate change">Illustrative model of greenhouse effect on climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_forcing" title="Orbital forcing">Orbital forcing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiative_forcing" title="Radiative forcing">Radiative forcing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Research and modelling</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_scenario" title="Climate change scenario">Climate change scenario</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_model" title="Climate model">Climate model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coupled_Model_Intercomparison_Project" title="Coupled Model Intercomparison Project">Coupled Model Intercomparison Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intergovernmental_Panel_on_Climate_Change" title="Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change">Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/IPCC_Sixth_Assessment_Report" title="IPCC Sixth Assessment Report">IPCC Sixth Assessment Report</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleoclimatology" title="Paleoclimatology">Paleoclimatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Representative_Concentration_Pathway" title="Representative Concentration Pathway">Representative Concentration Pathway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shared_Socioeconomic_Pathways" title="Shared Socioeconomic Pathways">Shared Socioeconomic Pathways</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Climate_change_icon.png/16px-Climate_change_icon.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Climate_change_icon.png/24px-Climate_change_icon.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Climate_change_icon.png/32px-Climate_change_icon.png 2x" data-file-width="1112" data-file-height="1056" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Climate_change" title="Portal:Climate change">Climate change portal</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" 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