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He was [[1954 Syrian coup d'état|overthrown]] and later assassinated. == Early life == Adib Shishakli was born in the [[Hama Sanjak]] of [[Ottoman Syria]] to a [[Syrian]] family. His mother was of [[Kurds|Kurdish]] origin while his father was [[Arab]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mardelli |first1=Bassil A. |title=Middle East Perspectives: Personal Recollections |date=16 April 2010 |publisher=iUniverse |location=New York Bloomington |isbn=978-1-4502-1118-5 |page=28 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=INl8jGsewjUC&q=adib+shishakli+mother+kurd&pg=PA28 |access-date=5 September 2021}}</ref> His family name, Shishakli, is a common surname derived from the [[Turkish language|Turkish]] word "[[wikt:çiçek|çiçek]]", which means flower; çiçekli (Shishakli) therefore means someone or some place with flowers. ==Military and political career == Shishakli was commissioned during the [[Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon|French Mandate of Syria]] as an officer in the colonial military in 1930. He studied at the Military Academy of [[Damascus]] (which later was relocated to Homs) and became an early member of the [[Syrian Social Nationalist Party]] (SSNP), founded by [[Antun Saadeh]], promoting the concept of a [[Greater Syria]]. His brother Salah was also a prominent member of the SSNP. Following Syria's [[Syrian independence day|independence from France]], Shishakli fought in a volunteer [[Arab]] army, known as the [[Arab Liberation Army]], in the [[1948 Arab-Israeli War]]. His exploits on the front lines earned him a following among Syria’s officer corps. The Arab defeat in the 1948 Arab-Israeli War was a motivating factor for the military coup led by [[Husni al-Za'im]], which took place in 1949. Only months after al-Za'im's takeover, which shattered Syria's weak parliamentary system, Za'im was overthrown by a group of officers connected to the SSNP, including Shishakli and Zaim's old comrade, Colonel [[Sami al-Hinnawi]], who led the new military junta. Za'im had previously delivered the SSNP leader [[Antun Saadeh]] to the [[Lebanon|Lebanese]] authorities, who had him tried and executed for wanting to destroy the modern state of Lebanon. Reportedly, after Za'im was killed, Shishakli ripped off Za'im's bloodstained shirt and took it to Saadeh's widow, who was still in Syria, telling her, "We have avenged his murder!".<ref>{{Citation |title=Who was Syria's Adib al Shishakli? {{!}} Al Jazeera World Documentary | date=22 June 2022 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8Uomqmsd2A4 |access-date=2023-09-04 |language=en}}</ref> Shishakli worked with Sami al-Hinnawi, the new ''de facto'' ruler of Syria who refused to assume power on his own and who, instead, restored Syria's parliamentary system. Hinnawi became chief-of-staff of the [[Syrian Armed Forces|Syrian Army]]. A veteran [[nationalism|nationalist]], [[Hashem al-Atassi]], who had been president in the 1930s, became prime minister, and later president of Syria. Atassi wanted to create a union with [[Hashemites|Hashemite]] [[Kingdom of Iraq|Iraq]], something which Shishakli greatly opposed, claiming that Hinnawi was the driving force behind pro-Hashemite sentiment in Syria. ==Seizing power== In December 1949, Shishakli launched another coup, the third of that year, arresting Hinnawi to break Hashemite influence in Syria, but keeping Atassi at his post. He then ordered the assassination of Colonel Mohammad Nasser, the Air Force Commander, because he threatened Shishakli's popularity in the [[Military of Syria|Syrian Army]]. All of this greatly weakened the pro-union elements in Syria but they continued to work for union with Hashemite Iraq through the Prime Minister, [[Nazim al-Kudsi]]. Shishakli set the condition that any government had to include his right-hand-man, [[Fawzi Selu]], as Minister for Defence, to curb Hashemite influence in the Syrian government. When Prime Minister [[Maarouf al-Dawalibi]], a pro-Iraq politician from Aleppo, refused this demand, Shishakli responded on 28 November 1951 by arresting Dawalibi and his entire cabinet. He also had arrested all pro-Iraq politicians in Syria, including the leaders of the [[People's Party (Syria)|People's Party]], [[Nazim al-Kudsi]] and [[Rushdi al-Kikhya]]. In protest, Atassi resigned from office and moved into the opposition. Pleased to get rid of this stubborn nationalist, who rejected military intervention in political affairs, Shishakli made his comrade Selu the Chief-of-Staff of the Army, the Prime Minister, the Minister for Defence, and the Head of State. But in effect, Selu was nothing but a figurehead. The real power lay in the hands of Adib al-Shishakli. ==Personal rule over Syria== Shishakli then dissolved all political parties in a return to military rule. He banned a number of newspapers and outlawed all [[newspaper]]s that were not pro-Shishakli.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-11-17 |title=The Beginnings of Authoritarian Culture in the Arab World - Ideas {{!}} Institute for Advanced Study |url=https://www.ias.edu/ideas/martin-authoritarian-beginnings |access-date= |website=www.ias.edu |language=en}}</ref> Among those to suffer persecution under his rule were the [[National Party (Syria)|National Party]] of Damascus, the [[People's Party (Syria)|People's Party]] of Aleppo, the [[Syrian Communist Party|Communist Party]], the [[Baath Party]], and the Syrian [[Muslim Brotherhood]]. He banished the Baath leaders [[Akram al-Hawrani]], [[Michel Aflaq]], and [[Salah al-Bitar]] to Lebanon, where they then actively worked against his regime. He was a skilled public speaker and relied greatly on [[radio]] to transmit his speeches to the Syrian population. He became the initial Arab leader following independence to foster a cult of personality around himself, with his portraits adorning every shopfront. Moreover, he established a ministry dedicated to information and propaganda within his government. To ensure his control, he strategically deployed spies and security agents across the nation to vigilantly observe and suppress any signs of opposition against his rule.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Solomon |first=Christopher |date=2018-02-15 |title=Remember Syria's Adib Shishakli |url=https://christopher-solomon.medium.com/remember-syrias-adib-shishakli-c0358610ad78 |access-date=2023-09-05 |website=Medium |language=en}}</ref> In August 1952, he established an official government party, the [[Arab Liberation Movement]], but it was [[boycott]]ed by powerful representatives of civilian political society, such as [[Hashim al-Atassi]]. The party was progressive and accepted women within its ranks. It called for a limited degree of [[Arab socialism|socialism]]. Some said that he viewed himself as "an Arab [[Julius Caesar|Caesar]]."<ref>{{Cite web |date=2014-11-10 |title=Druze in Syria and Beyond |url=https://www.languagesoftheworld.info/southwest-asia-and-north-africa/druze-syria-beyond.html |access-date=2023-09-05 |website=Languages Of The World |language=en-US}}</ref> In mid-1953 Shishakli staged an [[1953 Syrian presidential election|election]] to make himself [[President of Syria|President]], but he was by now facing mounting dissent. ==Foreign relations== As leader of Syria, Shishakli sought good relations with [[Western world|Western]] countries, but maintained Syria's uncompromising stance towards [[Israel]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Robertson |first=Noah |date=2021-03-22 |title=Democracy Destroyed: Stories of American Sponsored Coups - Syria |url=https://www.arabamerica.com/democracy-destroyed-stories-of-american-sponsored-coups-syria/ |access-date=2023-09-05 |website=Arab America |language=en}}</ref> Syrian relations with the [[Hashemites|Hashemite]] monarchies of [[Jordan]] and [[Kingdom of Iraq|Iraq]] were poor during his presidency, but he also mistrusted the rapid spread of [[Nasserism]]. Many believe that [[Gamal Abdel Nasser|Nasser]]'s Free Officer Revolution of 1952 in [[Egypt]] had been modeled after Shishakli's own coups of 1949 and 1951. Shishakli's developed strong relations with King [[Ibn Saud of Saudi Arabia|Ibn Saud]] of [[Saudi Arabia]], his son, King [[Saud bin Abdulaziz Al Saud]], and King [[Talal of Jordan|Talal]] of [[Jordan]]. Shishakli greatly liked King Talal who said that he had no ambitions in Syria, unlike his father King [[Abdullah I of Jordan|Abdullah I]] {{Citation needed|date=June 2012}}. Despite his pro-Western outlook and family background, Shishakli recognized the desires of Syria's [[Arab]] majority and accordingly adopted a policy of [[pan-Arabism]]. He clashed frequently with the independent-minded [[Druze]] minority on the [[Jabal al-Druze]] mountain range, accusing them of wanting to topple his regime using funds from Jordan. In 1954, he resorted to shelling Druze strongholds to put down resistance to his rule. His relations with both Britain and the United States were mixed. Britain courted Shishakli during the early period of his rule in the hope that Syria would join plans for a British-led Middle East Defence Organization. The United States offered Shishakli considerable sums of money to settle Palestinian refugees in Syria and turn them into Syrians. Shishakli, although tempted by these offers of Western arms and money, did not take them. The Palestinian situation had soured the Syrian view of the West. Syria wanted revenge rather than to accept defeat and repair Syria's damaged relations with the West and make peace with Israel.<ref>[http://faculty-staff.ou.edu/L/Joshua.M.Landis-1/US%20Policy%20toward%20Palestine%20Refugees%20new.doc US Policy towards Palestine Refugees] Joshua Landis</ref> ==Downfall and death== {{main|1954 Syrian coup d'état}} Shishakli also had arrested a lot of active officers in the Syrian Army, including the young [[Adnan al-Malki]], a prominent Baathist. The largest anti-Shishakli conference had been held in Atassi's home in [[Homs]]. Leading the anti-Shishakli movement were Atassi and the veteran Druze leader [[Sultan al-Atrash]]. Shishakli had responded by arresting Atassi's son Adnan and Atrash's son [[Mansur al-Atrash|Mansur]] (both of whom were ranking politicians in Syria).<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=2014-11-26 |title=On Syria's turbulent history of coups |url=https://english.alarabiya.net/views/news/middle-east/2014/11/26/On-Syria-s-turbulent-history-of-coups |access-date=2023-09-05 |website=Al Arabiya English |language=en}}</ref> Growing discontent eventually led to another [[1954 Syrian coup d'état|coup on 23 February 1954]] which overthrew Shishakli. The coup was led by Hashem al-Atassi and military officers from his family and veteran Druze leader [[Sultan al-Atrash]] as well as Druze officers, the [[Syrian Communist Party]] and [[Ba'ath Party]] members. When the insurgency reached its peak, Shishakli backed down, refusing to drag Syria into [[civil war]].<ref name=":0" /> He fled to Lebanon, but when the Druze leader [[Kamal Jumblat]] threatened to have him killed, he fled to [[Brazil]]. Prior to the [[United Arab Republic|union]] between Syria and Egypt in 1958, Shishakli toyed with the idea of returning to Syria to launch a coup d'état, using funds provided by Iraq. The coup was foiled by Syrian intelligence and Shishakli was sentenced to death ''in absentia''. On 27 September 1964, Shishakli was assassinated in [[Ceres, Goiás|Ceres, Brazil]] by [[Nawaf Ghazaleh]], a Syrian [[Druze]] who sought revenge for his parents who had died leaving him an orphan during the bombardment of Jabal Druze.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iIy5CgAAQBAJ&q=nawaf+ghazaleh&pg=PT606|title=Understanding the Volatile and Dangerous Middle East: A Comprehensive Analysis|isbn=9781491766583|last1=Carol|first1=Steven|date=25 August 2015|publisher=iUniverse }}</ref> == Issue == One of his grandsons, Adib Ihsan Shishakly, is a member of the [[Syrian Opposition]]. ==References== {{reflist}} ==Sources and further reading== *[http://faculty-staff.ou.edu/L/Joshua.M.Landis-1/Joshua_Landis_Druze_and_Shishakli.htm Joshua Landis, Shishakli and the Druze: Integration and Intransigence] *[[Sami Moubayed]], ''Steel & Silk: Men and Women Who Shaped Syria 1900-2000'' (Cune Press, 2005). *Christopher Solomon, [https://www.joshualandis.com/blog/24236-2/ Remember Syria's Adib Shishakli], September 27, 2016, Syria Comment {{s-start}} {{succession box|title=[[List of Presidents of Syria|President of Syria]]|before=[[Husni al-Za'im]]|after=[[Hashim al-Atassi]]|years=1953–1954}} {{s-end}} {{SyrianPresidents}} {{SyrianPrimeMinisters}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Shishakli, Adib}} [[Category:1909 births]] [[Category:1964 deaths]] [[Category:Syrian people of Turkish descent]] [[Category:Assassinated Syrian military personnel]] [[Category:Assassinated Syrian politicians]] [[Category:Deaths by firearm in Brazil]] [[Category:Leaders ousted by a coup]] [[Category:People from Hama]] [[Category:People murdered in Brazil]] [[Category:People sentenced to death in absentia]] [[Category:Presidents of Syria]] [[Category:Prime ministers of Syria]] [[Category:Syrian generals]] [[Category:Syrian Arab nationalists]] [[Category:Syrian people murdered abroad]] [[Category:Syrian Kurdish people]] [[Category:Syrian Social Nationalist Party politicians]] 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