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vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Techniques and analysis subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Techniques_and_analysis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Findings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Findings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Findings</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Findings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Accomplishments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Accomplishments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Accomplishments</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Accomplishments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Public_versus_private_approaches" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Public_versus_private_approaches"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Public versus private approaches</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Public_versus_private_approaches-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Genome_donors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genome_donors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Genome donors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genome_donors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Developments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Developments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Developments</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Developments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ethical,_legal,_and_social_issues" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ethical,_legal,_and_social_issues"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Ethical, legal, and social issues</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ethical,_legal,_and_social_issues-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Human Genome Project</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 49 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-49" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">49 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B4%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%88%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D8%B4%D8%B1%D9%8A" title="مشروع الجينوم البشري – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="مشروع الجينوم البشري" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0nsan_genomu_layih%C9%99si" title="İnsan genomu layihəsi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="İnsan genomu layihəsi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%AC_%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%AE_%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AA" title="মানব জিনোম প্রকল্প – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="মানব জিনোম প্রকল্প" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%AEn-l%C5%ABi_%C3%9Bi-tho%C3%A2n-th%C3%A9_K%C3%A8-%C5%8De" title="Jîn-lūi Ûi-thoân-thé Kè-ōe – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Jîn-lūi Ûi-thoân-thé Kè-ōe" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Projekt_ljudskog_genoma" title="Projekt ljudskog genoma – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Projekt ljudskog genoma" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Projecte_Genoma_Hum%C3%A0" title="Projecte Genoma Humà – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Projecte Genoma Humà" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Projekt_lidsk%C3%A9ho_genomu" title="Projekt lidského genomu – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Projekt lidského genomu" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/HUGO" title="HUGO – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="HUGO" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humangenomprojekt" title="Humangenomprojekt – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Humangenomprojekt" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inimese_genoomi_projekt" title="Inimese genoomi projekt – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Inimese genoomi projekt" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proyecto_Genoma_Humano" title="Proyecto Genoma Humano – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Proyecto Genoma Humano" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homgenoma_Projekto" title="Homgenoma Projekto – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Homgenoma Projekto" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giza_Genoma_Proiektua" title="Giza Genoma Proiektua – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Giza Genoma Proiektua" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%B1%D9%88%DA%98%D9%87_%DA%98%D9%86%D9%88%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86" title="پروژه ژنوم انسان – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="پروژه ژنوم انسان" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Projet_G%C3%A9nome_humain" title="Projet Génome humain – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Projet Génome humain" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proxecto_Xenoma_Humano" title="Proxecto Xenoma Humano – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Proxecto Xenoma Humano" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9D%B8%EA%B0%84_%EC%9C%A0%EC%A0%84%EC%B2%B4_%ED%94%84%EB%A1%9C%EC%A0%9D%ED%8A%B8" title="인간 유전체 프로젝트 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="인간 유전체 프로젝트" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Projekt_humanog_genoma" title="Projekt humanog genoma – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Projekt humanog genoma" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proyek_Genom_Manusia" title="Proyek Genom Manusia – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Proyek Genom Manusia" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progetto_genoma_umano" title="Progetto genoma umano – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Progetto genoma umano" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%98_%D7%92%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%9D_%D7%94%D7%90%D7%93%D7%9D" title="פרויקט גנום האדם – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פרויקט גנום האדם" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mradi_wa_Jenomu_ya_Binadamu" title="Mradi wa Jenomu ya Binadamu – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Mradi wa Jenomu ya Binadamu" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%BDmogaus_genomo_projektas" title="Žmogaus genomo projektas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Žmogaus genomo projektas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hum%C3%A1ngenom-projekt" title="Humángenom-projekt – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Humángenom-projekt" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82_%D0%B7%D0%B0_%D1%87%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%BE%D1%82_%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Проект за човечкиот геном – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Проект за човечкиот геном" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B9%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%BB_%E0%B4%9C%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%82_%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B5%8A%E0%B4%9C%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D%E2%80%8C" title="ഹ്യുമൻ ജിനോം പ്രൊജക്റ്റ്‌ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഹ്യുമൻ ജിനോം പ്രൊജക്റ്റ്‌" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Projek_Genom_Manusia" title="Projek Genom Manusia – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Projek Genom Manusia" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menselijkgenoomproject" title="Menselijkgenoomproject – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Menselijkgenoomproject" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%92%E3%83%88%E3%82%B2%E3%83%8E%E3%83%A0%E8%A8%88%E7%94%BB" title="ヒトゲノム計画 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ヒトゲノム計画" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_Genome_Project" title="Human Genome Project – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Human Genome Project" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%AC%DB%90%D9%86%D9%88%D9%85_%D9%BE%D8%B1%D9%88%DA%98%D9%87" title="د انسان جېنوم پروژه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د انسان جېنوم پروژه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Projekt_poznania_ludzkiego_genomu" title="Projekt poznania ludzkiego genomu – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Projekt poznania ludzkiego genomu" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Projeto_Genoma_Humano" title="Projeto Genoma Humano – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Projeto Genoma Humano" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proiectul_%E2%80%9EGenomul_uman%E2%80%9D" title="Proiectul „Genomul uman” – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Proiectul „Genomul uman”" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82_%C2%AB%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC_%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B0%C2%BB" title="Проект «Геном человека» – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Проект «Геном человека»" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B8%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%80_%E0%B6%9C%E0%B7%99%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%9D%E0%B6%B8_%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%B4%E0%B7%98%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%BA" title="මානව ගෙනෝම ව්‍යාපෘතිය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="මානව ගෙනෝම ව්‍යාපෘතිය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_Genome_Project" title="Human Genome Project – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Human Genome Project" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Projekt_%C4%8Clove%C5%A1ki_genom" title="Projekt Človeški genom – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Projekt Človeški genom" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%B1%DB%86%DA%98%DB%95%DB%8C_%D8%AC%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%86%D9%85%DB%8C_%D9%85%D8%B1%DB%86%DA%A4" title="پرۆژەی جینۆمی مرۆڤ – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="پرۆژەی جینۆمی مرۆڤ" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Projekat_ljudskog_genoma" title="Projekat ljudskog genoma – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Projekat ljudskog genoma" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Projekat_ljudskog_genoma" title="Projekat ljudskog genoma – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Projekat ljudskog genoma" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_Genome_Project" title="Human Genome Project – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Human Genome Project" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_Genome_Project" title="Human Genome Project – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Human Genome Project" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A4_%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="மனித மரபணுத்தொகைத் திட்டம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="மனித மரபணுத்தொகைத் திட்டம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a 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<div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">International scientific research project (1990–2003)</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above">Human Genome Project</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader">HGP</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Logo_HGP.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Logo_HGP.jpg/220px-Logo_HGP.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Logo_HGP.jpg/330px-Logo_HGP.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Logo_HGP.jpg/440px-Logo_HGP.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1163" data-file-height="1155" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Logo of the Human Genome Project</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Project type</th><td class="infobox-data">International <a href="/wiki/Scientific_research" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific research">scientific research</a> project</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Funding agency</th><td class="infobox-data">U.S. <a href="/wiki/National_Institutes_of_Health" title="National Institutes of Health">National Institutes of Health</a> (NIH) and others</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Objective</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Gene_mapping" title="Gene mapping">Mapping</a> and <a href="/wiki/DNA_sequencing" title="DNA sequencing">sequencing</a> the human genome</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Location</th><td class="infobox-data">Primarily in the United States, the United Kingdom, Japan, France, Germany, and China</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Participants</th><td class="infobox-data">At least 20 institutions, companies, and laboratories</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Duration</th><td class="infobox-data">1990 – 2003</td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>Human Genome Project</b> (<b>HGP</b>) was an international <a href="/wiki/Scientific_research" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific research">scientific research</a> project with the goal of determining the <a href="/wiki/Base_pairs" class="mw-redirect" title="Base pairs">base pairs</a> that make up human <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a>, and of identifying, <a href="/wiki/Gene_mapping" title="Gene mapping">mapping</a> and <a href="/wiki/DNA_sequencing" title="DNA sequencing">sequencing</a> all of the <a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">genes</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Human_genome" title="Human genome">human genome</a> from both a physical and a functional standpoint. It started in 1990 and was completed in 2003.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was the world's largest collaborative biological project.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Planning for the project began in 1984 by the <a href="/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States" title="Federal government of the United States">US government</a>, and it officially launched in 1990. It was declared complete on 14 April 2003, and included about 92% of the genome.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Level "complete genome" was achieved in May 2021, with only 0.3% of the bases covered by potential issues.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The final gapless assembly was finished in January 2022.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Funding came from the US government through the <a href="/wiki/National_Institutes_of_Health" title="National Institutes of Health">National Institutes of Health</a> (NIH) as well as numerous other groups from around the world. A parallel project was conducted outside the government by the <a href="/wiki/Celera_Corporation" title="Celera Corporation">Celera Corporation</a>, or Celera Genomics, which was formally launched in 1998. Most of the government-sponsored sequencing was performed in twenty universities and research centres in the United States, the United Kingdom, Japan, France, Germany, and China,<sup id="cite_ref-genome.gov_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-genome.gov-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> working in the International Human Genome Sequencing Consortium (IHGSC). </p><p>The Human Genome Project originally aimed to map the complete set of <a href="/wiki/Nucleotides" class="mw-redirect" title="Nucleotides">nucleotides</a> contained in a human <a href="/wiki/Haploid" class="mw-redirect" title="Haploid">haploid</a> <a href="/wiki/Reference_genome" title="Reference genome">reference genome</a>, of which there are more than three billion. The <i>genome</i> of any given individual is unique; mapping the <i>human genome</i> involved sequencing samples collected from a small number of individuals and then assembling the sequenced fragments to get a complete sequence for each of the 23 human chromosome pairs (22 pairs of autosomes and a pair of sex chromosomes, known as allosomes). Therefore, the finished human genome is a mosaic, not representing any one individual. Much of the project's utility comes from the fact that the vast majority of the human genome is the same in all humans. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_Genome_Project&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Human Genome Project was a 13-year-long publicly funded project initiated in 1990 with the objective of determining the DNA sequence of the entire <a href="/wiki/Euchromatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Euchromatic">euchromatic</a> human genome within 13 years.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The idea that sets of inherited genes predicted the concept of mapping a disease gene to a chromosomal region originated in the work of <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Fisher" title="Ronald Fisher">Ronald A. Fisher</a>, whose work is also credited with later initiating the project.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1977, <a href="/wiki/Walter_Gilbert" title="Walter Gilbert">Walter Gilbert</a>, <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Sanger" title="Frederick Sanger">Frederick Sanger</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Paul_Berg" title="Paul Berg">Paul Berg</a> invented these methods of sequencing DNA.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In May 1985, Robert Sinsheimer organized a workshop at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Santa_Cruz" title="University of California, Santa Cruz">University of California, Santa Cruz</a>, to discuss the feasibility of building a systematic <a href="/wiki/Reference_genome" title="Reference genome">reference genome</a> using gene sequencing technologies.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Walter_Gilbert" title="Walter Gilbert">Gilbert</a> wrote the first plan for what he called The Human Genome Institute on the plane ride home from the workshop.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In March 1986, the Santa Fe Workshop was organized by <a href="/wiki/Charles_DeLisi" title="Charles DeLisi">Charles DeLisi</a> and David Smith of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Energy" title="United States Department of Energy">Department of Energy</a>'s Office of Health and Environmental Research (OHER).<sup id="cite_ref-auto_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the same time <a href="/wiki/Renato_Dulbecco" title="Renato Dulbecco">Renato Dulbecco</a>, President of the <a href="/wiki/Salk_Institute_for_Biological_Studies" title="Salk Institute for Biological Studies">Salk Institute for Biological Studies</a>, first proposed the concept of <a href="/wiki/Whole_genome_sequencing" title="Whole genome sequencing">whole genome sequencing</a> in an essay in <i><a href="/wiki/Science_(journal)" title="Science (journal)">Science</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The published work, titled "A Turning Point in Cancer Research: Sequencing the Human Genome", was shortened from the original proposal of using the sequence to understand the genetic basis of breast cancer.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/James_Watson" title="James Watson">James Watson</a>, one of the discoverers of the double helix shape of DNA in the 1950s, followed two months later with a workshop held at the Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory. Thus the idea for obtaining a reference sequence had three independent origins: Sinsheimer, Dulbecco and DeLisi. Ultimately it was the actions by DeLisi that launched the project.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The fact that the Santa Fe Workshop was motivated and supported by a federal agency opened a path, albeit a difficult and tortuous one,<sup id="cite_ref-Cook-Deegan_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cook-Deegan-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> for converting the idea into public policy in the United States. In a memo to the Assistant Secretary for Energy Research <a href="/wiki/Alvin_Trivelpiece" title="Alvin Trivelpiece">Alvin Trivelpiece</a>, then-Director of the OHER Charles DeLisi outlined a broad plan for the project.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This started a long and complex chain of events that led to the approved reprogramming of funds that enabled the OHER to launch the project in 1986, and to recommend the first line item for the HGP, which was in President Reagan's 1988 budget submission,<sup id="cite_ref-Cook-Deegan_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cook-Deegan-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and ultimately approved by Congress. Of particular importance in congressional approval was the advocacy of New Mexico Senator <a href="/wiki/Pete_Domenici" title="Pete Domenici">Pete Domenici</a>, whom DeLisi had befriended.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Domenici chaired the Senate Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, as well as the Budget Committee, both of which were key in the DOE budget process. Congress added a comparable amount to the NIH budget, thereby beginning official funding by both agencies.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Trivelpiece sought and obtained the approval of DeLisi's proposal from Deputy Secretary <a href="/wiki/William_Flynn_Martin" title="William Flynn Martin">William Flynn Martin</a>. This chart<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was used by Trivelpiece in the spring of 1986 to brief Martin and Under Secretary Joseph Salgado regarding his intention to reprogram $4 million to initiate the project with the approval of <a href="/wiki/John_S._Herrington" title="John S. Herrington">John S. Herrington</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> This reprogramming was followed by a line item budget of $13 million in the <a href="/wiki/Reagan_administration" class="mw-redirect" title="Reagan administration">Reagan administration</a>'s 1987 budget submission to Congress.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It subsequently passed both Houses. The project was planned to be completed within 15 years.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1990 the two major funding agencies, DOE and the <a href="/wiki/National_Institutes_of_Health" title="National Institutes of Health">National Institutes of Health</a>, developed a memorandum of understanding to coordinate plans and set the clock for the initiation of the Project to 1990.<sup id="cite_ref-hgmis_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hgmis-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At that time, David J. Galas was Director of the renamed "Office of Biological and Environmental Research" in the US Department of Energy's Office of Science and <a href="/wiki/James_Watson" title="James Watson">James Watson</a> headed the NIH Genome Program. In 1993, <a href="/wiki/Aristides_Patrinos" title="Aristides Patrinos">Aristides Patrinos</a> succeeded Galas and <a href="/wiki/Francis_Collins" title="Francis Collins">Francis Collins</a> succeeded Watson, assuming the role of overall Project Head as Director of the NIH National Center for Human Genome Research (which would later become the <a href="/wiki/National_Human_Genome_Research_Institute" title="National Human Genome Research Institute">National Human Genome Research Institute</a>). A working draft of the genome was announced in 2000 and the papers describing it were published in February 2001. A more complete draft was published in 2003, and genome "finishing" work continued for more than a decade after that.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The $3 billion project was formally founded in 1990 by the US Department of Energy and the National Institutes of Health, and was expected to take 15 years.<sup id="cite_ref-human_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-human-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition to the United States, the international <a href="/wiki/Consortium" title="Consortium">consortium</a> comprised <a href="/wiki/Geneticist" title="Geneticist">geneticists</a> in the United Kingdom, France, Australia, China, and myriad other spontaneous relationships.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The project ended up costing less than expected, at about $2.7 billion (equivalent to about $5 billion in 2021).<sup id="cite_ref-genome.gov_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-genome.gov-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Nature_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nature-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-PNAS_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PNAS-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most of the genome was mapped over a two-year span.<sup id="cite_ref-mit_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mit-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Two technologies enabled the project: <a href="/wiki/Gene_mapping" title="Gene mapping">gene mapping</a> and <a href="/wiki/DNA_sequencing" title="DNA sequencing">DNA sequencing</a>. The gene mapping technique of <a href="/wiki/Restriction_fragment_length_polymorphism" title="Restriction fragment length polymorphism">restriction fragment length polymorphism</a> (RFLP) arose from the search for the location of the breast cancer gene by Mark Skolnick of the University of Utah,<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which began in 1974.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Seeing a linkage marker for the gene, in collaboration with <a href="/wiki/David_Botstein" title="David Botstein">David Botstein</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ray_White_(geneticist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ray White (geneticist)">Ray White</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ronald_W._Davis" title="Ronald W. Davis">Ron Davis</a> conceived of a way to construct a <a href="/wiki/Genetic_linkage" title="Genetic linkage">genetic linkage</a> map of the human genome. This enabled scientists to launch the larger human genome effort.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Because of widespread international cooperation and advances in the field of <a href="/wiki/Genomics" title="Genomics">genomics</a> (especially in <a href="/wiki/Sequence_analysis" title="Sequence analysis">sequence analysis</a>), as well as parallel advances in computing technology, a 'rough draft' of the genome was finished in 2000 (announced jointly by US President <a href="/wiki/Bill_Clinton" title="Bill Clinton">Bill Clinton</a> and British Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Tony_Blair" title="Tony Blair">Tony Blair</a> on 26 June 2000).<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This first available rough draft <a href="/wiki/Genome_Project" class="mw-redirect" title="Genome Project">assembly</a> of the genome was completed by the Genome Bioinformatics Group at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Santa_Cruz" title="University of California, Santa Cruz">University of California, Santa Cruz</a>, primarily led by then-graduate student <a href="/wiki/Jim_Kent" title="Jim Kent">Jim Kent</a> and his advisor <a href="/wiki/David_Haussler" title="David Haussler">David Haussler</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ongoing sequencing led to the announcement of the essentially complete genome on 14 April 2003, two years earlier than planned.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In May 2006, another milestone was passed on the way to completion of the project when the sequence of the <a href="/wiki/Chromosome_1_(human)" class="mw-redirect" title="Chromosome 1 (human)">very last chromosome</a> was published in <i>Nature</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The various institutions, companies, and laboratories which participated in the Human Genome Project are listed below, according to the <a href="/wiki/NIH" class="mw-redirect" title="NIH">NIH</a>:<sup id="cite_ref-genome.gov_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-genome.gov-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>No. </th> <th>Nation </th> <th>Name </th> <th>Affiliation </th></tr> <tr> <td>1 </td> <td>United States </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Whitehead_Institute" title="Whitehead Institute">The Whitehead Institute</a>/MIT Center for Genome Research </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>2 </td> <td>United Kingdom </td> <td>The Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Wellcome_Trust" title="Wellcome Trust">Wellcome Trust</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>3 </td> <td>United States </td> <td>Washington University School of Medicine Genome Sequencing Center </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Washington_University_in_St._Louis" title="Washington University in St. Louis">Washington University in St. Louis</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>4 </td> <td>United States </td> <td>United States DOE Joint Genome Institute </td> <td><a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Energy" title="United States Department of Energy">United States Department of Energy</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>5 </td> <td>United States </td> <td>Baylor College of Medicine Human Genome Sequencing Center </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Baylor_College_of_Medicine" title="Baylor College of Medicine">Baylor College of Medicine</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>6 </td> <td>Japan </td> <td>RIKEN Genomic Sciences Center </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Riken" title="Riken">Riken</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>7 </td> <td>France </td> <td>Genoscope and CNRS UMR-8030 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/French_Alternative_Energies_and_Atomic_Energy_Commission" title="French Alternative Energies and Atomic Energy Commission">French Alternative Energies and Atomic Energy Commission</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>8 </td> <td>United States </td> <td>GTC Sequencing Center </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Genome_Therapeutics_Corporation" title="Genome Therapeutics Corporation">Genome Therapeutics Corporation</a>, whose sequencing division is acquired by <a href="/wiki/Applied_Biosystems" title="Applied Biosystems">ABI</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>9 </td> <td>Germany </td> <td>Department of Genome Analysis </td> <td>Fritz Lipmann Institute, name changed from Institute of Molecular Biotechnology </td></tr> <tr> <td>10 </td> <td>China </td> <td><a href="/wiki/BGI_Group" title="BGI Group">Beijing Genomics Institute</a>/Human Genome Center </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Academy_of_Sciences" title="Chinese Academy of Sciences">Chinese Academy of Sciences</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>11 </td> <td>United States </td> <td>Multimegabase Sequencing Center </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Institute_for_Systems_Biology" title="Institute for Systems Biology">Institute for Systems Biology</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>12 </td> <td>United States </td> <td>Stanford Genome Technology Center </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Stanford_University" title="Stanford University">Stanford University</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>13 </td> <td>United States </td> <td>Stanford Human Genome Center and Department of Genetics </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Stanford_University_School_of_Medicine" title="Stanford University School of Medicine">Stanford University School of Medicine</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>14 </td> <td>United States </td> <td>University of Washington Genome Center </td> <td><a href="/wiki/University_of_Washington" title="University of Washington">University of Washington</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>15 </td> <td>Japan </td> <td>Department of Molecular Biology </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Keio_University" title="Keio University">Keio University</a> School of Medicine </td></tr> <tr> <td>16 </td> <td>United States </td> <td>University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas </td> <td><a href="/wiki/University_of_Texas" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Texas">University of Texas</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>17 </td> <td>United States </td> <td>University of Oklahoma's Advanced Center for Genome Technology </td> <td>Dept. of Chemistry and Biochemistry, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Oklahoma" title="University of Oklahoma">University of Oklahoma</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>18 </td> <td>Germany </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Max_Planck_Institute_for_Molecular_Genetics" title="Max Planck Institute for Molecular Genetics">Max Planck Institute for Molecular Genetics</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Max_Planck_Society" title="Max Planck Society">Max Planck Society</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>19 </td> <td>United States </td> <td>Lita Annenberg Hazen Genome Center </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Cold_Spring_Harbor_Laboratory" title="Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory">Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>20 </td> <td>Germany </td> <td>GBF/German Research Centre for Biotechnology </td> <td>Reorganized and renamed to <a href="/wiki/Helmholtz_Centre_for_Infection_Research" title="Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research">Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="State_of_completion">State of completion</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_Genome_Project&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: State of completion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Notably the project was not able to sequence all of the DNA found in <a href="/wiki/List_of_distinct_cell_types_in_the_adult_human_body" class="mw-redirect" title="List of distinct cell types in the adult human body">human cells</a>; rather, the aim was to sequence only <i><a href="/wiki/Euchromatin" title="Euchromatin">euchromatic</a></i> regions of the nuclear genome, which make up 92.1% of the human genome. The remaining 7.9% exists in scattered <i><a href="/wiki/Heterochromatin" title="Heterochromatin">heterochromatic</a></i> regions such as those found in <a href="/wiki/Centromeres" class="mw-redirect" title="Centromeres">centromeres</a> and <a href="/wiki/Telomeres" class="mw-redirect" title="Telomeres">telomeres</a>. These regions by their nature are generally more difficult to sequence and so were not included as part of the project's original plans.<sup id="cite_ref-Genoscope_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Genoscope-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Human Genome Project (HGP) was declared complete in April 2003. An initial rough draft of the human genome was available in June 2000 and by February 2001 a working draft had been completed and published followed by the final sequencing mapping of the human genome on 14 April 2003. Although this was reported to cover 99% of the euchromatic human genome with 99.99% accuracy, a major quality assessment of the human genome sequence was published on 27 May 2004, indicating over 92% of sampling exceeded 99.99% accuracy which was within the intended goal.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In March 2009, the <a href="/wiki/Genome_Reference_Consortium" title="Genome Reference Consortium">Genome Reference Consortium</a> (GRC) released a more accurate version of the human genome, but that still left more than 300 gaps,<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while 160 such gaps remained in 2015.<sup id="cite_ref-Chaisson_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chaisson-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Though in May 2020 the GRC reported 79 "unresolved" gaps,<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> accounting for as much as 5% of the human genome,<sup id="cite_ref-t2t_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-t2t-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> months later, the application of new <a href="/wiki/Single-molecule_real-time_sequencing" title="Single-molecule real-time sequencing">long-range sequencing techniques</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Hydatidiform_mole" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydatidiform mole">hydatidiform mole</a>-derived cell line in which both copies of each chromosome are identical led to the first telomere-to-telomere, truly complete sequence of a human chromosome, the <a href="/wiki/X_chromosome" title="X chromosome">X chromosome</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, an end-to-end complete sequence of human autosomal <a href="/wiki/Chromosome_8" title="Chromosome 8">chromosome 8</a> followed several months later.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2021, it was reported that the Telomere-to-Telomere (T2T) consortium had filled in all of the gaps except five in repetitive regions of ribosomal DNA.<sup id="cite_ref-NatureMile_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NatureMile-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Months later, those gaps had also been closed. The full sequence did not contain the <a href="/wiki/Y_chromosome" title="Y chromosome">Y chromosome</a>, which causes the embryo to become male, being absent in the cell line that served as the source for the DNA analysis. About 0.3% of the full sequence proved difficult to check for quality, and thus might have contained errors,<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which were being targeted for confirmation.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In April 2022, the complete non-Y chromosome sequence was formally published, providing a view of much of the 8% of the genome left out by the HGP.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The sequence — over 3 billion base pairs long across 23 chromosomes — is entirely gapless. The T2T consortium further used this newly completed genome sequence as a reference to discover over 2 million additional genomic variants.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In December 2022, a <a href="/wiki/Preprint" title="Preprint">preprint</a> article claimed that the sequencing of the remaining missing regions of Y chromosome had been performed, thus completing the sequencing of all 24 human chromosomes.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In August 2023 this preprint was finally published.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Applications_and_proposed_benefits">Applications and proposed benefits</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_Genome_Project&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Applications and proposed benefits"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The sequencing of the human genome holds benefits for many fields, from <a href="/wiki/Molecular_medicine" title="Molecular medicine">molecular medicine</a> to <a href="/wiki/Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">human evolution</a>. The Human Genome Project, through its sequencing of the DNA, can help researchers understand diseases including: <a href="/wiki/Genotype" title="Genotype">genotyping</a> of specific viruses to direct appropriate treatment; identification of <a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">mutations</a> linked to different forms of cancer; the design of medication and more accurate prediction of their effects; advancement in <a href="/wiki/Forensics" class="mw-redirect" title="Forensics">forensic</a> applied sciences; <a href="/wiki/Biofuel" title="Biofuel">biofuels</a> and other energy applications; agriculture, <a href="/wiki/Animal_husbandry" title="Animal husbandry">animal husbandry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bioprocessing" class="mw-redirect" title="Bioprocessing">bioprocessing</a>; <a href="/wiki/Risk_assessment" title="Risk assessment">risk assessment</a>; <a href="/wiki/Bioarcheology" class="mw-redirect" title="Bioarcheology">bioarcheology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">anthropology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a>. The sequence of the DNA is stored in <a href="/wiki/Database" title="Database">databases</a> available to anyone on the Internet. The US <a href="/wiki/National_Center_for_Biotechnology_Information" title="National Center for Biotechnology Information">National Center for Biotechnology Information</a> (and sister organizations in Europe and Japan) house the gene sequence in a database known as <a href="/wiki/GenBank" title="GenBank">GenBank</a>, along with sequences of known and hypothetical genes and proteins. Other organizations, such as the <a href="/wiki/UCSC_Genome_Browser" title="UCSC Genome Browser">UCSC Genome Browser</a> at the University of California, Santa Cruz,<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Ensembl" class="mw-redirect" title="Ensembl">Ensembl</a><sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> present additional data and annotation and powerful tools for visualizing and searching it. Computer programs have been developed to analyze the data because the data itself is difficult to interpret without such programs. Generally speaking, advances in genome sequencing technology have followed <a href="/wiki/Moore%27s_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="Moore's Law">Moore's Law</a>, a concept from computer science which states that integrated circuits can increase in complexity at an exponential rate.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This means that the speeds at which whole genomes can be sequenced can increase at a similar rate, as was seen during the development of the Human Genome Project. By 2023, the speed record for sequencing a genome was around five hours; more often, however, it takes weeks.<sup id="cite_ref-mit_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mit-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Techniques_and_analysis">Techniques and analysis</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_Genome_Project&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Techniques and analysis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The process of identifying the boundaries between genes and other features in a raw DNA sequence is called <a href="/wiki/Genome_annotation" class="mw-redirect" title="Genome annotation">genome annotation</a> and is in the domain of <a href="/wiki/Bioinformatics" title="Bioinformatics">bioinformatics</a>. While expert biologists make the best annotators, their work proceeds slowly, and computer programs are increasingly used to meet the high-throughput demands of genome sequencing projects. Beginning in 2008, a new technology known as <a href="/wiki/RNA-seq" class="mw-redirect" title="RNA-seq">RNA-seq</a> was introduced that allowed scientists to directly sequence the messenger RNA in cells. This replaced previous methods of annotation, which relied on the inherent properties of the DNA sequence, with direct measurement, which was much more accurate. Today, annotation of the human genome and other genomes relies primarily on deep sequencing of the transcripts in every human tissue using RNA-seq. These experiments have revealed that over 90% of genes contain at least one and usually several alternative splice variants, in which the <a href="/wiki/Exons" class="mw-redirect" title="Exons">exons</a> are combined in different ways to produce 2 or more gene products from the same locus.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><span class="citation-needed-content" style="padding-left:0.1em; padding-right:0.1em; color:var(--color-subtle, #54595d); border:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle, #c8ccd1);">The genome published by the HGP does not represent the sequence of every individual's genome. It is the combined mosaic of a small number of anonymous donors, of African, European, and East Asian ancestry. The HGP genome is a scaffold for future work in identifying differences among individuals.</span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Subsequent projects sequenced the genomes of multiple distinct ethnic groups, though as of 2019 there is still only one "reference genome".<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Findings">Findings</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_Genome_Project&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Findings"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Key findings of the draft (2001) and complete (2004) genome sequences include: </p> <ol><li>There are approximately 22,300<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> protein-coding genes in human beings, the same range as in other mammals.</li> <li>The human genome has significantly more <a href="/wiki/Segmental_duplication" class="mw-redirect" title="Segmental duplication">segmental duplications</a> (nearly identical, repeated sections of DNA) than had been previously suspected.<sup id="cite_ref-Venter_2004_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Venter_2004-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ighsc_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ighsc-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>At the time when the draft sequence was published, fewer than 7% of <a href="/wiki/Protein_family" title="Protein family">protein families</a> appeared to be vertebrate specific.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Accomplishments">Accomplishments</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_Genome_Project&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Accomplishments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wellcome_genome_bookcase.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Wellcome_genome_bookcase.png/220px-Wellcome_genome_bookcase.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="192" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Wellcome_genome_bookcase.png/330px-Wellcome_genome_bookcase.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Wellcome_genome_bookcase.png/440px-Wellcome_genome_bookcase.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="699" /></a><figcaption>The first printout of the human genome to be presented as a series of books, displayed at the <a href="/wiki/Wellcome_Collection" title="Wellcome Collection">Wellcome Collection</a>, London</figcaption></figure> <p>The human genome has approximately 3.1 billion <a href="/wiki/Base_pair" title="Base pair">base pairs</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Human Genome Project was started in 1990 with the goal of sequencing and identifying all base pairs in the human genetic instruction set, finding the genetic roots of disease and then developing treatments. It is considered a <a href="/wiki/Megaproject" title="Megaproject">megaproject</a>. </p><p>The genome was broken into smaller pieces; approximately 150,000 <a href="/wiki/Base_pair" title="Base pair">base pairs</a> in length.<sup id="cite_ref-wellcome_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wellcome-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These pieces were then ligated into a type of vector known as "<a href="/wiki/Bacterial_artificial_chromosome" title="Bacterial artificial chromosome">bacterial artificial chromosomes</a>", or BACs, which are derived from bacterial chromosomes which have been genetically engineered. The vectors containing the genes can be inserted into bacteria where they are copied by the bacterial <a href="/wiki/DNA_replication" title="DNA replication">DNA replication</a> machinery. Each of these pieces was then sequenced separately as a small "<a href="/wiki/Shotgun_sequencing" title="Shotgun sequencing">shotgun</a>" project and then assembled. The larger, 150,000 base pairs go together to create chromosomes. This is known as the "<a href="/wiki/Shotgun_sequencing#Hierarchical_Shotgun_sequencing" title="Shotgun sequencing">hierarchical shotgun</a>" approach, because the genome is first broken into relatively large chunks, which are then mapped to chromosomes before being selected for sequencing.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Funding came from the US government through the National Institutes of Health in the United States, and a UK charity organization, the <a href="/wiki/Wellcome_Trust" title="Wellcome Trust">Wellcome Trust</a>, as well as numerous other groups from around the world. The funding supported a number of large sequencing centers including those at <a href="/wiki/Whitehead_Institute" title="Whitehead Institute">Whitehead Institute</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Wellcome_Sanger_Institute" title="Wellcome Sanger Institute">Wellcome Sanger Institute</a> (then called The Sanger Centre) based at the <a href="/wiki/Wellcome_Genome_Campus" title="Wellcome Genome Campus">Wellcome Genome Campus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Washington_University_in_St._Louis" title="Washington University in St. Louis">Washington University in St. Louis</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Baylor_College_of_Medicine" title="Baylor College of Medicine">Baylor College of Medicine</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-human_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-human-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) served as an important channel for the involvement of developing countries in the Human Genome Project.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Public_versus_private_approaches">Public versus private approaches</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_Genome_Project&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Public versus private approaches"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1998 a similar, privately funded quest was launched by the American researcher <a href="/wiki/Craig_Venter" title="Craig Venter">Craig Venter</a>, and his firm Celera Genomics. Venter was a scientist at the NIH during the early 1990s when the project was initiated. The $300 million Celera effort was intended to proceed at a faster pace and at a fraction of the cost of the roughly $3 billion <a href="/wiki/Research_funding" class="mw-redirect" title="Research funding">publicly funded</a> project. While the Celera project focused its efforts on production sequencing and assembly of the human genome, the public HGP also funded mapping and sequencing of the <a href="/wiki/Caenorhabditis_elegans" title="Caenorhabditis elegans">worm</a>, <a href="/wiki/Drosophila_melanogaster" title="Drosophila melanogaster">fly</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Saccharomyces_cerevisiae" title="Saccharomyces cerevisiae">yeast</a> genomes, funding of databases, development of new technologies, supporting bioinformatics and ethics programs, as well as polishing and assessment of the genome assembly.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both the Celera and public approaches spent roughly $250 million on the production sequencing effort.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For sequence assembly, Celera made use of publicly available maps at <a href="/wiki/GenBank" title="GenBank">GenBank</a>, which Celera was capable of generating, but the availability of which was "beneficial" to the privately-funded project.<sup id="cite_ref-Venter_2004_65-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Venter_2004-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Celera used a technique called <a href="/wiki/Whole_genome_shotgun_sequencing#Whole_genome_shotgun_sequencing" class="mw-redirect" title="Whole genome shotgun sequencing">whole genome shotgun sequencing</a>, employing <a href="/wiki/Shotgun_sequencing#Whole_genome_shotgun_sequencing" title="Shotgun sequencing">pairwise end sequencing</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which had been used to sequence bacterial genomes of up to six million base pairs in length, but not for anything nearly as large as the three billion base pair human genome. </p><p>Celera initially announced that it would seek patent protection on "only 200–300" genes, but later amended this to seeking "intellectual property protection" on "fully-characterized important structures" amounting to 100–300 targets. The firm eventually filed preliminary ("place-holder") patent applications on 6,500 whole or partial genes. Celera also promised to publish their findings in accordance with the terms of the 1996 "<a href="/wiki/Bermuda_Principles" title="Bermuda Principles">Bermuda Statement</a>", by releasing new data annually (the HGP released its new data daily), although, unlike the publicly funded project, they would not permit free redistribution or scientific use of the data. The publicly funded competitors were compelled to release the first draft of the human genome before Celera for this reason. On 7 July 2000, the UCSC Genome Bioinformatics Group released the first working draft on the web. The scientific community downloaded about 500 GB of information from the UCSC genome server in the first 24 hours of free and unrestricted access.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In March 2000 <a href="/wiki/Bill_Clinton" title="Bill Clinton">President Clinton</a>, along with <a href="/wiki/Tony_Blair" title="Tony Blair">Prime Minister Tony Blair</a> in a dual statement, urged that all researchers who wished to research the sequence should have "unencumbered access" to the genome sequence.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The statement sent Celera's stock plummeting and dragged down the <a href="/wiki/Biotechnology" title="Biotechnology">biotechnology</a>-heavy <a href="/wiki/Nasdaq" title="Nasdaq">Nasdaq</a>. The biotechnology sector lost about $50 billion in <a href="/wiki/Market_capitalization" title="Market capitalization">market capitalization</a> in two days.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Although the working draft was announced in June 2000, it was not until February 2001 that Celera and the HGP scientists published details of their drafts. Special issues of <i><a href="/wiki/Nature_(journal)" title="Nature (journal)">Nature</a></i> (which published the publicly funded project's <a href="/wiki/Academic_publishing" title="Academic publishing">scientific paper</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-Venter_2004_65-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Venter_2004-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> described the methods used to produce the draft sequence and offered analysis of the sequence. These drafts covered about 83% of the genome (90% of the euchromatic regions with 150,000 gaps and the order and orientation of many segments not yet established). In February 2001, at the time of the joint publications, <a href="/wiki/News_release" class="mw-redirect" title="News release">press releases</a> announced that the project had been completed by both groups. Improved drafts were announced in 2003 and 2005, filling in to approximately 92% of the sequence currently.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Genome_donors">Genome donors</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_Genome_Project&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Genome donors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the International Human Genome Sequencing Consortium (IHGSC) <a href="/wiki/Public_sector" title="Public sector">public-sector</a> HGP, researchers collected blood (female) or sperm (male) samples from a large number of donors. Only a few of many collected samples were processed as DNA resources. Thus the donor identities were protected so neither donors nor scientists could know whose DNA was sequenced. DNA clones taken from many different <a href="/wiki/DNA_library" class="mw-redirect" title="DNA library">libraries</a> were used in the overall project, with most of those libraries being created by Pieter J. de Jong. Much of the sequence (>70%) of the <a href="/wiki/Reference_genome" title="Reference genome">reference genome</a> produced by the public HGP came from a single anonymous male donor from <a href="/wiki/Buffalo,_New_York" title="Buffalo, New York">Buffalo, New York</a>, (<a href="/wiki/Code_name" title="Code name">code name</a> RP11; the "RP" refers to <a href="/wiki/Roswell_Park_Comprehensive_Cancer_Center" title="Roswell Park Comprehensive Cancer Center">Roswell Park Comprehensive Cancer Center</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Human_karyotype_with_bands_and_sub-bands.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Human_karyotype_with_bands_and_sub-bands.png/220px-Human_karyotype_with_bands_and_sub-bands.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="364" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Human_karyotype_with_bands_and_sub-bands.png/330px-Human_karyotype_with_bands_and_sub-bands.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Human_karyotype_with_bands_and_sub-bands.png/440px-Human_karyotype_with_bands_and_sub-bands.png 2x" data-file-width="9684" data-file-height="16008" /></a><figcaption>Schematic <a href="/wiki/Karyotype" title="Karyotype">karyogram</a> of a human, showing an overview of the <a href="/wiki/Human_genome" title="Human genome">human genome</a>, with 22 <a href="/wiki/Homologous_chromosome" title="Homologous chromosome">homologous chromosomes</a>, both the female (XX) and male (XY) versions of the <a href="/wiki/Sex_chromosome" title="Sex chromosome">sex chromosome</a> (bottom right), as well as the <a href="/wiki/Human_mitochondrial_genetics" title="Human mitochondrial genetics">mitochondrial genome</a> (to scale at bottom left). The blue scale to the left of each chromosome pair (and the mitochondrial genome) shows its length in terms of millions of DNA <a href="/wiki/Base_pair" title="Base pair">base pairs</a>.<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Karyotype" title="Karyotype">Karyotype</a></div></figcaption></figure> <p>HGP scientists used <a href="/wiki/White_blood_cell" title="White blood cell">white blood cells</a> from the blood of two male and two female donors (randomly selected from 20 of each) – each donor yielding a separate DNA library. One of these libraries (RP11) was used considerably more than others, because of quality considerations. One minor technical issue is that male samples contain just over half as much DNA from the sex chromosomes (one <a href="/wiki/X_chromosome" title="X chromosome">X chromosome</a> and one <a href="/wiki/Y_chromosome" title="Y chromosome">Y chromosome</a>) compared to female samples (which contain two <a href="/wiki/X_chromosome" title="X chromosome">X chromosomes</a>). The other 22 chromosomes (the autosomes) are the same for both sexes. </p><p>Although the main sequencing phase of the HGP has been completed, studies of DNA variation continued in the <a href="/wiki/International_HapMap_Project" title="International HapMap Project">International HapMap Project</a>, whose goal was to identify patterns of <a href="/wiki/Single-nucleotide_polymorphism" title="Single-nucleotide polymorphism">single-nucleotide polymorphism</a> (SNP) groups (called <a href="/wiki/Haplotype" title="Haplotype">haplotypes</a>, or "haps"). The DNA samples for the HapMap came from a total of 270 individuals; <a href="/wiki/Yoruba_people" title="Yoruba people">Yoruba people</a> in <a href="/wiki/Ibadan" title="Ibadan">Ibadan</a>, Nigeria; <a href="/wiki/Japanese_people" title="Japanese people">Japanese people</a> in Tokyo; <a href="/wiki/Han_Chinese" title="Han Chinese">Han Chinese</a> in Beijing; and the French <a href="/wiki/Center_for_the_Study_of_Human_Polymorphisms" class="mw-redirect" title="Center for the Study of Human Polymorphisms">Centre d'Etude du Polymorphisme Humain</a> (CEPH) resource, which consisted of residents of the United States having ancestry from Western and Northern Europe. </p><p>In the Celera Genomics <a href="/wiki/Private_sector" title="Private sector">private-sector</a> project, DNA from five different individuals was used for sequencing. The lead scientist of Celera Genomics at that time, Craig Venter, later acknowledged (in a public letter to the journal <i><a href="/wiki/Science_(journal)" title="Science (journal)">Science</a></i>) that his DNA was one of 21 samples in the pool, five of which were selected for use.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Developments">Developments</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_Genome_Project&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Developments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>With the sequence in hand the next step was to identify the genetic variants that increase the risk for common diseases like cancer and diabetes.<sup id="cite_ref-hgmis_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hgmis-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-wellcome_70-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wellcome-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It is anticipated that detailed knowledge of the human genome will offer new avenues for advances in medicine and <a href="/wiki/Biotechnology" title="Biotechnology">biotechnology</a>. Clear practical results of the project emerged even before the work was finished. For example, a number of companies, such as <a href="/wiki/Myriad_Genetics" title="Myriad Genetics">Myriad Genetics</a>, started offering easy ways to administer genetic tests that can show predisposition to a variety of illnesses, including breast cancer, <a href="/wiki/Blood_clotting" class="mw-redirect" title="Blood clotting">hemostasis disorders</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cystic_fibrosis" title="Cystic fibrosis">cystic fibrosis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Liver" title="Liver">liver</a> diseases, and many others. Also, the <a href="/wiki/Etiology_(medicine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Etiology (medicine)">etiologies</a> for cancers, <a href="/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease" title="Alzheimer's disease">Alzheimer's disease</a> and other areas of clinical interest are considered likely to benefit from genome information and possibly may lead in the long term to significant advances in their management.<sup id="cite_ref-naid_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-naid-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are also many tangible benefits for biologists. For example a researcher investigating a certain form of cancer may have narrowed down their search to a particular gene. By visiting the human genome database on the internet, this researcher can examine what other scientists have written about this gene, including (potentially) the three-dimensional structure of its product, its functions, its evolutionary relationships to other human genes, or to genes in mice, yeast, or fruit flies, possible detrimental mutations, interactions with other genes, body tissues in which this gene is activated, and diseases associated with this gene or other datatypes. Further, a deeper understanding of the disease processes at the level of molecular biology may determine new therapeutic procedures. Given the established importance of DNA in molecular biology and its central role in determining the fundamental operation of <a href="/wiki/Biological_process" title="Biological process">cellular processes</a>, it is likely that expanded knowledge in this area will facilitate medical advances in numerous areas of clinical interest that may not have been possible without them.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Analysis of similarities between DNA sequences from different organisms is also opening new avenues in the study of <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a>. In many cases, evolutionary questions can now be framed in terms of <a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">molecular biology</a>; indeed, many major evolutionary milestones (the emergence of the <a href="/wiki/Ribosome" title="Ribosome">ribosome</a> and <a href="/wiki/Organelle" title="Organelle">organelles</a>, the development of <a href="/wiki/Embryo" title="Embryo">embryos</a> with body plans, the <a href="/wiki/Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate">vertebrate</a> <a href="/wiki/Immune_system" title="Immune system">immune system</a>) can be related to the molecular level. Many questions about the similarities and differences between humans and their closest relatives (the <a href="/wiki/Primate" title="Primate">primates</a>, and indeed the other <a href="/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">mammals</a>) are expected to be illuminated by the data in this project.<sup id="cite_ref-naid_84-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-naid-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The project inspired and paved the way for genomic work in other fields, such as agriculture. For example by studying the genetic composition of <i><a href="/wiki/Common_wheat" title="Common wheat">Tritium aestivum</a></i>, the world's most commonly used bread wheat, great insight has been gained into the ways that domestication has impacted the evolution of the plant.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is being investigated which loci are most susceptible to manipulation, and how this plays out in evolutionary terms. Genetic sequencing has allowed these questions to be addressed for the first time, as specific loci can be compared in wild and domesticated strains of the plant. This will allow for advances in genetic modification in the future which could yield healthier and disease-resistant wheat crops, among other things. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ethical,_legal,_and_social_issues"><span id="Ethical.2C_legal.2C_and_social_issues"></span>Ethical, legal, and social issues</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_Genome_Project&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Ethical, legal, and social issues"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>At the onset of the Human Genome Project, several ethical, legal, and social concerns were raised in regard to how increased knowledge of the human genome <a href="/wiki/Genetic_discrimination" title="Genetic discrimination">could be used to discriminate against people</a>. One of the main concerns of most individuals was the fear that both employers and health insurance companies would refuse to hire individuals or refuse to provide insurance to people because of a health concern indicated by someone's genes.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1996, the United States passed the <a href="/wiki/Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act" title="Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act">Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act</a> (HIPAA), which protects against the unauthorized and non-consensual release of individually identifiable health information to any entity not actively engaged in the provision of healthcare services to a patient.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Along with identifying all of the approximately 20,000–25,000 genes in the human genome (estimated at between 80,000 and 140,000 at the start of the project), the Human Genome Project also sought to address the ethical, legal, and social issues that were created by the onset of the project.<sup id="cite_ref-HGPinsights_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HGPinsights-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For that, the Ethical, Legal, and Social Implications (ELSI) program was founded in 1990. Five percent of the annual budget was allocated to address the ELSI arising from the project.<sup id="cite_ref-human_29-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-human-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This budget started at approximately $1.57 million in the year 1990, but increased to approximately $18 million in the year 2014.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While the project may offer significant benefits to medicine and scientific research, some authors have emphasized the need to address the potential social consequences of mapping the human genome. Historian of science <a href="/wiki/Hans-J%C3%B6rg_Rheinberger" title="Hans-Jörg Rheinberger">Hans-Jörg Rheinberger</a> wrote that "the prospect of 'molecularizing' diseases and their possible cure will have a profound impact on what patients expect from medical help, and on a new generation of doctors' perception of illness."<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In July 2024 an investigation by <a href="/wiki/Undark_Magazine" title="Undark Magazine">Undark Magazine</a><sup id="cite_ref-undark_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-undark-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and co-published with <a href="/wiki/Stat_(website)" title="Stat (website)">STAT News</a><sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> revealed for the first time several ethical lapses by the scientists spearheading the Human Genome Project. Chief among these was the use of roughly 75 percent of a single donor's DNA in the construction of the reference genome, despite informed consent forms, provided to each of the 20 anonymous donors participating, that indicated no more than 10 percent of any one donor's DNA would be used. About 10 percent of the reference genome belonged to one of the project's lead scientists, Pieter De Jong.<sup id="cite_ref-undark_95-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-undark-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_Genome_Project&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1000_Genomes_Project" title="1000 Genomes Project">1000 Genomes Project</a> – International research effort on genetic variation</li> <li><a href="/wiki/100,000_Genomes_Project" title="100,000 Genomes Project">100,000 Genomes Project</a> – UK Government project that is sequencing whole genomes from National Health Service patients</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_BioGenome_Project" title="Earth BioGenome Project">Earth BioGenome Project</a> – Initiative aimed at sequencing the genomes of all named eukaryotic species</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chimpanzee_genome_project" title="Chimpanzee genome project">Chimpanzee genome project</a> – Effort to determine the DNA sequence of the chimpanzee genome</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytomics" title="Cytomics">Human Cytome Project</a> – Single-cell biology and biochemistry</li> <li><a href="/wiki/ENCODE" title="ENCODE">ENCODE</a> – Research consortium investigating functional elements in human and model organism DNA</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genographic_Project" title="Genographic Project">Genographic Project</a> – Citizen science project</li> <li><a href="/wiki/HUGO_Gene_Nomenclature_Committee" title="HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee">HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee</a> – Committee for human gene name standards</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_Brain_Project" title="Human Brain Project">Human Brain Project</a> – Scientific research project</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_Connectome_Project" title="Human Connectome Project">Human Connectome Project</a> – Research project</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_Epigenome_Project" title="Human Epigenome Project">Human Epigenome Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_Microbiome_Project" title="Human Microbiome Project">Human Microbiome Project</a> – Former research initiative</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_proteome_project" class="mw-redirect" title="Human proteome project">Human proteome project</a> – Scientific project coordinated by the Human Proteome Organization<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_Variome_Project" title="Human Variome Project">Human Variome Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_biological_databases" title="List of biological databases">List of biological databases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neanderthal_genome_project" title="Neanderthal genome project">Neanderthal genome project</a> – Effort to sequence the Neanderthal genome</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physiome" title="Physiome">Physiome</a> – Wholistic physiological dynamics of an organism</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wellcome_Sanger_Institute" title="Wellcome Sanger Institute">Wellcome Sanger Institute</a> – British genomics research institute</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_Genome_Project&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation audio-visual cs1">Harshit Singh (2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/genome/"><i>Cracking the Code of Life</i></a> (Television Show). <a href="/wiki/Public_Broadcasting_Service" class="mw-redirect" title="Public Broadcasting Service">Public Broadcasting Service</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Cracking+the+Code+of+Life&rft.pub=Public+Broadcasting+Service&rft.date=2024&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pbs.org%2Fwgbh%2Fnova%2Fgenome%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+Genome+Project" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121223040215/http://battelle.org/docs/default-document-library/economic_impact_of_the_human_genome_project.pdf">"Economic Impact of the Human Genome Project – Battelle"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://battelle.org/docs/default-document-library/economic_impact_of_the_human_genome_project.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 23 December 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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"Domestication Evolution, Genetics And Genomics In Wheat". <i>Molecular Breeding</i>. <b>28</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">281–</span>301. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11032-011-9608-4">10.1007/s11032-011-9608-4</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:24886686">24886686</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Molecular+Breeding&rft.atitle=Domestication+Evolution%2C+Genetics+And+Genomics+In+Wheat&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E281-%3C%2Fspan%3E301&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs11032-011-9608-4&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A24886686%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Peng&rft.aufirst=JH&rft.au=Sun%2C+D&rft.au=Nevo%2C+E&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+Genome+Project" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreely1992" class="citation book cs1">Greely H (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/codeofcodesscien00hood/page/264"><i>The Code of Codes: Scientific and Social Issues in the Human Genome Project</i></a>. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/codeofcodesscien00hood/page/264">264–265</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-13646-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-13646-5"><bdi>978-0-674-13646-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Code+of+Codes%3A+Scientific+and+Social+Issues+in+the+Human+Genome+Project&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pages=264-265&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-674-13646-5&rft.aulast=Greely&rft.aufirst=Henry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcodeofcodesscien00hood%2Fpage%2F264&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+Genome+Project" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUS_Department_of_Health_and_Human_Services2015" class="citation web cs1">US Department of Health and Human Services (26 August 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hhs.gov/ocr/privacy/hipaa/understanding/index.html">"Understanding Health Information Privacy"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Understanding+Health+Information+Privacy&rft.date=2015-08-26&rft.au=US+Department+of+Health+and+Human+Services&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hhs.gov%2Focr%2Fprivacy%2Fhipaa%2Funderstanding%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+Genome+Project" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-HGPinsights-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-HGPinsights_91-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHuman_Genome_Information_Archive" class="citation web cs1">Human Genome Information Archive. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110903035819/http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/project/journals/insights.shtml">"Insights Learned from the Human DNA Sequence"</a>. US Department of Energy & Human Genome Project program. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/project/journals/insights.shtml">the original</a> on 3 September 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 February</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Insights+Learned+from+the+Human+DNA+Sequence&rft.pub=US+Department+of+Energy+%26+Human+Genome+Project+program&rft.au=Human+Genome+Information+Archive&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ornl.gov%2Fsci%2Ftechresources%2FHuman_Genome%2Fproject%2Fjournals%2Finsights.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+Genome+Project" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/handbook/hgp/elsi">"What were some of the ethical, legal, and social implications addressed by the Human Genome Project?"</a>. <i>Genetics Home Reference</i>. US National Library of Medicine. 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 August</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Genetics+Home+Reference&rft.atitle=What+were+some+of+the+ethical%2C+legal%2C+and+social+implications+addressed+by+the+Human+Genome+Project%3F&rft.date=2013&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fghr.nlm.nih.gov%2Fhandbook%2Fhgp%2Felsi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+Genome+Project" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.genome.gov/10002329/elsi-research-program-fact-sheet/">"ELSI Research Program Fact Sheet – National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI)"</a>. <i>www.genome.gov</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 September</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.genome.gov&rft.atitle=ELSI+Research+Program+Fact+Sheet+%E2%80%93+National+Human+Genome+Research+Institute+%28NHGRI%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.genome.gov%2F10002329%2Felsi-research-program-fact-sheet%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+Genome+Project" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRheinberger2000" class="citation book cs1">Rheinberger HJ (2000). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/livingworkingwit00lock"><i>Living and Working with the New Medical Technologies</i></a></span>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/livingworkingwit00lock/page/n29">20</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Living+and+Working+with+the+New+Medical+Technologies&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=20&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Rheinberger&rft.aufirst=HJ&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flivingworkingwit00lock&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+Genome+Project" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-undark-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-undark_95-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-undark_95-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMagazine2024" class="citation web cs1">Magazine, Undark (9 July 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://undark.org/2024/07/09/informed-consent-human-genome-project/">"Haunting the Human Genome Project: A Question of Consent"</a>. <i>Undark Magazine</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 July</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Undark+Magazine&rft.atitle=Haunting+the+Human+Genome+Project%3A+A+Question+of+Consent&rft.date=2024-07-09&rft.aulast=Magazine&rft.aufirst=Undark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fundark.org%2F2024%2F07%2F09%2Finformed-consent-human-genome-project%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+Genome+Project" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUndark2024" class="citation web cs1">Undark, Ashley Smart- (9 July 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.statnews.com/2024/07/09/inside-story-human-genome-project-key-takeaways-genetics-milestone/">"5 takeaways from the Human Genome Project investigation"</a>. <i>STAT</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 July</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=STAT&rft.atitle=5+takeaways+from+the+Human+Genome+Project+investigation&rft.date=2024-07-09&rft.aulast=Undark&rft.aufirst=Ashley+Smart-&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.statnews.com%2F2024%2F07%2F09%2Finside-story-human-genome-project-key-takeaways-genetics-milestone%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+Genome+Project" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_Genome_Project&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcElheny2010" class="citation book cs1">McElheny VK (2010). <i>Drawing the Map of Life: Inside the Human Genome Project</i>. <a href="/wiki/Basic_Books" title="Basic Books">Basic Books</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-465-03260-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-465-03260-0"><bdi>978-0-465-03260-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Drawing+the+Map+of+Life%3A+Inside+the+Human+Genome+Project&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-465-03260-0&rft.aulast=McElheny&rft.aufirst=Victor+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+Genome+Project" class="Z3988"></span> 361 pages. Examines the intellectual origins, history, and motivations of the project to map the human genome; draws on interviews with key figures.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCollins2006" class="citation book cs1">Collins F (2006). <a href="/wiki/The_Language_of_God:_A_Scientist_Presents_Evidence_for_Belief" class="mw-redirect" title="The Language of God: A Scientist Presents Evidence for Belief"><i>The Language of God: A Scientist Presents Evidence for Belief</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Free_Press_(publisher)" title="Free Press (publisher)">Free Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7432-8639-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7432-8639-8"><bdi>978-0-7432-8639-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/65978711">65978711</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Language+of+God%3A+A+Scientist+Presents+Evidence+for+Belief&rft.pub=Free+Press&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F65978711&rft.isbn=978-0-7432-8639-8&rft.aulast=Collins&rft.aufirst=F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+Genome+Project" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVenter2007" class="citation book cs1">Venter JC (18 October 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/lifedecodedmygen00vent"><i>A Life Decoded: My Genome: My Life</i></a>. New York City: <a href="/wiki/Viking_Adult" class="mw-redirect" title="Viking Adult">Viking Adult</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-670-06358-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-670-06358-1"><bdi>978-0-670-06358-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/165048736">165048736</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Life+Decoded%3A+My+Genome%3A+My+Life&rft.place=New+York+City&rft.pub=Viking+Adult&rft.date=2007-10-18&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F165048736&rft.isbn=978-0-670-06358-1&rft.aulast=Venter&rft.aufirst=JC&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flifedecodedmygen00vent&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+Genome+Project" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCook-Deegan1994" class="citation book cs1">Cook-Deegan R (1994). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/genewarssciencep00cook"><i>The Gene Wars: Science, Politics, and the Human Genome</i></a></span>. New York: W W Norton. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-03572-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-03572-8"><bdi>978-0-393-03572-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Gene+Wars%3A+Science%2C+Politics%2C+and+the+Human+Genome&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=W+W+Norton&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-393-03572-8&rft.aulast=Cook-Deegan&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgenewarssciencep00cook&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+Genome+Project" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLone_Dog1999" class="citation journal cs1">Lone Dog L (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.haworthpress.com/store/ArticleAbstract.asp?sid=DS104W6XGPL58H9EKU06C2L1QSSP41VF&ID=5707">"Whose genes are they? The Human Genome Diversity Project"</a>. <i>Journal of Health & Social Policy</i>. <b>10</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">51–</span>66. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1300%2FJ045v10n04_04">10.1300/J045v10n04_04</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10538186">10538186</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Health+%26+Social+Policy&rft.atitle=Whose+genes+are+they%3F+The+Human+Genome+Diversity+Project&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E51-%3C%2Fspan%3E66&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1300%2FJ045v10n04_04&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10538186&rft.aulast=Lone+Dog&rft.aufirst=L&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.haworthpress.com%2Fstore%2FArticleAbstract.asp%3Fsid%3DDS104W6XGPL58H9EKU06C2L1QSSP41VF%26ID%3D5707&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHuman+Genome+Project" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_Genome_Project&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/60px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/80px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="759" data-file-height="415" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikinews has related news: <div><ul><li><a href="https://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Mexico_presents_first_population-wide_genome_map_for_a_Latin_country" class="extiw" title="wikinews:Mexico presents first population-wide genome map for a Latin country"> Mexico presents first population-wide genome map for a Latin country</a></li></ul></div></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/40px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/60px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/80px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="400" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: <i><b><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Genes,_Technology,_and_Policy" class="extiw" title="wikibooks:Genes, Technology, and Policy">Genes, Technology, and Policy</a></b></i></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.genome.gov/">National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI)</a>. NHGRI led the National Institutes of Health's contribution to the International Human Genome Project. This project, which had as its primary goal the sequencing of the three billion base pairs that make up the human genome, was successfully completed in April 2003.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/publicat/hgn/index.shtml">Human Genome News</a>. Published from 1989 to 2002 by the US Department of Energy, this newsletter was a major communications method for coordination of the Human Genome Project. Complete online archives are available.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://genomicscience.energy.gov/">The HGP information pages</a> Department of Energy's portal to the international Human Genome Project, Microbial Genome Program, and Genomics:GTL systems biology for energy and environment</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.yourgenome.org/">yourgenome.org: The Sanger Institute public information pages</a> has general and detailed primers on DNA, genes, and genomes, the Human Genome Project and science spotlights.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ensembl.org/index.html">Ensembl project</a>, an automated annotation system and browser for the human genome</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://genome.ucsc.edu/">UCSC genome browser</a>, This site contains the reference sequence and working draft assemblies for a large collection of genomes. It also provides a portal to the ENCODE project.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nature.com/genomics/human/">Nature magazine's human genome gateway</a>, including the HGP's paper on the draft genome sequence</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100420114125/http://genome.wellcome.ac.uk/">Wellcome Trust Human Genome website</a> A free resource allowing you to explore the human genome, your health and your future.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ericdigests.org/2003-2/genome.html">Learning about the Human Genome. Part 1: Challenge to Science Educators. ERIC Digest.</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ericdigests.org/2003-2/genome2.html">Learning about the Human Genome. Part 2: Resources for Science Educators. ERIC Digest.</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110916042739/http://prospect.org/cs/articles?article=patenting_life"><i>Patenting Life</i> by Merrill Goozner</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110514175551/http://clinton4.nara.gov/WH/EOP/OSTP/html/00626_4.html">Prepared Statement of Craig Venter of Celera</a> Venter discusses Celera's progress in deciphering the human genome sequence and</li></ul> <p>relationship to healthcare and to the federally funded Human Genome Project. </p> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/genome/">Cracking the Code of Life</a> Companion website to 2-hour NOVA program documenting the race to decode the genome, including the entire program hosted in 16 parts in either <a href="/wiki/QuickTime" title="QuickTime">QuickTime</a> or <a href="/wiki/RealPlayer" title="RealPlayer">RealPlayer</a> format.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/556935">Bioethics Research Library</a> Numerous original documents at Georgetown University.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://davidjgalasphd.com/">David J. Galas</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Works by archive</dt></dl> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/author/856">Works by Human Genome Project</a> at <a href="/wiki/Project_Gutenberg" title="Project Gutenberg">Project Gutenberg</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Project_Gutenberg" title="Project Gutenberg">Project Gutenberg</a> hosts e-texts for Human Genome Project, titled <i>Human Genome Project, Chromosome Number #</i> (# denotes 01–22, X and Y). This information is the raw sequence, released in November 2002; access to entry pages with download links is available through <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/3501">Human Genome Project, Chromosome Number 01</a> for Chromosome 1 sequentially to <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/3524">Human Genome Project, Y Chromosome</a> for the Y Chromosome. Note that this sequence might not be considered definitive because of ongoing revisions and refinements. In addition to the chromosome files, there is a <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/11799">supplementary information file</a> dated March 2004 which contains additional sequence information.</li></ul></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28subject%3A%22Project%2C%20Human%20Genome%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Project%2C%20Human%20G%2E%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Project%2C%20H%2E%20G%2E%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Human%20Genome%20Project%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Human%20G%2E%20Project%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22H%2E%20G%2E%20Project%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Project%2C%20Human%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Human%20Project%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Human%20Genome%20Project%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Human%20G%2E%20Project%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22H%2E%20G%2E%20Project%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22H%2E%20Genome%20Project%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Project%2C%20Human%20Genome%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Project%2C%20Human%20G%2E%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Project%2C%20H%2E%20G%2E%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Project%2C%20H%2E%20Genome%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Human%20Project%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Project%2C%20Human%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Human%20Genome%20Project%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Human%20G%2E%20Project%22%20OR%20title%3A%22H%2E%20G%2E%20Project%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Human%20Project%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Human%20Genome%20Project%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Human%20G%2E%20Project%22%20OR%20description%3A%22H%2E%20G%2E%20Project%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Project%2C%20Human%20Genome%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Project%2C%20Human%20G%2E%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Human%20Project%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Project%2C%20Human%22%29%29%20AND%20%28-mediatype:software%29">Works 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genetics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Sub-topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_genome" title="Human genome">Human genome</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Human Genome Project</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_evolutionary_genetics" title="Human evolutionary genetics">Evolutionary genetics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chimpanzee%E2%80%93human_last_common_ancestor" title="Chimpanzee–human last common ancestor">Human-chimp MRCA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neanderthal_genetics" title="Neanderthal genetics">Neanderthal genetics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neanderthal_genome_project" title="Neanderthal genome project">Neanderthal genome project</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_human_evolution" title="Timeline of human evolution">Timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_genetic_variation" title="Human genetic variation">Genetic variation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blood_type_distribution_by_country" title="Blood type distribution by country">Blood type distribution by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genealogical_DNA_test" title="Genealogical DNA test">Genealogical DNA test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_genealogy" title="Genetic genealogy">Genetic genealogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_and_genetics" title="Race and genetics">Race and genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recent_human_evolution" title="Recent human evolution">Recent evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surname_DNA_project" title="Surname DNA project">Surname DNA project</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_genetic_enhancement" title="Human genetic enhancement">Genetic enhancement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Archaeogenetics" title="Archaeogenetics">Genetic history</a> <br />by region</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_Africa" title="Genetic history of Africa">Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_North_Africa" title="Genetic history of North Africa">North Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_West_Africa" title="Genetic history of West Africa">West Africa‎‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_Central_Africa" title="Genetic history of Central Africa">Central Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_Eastern_Africa" title="Genetic history of Eastern Africa">Eastern Africa‎‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_Southern_Africa" title="Genetic history of Southern Africa">Southern Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_the_African_diaspora" title="Genetic history of the African diaspora">African diaspora</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetics_and_archaeogenetics_of_South_Asia" title="Genetics and archaeogenetics of South Asia">South Asia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peopling_of_India" title="Peopling of India">India</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_the_Middle_East" title="Genetic history of the Middle East">Middle East</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Anatolian_farmers" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Anatolian farmers">Early Anatolian farmers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_the_Caucasus" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic history of the Caucasus">Caucasus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caucasus_hunter-gatherer" title="Caucasus hunter-gatherer">Caucasus hunter-gatherer</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_Europe" title="Genetic history of Europe">Europe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_European_Farmers" title="Early European Farmers">Early European Farmers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_hunter-gatherer" title="Western hunter-gatherer">Western hunter-gatherer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_the_British_Isles" title="Genetic history of the British Isles">British Isles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_the_Iberian_Peninsula" title="Genetic history of the Iberian Peninsula">Iberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_Italy" title="Genetic history of Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_hunter-gatherer" title="Eastern hunter-gatherer">Eastern hunter-gatherer</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_Central_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic history of Central Asia">Central Asia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_North_Eurasian" title="Ancient North Eurasian">Ancient North Eurasian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_East_Asians" title="Genetic history of East Asians">East Asia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Northeast_Asian" title="Ancient Northeast Asian">Ancient Northeast Asian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Paleo-Siberian" title="Ancient Paleo-Siberian">Ancient Paleo-Siberian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peopling_of_China" title="Peopling of China">China</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peopling_of_Southeast_Asia" title="Peopling of Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peopling_of_Thailand" title="Peopling of Thailand">Thailand</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic history of Indigenous peoples of the Americas">America</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Beringian" title="Ancient Beringian">Ancient Beringian</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">Population genetics</a> <br />by group</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Europe <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_the_Basques" title="Origin of the Basques">Basques</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_studies_on_Bosniaks" title="Genetic studies on Bosniaks">Bosniaks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_studies_on_Bulgarians" title="Genetic studies on Bulgarians">Bulgarians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_studies_on_Croats" title="Genetic studies on Croats">Croats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_studies_on_Romanians" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic studies on Romanians">Romanians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_studies_on_Russians" title="Genetic studies on Russians">Russians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_studies_on_Sami" title="Genetic studies on Sami">Sami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_studies_on_Serbs" title="Genetic studies on Serbs">Serbs</a></li></ul></li> <li>MENA <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_studies_on_Arabs" title="Genetic studies on Arabs">Arabs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_the_Azerbaijanis" title="Origin of the Azerbaijanis">Azerbaijanis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_Egypt" title="Genetic history of Egypt">Egyptians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_studies_on_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic studies on Jews">Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_studies_on_Moroccans" title="Genetic studies on Moroccans">Moroccans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_studies_on_Turkish_people" title="Genetic studies on Turkish people">Turks</a></li></ul></li> <li>South Asia <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_studies_on_Gujarati_people" title="Genetic studies on Gujarati people">Gujaratis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_studies_on_Sinhalese" title="Genetic studies on Sinhalese">Sinhalese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_studies_on_Sri_Lankan_Tamils" title="Genetic studies on Sri Lankan Tamils">Tamils (Sri Lankan)</a></li></ul></li> <li>East Asia <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_studies_on_Han_Chinese" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic studies on Han Chinese">Han Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_and_anthropometric_studies_on_Japanese_people" title="Genetic and anthropometric studies on Japanese people">Japanese</a></li></ul></li> <li>Southeast Asia <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_studies_on_Filipinos" title="Genetic studies on Filipinos">Filipinos</a></li></ul></li> <li>Sub-Saharan Africa <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_studies_on_Hutu_and_Tutsi" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic studies on Hutu and Tutsi">Hutu/Tutsi</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span><b><a href="/wiki/Category:Human_genetics" title="Category:Human genetics">Category</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Genomics334" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Genomics" title="Template:Genomics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Genomics" title="Template talk:Genomics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Genomics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Genomics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Genomics334" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Genomics" title="Genomics">Genomics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_genomics" title="Cognitive genomics">Cognitive genomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_genomics" title="Computational genomics">Computational genomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_genomics" title="Comparative genomics">Comparative genomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_genomics" title="Functional genomics">Functional genomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genome_project" title="Genome project">Genome project</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Human Genome Project</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metagenomics" title="Metagenomics">Metagenomics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_Microbiome_Project" title="Human Microbiome Project">Human Microbiome Project</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oncogenomics" title="Oncogenomics">Oncogenomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pangenomics" class="mw-redirect" title="Pangenomics">Pangenomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_genomics" title="Personal genomics">Personal genomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_genomics" title="Population genomics">Population genomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociogenomics" title="Sociogenomics"><i>Socio</i>genomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_genomics" title="Structural genomics">Structural genomics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bioinformatics" title="Bioinformatics">Bioinformatics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biochip" title="Biochip">Biochip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cheminformatics" title="Cheminformatics">Cheminformatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemogenomics" title="Chemogenomics">Chemogenomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Connectomics" title="Connectomics">Connectomics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_Connectome_Project" title="Human Connectome Project">Human Connectome Project</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epigenomics" title="Epigenomics">Epigenomics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_Epigenome_Project" title="Human Epigenome Project">Human Epigenome Project</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glycomics" title="Glycomics">Glycomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunomics" title="Immunomics">Immunomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lipidomics" title="Lipidomics">Lipidomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metabolomics" title="Metabolomics">Metabolomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbiome" title="Microbiome">Microbiomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutrigenomics" class="mw-redirect" title="Nutrigenomics">Nutrigenomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleopolyploidy" title="Paleopolyploidy">Paleopolyploidy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacogenetics" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharmacogenetics">Pharmacogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacogenomics" title="Pharmacogenomics">Pharmacogenomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_biology" title="Systems biology">Systems biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxicogenomics" title="Toxicogenomics">Toxicogenomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcriptomics" class="mw-redirect" title="Transcriptomics">Transcriptomics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Structural_biology" title="Structural biology">Structural biology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proteomics" title="Proteomics">Proteomics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_proteome_project" class="mw-redirect" title="Human proteome project">Human proteome project</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Call-map_proteomics" class="mw-redirect" title="Call-map proteomics">Call-map proteomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structure-based_drug_design" class="mw-redirect" title="Structure-based drug design">Structure-based drug design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expression_proteomics" class="mw-redirect" title="Expression proteomics">Expression proteomics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Research tools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2-D_electrophoresis" class="mw-redirect" title="2-D electrophoresis">2-D electrophoresis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_spectrometer" class="mw-redirect" title="Mass spectrometer">Mass spectrometer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrospray_ionization" title="Electrospray ionization">Electrospray ionization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matrix-assisted_laser_desorption_ionization" class="mw-redirect" title="Matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization">Matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matrix-assisted_laser_desorption_ionization-time_of_flight_mass_spectrometer" class="mw-redirect" title="Matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometer">Matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microfluidic-based_tools" class="mw-redirect" title="Microfluidic-based tools">Microfluidic-based tools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isotope_affinity_tags" class="mw-redirect" title="Isotope affinity tags">Isotope affinity tags</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome_conformation_capture" title="Chromosome conformation capture">Chromosome conformation capture</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/DNA_Data_Bank_of_Japan" title="DNA Data Bank of Japan">DNA Data Bank of Japan</a> (JP)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Molecular_Biology_Laboratory" title="European Molecular Biology Laboratory">European Molecular Biology Laboratory</a> (EU)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Institutes_of_Health" title="National Institutes of Health">National Institutes of Health</a> (USA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wellcome_Sanger_Institute" title="Wellcome Sanger Institute">Wellcome Sanger Institute</a> (UK)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="List-Class article"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_omics_topics_in_biology" title="List of omics topics in biology">List</a> </b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Omics" title="Category:Omics">Category</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Personal_genomics95" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Personal_genomics" title="Template:Personal genomics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Personal_genomics" title="Template talk:Personal genomics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Personal_genomics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Personal genomics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Personal_genomics95" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Personal_genomics" title="Personal genomics">Personal genomics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Data collection</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biobank" title="Biobank">Biobank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_database" title="Biological database">Biological database</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Field concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_specimen" title="Biological specimen">Biological specimen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/De-identification" title="De-identification">De-identification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_genetic_variation" title="Human genetic variation">Human genetic variation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_linkage" title="Genetic linkage">Genetic linkage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single-nucleotide_polymorphisms" class="mw-redirect" title="Single-nucleotide polymorphisms">Single-nucleotide polymorphisms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Identity_by_descent" title="Identity by descent">Identity by descent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_disorder" title="Genetic disorder">Genetic disorder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Applications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Personalized_medicine" title="Personalized medicine">Personalized medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predictive_medicine" title="Predictive medicine">Predictive medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_epidemiology" title="Genetic epidemiology">Genetic epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacogenomics" title="Pharmacogenomics">Pharmacogenomics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Analysis techniques</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Whole_genome_sequencing" title="Whole genome sequencing">Whole genome sequencing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genome-wide_association_study" title="Genome-wide association study">Genome-wide association study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SNP_array" title="SNP array">SNP array</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_testing" title="Genetic testing">Genetic testing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Major projects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Human Genome Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_HapMap_Project" title="International HapMap Project">International HapMap Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1000_Genomes_Project" title="1000 Genomes Project">1000 Genomes Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_Genome_Diversity_Project" title="Human Genome Diversity Project">Human Genome Diversity Project</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Apes242" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Apes" title="Template:Apes"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Apes" title="Template talk:Apes"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Apes" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Apes"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Apes242" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ape" title="Ape">Apes</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_hominoids" title="List of hominoids">Extant<br /> ape species</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Homo" title="Homo">Homo</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">Human</a> (<i>H. sapiens</i>)</li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pan_(genus)" title="Pan (genus)">Pan</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bonobo" title="Bonobo">Bonobo</a> (<i>P. paniscus</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chimpanzee" title="Chimpanzee">Chimpanzee</a> (<i>P. troglodytes</i>)</li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gorilla" title="Gorilla">Gorilla</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_gorilla" title="Eastern gorilla">Eastern gorilla</a> (<i>G. beringei</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_gorilla" title="Western gorilla">Western gorilla</a> (<i>G. gorilla</i>)</li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Orangutan" title="Orangutan">Orangutan</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sumatran_orangutan" title="Sumatran orangutan">Sumatran orangutan</a> (<i>P. abelii</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bornean_orangutan" title="Bornean orangutan">Bornean orangutan</a> (<i>P. pygmaeus</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tapanuli_orangutan" title="Tapanuli orangutan">Tapanuli orangutan</a> (<i>P. tapanuliensis</i>)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gibbon" title="Gibbon">Gibbon</a> (<a href="/wiki/Family_(biology)" title="Family (biology)">family</a>: Hylobatidae)</li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Evidence_as_to_Man%27s_Place_in_Naturep2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Evidence_as_to_Man%27s_Place_in_Naturep2.jpg/100px-Evidence_as_to_Man%27s_Place_in_Naturep2.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="47" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Evidence_as_to_Man%27s_Place_in_Naturep2.jpg/150px-Evidence_as_to_Man%27s_Place_in_Naturep2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Evidence_as_to_Man%27s_Place_in_Naturep2.jpg/200px-Evidence_as_to_Man%27s_Place_in_Naturep2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1509" data-file-height="706" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Study of apes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_ape_language" title="Great ape language">Great ape language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dian_Fossey" title="Dian Fossey">Dian Fossey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birut%C4%97_Galdikas" title="Birutė Galdikas">Birutė Galdikas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jane_Goodall" title="Jane Goodall">Jane Goodall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chimpanzee_genome_project" title="Chimpanzee genome project">Chimpanzee genome project</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Human Genome Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gladys_Kalema-Zikusoka" title="Gladys Kalema-Zikusoka">Gladys Kalema-Zikusoka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neanderthal_genome_project" title="Neanderthal genome project">Neanderthal genome project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willie_Smits" title="Willie Smits">Willie Smits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lone_Dr%C3%B8scher_Nielsen" title="Lone Drøscher Nielsen">Lone Drøscher Nielsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ian_Redmond" title="Ian Redmond">Ian Redmond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elgin_Center" class="mw-redirect" title="Elgin Center">Elgin Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ape_Cognition_and_Conservation_Initiative" title="Ape Cognition and Conservation Initiative">Iowa Primate Learning Sanctuary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borneo_Orangutan_Survival" title="Borneo Orangutan Survival">Borneo Orangutan Survival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primate_archaeology" title="Primate archaeology">Primate archaeology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Primate#Legal_and_social_status" title="Primate">Legal and<br />social status</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_ape_personhood" title="Great ape personhood">Personhood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Countries_banning_non-human_ape_experimentation" title="Countries banning non-human ape experimentation">Research ban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinshasa_Declaration_on_Great_Apes" title="Kinshasa Declaration on Great Apes">Kinshasa Declaration on Great Apes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Ape_Project" title="Great Ape Project">Great Ape Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Apes_Survival_Partnership" title="Great Apes Survival Partnership">Great Apes Survival Partnership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Primate_Day" title="International Primate Day">International Primate Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonhuman_Rights_Project" title="Nonhuman Rights Project">Nonhuman Rights Project</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Primate" title="Primate">Primate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_individual_apes" title="List of individual apes">List of individual apes</a> (non-human)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monkeys_and_apes_in_space" title="Monkeys and apes in space">Apes in space</a> (non-human)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bigfoot" title="Bigfoot">Bigfoot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bushmeat" title="Bushmeat">Bushmeat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chimpanzee%E2%80%93human_last_common_ancestor" title="Chimpanzee–human last common ancestor">Chimpanzee–human last common ancestor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gorilla%E2%80%93human_last_common_ancestor" title="Gorilla–human last common ancestor">Gorilla–human last common ancestor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orangutan%E2%80%93human_last_common_ancestor" title="Orangutan–human last common ancestor">Orangutan–human last common ancestor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gibbon%E2%80%93human_last_common_ancestor" title="Gibbon–human last common ancestor">Gibbon–human last common ancestor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fictional_primates" title="List of fictional primates">List of fictional primates</a> (non-human)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hominidae" title="Hominidae">Great apes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">Human evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monkey_Day" title="Monkey Day">Monkey Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mythic_humanoids" title="Mythic humanoids">Mythic humanoids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yeren" title="Yeren">Yeren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yeti" title="Yeti">Yeti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yowie" title="Yowie">Yowie</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Apes" title="Category:Apes">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Wellcome_Trust281" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Wellcome_Trust" title="Template:Wellcome Trust"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Wellcome_Trust" title="Template talk:Wellcome Trust"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Wellcome_Trust" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Wellcome Trust"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Wellcome_Trust281" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Wellcome_Trust" title="Wellcome Trust">Wellcome Trust</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: left;">Centres and institutes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em;text-align: left;background-color: #eee;">Current</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Crick_Institute" title="Francis Crick Institute">Francis Crick Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gurdon_Institute" title="Gurdon Institute">Gurdon Institute</a></li> <li>Sainsbury Wellcome Centre for Neural Circuits and Behaviour</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_Learning_Centres" title="Science Learning Centres">Science Learning Centres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wellcome_Trust_Centre_for_Cell-Matrix_Research" title="Wellcome Trust Centre for Cell-Matrix Research">WTC for Cell-Matrix Research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wellcome_Trust_Centre_for_Gene_Regulation_and_Expression" class="mw-redirect" title="Wellcome Trust Centre for Gene Regulation and Expression">WTC for Gene Regulation and Expression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wellcome_Trust_Centre_for_Human_Genetics" class="mw-redirect" title="Wellcome Trust Centre for Human Genetics">WTC for Human Genetics</a></li> <li>WTC for Mitochondrial Research</li> <li>WTC for Molecular Parasitology</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wellcome_Trust_Centre_for_Neuroimaging" class="mw-redirect" title="Wellcome Trust Centre for Neuroimaging">WTC for Neuroimaging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wellcome_Trust_Centre_for_Stem_Cell_Research" class="mw-redirect" title="Wellcome Trust Centre for Stem Cell Research">WTC for Stem Cell Research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wellcome_Sanger_Institute" title="Wellcome Sanger Institute">Wellcome Sanger Institute</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em;text-align: left;background-color: #eee;">Former</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wellcome_Trust_Centre_for_the_History_of_Medicine" title="Wellcome Trust Centre for the History of Medicine">Wellcome Trust Centre for the History of Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wellcome_Research_Laboratories" title="Wellcome Research Laboratories">Wellcome Research Laboratories</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="7" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wellcome.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Wellcome.jpg/180px-Wellcome.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Wellcome.jpg/270px-Wellcome.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Wellcome.jpg/360px-Wellcome.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: left;">Projects and facilities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1000_Genomes_Project" title="1000 Genomes Project">1000 Genomes Project</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Big_Picture_(magazine)" title="Big Picture (magazine)">Big Picture</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambridge_Biomedical_Campus" title="Cambridge Biomedical Campus">Cambridge Biomedical Campus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cancer_Genome_Project" title="Cancer Genome Project">Cancer Genome Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ChEMBL" title="ChEMBL">ChEMBL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coalition_for_Epidemic_Preparedness_Innovations" title="Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations">Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COSMIC_cancer_database" title="COSMIC cancer database">COSMIC cancer database</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DECIPHER" title="DECIPHER">DECIPHER</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diamond_Light_Source" title="Diamond Light Source">Diamond Light Source</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/ELife" title="ELife">eLife</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ensembl" class="mw-redirect" title="Ensembl">Ensembl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farmcare" title="Farmcare">Farmcare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genome_Reference_Consortium" title="Genome Reference Consortium">Genome Reference Consortium</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Human Genome Project</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Malawi_Liverpool_Wellcome_Trust&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Malawi Liverpool Wellcome Trust (page does not exist)">Malawi Liverpool Wellcome Trust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MEROPS" title="MEROPS">MEROPS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pfam" title="Pfam">Pfam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rfam" title="Rfam">Rfam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UK_Biobank" title="UK Biobank">UK Biobank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wellcome_Collection" title="Wellcome Collection">Wellcome Collection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wellcome_Genome_Campus" title="Wellcome Genome Campus">Wellcome Genome Campus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wellcome_Library" title="Wellcome Library">Wellcome Library</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/WormBase" title="WormBase">WormBase</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: left;">Board of governors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eliza_Manningham-Buller" title="Eliza Manningham-Buller">Eliza Manningham-Buller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Ferguson_(biochemist)" title="Michael Ferguson (biochemist)">Michael Ferguson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tobias_Bonhoeffer" title="Tobias Bonhoeffer">Tobias Bonhoeffer</a></li> <li>Alan Brown</li> <li><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q24716612" class="extiw" title="d:Q24716612">William Burns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bryan_Grenfell" title="Bryan Grenfell">Bryan Grenfell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naguib_Kheraj" title="Naguib Kheraj">Naguib Kheraj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiona_Powrie" title="Fiona Powrie">Fiona Powrie</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: left;">Executive leadership team</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Farrar" title="Jeremy Farrar">Jeremy Farrar</a></li> <li>Chris Bird</li> <li>Stephen Caddick</li> <li>Simon Chaplin</li> <li>Alyson Fox</li> <li>Peter Pereira Gray</li> <li>Mark Henderson</li> <li>Chonnettia Jones</li> <li>Tim Livett</li> <li>Nick Moakes</li> <li>Kathy Poole</li> <li>Jim Smith</li> <li>James Thomas</li> <li>Ed Whiting</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: left;">Former directors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Williams_(physician)" title="Peter Williams (physician)">Peter Williams</a> (1965–1991)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bridget_Ogilvie" title="Bridget Ogilvie">Bridget Ogilvie</a> (1991–1998)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Dexter" title="Michael Dexter">Michael Dexter</a> (1998–2008)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Walport" title="Mark Walport">Mark Walport</a> (2003–2013)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: left;">Other key people</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Damon_Buffini" title="Damon Buffini">Damon Buffini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Castell" title="William Castell">William Castell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominic_Cadbury" title="Dominic Cadbury">Dominic Cadbury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harold_Cook_(medical_historian)" class="mw-redirect" title="Harold Cook (medical historian)">Harold Cook</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kay_Davies" title="Kay Davies">Kay Davies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Franks,_Baron_Franks" title="Oliver Franks, Baron Franks">Oliver Franks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Gibbs" title="Roger Gibbs">Roger Gibbs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Hallett_Dale" title="Henry Hallett Dale">Henry Dale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Hynes" title="Richard Hynes">Richard Hynes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anne_Mandall_Johnson" title="Anne Mandall Johnson">Anne Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roy_Porter" title="Roy Porter">Roy Porter</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21165217" class="extiw" title="d:Q21165217">Peter Rigby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Steel_(businessman)" title="David Steel (businessman)">David Steel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Ian_Stuart" class="mw-redirect" title="David Ian Stuart">David Stuart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Sulston" title="John Sulston">John Sulston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Wellcome" title="Henry Wellcome">Henry Wellcome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: left;">Awards and fellowships</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Capital Awards</li> <li>Collaborative Awards in Science</li> <li>Investigator Awards in Science</li> <li>Institutional Strategic Support Fund</li> <li>Science Strategic Award</li> <li>Sir Henry Dale <a href="/wiki/Fellow" title="Fellow">Fellowship</a></li> <li>Sir Henry Wellcome <a href="/wiki/Postdoctoral_researcher" title="Postdoctoral researcher">Postdoctoral</a> Fellowship</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wellcome_Book_Prize" title="Wellcome Book Prize">Wellcome Book Prize</a></li> <li>Wellcome Image Awards</li> <li>Wellcome Trust Centre</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wellcome_Trust_Principal_Research_Fellow" class="mw-redirect" title="Wellcome Trust Principal Research Fellow">Wellcome Trust Principal Research Fellow</a></li> <li>Wellcome Trust Senior Research Fellow</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Wellcome_Trust" title="Category:Wellcome Trust">Category</a></b></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_biology_(timeline)253" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_biology" title="Template:History of biology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_biology" title="Template talk:History of biology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_biology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of biology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_biology_(timeline)253" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_biology" title="History of biology">History of biology</a> (<a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_biology_and_organic_chemistry" title="Timeline of biology and organic chemistry">timeline</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fields,<br />disciplines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_agricultural_science" title="History of agricultural science">Agricultural science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_anatomy" title="History of anatomy">Anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_biochemistry" title="History of biochemistry">Biochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_biotechnology" title="History of biotechnology">Biotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_botany" title="History of botany">Botany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_ecology" title="History of ecology">Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_evolutionary_thought" title="History of evolutionary thought">Evolutionary thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_genetics" title="History of genetics">Genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_geology" title="History of geology">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_immunology" title="Timeline of immunology">Immunology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_medicine" title="History of medicine">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_model_organisms" title="History of model organisms">Model organisms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_molecular_biology" title="History of molecular biology">Molecular biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_molecular_evolution" title="History of molecular evolution">Molecular evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_paleontology" title="History of paleontology">Paleontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_phycology" title="History of phycology">Phycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_plant_systematics" title="History of plant systematics">Plant systematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_RNA_biology" title="History of RNA biology">RNA biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_zoology_through_1859" title="History of zoology through 1859">Zoology (through 1859)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_zoology_since_1859" class="mw-redirect" title="History of zoology since 1859">Zoology (since 1859)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories,<br />concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Germ_theory_of_disease" title="Germ theory of disease">Germ theory of disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_dogma_of_molecular_biology" title="Central dogma of molecular biology">Central dogma of molecular biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darwinism" title="Darwinism">Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_chain_of_being" title="Great chain of being">Great chain of being</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_organisation" title="Biological organisation">Hierarchy of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamarckism" title="Lamarckism">Lamarckism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One_gene%E2%80%93one_enzyme_hypothesis" title="One gene–one enzyme hypothesis">One gene–one enzyme hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protocell" title="Protocell">Protocell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RNA_world" title="RNA world">RNA world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sequence_hypothesis" title="Sequence hypothesis">Sequence hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_generation" title="Spontaneous generation">Spontaneous generation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">History of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_biology" title="Philosophy of biology">Philosophy of biology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Teleology_in_biology" title="Teleology in biology">Teleology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnobotany" title="Ethnobotany">Ethnobotany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugenics" title="Eugenics">Eugenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dysgenics" title="Dysgenics">Dysgenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_creation%E2%80%93evolution_controversy" title="History of the creation–evolution controversy">History of the creation-evolution controversy</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Human Genome Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humboldtian_science" title="Humboldtian science">Humboldtian science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_history" title="Natural history">Natural history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">Natural philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_theology" title="Natural theology">Natural theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Relationship between religion and science</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_biology" title="Category:History of biology">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Biotechnology389" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Biotechnology" title="Template:Biotechnology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Biotechnology" title="Template talk:Biotechnology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Biotechnology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Biotechnology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Biotechnology389" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Biotechnology" title="Biotechnology">Biotechnology</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_biotechnology" title="History of biotechnology">History of biotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_biotechnology" title="Timeline of biotechnology">Timeline of biotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competitions_and_prizes_in_biotechnology" title="Competitions and prizes in biotechnology">Competitions and prizes in biotechnology</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="8" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:DNA_replication_split.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/DNA_replication_split.svg/50px-DNA_replication_split.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="101" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/DNA_replication_split.svg/75px-DNA_replication_split.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/DNA_replication_split.svg/100px-DNA_replication_split.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="315" data-file-height="635" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Branches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colors_of_biotechnology" class="mw-redirect" title="Colors of biotechnology">Colors of biotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_biotechnology" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrial biotechnology">Industrial biotechnology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Biological concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allele" title="Allele">Allele</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">Cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a>/<a href="/wiki/RNA" title="RNA">RNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fermentation" title="Fermentation">Fermentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">Gene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasmid" title="Plasmid">Plasmid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">Protein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selective_breeding" title="Selective breeding">Selective breeding</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biotechnology_industrial_park" class="mw-redirect" title="Biotechnology industrial park">Biotechnology industrial park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotechnology_products" class="mw-redirect" title="Biotechnology products">Biotechnology products</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotechnology_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Biotechnology law">Biotechnology law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Revolution" title="Green Revolution">Green Revolution</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Human Genome Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmaceutical_company" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharmaceutical company">Pharmaceutical company</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Basic techniques<br /> and tools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Biology field</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioreactor" title="Bioreactor">Bioreactor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_culture" title="Cell culture">Cell culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultured_meat" title="Cultured meat">Cultured meat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flow_cytometry" title="Flow cytometry">Flow cytometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hybridoma_technology" title="Hybridoma technology">Hybridoma technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-performance_liquid_chromatography" title="High-performance liquid chromatography">HPLC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_magnetic_resonance" title="Nuclear magnetic resonance">NMR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectroscopy" title="Spectroscopy">Spectroscopy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Chemical field</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Centrifugation" title="Centrifugation">Centrifugation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continuous_stirred-tank_reactor" title="Continuous stirred-tank reactor">CSTR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crystallization" title="Crystallization">Crystallization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromatography" title="Chromatography">Chromatography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kidney_dialysis" title="Kidney dialysis">Kidney dialysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrophoresis" title="Electrophoresis">Electrophoresis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extraction_(chemistry)" title="Extraction (chemistry)">Extraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fed-batch_culture" title="Fed-batch culture">Fed Batch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Filtration" title="Filtration">Filtration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plug_flow_reactor_model" title="Plug flow reactor model">PFR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sedimentation" title="Sedimentation">Sedimentation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Applications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_cell_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Animal cell culture">Animal cell culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biofabrication" title="Biofabrication">Biofabrication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioinformatics" title="Bioinformatics">Bioinformatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosynthesis" title="Biosynthesis">Biosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bionic_architecture" title="Bionic architecture">Bionic architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_immunity" class="mw-redirect" title="Cell immunity">Cell immunity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloning" title="Cloning">Cloning</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_cloning" class="mw-redirect" title="Reproductive cloning">Reproductive cloning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Therapeutic_cloning" class="mw-redirect" title="Therapeutic cloning">Therapeutic cloning</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embryology" title="Embryology">Embryology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_biotechnology" title="Environmental biotechnology">Environmental biotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_engineering" title="Genetic engineering">Genetic engineering</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genetically_modified_organism" title="Genetically modified organism">Genetically modified organism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_genetics" title="Molecular genetics">Molecular genetics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene_therapy" title="Gene therapy">Gene therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_biodegradation" title="Microbial biodegradation">Microbial biodegradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omics" title="Omics">Omics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacogenomics" title="Pharmacogenomics">Pharmacogenomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stem_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Stem cells">Stem cells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telomere" title="Telomere">Telomere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tissue_culture" title="Tissue culture">Tissue culture</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Interdisciplinary <br />fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biobased_economy" class="mw-redirect" title="Biobased economy">Bioeconomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioelectronics" title="Bioelectronics">Bioelectronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_engineering" title="Biological engineering">Bioengineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">Biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biopharmaceutical" title="Biopharmaceutical">Biopharmacology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomedical_engineering" title="Biomedical engineering">Biomedical engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomedicine" title="Biomedicine">Biomedicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomimetics" title="Biomimetics">Biomimetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">Biochemicals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biorobotics" title="Biorobotics">Biorobotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_engineering" title="Chemical engineering">Chemical engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbiology" title="Microbiology">Microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining" title="Mining">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">Molecular biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanobiotechnology" title="Nanobiotechnology">Nanobiotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virology" title="Virology">Virology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_biotechnology_articles" title="Index of biotechnology articles">Index of biotechnology articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_biotechnology_articles" class="mw-redirect" title="List of biotechnology articles">List of biotechnology articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_biomedical_companies_by_market_capitalization" title="List of largest biomedical companies by market capitalization">List of largest biomedical companies by market capitalization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Biotechnology" title="Category:Biotechnology">Category</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" 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