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href="#Classical_stonemasonry_techniques"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Classical stonemasonry techniques</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classical_stonemasonry_techniques-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_stonemasonry_systems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_stonemasonry_systems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Modern stonemasonry systems</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Modern_stonemasonry_systems-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Modern stonemasonry systems subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Modern_stonemasonry_systems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Modern_stonemasonry_techniques" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_stonemasonry_techniques"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Modern stonemasonry techniques</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_stonemasonry_techniques-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Massive_precut_stone" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Massive_precut_stone"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Massive precut stone</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Massive_precut_stone-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Design_features_of_massive_precut_stone" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Design_features_of_massive_precut_stone"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.1</span> <span>Design features of massive precut stone</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Design_features_of_massive_precut_stone-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Types_of_massive_precut_stone_construction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Types_of_massive_precut_stone_construction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.2</span> <span>Types of massive precut stone construction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Types_of_massive_precut_stone_construction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Benefits_of_massive_precut_stone_construction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Benefits_of_massive_precut_stone_construction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.3</span> <span>Benefits of massive precut stone construction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Benefits_of_massive_precut_stone_construction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History_of_massive_precut_stone" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History_of_massive_precut_stone"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.4</span> <span>History of massive precut stone</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History_of_massive_precut_stone-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tensioned_stone" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tensioned_stone"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Tensioned stone</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tensioned_stone-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Rationale" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rationale"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.1</span> <span>Rationale</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rationale-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Energy_use_and_carbon_emissions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Energy_use_and_carbon_emissions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.1.1</span> <span>Energy use and carbon emissions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Energy_use_and_carbon_emissions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History_of_stonemasonry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History_of_stonemasonry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>History of stonemasonry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History_of_stonemasonry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tools" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tools"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Tools</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tools-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Training" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Training"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Training</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Training-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Types_of_stone" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Types_of_stone"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Types of stone</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Types_of_stone-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Types of stone subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Types_of_stone-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Igneous_stones" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Igneous_stones"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Igneous stones</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Igneous_stones-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Metamorphic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Metamorphic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Metamorphic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Metamorphic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sedimentary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sedimentary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Sedimentary</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sedimentary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gallery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gallery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Gallery</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gallery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled 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Available in 23 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-23" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">23 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%A1_%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A9" title="بناء بالحجارة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="بناء بالحجارة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Каменоделство – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Каменоделство" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kamenictv%C3%AD" title="Kamenictví – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Kamenictví" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steinmetz" title="Steinmetz – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Steinmetz" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canter%C3%ADa" title="Cantería – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Cantería" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hargintza" title="Hargintza – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Hargintza" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%86%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C_%D8%B3%D9%86%DA%AF%DB%8C" title="بنایی سنگی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="بنایی سنگی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taille_de_pierre" title="Taille de pierre – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Taille de pierre" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cantar%C3%ADa" title="Cantaría – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Cantaría" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klesarstvo" title="Klesarstvo – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Klesarstvo" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taglio_della_pietra" title="Taglio della pietra – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Taglio della pietra" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%91%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%91%D7%90%D7%91%D7%9F" title="בנייה באבן – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="בנייה באבן" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%95%E0%B2%B2%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B2%E0%B3%81%E0%B2%97%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%86%E0%B2%AF_%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%86%E0%B2%B2%E0%B2%B8" title="ಕಲ್ಲುಗಾರೆಯ ಕೆಲಸ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಕಲ್ಲುಗಾರೆಯ ಕೆಲಸ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steenhouwen" title="Steenhouwen – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Steenhouwen" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steinfaget" title="Steinfaget – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Steinfaget" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toshtaroshlik" title="Toshtaroshlik – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Toshtaroshlik" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kamieniarstwo" title="Kamieniarstwo – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Kamieniarstwo" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cantaria" title="Cantaria – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Cantaria" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gur%C3%ABgdhendja" title="Gurëgdhendja – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Gurëgdhendja" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stonemasonry" title="Stonemasonry – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Stonemasonry" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kamnose%C5%A1tvo" title="Kamnoseštvo – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Kamnoseštvo" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klesarstvo" title="Klesarstvo – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Klesarstvo" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Каменеобробка – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Каменеобробка" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q19794820#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div 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For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Stonecutter_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Stonecutter (disambiguation)">Stonecutter (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Stonemasonry" title="Special:EditPage/Stonemasonry">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Stonemasonry%22">"Stonemasonry"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Stonemasonry%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Stonemasonry%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Stonemasonry%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Stonemasonry%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Stonemasonry%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">April 2008</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Marseille_-_La_Tourette_(16411596305).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Marseille_-_La_Tourette_%2816411596305%29.jpg/220px-Marseille_-_La_Tourette_%2816411596305%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Marseille_-_La_Tourette_%2816411596305%29.jpg/330px-Marseille_-_La_Tourette_%2816411596305%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Marseille_-_La_Tourette_%2816411596305%29.jpg/440px-Marseille_-_La_Tourette_%2816411596305%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="4000" /></a><figcaption> A 15-storey apartment building in <a href="/wiki/La_Tourette_(Marseille)" title="La Tourette (Marseille)">La Tourette (Marseille)</a>, designed by <a href="/wiki/Fernand_Pouillon" title="Fernand Pouillon">Fernand Pouillon</a>. Constructed using the <a href="/wiki/Massive_precut_stone" title="Massive precut stone">massive precut stone</a> method.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gobekli_Tepe_5.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Gobekli_Tepe_5.jpg/220px-Gobekli_Tepe_5.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Gobekli_Tepe_5.jpg/330px-Gobekli_Tepe_5.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Gobekli_Tepe_5.jpg/440px-Gobekli_Tepe_5.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4160" data-file-height="2340" /></a><figcaption> <a href="/wiki/Gobekli_Tepe" class="mw-redirect" title="Gobekli Tepe">Gobekli Tepe</a>, early monumental Neolithic stonemasonry using flint-carved limestone columns (~9500 BCE)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:2016_Angkor,_Banteay_Kdei_(20).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/2016_Angkor%2C_Banteay_Kdei_%2820%29.jpg/220px-2016_Angkor%2C_Banteay_Kdei_%2820%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/2016_Angkor%2C_Banteay_Kdei_%2820%29.jpg/330px-2016_Angkor%2C_Banteay_Kdei_%2820%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/2016_Angkor%2C_Banteay_Kdei_%2820%29.jpg/440px-2016_Angkor%2C_Banteay_Kdei_%2820%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4935" data-file-height="3290" /></a><figcaption>12th-century stonemasonry at <a href="/wiki/Angkor_Wat" title="Angkor Wat">Angkor Wat</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Diamond_Wire_for_marble_mining.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Diamond_Wire_for_marble_mining.JPG/220px-Diamond_Wire_for_marble_mining.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Diamond_Wire_for_marble_mining.JPG/330px-Diamond_Wire_for_marble_mining.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Diamond_Wire_for_marble_mining.JPG/440px-Diamond_Wire_for_marble_mining.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2272" data-file-height="1704" /></a><figcaption>Diamond-wire saw in use for quarrying marble</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stonemason_at_Guedelon.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Stonemason_at_Guedelon.jpg/220px-Stonemason_at_Guedelon.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Stonemason_at_Guedelon.jpg/330px-Stonemason_at_Guedelon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Stonemason_at_Guedelon.jpg/440px-Stonemason_at_Guedelon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5184" data-file-height="3456" /></a><figcaption>Stonemason working with medieval tools</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Borobudur-Temple-Park_Indonesia_Stupas-of-Borobudur-01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Borobudur-Temple-Park_Indonesia_Stupas-of-Borobudur-01.jpg/220px-Borobudur-Temple-Park_Indonesia_Stupas-of-Borobudur-01.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Borobudur-Temple-Park_Indonesia_Stupas-of-Borobudur-01.jpg/330px-Borobudur-Temple-Park_Indonesia_Stupas-of-Borobudur-01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Borobudur-Temple-Park_Indonesia_Stupas-of-Borobudur-01.jpg/440px-Borobudur-Temple-Park_Indonesia_Stupas-of-Borobudur-01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4288" data-file-height="2800" /></a><figcaption>Stonemasonry with <a href="/wiki/Andesite" title="Andesite">andesite</a>, <a href="/wiki/Borobudur" title="Borobudur">Borobudur</a>, Indonesia</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Stonemasonry</b> or <b>stonecraft</b> is the creation of <a href="/wiki/Building" title="Building">buildings</a>, structures, and <a href="/wiki/Sculpture" title="Sculpture">sculpture</a> using <a href="/wiki/Rock_(geology)" title="Rock (geology)">stone</a> as the primary material. Stonemasonry is the craft of shaping and arranging stones, often together with <a href="/wiki/Mortar_(masonry)" title="Mortar (masonry)">mortar</a> and even the ancient <a href="/wiki/Lime_mortar" title="Lime mortar">lime mortar</a>, to wall or cover formed structures. </p><p>The basic tools, methods and skills of the banker mason have existed as a trade for thousands of years. It is one of the oldest activities and professions in human history. Many of the long-lasting, ancient <a href="/wiki/Shelter_(building)" class="mw-redirect" title="Shelter (building)">shelters</a>, <a href="/wiki/Temple" title="Temple">temples</a>, <a href="/wiki/Monument" title="Monument">monuments</a>, <a href="/wiki/Artifact_(archaeology)" title="Artifact (archaeology)">artifacts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fortification" title="Fortification">fortifications</a>, <a href="/wiki/Road" title="Road">roads</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bridge" title="Bridge">bridges</a>, and entire <a href="/wiki/City" title="City">cities</a> were built of stone. Famous works of stonemasonry include <a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6bekli_Tepe" title="Göbekli Tepe">Göbekli Tepe</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_pyramids" title="Egyptian pyramids">Egyptian pyramids</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Taj_Mahal" title="Taj Mahal">Taj Mahal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cusco" title="Cusco">Cusco</a>'s Incan Wall, <a href="/wiki/Taq-e_Bostan" title="Taq-e Bostan">Taqwesan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Easter_Island" title="Easter Island">Easter Island</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Moai" title="Moai">statues</a>, <a href="/wiki/Angkor_Wat" title="Angkor Wat">Angkor Wat</a>, <a href="/wiki/Borobudur" title="Borobudur">Borobudur</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tihuanaco" class="mw-redirect" title="Tihuanaco">Tihuanaco</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tenochtitlan" title="Tenochtitlan">Tenochtitlan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Persepolis" title="Persepolis">Persepolis</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Parthenon" title="Parthenon">Parthenon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stonehenge" title="Stonehenge">Stonehenge</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Great_Wall_of_China" title="Great Wall of China">Great Wall of China</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_pyramids" title="Mesoamerican pyramids">Mesoamerican pyramids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chartres_Cathedral" title="Chartres Cathedral">Chartres Cathedral</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Stari_Most" title="Stari Most">Stari Most</a>. </p><p>While stone was important traditionally, it fell out of use in the modern era, in favor of brick and steel-reinforced concrete. This is despite the advantages of stone over concrete. Those advantages include: </p> <ul><li>Many types of stone are stronger than concrete in compression.</li> <li>Stone uses much less energy to produce, and hence its production emits less carbon dioxide than either brick or concrete.</li> <li>Stone is widely considered aesthetically pleasing, while concrete is often painted or clad.</li></ul> <p>Modern stonemasonry is in the process of reinventing itself for automation, modern <a href="/wiki/Massive_precut_stone" title="Massive precut stone">load-bearing stone</a> construction, innovative <a href="/wiki/Post-tensioned_stone" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-tensioned stone">reinforcement techniques</a>, and integration with other sustainable materials, like <a href="/wiki/Engineered_wood" title="Engineered wood">engineered wood</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Stonemasonry_disciplines">Stonemasonry disciplines</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stonemasonry&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Stonemasonry disciplines"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Marmor-spalten.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Marmor-spalten.jpg/220px-Marmor-spalten.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="206" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Marmor-spalten.jpg/330px-Marmor-spalten.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Marmor-spalten.jpg/440px-Marmor-spalten.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1141" data-file-height="1066" /></a><figcaption>Splitting a block of <a href="/wiki/Marble" title="Marble">marble</a> with <a href="/wiki/Plug_and_feather" title="Plug and feather">plug and feathers</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Eglinton_Masons.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Eglinton_Masons.JPG/220px-Eglinton_Masons.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="294" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Eglinton_Masons.JPG/330px-Eglinton_Masons.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Eglinton_Masons.JPG/440px-Eglinton_Masons.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1712" data-file-height="2288" /></a><figcaption>A stonemason at <a href="/wiki/Eglinton_Tournament_Bridge" title="Eglinton Tournament Bridge">Eglinton Tournament Bridge</a> with a selection of tools of the trade</figcaption></figure> <ul><li>A quarryman splits or cuts rock in the quarry, and extracts the resulting blocks of stone. The cut or split pieces are collected and transported away from the extraction surface for further refinement.<sup id="cite_ref-Brisbane_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brisbane-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>A sawyer stonemason cuts these stone blocks into <a href="/wiki/Dimension_stone" title="Dimension stone">dimension stone</a>, to required size with saws. The resulting block, if ordered for a specific component, is known as sawn six sides (SSS). A sawyer mason is similar to a banker mason (see below) in that they work with rough pieces of stone and shape them according to certain standards.<sup id="cite_ref-Brisbane_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brisbane-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The main difference between a sawyer mason and a banker mason is the size of the stone they work with. A sawyer mason typically works with much larger pieces and uses diamond-coated tools. Sawyer masons may work in quarries or be found in tile or flooring stores, possessing a range of specific skills, such as examining grain patterns to determine cleavage, creating smaller stones from larger pieces, and carving precise outlines and drilling holes using various tools like chisels.</li> <li>A banker mason, sometimes referred to as a bank mason, is workshop-based, and specializes in working the stones into the shapes required by a building's design,<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> this set out on templets and a bed mould. A banker mason uses various hand and power tools to cut, carve, and shape stone. They can produce anything from stones with simple <a href="/wiki/Chamfer" title="Chamfer">chamfers</a> to <a href="/wiki/Tracery" title="Tracery">tracery</a> windows, detailed mouldings and the more classical architectural building masonry. When working a stone from a sawn block, the mason ensures that the stone is bedded in the right way, so the finished work sits in the building in the same orientation as it was formed on the ground. Occasionally though some stones need to be oriented correctly for the application; this includes voussoirs, jambs, copings, and cornices. The stone's size and shape are usually predetermined by builders or other parties involved in a project, and the banker mason works according to a brief or a set of designs provided for that project. Once the stone has been crafted to the required specifications, it is transported to the construction site or another location for use in a building or other structure.</li> <li>A fixer mason specializes in the fixing of stones onto buildings, using <a href="/wiki/Lewis_(Lifting_appliance)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lewis (Lifting appliance)">lifting tackle</a>, and traditional lime mortars and grouts.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sometimes modern cements, mastics, and epoxy resins are used, usually on specialist applications such as stone cladding. Metal fixings, from simple dowels and cramps to specialized single application fixings, are also used. The precise tolerances necessarily make this a highly skilled job. A fixer mason is responsible for traveling to a job site to fit and lay pre-prepared stone or cladding for buildings. They might do this with grouts, mortars, and lifting tackle. They might also use things like single application specialized fixings, simple cramps, and dowels as well as stone cladding with things like epoxy resins, mastics, and modern cements.</li> <li>A memorial mason or <a href="/wiki/Monumental_masonry" title="Monumental masonry">monumental mason</a> carves gravestones and inscriptions.<sup id="cite_ref-Brisbane_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brisbane-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>A carver mason crosses the line from craft to art. They use their artistic ability to carve stone into foliage, figures, animals or abstract designs. Carver masons are the artists of stonemasonry, responsible for creating designs and/or patterns from stone, as well as on stones. This work can include stone sculptures of figures or animals, or other projects of a similar nature. Throughout history, carver masons have been renowned for their exceptional skills in crafting beautiful pieces from stone.<sup id="cite_ref-Brisbane_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brisbane-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classical_stonemasonry_techniques">Classical stonemasonry techniques</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stonemasonry&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Classical stonemasonry techniques"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sacsayhuam%C3%A1n_(1981)_07.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Sacsayhuam%C3%A1n_%281981%29_07.jpg/220px-Sacsayhuam%C3%A1n_%281981%29_07.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="332" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Sacsayhuam%C3%A1n_%281981%29_07.jpg/330px-Sacsayhuam%C3%A1n_%281981%29_07.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Sacsayhuam%C3%A1n_%281981%29_07.jpg/440px-Sacsayhuam%C3%A1n_%281981%29_07.jpg 2x" data-file-width="706" data-file-height="1064" /></a><figcaption>Precisely interfaced blocks at <a href="/wiki/Sacsayhuam%C3%A1n" title="Sacsayhuamán">Sacsayhuamán</a> citadel in Cusco, Peru</figcaption></figure> <p>Stone has been used in construction for thousands of years, in many contexts. Listed below are six types of classical stonemasonry techniques, some of which still see widespread use. </p> <ul><li>Ashlar masonry. Stone masonry using dressed (cut) stones is known as <a href="/wiki/Ashlar" title="Ashlar">ashlar</a> masonry.<sup id="cite_ref-Acocello_2006_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Acocello_2006-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post_and_lintel" title="Post and lintel">Trabeated systems</a>. One of the oldest forms of stone construction uses a <a href="/wiki/Post_and_lintel" title="Post and lintel">lintel</a> (beam) laid across stone posts or columns. This method predates <a href="/wiki/Stonehenge" title="Stonehenge">Stonehenge</a>, and refined versions were used by the Egyptians, Persians, Greeks, and Romans.<sup id="cite_ref-Acocello_2006_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Acocello_2006-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arch" title="Arch">Arch</a> masonry. Also called "<a href="/wiki/Arcuated_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Arcuated system">arcuated systems</a>" in contrast with <a href="/wiki/Trabeated" class="mw-redirect" title="Trabeated">trabeated</a> systems, which are two ancient methods for creating a void below a stone span (either a lintel or an arch). Note that the Wikipedia page on stone arches is about stone-arch bridges exclusively, and the arch page is about all arches, including non-stone.<sup id="cite_ref-Acocello_2006_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Acocello_2006-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rubble_masonry" title="Rubble masonry">Rubble masonry</a>. Use of rubble in masonry: antonymous to ashlar masonry. Can be infill in an ashlar wall, used in cyclopean concrete, and other contexts.<sup id="cite_ref-Acocello_2006_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Acocello_2006-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term is antonymous to "ashlar".</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dry_stone" title="Dry stone">Dry stone</a>. Stone walls built without mortar, using the shape of the stones, compression, and friction for stability.<sup id="cite_ref-Acocello_2006_4-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Acocello_2006-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This technique encompasses cyclopean masonry and other mortar-less methods, but is conventionally used to describe agricultural walls used to mark boundaries, contain livestock, and retain soil.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyclopean_masonry" title="Cyclopean masonry">Cyclopean masonry</a>. Drywall construction using massive boulders that may have been shaped to fit together.<sup id="cite_ref-Acocello_2006_4-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Acocello_2006-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Polygonal_masonry" title="Polygonal masonry">Polygonal masonry</a> is a subtype of cyclopean masonry where the boulders are shaped into polygonal profiles.<sup id="cite_ref-Acocello_2006_4-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Acocello_2006-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_stonemasonry_systems">Modern stonemasonry systems</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stonemasonry&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Modern stonemasonry systems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:15_Clerkenwell_Close,_Clerkenwell,_London_(geograph_6029656).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/15_Clerkenwell_Close%2C_Clerkenwell%2C_London_%28geograph_6029656%29.jpg/220px-15_Clerkenwell_Close%2C_Clerkenwell%2C_London_%28geograph_6029656%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/15_Clerkenwell_Close%2C_Clerkenwell%2C_London_%28geograph_6029656%29.jpg/330px-15_Clerkenwell_Close%2C_Clerkenwell%2C_London_%28geograph_6029656%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/15_Clerkenwell_Close%2C_Clerkenwell%2C_London_%28geograph_6029656%29.jpg/440px-15_Clerkenwell_Close%2C_Clerkenwell%2C_London_%28geograph_6029656%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3024" data-file-height="4032" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/15_Clerkenwell_Close" title="15 Clerkenwell Close">15 Clerkenwell Close</a> in London uses a trabeated exoskeleton.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Southwark_Gateway_Needle.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/The_Southwark_Gateway_Needle.jpg/220px-The_Southwark_Gateway_Needle.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="391" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/The_Southwark_Gateway_Needle.jpg/330px-The_Southwark_Gateway_Needle.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/The_Southwark_Gateway_Needle.jpg/440px-The_Southwark_Gateway_Needle.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2752" data-file-height="4896" /></a><figcaption>Southwark Gateway Needle, a <a href="/wiki/Post-tensioned_stone" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-tensioned stone">post-tensioned stone</a> structure</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:TROYES_gaz-3224.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/TROYES_gaz-3224.jpg/220px-TROYES_gaz-3224.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/TROYES_gaz-3224.jpg/330px-TROYES_gaz-3224.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/TROYES_gaz-3224.jpg/440px-TROYES_gaz-3224.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="3840" /></a><figcaption>A stone sculpture constructed using digital stereotomy</figcaption></figure> <p>In the modern era, stone has been largely relegated to being a cosmetic element of buildings, often used as decorative cladding on <a href="/wiki/Steel-reinforced_concrete" class="mw-redirect" title="Steel-reinforced concrete">steel-reinforced concrete</a>. This is despite its wide historical use in large compressive structures: 50-m bridges and colosseums in Roman times, ~65-m tall cathedrals since the <a href="/wiki/Middle_ages" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle ages">middle ages</a>, and 12-story apartment buildings built in the 1690s.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_stonemasonry_techniques">Modern stonemasonry techniques</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stonemasonry&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Modern stonemasonry techniques"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stone_veneer" title="Stone veneer">Stone veneer</a> is used as a protective and decorative covering for interior or exterior walls and surfaces. The veneer is typically 1 in (25.4 mm) thick and must weigh less than 15 lb per square foot (73 kg m<sup>−2</sup>) so that no additional structural supports are required. The structural wall is put up first, and thin, flat stones are mortared onto the face of the wall. Metal tabs in the structural wall are mortared between the stones to tie everything together, to prevent the stonework from separating from the wall.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massive_precut_stone" title="Massive precut stone">Massive precut stone</a>. Also known as "<a href="/wiki/Prefabricated_stone" class="mw-redirect" title="Prefabricated stone">prefabricated stone</a>", "<a href="/wiki/Massive_stone" class="mw-redirect" title="Massive stone">massive stone</a>", "pre-sized stone", or "pré-taille" stone.</li> <li>Post-<a href="/wiki/Tensioned_stone" title="Tensioned stone">tensioned stone</a>. A high-performance composite construction material consisting of stone held in compression with tension elements. The tension elements can be connected to the outside of the stone, but more typically uses <a href="/wiki/Prestressed_concrete#Post-tensioned_concrete" title="Prestressed concrete">tendons</a> threaded internally through a duct formed from aligned drilled holes.</li> <li>Pre-<a href="/wiki/Tensioned_stone" title="Tensioned stone">tensioned stone</a>. Using an epoxy shear connector, early experiments have shown that it is possible to pre-tension stone, maintaining the tendon under tension while the liquid epoxy is injected and allowed to set.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Digital stereotomy. Using <a href="/wiki/CAD" class="mw-redirect" title="CAD">CAD</a> and computer models of load, modern designers are able to cut complex vaults, arches, and other arrangements of precisely cut ashlars.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Antecedents to this discipline include curved vaults, and also flat vaults that use a concentric <a href="/wiki/Jack_arch" title="Jack arch">flat arch</a> vault and the <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Abeille" title="Joseph Abeille">Abeille</a> flat vault.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Using digital design and machining, such compression structures can be shapes into complex compressive structures.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Leaders in this area include Giuseppe Fallacara<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Philippe Block.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Trabeated stone exoskeleton. In the modern era, post-and-lintel construction was adapted use as a stone exoskeleton in the design of <a href="/wiki/15_Clerkenwell_Close" title="15 Clerkenwell Close">15 Clerkenwell Close</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The stone exoskeleton method is a variant of the <a href="/wiki/Massive_precut_stone" title="Massive precut stone">massive precut stone</a> method: the ends of the posts and lintels are precisely precut offsite prior to assembly by crane. At least two more trabeated stone exoskeleton high-rise buildings are underway, one in London,<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and another in Bristol.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Stone bricks. Small stone ashlars that are cut by the quarry to brick sizing to allow their use in standardized brick-laying workflows. Cost is similar to clay composite bricks, but with greatly reduced carbon emissions.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As stone does not change size like fired clay bricks, brick-sized stone ashlars do not require expansion joints.</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cyclopean_concrete&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cyclopean concrete (page does not exist)">Cyclopean concrete</a>. This method uses a combination of <a href="/wiki/Cyclopean_masonry" title="Cyclopean masonry">cyclopean masonry</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rubble_masonry" title="Rubble masonry">rubble masonry</a>: boulders and or rubble are placed in a form (or in a ditch), and concrete is poured on top to bind the stones together before removing the form.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Variations of this include <a href="/wiki/Frank_Lloyd_Wright" title="Frank Lloyd Wright">Frank Lloyd Wright</a>'s 'desert masonry'<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Institut Balear de l'Habitatge's cyclopean concrete blocks, which are cast in a large slab and precisely sawn for use as prefabricated masonry in the <a href="/wiki/Massive_precut_stone" title="Massive precut stone">massive precut stone</a> system.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slipform_stonemasonry" title="Slipform stonemasonry">Slipform stonemasonry</a> is a variation of Cyclopean concrete stone-wall construction that uses formwork to contain the rocks and mortar while keeping the walls straight. Short forms, up to two feet tall, are placed on both sides of the wall to serve as a guide for the stonework. Stones are placed inside the forms with the good faces against the formwork. Concrete is poured behind the rocks. Rebar is added for strength, to make a wall that is approximately half reinforced concrete and half stonework. The wall can be faced with stone on one side or both sides.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Formwork stone. "Pierre banchée" in French. Uses stone tiles or ashlars as <a href="/wiki/Formwork" title="Formwork">shuttering</a> for pouring concrete. These are left in place after the concrete sets. This is the inverse procedure to stone cladding, where the stone tiles are attached to the concrete after the temporary shuttering has been removed. Developed by <a href="/wiki/Fernand_Pouillon" title="Fernand Pouillon">Fernand Pouillon</a> to accelerate construction.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Formwork stone is distinct from cyclopean concrete in that the former uses rectilinear tiles, while the latter uses boulders and/or <a href="/wiki/Cobblestone" title="Cobblestone">cobblestone</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Massive_precut_stone">Massive precut stone</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stonemasonry&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Massive precut stone"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Massive_precut_stone" title="Massive precut stone">Massive precut stone</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Massive_precut_stone" title="Massive precut stone">Massive precut stone</a> is also known as "prefabricated", or "pre-sized" stone is a modern method of building with load-bearing stone.<sup id="cite_ref-Perraudin_2013_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Perraudin_2013-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Precut stone is a <a href="/wiki/DFMA" title="DFMA">DFMA</a> construction method that uses large machine-cut stone blocks with precisely defined dimensions to rapidly assemble buildings in which stone is used as a major or the primary load-bearing material. </p><p>Massive precut stone construction was originally developed by <a href="/wiki/Fernand_Pouillon" title="Fernand Pouillon">Fernand Pouillon</a> in the postwar period. He referred to the method as "pierre de taille" or "pré-taille" stone. It became possible through innovations by Pouillon and Paul Marcerou, a masonry engineer at a quarry in Fontvieille, to adapt high-precision saws from the timber industry to quarrying and stone sawing.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The key technique of massive precut (MP) stone is to cut stone ashlars to precise dimensions that match the architect's plan such that the stones can be dropped into place by crane for rapid construction.<sup id="cite_ref-Perraudin_2013_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Perraudin_2013-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The blocks may be numbered so that the masons can follow the plan procedurally. The use of massive blocks reduces costs by minimizing sawing and fixer-masonry costs. The use of a crane reduces labor, accelerates construction, and allows the masons to precisely and quickly position the blocks. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Design_features_of_massive_precut_stone">Design features of massive precut stone</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stonemasonry&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Design features of massive precut stone"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>MP stone is defined by four design attributes. </p> <ul><li>Load-bearing stone. This distinguishes it from cosmetic precut stone, which is used for cladding decoration.<sup id="cite_ref-Perraudin_2013_22-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Perraudin_2013-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historically, load-bearing stone is the most durable construction method.<sup id="cite_ref-Acocello_2006_4-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Acocello_2006-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Massive block sizes. The heuristic definition of 'massive stone' is a block that is too heavy to be lifted by hand. Using massive dimensions has three critical benefits: (1) minimizing cuts, which lowers cost and shortens production time, (2) increasing the thermal mass of walls for temperature regulation in the building, and (3) making use of crane construction, thereby lowering manual labor, shortening assembly time, reducing mortar, labor, and cost.<sup id="cite_ref-Perraudin_2013_22-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Perraudin_2013-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Precise offsite dimension cuts. Precutting can be done at the quarry, or at a masonry workshop by sawyer and banker masons. The precision amounts to a form of prefabrication, such that the masons do not have to make adjustments onsite, and construction is an assembly process. Precise ashlar interfaces also reduce the amount of mortar required.<sup id="cite_ref-Perraudin_2013_22-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Perraudin_2013-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Types_of_massive_precut_stone_construction">Types of massive precut stone construction</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stonemasonry&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Types of massive precut stone construction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Massive precut ashlars. Blocks cut precisely on four to six sides, used to assemble walls, lintels over windows and doors, and in flat arches.</li> <li>End-shaped massive precut posts and lintels. Quarry-finished blocks with precisely shaped ends for assembly into post-and-lintel frameworks.</li> <li>Massive cyclopean concrete blocks. Developed by IBAVI in Mallorca, rough stones are placed in a mold and saturated with concrete.<sup id="cite_ref-Croquis_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Croquis-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The concrete is sawn into massive ashlars for crane assembly. Enables reuse of rough plum stones from traditional stone masonry.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Benefits_of_massive_precut_stone_construction">Benefits of massive precut stone construction</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stonemasonry&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Benefits of massive precut stone construction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>MP stone construction has advantages over conventional masonry and concrete construction. </p> <ul><li>Build speed. The use of precisely cut and numbered ashlars, combined with crane-assisted assembly, significantly reduces construction time compared to traditional stone-masonry techniques.<sup id="cite_ref-Perraudin_2013_22-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Perraudin_2013-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Compared to concrete construction, MP stone is faster as there is no setting wait time.</li> <li>Cost reduction. Compared to brick masonry or smaller ashlars, using larger stone blocks and thereby minimizing sawing and fixer-masonry costs, the overall expense of constructing a building can be reduced.</li> <li>Labor efficiency. The use of cranes and a well-organized construction plan reduces the labor required, lowering costs and reducing the wait time for skilled mason availability.</li> <li>Design efficiency. The precision of machine-cut ashlars allows for more modularity in design, enabling architects to create building designs quickly.<sup id="cite_ref-Perraudin_2013_22-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Perraudin_2013-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Durability. Buildings constructed using massive precut stone maintain the inherent durability and longevity of stone construction, offering long-lasting and low-maintenance structures.<sup id="cite_ref-Acocello_2006_4-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Acocello_2006-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At least one study of a modern 20-storey unreinforced MP-stone tower has suggested this method has good seismic resilience: "With regard to the current Algerian seismic design regulation, the results obtained in terms of time period, frequency, storey drifts and displacements showed that the… (Diar Es Saada massive precut stone)… tower can be considered as an earthquake-resistant building fulfilling the required structural safety conditions."<sup id="cite_ref-Mohammedi_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mohammedi-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Aesthetics. Compared to concrete and other materials, massive precut stone construction yields visually striking and distinctive buildings that showcase the natural beauty of stone.<sup id="cite_ref-Perraudin_2013_22-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Perraudin_2013-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Environmental benefits. The use of a material with lower embedded carbon contributes to a more sustainable building process, minimizing the environmental impact. Lower carbon emissions: load-bearing stone construction emits around one-tenth the carbon as a comparable concrete building.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As 80% of energy is non-grid fossil fuel, and construction is responsible for 8% of carbon emissions, the replacement of coal-burning concrete production with lower-energy dimension-stone production could have a substantial impact on net-zero goals.</li> <li>Reusability. When a building has reached the end of its usefulness, massive rectilinear ashlars are easily reused in new construction.<sup id="cite_ref-Perraudin_2013_22-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Perraudin_2013-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Thermal performance. As with traditional stone construction, massive precut stone buildings benefit from excellent thermal mass, helping to regulate indoor temperatures and reduce energy consumption for heating and cooling.<sup id="cite_ref-Perraudin_2013_22-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Perraudin_2013-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="History_of_massive_precut_stone">History of massive precut stone</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stonemasonry&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: History of massive precut stone"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Fernand_Pouillon" title="Fernand Pouillon">Fernand Pouillon</a> pioneered the use of massive precut stone in modern architecture. During the post-war period, his innovative approach to stone construction led to the development of numerous noteworthy projects, with a particular focus on housing. Throughout his long career, Pouillon played a crucial role in the development and popularization of massive precut stone construction techniques. His pioneering work laid the foundation for subsequent architects to build upon and innovate, leading to the resurgence and expansion of this construction method in the 2020s, with the rise of interest in low-carbon durable construction. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tensioned_stone">Tensioned stone</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stonemasonry&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Tensioned stone"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Tensioned_stone" title="Tensioned stone">Tensioned stone</a></div> <p>Post-tensioned stone (PT stone) is a high-performance composite construction material: stone held in compression with tension elements. The tension elements can be connected to the outside of the stone, but more typically uses <a href="/wiki/Prestressed_concrete#Post-tensioned_concrete" title="Prestressed concrete">tendons</a> threaded internally through a duct formed from aligned drilled holes. </p><p>Post-tensioned stone may consist of a single piece, but drill limitations and other considerations mean it is typically an assembly of multiple components with mortar between pieces. PT stone has been used in both vertical columns (posts), and in horizontal beams (lintels). It has also been used in more unusual engineering applications: arch stabilization, flexible foot bridges, and cantilevered sculptures. </p><p>Tensioned stone has a close affiliation with <a href="/wiki/Massive_precut_stone" title="Massive precut stone">massive precut stone</a> as two central techniques of <a href="#Modern_stonemasonry_systems">modern stonemasonry</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Rationale">Rationale</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stonemasonry&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Rationale"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Soportes_de_la_cubierta_del_Pabell%C3%B3n_del_Futuro,_Expo%2792.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Soportes_de_la_cubierta_del_Pabell%C3%B3n_del_Futuro%2C_Expo%2792.jpg/220px-Soportes_de_la_cubierta_del_Pabell%C3%B3n_del_Futuro%2C_Expo%2792.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Soportes_de_la_cubierta_del_Pabell%C3%B3n_del_Futuro%2C_Expo%2792.jpg/330px-Soportes_de_la_cubierta_del_Pabell%C3%B3n_del_Futuro%2C_Expo%2792.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Soportes_de_la_cubierta_del_Pabell%C3%B3n_del_Futuro%2C_Expo%2792.jpg/440px-Soportes_de_la_cubierta_del_Pabell%C3%B3n_del_Futuro%2C_Expo%2792.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4430" data-file-height="2502" /></a><figcaption>Pavilion of the Future, Seville Expo'92: the first completed new building using post-tensioned stone</figcaption></figure> <p>"Post-tensioned stone increases the failure load of stone in bending, but also the stiffness of a structure by reducing joint cracking. This method of construction is widely used for concrete structures, but the advantages of using similar techniques with stone are only just being realised".<sup id="cite_ref-Boote_2020_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Boote_2020-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Stone has great compressive strength, so is ideal in compressive structures like <a href="/wiki/Arch_bridge" title="Arch bridge">stone arches</a>. <sup id="cite_ref-Webb_2020_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Webb_2020-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, it has relatively weak flexural strength (compared to steel or wood), so in isolation cannot be safely used in wide spans under tension.<sup id="cite_ref-Webb_2020_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Webb_2020-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For concrete, this problem has been long solved: in addition to conventional tensile reinforcement, engineers developed <a href="/wiki/Prestressed_concrete" title="Prestressed concrete">prestressed concrete</a> methods starting around 1888. Such tension-reinforced concrete applications combine compressive strength with pre-stressed tensile compression for combined strength much greater than either of the individual components, and have been in wide use for decades. As for concrete, post-tensioning maintains stone in compression, thereby increasing its strength. </p><p>Post-tensioning is achieved steel tendons either threaded through ducts within the stone elements or along their surface. Once the stone components are in place, the tendons are tensioned using hydraulic jacks, and the force is transferred to the stone through anchorages located at the ends of the tendons. The tensioning process imparts a compressive force to the stone, which improves its capacity to resist tensile stresses that could otherwise cause cracking or failure. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Energy_use_and_carbon_emissions">Energy use and carbon emissions</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stonemasonry&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Energy use and carbon emissions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Stone is "natural precast concrete", so only needs to be cut (and strength tested) and post-tensioned prior to use in construction. Compared to concrete and steel, post-tensioned stone production has dramatically lower energy costs, with concomitant lower carbon emissions.<sup id="cite_ref-STRP_2020_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-STRP_2020-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_of_stonemasonry">History of stonemasonry</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stonemasonry&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: History of stonemasonry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Stonemasonry" title="Special:EditPage/Stonemasonry">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">April 2023</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Situs_Megalitikum_Gunung_Padang,_Cianjur_-_panoramio_(23).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Situs_Megalitikum_Gunung_Padang%2C_Cianjur_-_panoramio_%2823%29.jpg/220px-Situs_Megalitikum_Gunung_Padang%2C_Cianjur_-_panoramio_%2823%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Situs_Megalitikum_Gunung_Padang%2C_Cianjur_-_panoramio_%2823%29.jpg/330px-Situs_Megalitikum_Gunung_Padang%2C_Cianjur_-_panoramio_%2823%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Situs_Megalitikum_Gunung_Padang%2C_Cianjur_-_panoramio_%2823%29.jpg/440px-Situs_Megalitikum_Gunung_Padang%2C_Cianjur_-_panoramio_%2823%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1204" data-file-height="859" /></a><figcaption>Gunung Padang, West Java. Stonemasonry retaining wall.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rueland_Frueauf_d._J._003_detail.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Rueland_Frueauf_d._J._003_detail.jpg/220px-Rueland_Frueauf_d._J._003_detail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="193" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Rueland_Frueauf_d._J._003_detail.jpg/330px-Rueland_Frueauf_d._J._003_detail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Rueland_Frueauf_d._J._003_detail.jpg/440px-Rueland_Frueauf_d._J._003_detail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="656" data-file-height="575" /></a><figcaption>Bavarian stonemasons, c. 1505</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Old_Bridge.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/The_Old_Bridge.jpg/170px-The_Old_Bridge.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/The_Old_Bridge.jpg/255px-The_Old_Bridge.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/The_Old_Bridge.jpg/340px-The_Old_Bridge.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>Stonemasonry on 16th c. Ottoman made bridge in <a href="/wiki/Mostar" title="Mostar">Mostar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" title="Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a> – <a href="/wiki/Stari_Most" title="Stari Most">Stari Most</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Stonemasonry is one of the earliest trades in <a href="/wiki/Civilization" title="Civilization">civilization</a>'s history. During the time of the <a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Revolution" title="Neolithic Revolution">Neolithic Revolution</a> and <a href="/wiki/Domestication" title="Domestication">domestication</a> of non-human animals, people learned how to use fire to create <a href="/wiki/Calcium_oxide" title="Calcium oxide">quicklime</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plaster" title="Plaster">plasters</a>, and mortars. They used these to fashion homes for themselves with mud, straw or stone, and masonry was born. </p><p>The Ancients heavily relied on the stonemason to build the most impressive and long-lasting monuments to their civilizations. The <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Egyptians</a> built their <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_pyramids" title="Egyptian pyramids">pyramids</a>, the civilizations of Central America had their <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_pyramid" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesoamerican pyramid">step pyramids</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Persians</a> their palaces, the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greeks</a> their temples, and the Romans their public works and wonders (See <a href="/wiki/Roman_Architecture" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Architecture">Roman Architecture</a>). People of the <a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus Valley Civilization">Indus Valley Civilization</a>, such as at <a href="/wiki/Dholavira" title="Dholavira">Dholavira</a> made entire cities characterized by stone architecture. Among the famous ancient stonemasons is <a href="/wiki/Sophroniscus" title="Sophroniscus">Sophroniscus</a>, the father of <a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a>, who was a stone-cutter. </p><p>Castle building was an entire industry for the medieval stonemasons. When the <a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Roman Empire</a> fell, building in dressed stone decreased in much of <a href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">Western Europe</a>, and there was a resulting increase in timber-based construction. Stonework experienced a resurgence in the 9th and 10th centuries in Europe, and by the 12th-century religious fervour resulted in the construction of thousands of impressive churches and cathedrals in stone across Western Europe. </p><p>Medieval stonemasons' skills were in high demand, and members of the <a href="/wiki/Guild" title="Guild">guild</a>, gave rise to three classes of stonemasons: <a href="/wiki/Apprentice" class="mw-redirect" title="Apprentice">apprentices</a>, <a href="/wiki/Journeyman" title="Journeyman">journeymen</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Architect" title="Architect">master masons</a>. Apprentices were indentured to their masters as the price for their training, journeymen were qualified craftsmen who were paid by the day, and master masons were considered freemen who could travel as they wished to work on the projects of the <a href="/wiki/Patron" class="mw-redirect" title="Patron">patrons</a> and could operate as self-employed craftsmen and train apprentices. During the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a>, the stonemason's guild admitted members who were not stonemasons, and eventually evolved into the Society of <a href="/wiki/Freemasonry" title="Freemasonry">Freemasonry</a>; fraternal groups which observe the traditional culture of stonemasons but are not typically involved in modern construction projects. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Diar_El_Mah%C3%A7oul,_El_Madania,_Algeria_-_panoramio_(3).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Diar_El_Mah%C3%A7oul%2C_El_Madania%2C_Algeria_-_panoramio_%283%29.jpg/220px-Diar_El_Mah%C3%A7oul%2C_El_Madania%2C_Algeria_-_panoramio_%283%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Diar_El_Mah%C3%A7oul%2C_El_Madania%2C_Algeria_-_panoramio_%283%29.jpg/330px-Diar_El_Mah%C3%A7oul%2C_El_Madania%2C_Algeria_-_panoramio_%283%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Diar_El_Mah%C3%A7oul%2C_El_Madania%2C_Algeria_-_panoramio_%283%29.jpg/440px-Diar_El_Mah%C3%A7oul%2C_El_Madania%2C_Algeria_-_panoramio_%283%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5184" data-file-height="3456" /></a><figcaption>Stone apartment complex, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Diar_El_Mah%C3%A7oul&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Diar El Mahçoul (page does not exist)">Diar El Mahçoul</a>, El Madania, Algeria</figcaption></figure> <p>A medieval stonemason would often carve a <a href="/wiki/Mason%27s_mark" title="Mason's mark">personal symbol</a> onto their block to differentiate their work from that of other stonemasons. This also provided a simple "quality assurance" system. </p><p>The Renaissance saw stonemasonry return to the prominence and sophistication of the <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical age</a>. The rise of the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">humanist philosophy</a> gave people the ambition to create marvelous works of art. The centre stage for the Renaissance would prove to be Italy, where <a href="/wiki/Italian_city-states" title="Italian city-states">Italian city-states</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Florence" title="Florence">Florence</a> erected great structures, including the <a href="/wiki/Florence_Cathedral" title="Florence Cathedral">Florence Cathedral</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Fountain_of_Neptune,_Florence" title="Fountain of Neptune, Florence">Fountain of Neptune</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Laurentian_Library" title="Laurentian Library">Laurentian Library</a>, which was planned and built by <a href="/wiki/Michelangelo_Buonarroti" class="mw-redirect" title="Michelangelo Buonarroti">Michelangelo Buonarroti</a>, a famous sculptor of the Renaissance. </p><p>When Europeans settled the Americas, they brought the stonemasonry techniques of their respective homelands with them. Settlers used what materials were available, and in some areas, stone was the material of choice. In the first waves, building mimicked that of Europe, to eventually be replaced by unique architecture later on. </p><p>In the 20th century, stonemasonry saw its most radical changes in the way the work is accomplished. Prior to the first half of the century, most heavy work was executed by <a href="/wiki/Draft_horse" title="Draft horse">draft animals</a> or human muscle power. With the arrival of the <a href="/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine" title="Internal combustion engine">internal combustion engine</a>, many of these hard aspects of the trade have been made simpler and easier. Cranes and <a href="/wiki/Forklift_truck" class="mw-redirect" title="Forklift truck">forklifts</a> have made moving and laying heavy stones relatively easy for the stonemasons. Motor powered mortar mixers have saved much in time and energy as well. <a href="/wiki/Pneumatics" title="Pneumatics">Compressed-air</a> powered tools have made working of stone less time-intensive. <a href="/wiki/Petrol" class="mw-redirect" title="Petrol">Petrol</a> and electric-powered <a href="/wiki/Diamond_tool" title="Diamond tool">abrasive saws</a> can cut through stone much faster and with more precision than chiseling alone. <a href="/wiki/Cemented_carbide" title="Cemented carbide">Cemented carbide</a>-tipped chisels can stand up to much more abuse than the steel and iron chisels made by <a href="/wiki/Blacksmith" title="Blacksmith">blacksmiths</a> of old. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Tools">Tools</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stonemasonry&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Tools"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Stonemasonry" title="Special:EditPage/Stonemasonry">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">October 2017</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Steinmetz-brunnen.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Steinmetz-brunnen.jpg/220px-Steinmetz-brunnen.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Steinmetz-brunnen.jpg/330px-Steinmetz-brunnen.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Steinmetz-brunnen.jpg/440px-Steinmetz-brunnen.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2336" data-file-height="3504" /></a><figcaption>Stonemason dressing stone on a fountain with pneumatic tools</figcaption></figure> <p>Stonemasons use a wide variety of <a href="/wiki/Tool" title="Tool">tools</a> to handle and shape stone blocks (<a href="/wiki/Ashlar" title="Ashlar">ashlar</a>) and slabs into finished articles. The basic tools for shaping the stone are a <a href="/wiki/Mallet" title="Mallet">mallet</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chisel" title="Chisel">chisels</a>, and a metal <a href="/wiki/Straightedge" title="Straightedge">straight edge</a>. With these one can make a flat surface – the basis of all stonemasonry. </p><p>Chisels come in a variety of sizes and shapes, dependent upon the function for which they are being used and have many different names depending on locality. There are different chisels for different materials and sizes of material being worked, for removing large amounts of material and for putting a fine finish on the stone. A <a href="/wiki/Drove_chisel" title="Drove chisel">drove chisel</a> is used for smoothing off roughly finished stones. </p><p>Mixing mortar is normally done today with mortar mixers which usually use a rotating drum or rotating paddles to mix the mortar. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Masonry_trowel" title="Masonry trowel">masonry trowel</a> is used for the application of the mortar between and around the stones as they are set into place. Filling in the gaps (joints) with mortar is referred to as pointing. Pointing in smaller joints can be accomplished using <a href="/wiki/Tuck_pointer" class="mw-redirect" title="Tuck pointer">tuck pointers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pointing_trowel" class="mw-redirect" title="Pointing trowel">pointing trowels</a>, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Margin_trowel&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Margin trowel (page does not exist)">margin trowels</a>, among other tools. </p><p>A mason's hammer has a long thin head and is called a Punch Hammer. It would be used with a chisel or splitter for a variety of purposes </p><p>A walling hammer (catchy hammer) can be used in place of a hammer and chisel or pincher to produce rubble or pinnings or snecks. </p><p>Stonemasons use a <a href="/wiki/Lewis_(lifting_appliance)" title="Lewis (lifting appliance)">lewis</a> together with a <a href="/wiki/Crane_(machine)" title="Crane (machine)">crane</a> or block and tackle to hoist building stones into place. </p><p>Today power tools such as compressed-air chisels, abrasive spinners, and <a href="/wiki/Angle_grinder" title="Angle grinder">angle grinders</a> are much used: these save time and money, but are hazardous and require just as much skill as the hand tools that they augment. But many of the basic tools of stonemasonry have remained virtually the same throughout vast amounts of time, even thousands of years, for instance when comparing chisels that can be bought today with chisels found at the pyramids of Giza the common sizes and shapes are virtually unchanged. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Training">Training</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stonemasonry&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Training"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Stonemasonry" title="Special:EditPage/Stonemasonry">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">October 2017</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aberdeen_Streets.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Aberdeen_Streets.jpg/220px-Aberdeen_Streets.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Aberdeen_Streets.jpg/330px-Aberdeen_Streets.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Aberdeen_Streets.jpg/440px-Aberdeen_Streets.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>Typical <a href="/wiki/Aberdeen" title="Aberdeen">Aberdeen</a> city street showing the widespread use of local <a href="/wiki/Granite" title="Granite">granite</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Traditionally medieval stonemasons served a seven-year <a href="/wiki/Apprenticeship" title="Apprenticeship">apprenticeship</a>. A similar system still operates today. </p><p>A modern apprenticeship lasts three years. This combines on-site learning through personal experience, the experience of the tradesmen, and college work where apprentices are given an overall experience of the building, hewing and theory work involved in masonry. In some areas, colleges offer courses which teach not only the manual skills but also related fields such as drafting and blueprint reading or construction conservation. Electronic Stonemasonry training resources enhance traditional delivery techniques. Hands-on workshops are a good way to learn about stonemasonry also. Those wishing to become stonemasons should have little problem working at heights, possess reasonable hand-eye coordination, be moderately physically fit, and have basic mathematical ability. Most of these things can be developed while learning. </p><p>The modern stonemason undergoes comprehensive training, both in the classroom and in the working environment. Hands-on skill is complemented by an intimate knowledge of each stone type, its application, and best uses, and how to work and fix each stone in place. The mason may be skilled and competent to carry out one or all of the various branches of stonemasonry. In some areas, the trend is towards specialization, in other areas towards adaptability. </p><p>Today's stonemasons undergo training that is quite comprehensive and is done both in the work environment and in the classroom. It isn't enough to have hands-on skills only. One must also have knowledge of the types of stones as well as its best uses and how to work it as well as how to fix it in place.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types_of_stone">Types of stone</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stonemasonry&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Types of stone"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Stonemasonry" title="Special:EditPage/Stonemasonry">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">October 2017</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fernand_Pouillon_-_r%C3%A9sidence_Salmson_Le_Point_du_Jour_-_panoramio_-_jean-michel_gobet_(2).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Fernand_Pouillon_-_r%C3%A9sidence_Salmson_Le_Point_du_Jour_-_panoramio_-_jean-michel_gobet_%282%29.jpg/220px-Fernand_Pouillon_-_r%C3%A9sidence_Salmson_Le_Point_du_Jour_-_panoramio_-_jean-michel_gobet_%282%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Fernand_Pouillon_-_r%C3%A9sidence_Salmson_Le_Point_du_Jour_-_panoramio_-_jean-michel_gobet_%282%29.jpg/330px-Fernand_Pouillon_-_r%C3%A9sidence_Salmson_Le_Point_du_Jour_-_panoramio_-_jean-michel_gobet_%282%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Fernand_Pouillon_-_r%C3%A9sidence_Salmson_Le_Point_du_Jour_-_panoramio_-_jean-michel_gobet_%282%29.jpg/440px-Fernand_Pouillon_-_r%C3%A9sidence_Salmson_Le_Point_du_Jour_-_panoramio_-_jean-michel_gobet_%282%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="2560" /></a><figcaption> Part of a <a href="/wiki/Fernand_Pouillon" title="Fernand Pouillon">Fernand Pouillon</a> <a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9sidence_Salmson_Le_Point_du_Jour" class="extiw" title="fr:Résidence Salmson Le Point du Jour">residential complex</a> constructed from massive blocks of sedimentary limestone</figcaption></figure> <p>Stonemasons use all types of natural stone: <a href="/wiki/Igneous" class="mw-redirect" title="Igneous">igneous</a>, <a href="/wiki/Metamorphic" class="mw-redirect" title="Metamorphic">metamorphic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sedimentary" class="mw-redirect" title="Sedimentary">sedimentary</a>; while some also use <a href="/wiki/Artificial_stone" title="Artificial stone">artificial stone</a> as well. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Igneous_stones">Igneous stones</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stonemasonry&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Igneous stones"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Granite" title="Granite">Granite</a> is one of the hardest stones, and requires such different techniques to sedimentary stones that it is virtually a separate trade. With great persistence, simple mouldings can and have been carved from granite, for example in many <a href="/wiki/Cornwall" title="Cornwall">Cornish</a> churches and in the city of <a href="/wiki/Aberdeen" title="Aberdeen">Aberdeen</a>. Generally, however, it is used for purposes that require its strength and durability, such as kerbstones, countertops, flooring, and <a href="/wiki/Breakwater_(structure)" title="Breakwater (structure)">breakwaters</a>.</li> <li>Igneous stone ranges from very soft rocks such as <a href="/wiki/Pumice" title="Pumice">pumice</a> and <a href="/wiki/Scoria" title="Scoria">scoria</a> to somewhat harder rocks such as <a href="/wiki/Tuff" title="Tuff">tuff</a> to the hardest rocks such as granite and <a href="/wiki/Basalt" title="Basalt">basalt</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Metamorphic">Metamorphic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stonemasonry&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Metamorphic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marble" title="Marble">Marble</a> is a fine, easily worked stone, that comes in various colours, but mainly white. It has traditionally been used for carving statues, and for facings of many Byzantine and Italian Renaissance buildings. Prominent Greek sculptors, such as Antenor (6th century BC), Phidias and Critias (5th century BC), Praxiteles (4th century BC) and others used mainly the marble of <a href="/wiki/Paros" title="Paros">Paros</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thassos" class="mw-redirect" title="Thassos">Thassos</a> islands, and the whitest and brightest of all (although not the finest), the <a href="/wiki/Pentelikon" class="mw-redirect" title="Pentelikon">Pentelikon</a> marble. Their work was preceded by older sculptors from Mesopotamia and Egypt, but the Greeks were unmatched in plasticity and realistic (re)presentation, either of Gods (Apollo, Aphrodite, Hermes, Zeus, etc.), or humans (Pythagoras, Socrates, Plato, Phryne, etc.). The famous <a href="/wiki/Acropolis_of_Athens" title="Acropolis of Athens">Acropolis of Athens</a> is said to be constructed using the Pentelicon marble. The traditional home of the marble industry is the area around <a href="/wiki/Carrara" title="Carrara">Carrara</a> in <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a>, from where a bright and fine, whitish marble is extracted in vast quantities.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slate" title="Slate">Slate</a> is a popular choice of stone for memorials and inscriptions, as its fine grain and hardness means it leaves details very sharp. Its tendency to split into thin plates has also made it a popular roofing material.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sedimentary">Sedimentary</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stonemasonry&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Sedimentary"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many of the world's most famous buildings have been built of sedimentary stone, from <a href="/wiki/Durham_Cathedral" title="Durham Cathedral">Durham Cathedral</a> to <a href="/wiki/St._Peter%27s_Basilica" title="St. Peter's Basilica">St Peter's</a> in <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a>. There are two main types of sedimentary stone used in masonry work, <a href="/wiki/Limestone" title="Limestone">limestones</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sandstone" title="Sandstone">sandstones</a>. Examples of limestones include <a href="/wiki/Bath_stone" class="mw-redirect" title="Bath stone">Bath</a> and <a href="/wiki/Portland_stone" title="Portland stone">Portland stone</a>. <a href="/wiki/Yorkstone" title="Yorkstone">Yorkstone</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sydney_sandstone" title="Sydney sandstone">Sydney sandstone</a> are the most commonly used sandstone. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Gallery">Gallery</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stonemasonry&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Gallery"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed center"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 227.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 225.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Steinmetz.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="An apprentice carving a block"><img alt="An apprentice carving a block" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Steinmetz.jpg/338px-Steinmetz.jpg" decoding="async" width="226" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Steinmetz.jpg/507px-Steinmetz.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Steinmetz.jpg/675px-Steinmetz.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3504" data-file-height="2336" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">An apprentice carving a block</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 104px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 102px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:341_Cameron_stonecutter_-_USACE-p15141coll5-15650.jpeg" class="mw-file-description" title="Stonemason at the construction of the Kabul-Kandahar Highway in Afghanistan, 1961"><img alt="Stonemason at the construction of the Kabul-Kandahar Highway in Afghanistan, 1961" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/341_Cameron_stonecutter_-_USACE-p15141coll5-15650.jpeg/153px-341_Cameron_stonecutter_-_USACE-p15141coll5-15650.jpeg" decoding="async" width="102" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/341_Cameron_stonecutter_-_USACE-p15141coll5-15650.jpeg/230px-341_Cameron_stonecutter_-_USACE-p15141coll5-15650.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/341_Cameron_stonecutter_-_USACE-p15141coll5-15650.jpeg/306px-341_Cameron_stonecutter_-_USACE-p15141coll5-15650.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="1404" data-file-height="2064" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Stonemason at the construction of the <a href="/wiki/Kabul-Kandahar_Highway" class="mw-redirect" title="Kabul-Kandahar Highway">Kabul-Kandahar Highway</a> in Afghanistan, 1961</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 227.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 225.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Stone_Mason_marks_as_seen_in_the_Chapter_House_of_Fountains_Abbey.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Three different stonemason's marks, which can be seen in the Chapter House of Fountains Abbey"><img alt="Three different stonemason's marks, which can be seen in the Chapter House of Fountains Abbey" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Stone_Mason_marks_as_seen_in_the_Chapter_House_of_Fountains_Abbey.jpg/338px-Stone_Mason_marks_as_seen_in_the_Chapter_House_of_Fountains_Abbey.jpg" decoding="async" width="226" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Stone_Mason_marks_as_seen_in_the_Chapter_House_of_Fountains_Abbey.jpg/507px-Stone_Mason_marks_as_seen_in_the_Chapter_House_of_Fountains_Abbey.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Stone_Mason_marks_as_seen_in_the_Chapter_House_of_Fountains_Abbey.jpg/675px-Stone_Mason_marks_as_seen_in_the_Chapter_House_of_Fountains_Abbey.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Three different stonemason's marks, which can be seen in the Chapter House of <a href="/wiki/Fountains_Abbey" title="Fountains Abbey">Fountains Abbey</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 100px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 98px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Taile_de_pierre.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A modern stonemason's workbench with a block of limestone"><img alt="A modern stonemason's workbench with a block of limestone" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Taile_de_pierre.jpg/147px-Taile_de_pierre.jpg" decoding="async" width="98" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Taile_de_pierre.jpg/221px-Taile_de_pierre.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Taile_de_pierre.jpg/295px-Taile_de_pierre.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1428" data-file-height="2180" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">A modern stonemason's workbench with a block of <a href="/wiki/Limestone" title="Limestone">limestone</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 186.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 184.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Taille_depierre_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Typical French chisels with wooden hilt, used for soft limestone"><img alt="Typical French chisels with wooden hilt, used for soft limestone" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Taille_depierre_2.jpg/277px-Taille_depierre_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="185" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Taille_depierre_2.jpg/416px-Taille_depierre_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Taille_depierre_2.jpg/554px-Taille_depierre_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1712" data-file-height="1390" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Typical French <a href="/wiki/Chisel" title="Chisel">chisels</a> with wooden hilt, used for soft limestone</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 98.666666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 96.666666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Fotothek_df_roe-neg_0000431_004_Steinmetz_auf_dem_Seitenschiffdach_der_Hofkirche.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A left-handed stonemason with mallet and chisel"><img alt="A left-handed stonemason with mallet and chisel" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Fotothek_df_roe-neg_0000431_004_Steinmetz_auf_dem_Seitenschiffdach_der_Hofkirche.jpg/145px-Fotothek_df_roe-neg_0000431_004_Steinmetz_auf_dem_Seitenschiffdach_der_Hofkirche.jpg" decoding="async" width="97" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Fotothek_df_roe-neg_0000431_004_Steinmetz_auf_dem_Seitenschiffdach_der_Hofkirche.jpg/218px-Fotothek_df_roe-neg_0000431_004_Steinmetz_auf_dem_Seitenschiffdach_der_Hofkirche.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Fotothek_df_roe-neg_0000431_004_Steinmetz_auf_dem_Seitenschiffdach_der_Hofkirche.jpg/290px-Fotothek_df_roe-neg_0000431_004_Steinmetz_auf_dem_Seitenschiffdach_der_Hofkirche.jpg 2x" data-file-width="529" data-file-height="820" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">A left-handed stonemason with <a href="/wiki/Mallet" title="Mallet">mallet</a> and chisel</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 201.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 199.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Kn%C3%BCpfel_retouched.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Stonemason's mallets of plastic, beechwood and steel"><img alt="Stonemason's mallets of plastic, beechwood and steel" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Kn%C3%BCpfel_retouched.jpg/299px-Kn%C3%BCpfel_retouched.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Kn%C3%BCpfel_retouched.jpg/449px-Kn%C3%BCpfel_retouched.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Kn%C3%BCpfel_retouched.jpg/598px-Kn%C3%BCpfel_retouched.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2714" data-file-height="2043" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Stonemason's <a href="/wiki/Mallet" title="Mallet">mallets</a> of <a href="/wiki/Plastic" title="Plastic">plastic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Beech_tree" class="mw-redirect" title="Beech tree">beechwood</a> and <a href="/wiki/Steel" title="Steel">steel</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 114.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 112.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tailleur_de_pierre.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A stonemason and his tools"><img alt="A stonemason and his tools" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Tailleur_de_pierre.jpg/169px-Tailleur_de_pierre.jpg" decoding="async" width="113" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Tailleur_de_pierre.jpg/253px-Tailleur_de_pierre.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Tailleur_de_pierre.jpg/337px-Tailleur_de_pierre.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2573" data-file-height="3431" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">A stonemason and his tools</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stonemasonry&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output 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art</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Stone_industries" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Stone industries">Stone industries</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Stonemason_(book)" title="The Stonemason (book)">The Stonemason</a></i> – 2020 non-fiction book by Andrew Ziminski</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_carving" title="Stone carving">Stone carving</a> – The act of shaping stone materials</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_sculpture" title="Stone sculpture">Stone sculpture</a> – Sculpture made from stone</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_wall" title="Stone wall">Stone wall</a> – Masonry structural division</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slipform_stonemasonry" title="Slipform stonemasonry">Slipform stonemasonry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bricklayer" title="Bricklayer">Bricklayer</a> – Craftsperson and tradesperson who lays bricks to construct brickwork</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masonry" title="Masonry">Masonry</a> – Building of structures from individual units of stone, bricks, or blocks</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture" title="Architecture">Architecture</a> – Art and technique of designing buildings</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palatine_Stonemason_Museum" title="Palatine Stonemason Museum">Palatine Stonemason Museum</a> – Museum in the village of Alsenz, Germany</li></ul> <p>Categories: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Stonemasonry_tools" title="Category:Stonemasonry tools">Stonemasonry tools</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stonemasonry&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Brisbane-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Brisbane_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brisbane_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brisbane_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brisbane_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mms-stone.com.au/stone-mason/information/what-are-the-different-types-of-stonemason">"What are the different types of stonemason? MMS Memorials Brisbane"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=What+are+the+different+types+of+stonemason%3F+MMS+Memorials+Brisbane&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmms-stone.com.au%2Fstone-mason%2Finformation%2Fwhat-are-the-different-types-of-stonemason&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStonemasonry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/banker+mason">"Definition of BANKER MASON"</a>. <i>www.merriam-webster.com</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.merriam-webster.com&rft.atitle=Definition+of+BANKER+MASON&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.merriam-webster.com%2Fdictionary%2Fbanker%2Bmason&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStonemasonry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://uk.indeed.com/career-advice/finding-a-job/banker-masons-vs-fixer-masons">"Banker masons vs fixer masons: the key differences | Indeed.com UK"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Banker+masons+vs+fixer+masons%3A+the+key+differences+%26%23124%3B+Indeed.com+UK&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fuk.indeed.com%2Fcareer-advice%2Ffinding-a-job%2Fbanker-masons-vs-fixer-masons&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStonemasonry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Acocello_2006-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Acocello_2006_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Acocello_2006_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Acocello_2006_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Acocello_2006_4-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Acocello_2006_4-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Acocello_2006_4-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Acocello_2006_4-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Acocello_2006_4-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Acocello_2006_4-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAcocella2006" class="citation book cs1">Acocella, Alfonso (2006). <i>Stone Architecture: Ancient and Modern Construction Skills</i>. 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href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/long-hidden-pyramid-found-in-indonesia-was-likely-an-ancient-temple/">"Long-Hidden "Pyramid" Found in Indonesia Was Likely an Ancient Temple"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Scientific_American" title="Scientific American">Scientific American</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Scientific+American&rft.atitle=Long-Hidden+%22Pyramid%22+Found+in+Indonesia+Was+Likely+an+Ancient+Temple&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.scientificamerican.com%2Farticle%2Flong-hidden-pyramid-found-in-indonesia-was-likely-an-ancient-temple%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStonemasonry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walters Masonry <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.waltersm.com/blog/41-stonemasonry-stone-masonry-chicago-contractor">"History of Stonemasonry"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150930133346/https://www.waltersm.com/blog/41-stonemasonry-stone-masonry-chicago-contractor">Archived</a> 2015-09-30 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stonemasonry&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.historyextra.com/period/ancient-history/andrew-ziminski-stonemason-history-britain-stone-monuments/">History Extra interview with Stonemason Andrew Ziminski</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.stonefoundation.org/">The Stone Foundation Org</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://blog.polycor.com/a-return-to-form-the-renaissance-of-structural-stone">A Return To Form: The Renaissance Of Structural Stone</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul 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.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Stonemasonry66" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Stonemasonry" title="Template:Stonemasonry"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Stonemasonry" title="Template talk:Stonemasonry"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Stonemasonry" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Stonemasonry"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Stonemasonry66" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Stonemasonry</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ashlar" title="Ashlar">Ashlar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rustication_(architecture)" title="Rustication (architecture)">Rustication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_carving" title="Stone carving">Carving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dry_stone" title="Dry stone">Dry stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Letter_cutting" title="Letter cutting">Letter cutting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masonry" title="Masonry">Masonry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-tensioned_stone" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-tensioned stone">Post-tensioned stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massive_precut_stone" title="Massive precut stone">Massive precut stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monumental_masonry" title="Monumental masonry">Monumental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rubble_masonry" title="Rubble masonry">Rubble</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_sculpture" title="Stone sculpture">Sculpture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slipform_stonemasonry" title="Slipform stonemasonry">Slipform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snecked_masonry" title="Snecked masonry">Snecked</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Materials</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:#F4F0EC"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_stone" title="Artificial stone">Artificial stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brick" title="Brick">Brick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cast_stone" title="Cast stone">Cast stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_decorative_stones" title="List of decorative stones">Decorative stones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dimension_stone" title="Dimension stone">Dimension stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fieldstone" title="Fieldstone">Fieldstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flagstone" title="Flagstone">Flagstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabion" title="Gabion">Gabion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Granite" title="Granite">Granite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grout" title="Grout">Grout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lime_mortar" title="Lime mortar">Lime mortar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_types_of_limestone" title="List of types of limestone">Limestone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marble" title="Marble">Marble</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_types_of_marble" title="List of types of marble">Types</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortar_(masonry)" title="Mortar (masonry)">Mortar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandstone" title="Sandstone">Sandstone</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sandstones" title="List of sandstones">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slate" title="Slate">Slate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_veneer" title="Stone veneer">Stone veneer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Tools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angle_grinder" title="Angle grinder">Angle grinder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bush_hammer" title="Bush hammer">Bush hammer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceramic_tile_cutter" title="Ceramic tile cutter">Ceramic tile cutter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chisel" title="Chisel">Chisel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diamond_blade" title="Diamond blade">Diamond blade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lewis_(lifting_appliance)" title="Lewis (lifting appliance)">Lewis (lifting appliance)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masonry_trowel" title="Masonry trowel">Trowel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-explosive_demolition_agents" title="Non-explosive demolition agents">Non-explosive demolition agents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plug_and_feather" title="Plug and feather">Plug and feather</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stonemason%27s_hammer" title="Stonemason's hammer">Stonemason's hammer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Straightedge" title="Straightedge">Straightedge</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Techniques</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:#F4F0EC"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stone_flaming" title="Stone flaming">Flaming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flushwork" title="Flushwork">Flushwork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knapping" title="Knapping">Knapping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polygonal_masonry" title="Polygonal masonry">Polygonal masonry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Repointing" title="Repointing">Repointing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scabbling" title="Scabbling">Scabbling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuckpointing" title="Tuckpointing">Tuckpointing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masonry_veneer" title="Masonry veneer">Veneer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brickwork" title="Brickwork">Brickwork</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wythe" title="Wythe">Wythe</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Products</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Castle" title="Castle">Castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hardstone_carving" title="Hardstone carving">Hardstone carving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Headstone" class="mw-redirect" title="Headstone">Headstone</a> (<a href="/wiki/Footstone" title="Footstone">Footstone</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mosaic" title="Mosaic">Mosaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_sculpture" title="Stone sculpture">Sculpture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_wall" title="Stone wall">Stone wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machicolation" title="Machicolation">Machicolation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:#F4F0EC"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_Union_of_Bricklayers_and_Allied_Craftworkers" title="International Union of Bricklayers and Allied Craftworkers">International Union of Bricklayers and Allied Craftworkers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Master_of_Work_to_the_Crown_of_Scotland" title="Master of Work to the Crown of Scotland">Master of Work to the Crown of Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mason_Contractors_Association_of_America" title="Mason Contractors Association of America">Mason Contractors Association of America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operative_Plasterers%27_and_Cement_Masons%27_International_Association" title="Operative Plasterers' and Cement Masons' International Association">Operative Plasterers' and Cement Masons' International Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Worshipful_Company_of_Masons" title="Worshipful Company of Masons">Worshipful Company of Masons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox1143" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" 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