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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#System_software"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1</span> <span>System software</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-System_software-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Application_software" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Application_software"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.2</span> <span>Application software</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Application_software-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Computer_network" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Computer_network"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Computer network</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Computer_network-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Internet" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Internet"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.1</span> <span>Internet</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Internet-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Computer_programming" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Computer_programming"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Computer programming</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Computer_programming-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Computer_programmer" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Computer_programmer"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.1</span> <span>Computer programmer</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Computer_programmer-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Computer_industry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Computer_industry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Computer industry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Computer_industry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sub-disciplines_of_computing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sub-disciplines_of_computing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Sub-disciplines of computing</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Sub-disciplines_of_computing-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Sub-disciplines of computing subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Sub-disciplines_of_computing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Computer_engineering" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Computer_engineering"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Computer engineering</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Computer_engineering-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Software_engineering" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Software_engineering"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Software engineering</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Software_engineering-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Computer_science" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Computer_science"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Computer science</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Computer_science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cybersecurity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cybersecurity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Cybersecurity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cybersecurity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Data_science" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Data_science"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Data science</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Data_science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Information_systems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Information_systems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Information systems</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Information_systems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Information_technology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Information_technology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7</span> <span>Information technology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Information_technology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Research_and_emerging_technologies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Research_and_emerging_technologies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Research and emerging technologies</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Research_and_emerging_technologies-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Research and emerging technologies subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Research_and_emerging_technologies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cloud_computing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cloud_computing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Cloud computing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cloud_computing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Quantum_computing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Quantum_computing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Quantum computing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Quantum_computing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Computing</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 68 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-68" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">68 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rekenaarkunde" title="Rekenaarkunde – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Rekenaarkunde" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%A8%D8%A9" title="حوسبة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="حوسبة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%82" title="কম্পিউটিং – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="কম্পিউটিং" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computing" title="Computing – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Computing" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-map-bms mw-list-item"><a href="https://map-bms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informatika" title="Informatika – Banyumasan" lang="jv-x-bms" hreflang="jv-x-bms" data-title="Informatika" data-language-autonym="Basa Banyumasan" data-language-local-name="Banyumasan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Basa Banyumasan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97" title="कंप्यूटिंग – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="कंप्यूटिंग" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%B7%D1%87%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%85%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Изчислителна техника – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Изчислителна техника" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ra%C4%8Dunarstvo" title="Računarstvo – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Računarstvo" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inform%C3%A0tica" title="Informàtica – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Informàtica" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%BDpo%C4%8Detn%C3%AD_technika" title="Výpočetní technika – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Výpočetní technika" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyfrifiadura" title="Cyfrifiadura – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Cyfrifiadura" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Databehandling" title="Databehandling – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Databehandling" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computing" title="Computing – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Computing" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inform%C3%A1tica" title="Informática – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Informática" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komputado" title="Komputado – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Komputado" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informatika" title="Informatika – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Informatika" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B4" title="رایانش – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="رایانش" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technologie_informatique" title="Technologie informatique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Technologie informatique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%ADomhaireacht" title="Ríomhaireacht – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Ríomhaireacht" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coimpiutaireachd" title="Coimpiutaireachd – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Coimpiutaireachd" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inform%C3%A1tica" title="Informática – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Informática" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%BB%B4%ED%93%A8%ED%8C%85" title="컴퓨팅 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="컴퓨팅" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%A1%D5%B7%D5%BE%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%AF%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B4" title="Հաշվարկում – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Հաշվարկում" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%A8" title="अभिकलन – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="अभिकलन" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informatiko" title="Informatiko – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Informatiko" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komputasi_(teknologi_informasi)" title="Komputasi (teknologi informasi) – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Komputasi (teknologi informasi)" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/UkuCikiza" title="UkuCikiza – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="UkuCikiza" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiZulu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcolo_automatico" title="Calcolo automatico – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Calcolo automatico" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%97%D7%A9%D7%95%D7%91" title="מחשוב – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מחשוב" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komputasi" title="Komputasi – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Komputasi" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%99%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9E%E1%83%98%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A2%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98_%E1%83%A2%E1%83%94%E1%83%A5%E1%83%9C%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%92%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="კომპიუტერული ტექნოლოგია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="კომპიუტერული ტექნოლოგია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BF%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%83_%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%85%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%8B" title="Есептеу техникасы – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Есептеу техникасы" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utarakilishi" title="Utarakilishi – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Utarakilishi" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computatio" title="Computatio – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Computatio" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datorika" title="Datorika – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Datorika" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sz%C3%A1m%C3%ADt%C3%A1stechnika" title="Számítástechnika – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Számítástechnika" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%82%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9F%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%99%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%99%E0%B5%8D%E2%80%8C" title="കമ്പ്യൂട്ടിങ്ങ്‌ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="കമ്പ്യൂട്ടിങ്ങ്‌" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pengkomputan" title="Pengkomputan – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Pengkomputan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anform%C3%A1tica" title="Anformática – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Anformática" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Mirandés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nah mw-list-item"><a href="https://nah.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%C4%ABuhp%C5%8Dhualhuaztiliztli" title="Chīuhpōhualhuaztiliztli – Nahuatl" lang="nah" hreflang="nah" data-title="Chīuhpōhualhuaztiliztli" data-language-autonym="Nāhuatl" data-language-local-name="Nahuatl" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nāhuatl</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computergebruik" title="Computergebruik – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Computergebruik" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%A8" title="गणन – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="गणन" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B3%E3%83%B3%E3%83%94%E3%83%A5%E3%83%BC%E3%83%86%E3%82%A3%E3%83%B3%E3%82%B0" title="コンピューティング – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="コンピューティング" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nov mw-list-item"><a href="https://nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informatike" title="Informatike – Novial" lang="nov" hreflang="nov" data-title="Informatike" data-language-autonym="Novial" data-language-local-name="Novial" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Novial</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hisoblash_texnikasi" title="Hisoblash texnikasi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Hisoblash texnikasi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komputerologia" title="Komputerologia – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Komputerologia" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computa%C3%A7%C3%A3o" title="Computação – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Computação" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computerizare" title="Computerizare – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Computerizare" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anta%C3%B1iqichay" title="Antañiqichay – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Antañiqichay" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%8B%D1%87%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%85%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Вычислительная техника – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Вычислительная техника" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computin" title="Computin – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Computin" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B4%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%9C%E0%B6%AB%E0%B6%B1%E0%B6%BA" title="පරිගණනය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="පරිගණනය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%BDpo%C4%8Dtov%C3%A1_technika" title="Výpočtová technika – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Výpočtová technika" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D1%87%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Рачунарство – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Рачунарство" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ra%C4%8Dunanje" title="Računanje – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Računanje" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tietotekniikan_k%C3%A4ytt%C3%B6" title="Tietotekniikan käyttö – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Tietotekniikan käyttö" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pagkukuwenta" title="Pagkukuwenta – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Pagkukuwenta" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%A3%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D_(%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%A3%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%BF)" title="கணித்தல் (கணினி) – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="கணித்தல் (கணினி)" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A7%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C" title="การคอมพิวเตอร์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="การคอมพิวเตอร์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%91%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%88" title="Роёниш – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Роёниш" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BF%27%D1%8E%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3" title="Комп'ютинг – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Комп'ютинг" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D9%85%D9%BE%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%B9%D9%86%DA%AF" title="کمپیوٹنگ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="کمپیوٹنگ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%90i%E1%BB%87n_to%C3%A1n" title="Điện toán – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Điện toán" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%AE%A1%E7%AE%97%EF%BC%88%E8%AE%A1%E7%AE%97%E6%9C%BA%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%EF%BC%89" title="计算（计算机科学） – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="计算（计算机科学）" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A7%D7%90%D7%9E%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%95%D7%98%D7%A2%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%99" title="קאמפיוטעריי – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="קאמפיוטעריי" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%8C%E1%B9%A3i%E1%B9%A3%E1%BA%B9%CC%81_k%E1%BB%8D%CC%80mp%C3%BAt%C3%A0" title="Ìṣiṣẹ́ kọ̀mpútà – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Ìṣiṣẹ́ kọ̀mpútà" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Yorùbá</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%9B%BB%E8%85%A6%E9%81%8B%E7%AE%97" title="電腦運算 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="電腦運算" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%AE%A1%E7%AE%97_(%E8%AE%A1%E7%AE%97%E6%9C%BA%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6)" title="计算 (计算机科学) – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="计算 (计算机科学)" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" 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<div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Activity involving calculations or computing machinery</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the activity involving computing machinery. For the magazines, see <a href="/wiki/Computing_(magazine)" title="Computing (magazine)">Computing (magazine)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Compute!" title="Compute!">Compute!</a></div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:GalvesLocherbach_-_Low_resolution.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Computer simulation" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/GalvesLocherbach_-_Low_resolution.gif/220px-GalvesLocherbach_-_Low_resolution.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="206" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/42/GalvesLocherbach_-_Low_resolution.gif 1.5x" data-file-width="272" data-file-height="255" /></a><figcaption>Computer simulation, one of the main cross-computing methodologies</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Computing</b> is any goal-oriented activity requiring, benefiting from, or creating <a href="/wiki/Computer" title="Computer">computing machinery</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It includes the study and experimentation of <a href="/wiki/Algorithm" title="Algorithm">algorithmic</a> processes, and the development of both <a href="/wiki/Computer_hardware" title="Computer hardware">hardware</a> and software. Computing has scientific, engineering, mathematical, technological, and social aspects. Major computing disciplines include <a href="/wiki/Computer_engineering" title="Computer engineering">computer engineering</a>, <a href="/wiki/Computer_science" title="Computer science">computer science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cybersecurity" class="mw-redirect" title="Cybersecurity">cybersecurity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Data_science" title="Data science">data science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Information_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Information systems">information systems</a>, <a href="/wiki/Information_technology" title="Information technology">information technology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Software_engineering" title="Software engineering">software engineering</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The term <i>computing</i> is also <a href="/wiki/Synonymous" class="mw-redirect" title="Synonymous">synonymous</a> with <a href="/wiki/Counting" title="Counting">counting</a> and <a href="/wiki/Calculation" title="Calculation">calculating</a>. In earlier times, it was used in reference to the action performed by <a href="/wiki/Mechanical_computer" title="Mechanical computer">mechanical computing machines</a>, and before that, to <a href="/wiki/Computer_(occupation)" title="Computer (occupation)">human computers</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ENIAC-changing_a_tube.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Early vacuum tube Turing complete computer" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/ENIAC-changing_a_tube.jpg/220px-ENIAC-changing_a_tube.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="182" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/ENIAC-changing_a_tube.jpg/330px-ENIAC-changing_a_tube.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/ENIAC-changing_a_tube.jpg/440px-ENIAC-changing_a_tube.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1239" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption>ENIAC, the first programmable general-purpose electronic digital computer</figcaption></figure> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computing&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_computing" title="History of computing">History of computing</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For a chronological guide, see <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_computing" title="Timeline of computing">Timeline of computing</a>.</div> <p>The history of computing is longer than the <a href="/wiki/History_of_computing_hardware" title="History of computing hardware">history of computing hardware</a> and includes the history of methods intended for pen and paper (or for chalk and slate) with or without the aid of tables. Computing is intimately tied to the representation of numbers, though mathematical concepts necessary for computing existed before <a href="/wiki/Numeral_system" title="Numeral system">numeral systems</a>. The earliest known tool for use in computation is the <a href="/wiki/Abacus" title="Abacus">abacus</a>, and it is thought to have been invented in <a href="/wiki/Babylon" title="Babylon">Babylon</a> circa between 2700 and 2300 BC. Abaci, of a more modern design, are still used as calculation tools today. </p><p>The first recorded proposal for using digital electronics in computing was the 1931 paper "The Use of Thyratrons for High Speed Automatic Counting of Physical Phenomena" by <a href="/wiki/C._E._Wynn-Williams" title="C. E. Wynn-Williams">C. E. Wynn-Williams</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Claude_Shannon" title="Claude Shannon">Claude Shannon</a>'s 1938 paper "<a href="/wiki/A_Symbolic_Analysis_of_Relay_and_Switching_Circuits" title="A Symbolic Analysis of Relay and Switching Circuits">A Symbolic Analysis of Relay and Switching Circuits</a>" then introduced the idea of using electronics for <a href="/wiki/Boolean_algebra" title="Boolean algebra">Boolean algebraic</a> operations. </p><p>The concept of a <a href="/wiki/Field-effect_transistor" title="Field-effect transistor">field-effect transistor</a> was proposed by <a href="/wiki/Julius_Edgar_Lilienfeld" title="Julius Edgar Lilienfeld">Julius Edgar Lilienfeld</a> in 1925. <a href="/wiki/John_Bardeen" title="John Bardeen">John Bardeen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Walter_Brattain" class="mw-redirect" title="Walter Brattain">Walter Brattain</a>, while working under <a href="/wiki/William_Shockley" title="William Shockley">William Shockley</a> at <a href="/wiki/Bell_Labs" title="Bell Labs">Bell Labs</a>, built the first working <a href="/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">transistor</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Point-contact_transistor" title="Point-contact transistor">point-contact transistor</a>, in 1947.<sup id="cite_ref-Lee_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lee-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Puers_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Puers-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1953, the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Manchester" title="University of Manchester">University of Manchester</a> built the first <a href="/wiki/Transistorized_computer" class="mw-redirect" title="Transistorized computer">transistorized computer</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Manchester_Baby" title="Manchester Baby">Manchester Baby</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, early <a href="/wiki/Junction_transistor" class="mw-redirect" title="Junction transistor">junction transistors</a> were relatively bulky devices that were difficult to mass-produce, which limited them to a number of specialised applications.<sup id="cite_ref-Moskowitz_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moskowitz-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1957, Frosch and Derick were able to manufacture the first silicon dioxide field effect transistors at Bell Labs, the first transistors in which drain and source were adjacent at the surface.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Subsequently, a team demonstrated a working <a href="/wiki/MOSFET" title="MOSFET">MOSFET</a> at Bell Labs 1960.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The MOSFET made it possible to build <a href="/wiki/Very_large-scale_integration" class="mw-redirect" title="Very large-scale integration">high-density integrated circuits</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-computerhistory-transistor_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-computerhistory-transistor-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hittinger_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hittinger-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> leading to what is known as the <a href="/wiki/Computer_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer revolution">computer revolution</a><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or <a href="/wiki/Microcomputer_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Microcomputer revolution">microcomputer revolution</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Computer">Computer</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computing&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Computer"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Computer" title="Computer">Computer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_computers" title="Outline of computers">Outline of computers</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_terms" class="mw-redirect" title="Glossary of computer terms">Glossary of computer terms</a></div> <p>A computer is a machine that manipulates <a href="/wiki/Data_(computing)" class="mw-redirect" title="Data (computing)">data</a> according to a set of instructions called a <a href="/wiki/Computer_program" title="Computer program">computer program</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The program has an executable form that the computer can use directly to execute the instructions. The same program in its human-readable <a href="/wiki/Source_code" title="Source code">source code</a> form, enables a programmer to study and develop a sequence of steps known as an <a href="/wiki/Algorithm" title="Algorithm">algorithm</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because the instructions can be carried out in different types of computers, a single set of source instructions converts to <a href="/wiki/Machine_code" title="Machine code">machine instructions</a> according to the <a href="/wiki/Central_processing_unit" title="Central processing unit">CPU</a> type.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The execution <a href="/wiki/Process_(computing)" title="Process (computing)">process</a> carries out the instructions in a computer program. Instructions express the computations performed by the computer. They trigger sequences of simple actions on the executing machine. Those actions produce effects according to the <a href="/wiki/Formal_semantics_of_programming_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Formal semantics of programming languages">semantics</a> of the instructions. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Computer_hardware">Computer hardware</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computing&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Computer hardware"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Computer_hardware" title="Computer hardware">Computer hardware</a></div> <p>Computer hardware includes the physical parts of a computer, including the <a href="/wiki/Central_processing_unit" title="Central processing unit">central processing unit</a>, <a href="/wiki/Computer_memory" title="Computer memory">memory</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Input/output" title="Input/output">input/output</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Computational_logic" title="Computational logic">Computational logic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Computer_architecture" title="Computer architecture">computer architecture</a> are key topics in the field of computer hardware.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Computer_software">Computer software</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computing&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Computer software"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Computer_software" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer software">Computer software</a></div> <p>Computer software, or just <i>software</i>, is a collection of computer programs and related data, which provides instructions to a computer. Software refers to one or more computer programs and data held in the storage of the computer. It is a set of <i>programs, procedures, algorithms,</i> as well as its <i>documentation</i> concerned with the operation of a data processing system.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Program software performs the <a href="/wiki/Function_(engineering)" title="Function (engineering)">function</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Computer_program" title="Computer program">program</a> it implements, either by directly providing <a href="/wiki/Instruction_(computer_science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Instruction (computer science)">instructions</a> to the computer hardware or by serving as input to another piece of software. The <a href="/wiki/Terminology" title="Terminology">term</a> was coined to contrast with the old term <i><a href="/wiki/Computer_hardware" title="Computer hardware">hardware</a></i> (meaning physical devices). In contrast to hardware, software is intangible.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Software is also sometimes used in a more narrow sense, meaning application software only. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="System_software">System software</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computing&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: System software"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/System_software" title="System software">System software</a></div> <p>System software, or systems software, is computer software designed to operate and control computer hardware, and to provide a platform for running application software. System software includes <a href="/wiki/Operating_system" title="Operating system">operating systems</a>, <a href="/wiki/Utility_software" title="Utility software">utility software</a>, <a href="/wiki/Device_driver" title="Device driver">device drivers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Window_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Window system">window systems</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Firmware" title="Firmware">firmware</a>. Frequently used development tools such as <a href="/wiki/Compiler" title="Compiler">compilers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Linker_(computing)" title="Linker (computing)">linkers</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Debugging" title="Debugging">debuggers</a> are classified as system software.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/System_software" title="System software">System software</a> and <a href="/wiki/Middleware" title="Middleware">middleware</a> manage and integrate a computer's capabilities, but typically do not directly apply them in the performance of tasks that benefit the user, unlike application software. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Application_software">Application software</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computing&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Application software"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Application_software" title="Application software">Application software</a></div> <p>Application software, also known as an <i>application</i> or an <i>app</i>, is computer software designed to help the user perform specific tasks. Examples include <a href="/wiki/Enterprise_software" title="Enterprise software">enterprise software</a>, <a href="/wiki/Accounting_software" title="Accounting software">accounting software</a>, <a href="/wiki/Office_suite" class="mw-redirect" title="Office suite">office suites</a>, <a href="/wiki/Graphics_software" title="Graphics software">graphics software</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Media_player_(application_software)" class="mw-redirect" title="Media player (application software)">media players</a>. Many application programs deal principally with <a href="/wiki/Document_file_format" title="Document file format">documents</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Apps may be <a href="/wiki/Product_bundling" title="Product bundling">bundled</a> with the computer and its system software, or may be published separately. Some users are satisfied with the bundled apps and need never install additional applications. The system software manages the hardware and serves the application, which in turn serves the user. </p><p>Application software applies the power of a particular <a href="/wiki/Computing_platform" title="Computing platform">computing platform</a> or system software to a particular purpose. Some apps, such as <a href="/wiki/Microsoft_Office" title="Microsoft Office">Microsoft Office</a>, are developed in multiple versions for several different platforms; others have narrower requirements and are generally referred to by the platform they run on. For example, a <i><a href="/wiki/Geographic_information_system" title="Geographic information system">geography</a> application for <a href="/wiki/Microsoft_Windows" title="Microsoft Windows">Windows</a></i> or an <i><a href="/wiki/Android_(operating_system)" title="Android (operating system)">Android</a> application for <a href="/wiki/Educational_software" title="Educational software">education</a></i> or <i><a href="/wiki/Linux_gaming" class="mw-redirect" title="Linux gaming">Linux gaming</a></i>. Applications that run only on one platform and increase the desirability of that platform due to the popularity of the application, known as <a href="/wiki/Killer_application" title="Killer application">killer applications</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Computer_network">Computer network</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computing&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Computer network"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Computer_network" title="Computer network">Computer network</a></div> <p>A computer network, often simply referred to as a network, is a collection of hardware components and computers <a href="/wiki/Computer_network" title="Computer network">interconnected</a> by communication channels that allow the sharing of resources and information.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When at least one process in one device is able to send or receive data to or from at least one process residing in a remote device, the two devices are said to be in a network. Networks may be classified according to a wide variety of characteristics such as the medium used to transport the data, <a href="/wiki/Communications_protocol" class="mw-redirect" title="Communications protocol">communications protocol</a> used, scale, <a href="/wiki/Network_topology" title="Network topology">topology</a>, and organizational scope. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Communications_protocol" class="mw-redirect" title="Communications protocol">Communications protocols</a> define the rules and data formats for exchanging information in a computer network, and provide the basis for <a href="/wiki/Computer_network_programming" title="Computer network programming">network programming</a>. One well-known communications protocol is <a href="/wiki/Ethernet" title="Ethernet">Ethernet</a>, a hardware and <a href="/wiki/Link_layer" title="Link layer">link layer</a> standard that is ubiquitous in <a href="/wiki/Local_area_network" title="Local area network">local area networks</a>. Another common protocol is the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Protocol_Suite" class="mw-redirect" title="Internet Protocol Suite">Internet Protocol Suite</a>, which defines a set of protocols for internetworking, i.e. for data communication between multiple networks, host-to-host data transfer, and application-specific data transmission formats.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Computer networking is sometimes considered a sub-discipline of <a href="/wiki/Electrical_engineering" title="Electrical engineering">electrical engineering</a>, telecommunications, <a href="/wiki/Computer_science" title="Computer science">computer science</a>, information technology, or <a href="/wiki/Computer_engineering" title="Computer engineering">computer engineering</a>, since it relies upon the theoretical and practical application of these disciplines.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Internet">Internet</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computing&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Internet"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a></div> <p>The Internet is a global system of interconnected <a href="/wiki/Computer_network" title="Computer network">computer networks</a> that use the standard <a href="/wiki/Internet_Protocol_Suite" class="mw-redirect" title="Internet Protocol Suite">Internet Protocol Suite</a> (TCP/IP) to serve billions of users. This includes millions of private, public, academic, business, and government networks, ranging in scope from local to global. These networks are linked by a broad array of electronic, wireless, and optical networking technologies. The Internet carries an extensive range of information resources and services, such as the inter-linked <a href="/wiki/Hypertext" title="Hypertext">hypertext</a> documents of the <a href="/wiki/World_Wide_Web" title="World Wide Web">World Wide Web</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Information_infrastructure" title="Information infrastructure">infrastructure</a> to support email.<sup id="cite_ref-Britannica_Internet_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Britannica_Internet-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Computer_programming">Computer programming</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computing&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Computer programming"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Computer_programming" title="Computer programming">Computer programming</a> and <a href="/wiki/Software_engineering" title="Software engineering">Software engineering</a></div> <p>Computer programming is the process of writing, testing, debugging, and maintaining the source code and documentation of computer programs. This source code is written in a <a href="/wiki/Programming_language" title="Programming language">programming language</a>, which is an <a href="/wiki/Artificial_language" title="Artificial language">artificial language</a> that is often more restrictive than <a href="/wiki/Natural_language" title="Natural language">natural languages</a>, but easily translated by the computer. Programming is used to invoke some desired behavior (customization) from the machine.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Writing high-quality source code requires knowledge of both the computer science domain and the domain in which the application will be used. The highest-quality software is thus often developed by a team of domain experts, each a specialist in some area of development.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the term <i>programmer</i> may apply to a range of program quality, from <a href="/wiki/Hacker_(hobbyist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hacker (hobbyist)">hacker</a> to <a href="/wiki/Hacker_(programmer_subculture)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hacker (programmer subculture)">open source contributor</a> to professional. It is also possible for a single programmer to do most or all of the computer programming needed to generate the <a href="/wiki/Proof_of_concept" title="Proof of concept">proof of concept</a> to launch a new <a href="/wiki/Killer_application" title="Killer application">killer application</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Computer_programmer">Computer programmer</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computing&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Computer programmer"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Programmer" title="Programmer">Programmer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Software_engineer" class="mw-redirect" title="Software engineer">Software engineer</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Software_developer" class="mw-redirect" title="Software developer">Software developer</a></div> <p>A programmer, computer programmer, or coder is a person who writes computer software. The term <i>computer programmer</i> can refer to a specialist in one area of <a href="/wiki/Computer_programming" title="Computer programming">computer programming</a> or to a generalist who writes code for many kinds of software. One who practices or professes a formal approach to programming may also be known as a programmer analyst.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> A programmer's primary computer language (<a href="/wiki/C_(programming_language)" title="C (programming language)">C</a>, <a href="/wiki/C%2B%2B" title="C++">C++</a>, <a href="/wiki/Java_(programming_language)" title="Java (programming language)">Java</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lisp_(programming_language)" title="Lisp (programming language)">Lisp</a>, <a href="/wiki/Python_(programming_language)" title="Python (programming language)">Python</a>, etc.) is often prefixed to the above titles, and those who work in a web environment often prefix their titles with <i>Web</i>. The term <i>programmer</i> can be used to refer to a <a href="/wiki/Software_developer" class="mw-redirect" title="Software developer">software developer</a>, software engineer, <a href="/wiki/Computer_scientist" title="Computer scientist">computer scientist</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Software_analyst" title="Software analyst">software analyst</a>. However, members of these <a href="/wiki/Profession" title="Profession">professions</a> typically possess other software engineering skills, beyond programming.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Computer_industry">Computer industry</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computing&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Computer industry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Computer_Industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer Industry">Computer Industry</a> and <a href="/wiki/Software_industry" title="Software industry">Software industry</a></div> <p>The computer industry is made up of businesses involved in developing computer software, designing computer hardware and <a href="/wiki/Computer_networking" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer networking">computer networking</a> infrastructures, manufacturing computer components, and providing information technology services, including <a href="/wiki/System_administrator" title="System administrator">system administration</a> and maintenance.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The software industry includes businesses engaged in <a href="/wiki/Software_development" title="Software development">development</a>, <a href="/wiki/Software_maintenance" title="Software maintenance">maintenance</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Software_publisher" title="Software publisher">publication</a> of software. The industry also includes software <a href="/wiki/Service_(economics)" title="Service (economics)">services</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Training" title="Training">training</a>, <a href="/wiki/Software_documentation" title="Software documentation">documentation</a>, and consulting.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sub-disciplines_of_computing"><span class="anchor" id="DISCIPLINES"></span>Sub-disciplines of computing</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computing&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Sub-disciplines of computing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Computer_engineering">Computer engineering</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computing&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Computer engineering"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Computer_engineering" title="Computer engineering">Computer engineering</a></div> <p>Computer engineering is a <a href="/wiki/Academic_discipline" title="Academic discipline">discipline</a> that integrates several fields of <a href="/wiki/Electrical_engineering" title="Electrical engineering">electrical engineering</a> and <a href="/wiki/Computer_science" title="Computer science">computer science</a> required to develop computer hardware and software.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Computer engineers usually have training in <a href="/wiki/Electronic_engineering" title="Electronic engineering">electronic engineering</a> (or <a href="/wiki/Electrical_engineering" title="Electrical engineering">electrical engineering</a>), <a href="/wiki/Software_design" title="Software design">software design</a>, and hardware-software integration, rather than just software engineering or electronic engineering. Computer engineers are involved in many hardware and software aspects of computing, from the design of individual <a href="/wiki/Microprocessor" title="Microprocessor">microprocessors</a>, personal computers, and <a href="/wiki/Supercomputer" title="Supercomputer">supercomputers</a>, to <a href="/wiki/Circuit_design" title="Circuit design">circuit design</a>. This field of engineering includes not only the design of hardware within its own domain, but also the interactions between hardware and the context in which it operates.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Software_engineering">Software engineering</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computing&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Software engineering"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Software_engineering" title="Software engineering">Software engineering</a></div> <p>Software engineering is the application of a systematic, disciplined, and quantifiable approach to the design, development, operation, and maintenance of software, and the study of these approaches. That is, the application of engineering to software.<sup id="cite_ref-BoDu04_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BoDu04-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is the act of using insights to conceive, model and scale a solution to a problem. The first reference to the term is the 1968 <a href="/wiki/NATO_Software_Engineering_Conferences" title="NATO Software Engineering Conferences">NATO Software Engineering Conference</a>, and was intended to provoke thought regarding the perceived <i><a href="/wiki/Software_crisis" title="Software crisis">software crisis</a></i> at the time.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Software_development" title="Software development">Software development</a>, a widely used and more generic term, does not necessarily subsume the engineering paradigm. The generally accepted concepts of Software Engineering as an engineering discipline have been specified in the Guide to the <a href="/wiki/Software_Engineering_Body_of_Knowledge" title="Software Engineering Body of Knowledge">Software Engineering Body of Knowledge</a> (SWEBOK). The SWEBOK has become an internationally accepted standard in ISO/IEC TR 19759:2015.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Computer_science">Computer science</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computing&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Computer science"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Computer_science" title="Computer science">Computer science</a> and <a href="/wiki/Computer_scientist" title="Computer scientist">Computer scientist</a></div> <p>Computer science or computing science (abbreviated CS or Comp Sci) is the <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">scientific</a> and practical approach to <a href="/wiki/Computation" title="Computation">computation</a> and its applications. A <a href="/wiki/Computer_scientist" title="Computer scientist">computer scientist</a> specializes in the theory of computation and the design of computational systems.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Its subfields can be divided into practical techniques for its implementation and application in <a href="/wiki/Computer_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer system">computer systems</a>, and purely theoretical areas. Some, such as <a href="/wiki/Computational_complexity_theory" title="Computational complexity theory">computational complexity theory</a>, which studies fundamental properties of <a href="/wiki/Computational_problem" title="Computational problem">computational problems</a>, are highly abstract, while others, such as <a href="/wiki/Computer_graphics_(computer_science)" title="Computer graphics (computer science)">computer graphics</a>, emphasize real-world applications. Others focus on the challenges in implementing computations. For example, <a href="/wiki/Programming_language_theory" title="Programming language theory">programming language theory</a> studies approaches to the description of computations, while the study of <a href="/wiki/Computer_programming" title="Computer programming">computer programming</a> investigates the use of <a href="/wiki/Programming_language" title="Programming language">programming languages</a> and <a href="/wiki/Complex_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Complex systems">complex systems</a>. The field of <a href="/wiki/Human%E2%80%93computer_interaction" title="Human–computer interaction">human–computer interaction</a> focuses on the challenges in making computers and computations useful, usable, and universally accessible to humans. <sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cybersecurity">Cybersecurity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computing&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Cybersecurity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Computer_security" title="Computer security">Computer security</a></div><p>The field of cybersecurity pertains to the protection of computer systems and networks. This includes <a href="/wiki/Information_privacy" title="Information privacy">information and data privacy</a>, preventing <a href="/wiki/Denial-of-service_attack" title="Denial-of-service attack">disruption</a> of IT services and prevention of theft of and damage to hardware, software, and data.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Data_science">Data science</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computing&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Data science"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Data_science" title="Data science">Data science</a></div> <p>Data science is a field that uses scientific and computing tools to extract information and insights from data, driven by the increasing volume and availability of data.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Data_mining" title="Data mining">Data mining</a>, <a href="/wiki/Big_data" title="Big data">big data</a>, statistics, <a href="/wiki/Machine_learning" title="Machine learning">machine learning</a> and <a href="/wiki/Deep_learning" title="Deep learning">deep learning</a> are all interwoven with data science.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Information_systems">Information systems</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computing&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Information systems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Information_system" title="Information system">Information system</a></div> <p>Information systems (IS) is the study of complementary networks of hardware and software (see information technology) that people and organizations use to collect, filter, process, create, and distribute <a href="/wiki/Data_(computing)" class="mw-redirect" title="Data (computing)">data</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Association_for_Computing_Machinery" title="Association for Computing Machinery">ACM</a>'s <i>Computing Careers</i> describes IS as: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"> <p>"A majority of IS [degree] programs are located in business schools; however, they may have different names such as management information systems, computer information systems, or business information systems. All IS degrees combine business and computing topics, but the emphasis between technical and organizational issues varies among programs. For example, programs differ substantially in the amount of programming required."<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </blockquote> <p>The study of IS bridges business and <a href="/wiki/Computer_science" title="Computer science">computer science</a>, using the theoretical foundations of information and <a href="/wiki/Computation" title="Computation">computation</a> to study various business models and related <a href="/wiki/Algorithm" title="Algorithm">algorithmic</a> processes within a computer science discipline.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The field of Computer Information Systems (CIS) studies computers and algorithmic processes, including their principles, their software and hardware designs, their applications, and their impact on society<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while IS emphasizes functionality over design.<sup id="cite_ref-Freeman_Hart_2004_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Freeman_Hart_2004-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Information_technology">Information technology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computing&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Information technology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Information_technology" title="Information technology">Information technology</a></div> <p>Information technology (IT) is the application of computers and <a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_equipment" title="Telecommunications equipment">telecommunications equipment</a> to store, retrieve, transmit, and manipulate data,<sup id="cite_ref-DOP_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DOP-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> often in the context of a business or other enterprise.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term is commonly used as a synonym for computers and computer networks, but also encompasses other information distribution technologies such as television and telephones. Several <a href="/wiki/Computer_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer industry">industries</a> are associated with information technology, including computer hardware, software, <a href="/wiki/Electronics" title="Electronics">electronics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor">semiconductors</a>, internet, <a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_equipment" title="Telecommunications equipment">telecom equipment</a>, <a href="/wiki/E-commerce" title="E-commerce">e-commerce</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Computer_services" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer services">computer services</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-DMC_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DMC-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ralston2000_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ralston2000-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Research_and_emerging_technologies">Research and emerging technologies</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computing&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Research and emerging technologies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_computer_science" title="List of unsolved problems in computer science">List of unsolved problems in computer science</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/DNA_computing" title="DNA computing">DNA-based computing</a> and <a href="/wiki/Quantum_computing" title="Quantum computing">quantum computing</a> are areas of active research for both computing hardware and software, such as the development of <a href="/wiki/Quantum_algorithm" title="Quantum algorithm">quantum algorithms</a>. Potential infrastructure for future technologies includes <a href="/wiki/DNA_origami" title="DNA origami">DNA origami</a> on photolithography<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Quantum_antenna&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Quantum antenna (page does not exist)">quantum antennae</a> for transferring information between ion traps.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 2011, researchers had <a href="/wiki/Qubit#Quantum_entanglement" title="Qubit">entangled</a> 14 <a href="/wiki/Qubit" title="Qubit">qubits</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fast <a href="/wiki/Digital_circuit" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital circuit">digital circuits</a>, including those based on <a href="/wiki/Josephson_junction" class="mw-redirect" title="Josephson junction">Josephson junctions</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rapid_single_flux_quantum" title="Rapid single flux quantum">rapid single flux quantum</a> technology, are becoming more nearly realizable with the discovery of <a href="/wiki/Nanoscale_superconductor" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanoscale superconductor">nanoscale superconductors</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Fiber-optic and photonic (optical) devices, which already have been used to transport data over long distances, are starting to be used by data centers, along with CPU and semiconductor memory components. This allows the separation of RAM from CPU by optical interconnects.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> IBM has created an <a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">integrated circuit</a> with both electronic and optical information processing in one chip. This is denoted CMOS-integrated nanophotonics (CINP).<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One benefit of optical interconnects is that motherboards, which formerly required a certain kind of system on a chip (SoC), can now move formerly dedicated memory and network controllers off the motherboards, spreading the controllers out onto the rack. This allows standardization of backplane interconnects and motherboards for multiple types of SoCs, which allows more timely upgrades of CPUs.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another field of research is <a href="/wiki/Spintronics" title="Spintronics">spintronics</a>. Spintronics can provide computing power and storage, without heat buildup.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some research is being done on hybrid chips, which combine <a href="/wiki/Photonics" title="Photonics">photonics</a> and spintronics.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is also research ongoing on combining <a href="/wiki/Plasmonics" title="Plasmonics">plasmonics</a>, photonics, and electronics.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cloud_computing">Cloud computing</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computing&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Cloud computing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Cloud computing is a model that allows for the use of computing resources, such as servers or applications, without the need for interaction between the owner of these resources and the end user. It is typically offered as a service, making it an example of <a href="/wiki/Software_as_a_service" title="Software as a service">Software as a Service</a>, <a href="/wiki/Platform_as_a_service" title="Platform as a service">Platforms as a Service</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Infrastructure_as_a_service" title="Infrastructure as a service">Infrastructure as a Service</a>, depending on the functionality offered. Key characteristics include on-demand access, broad network access, and the capability of rapid scaling.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It allows individual users or small business to benefit from <a href="/wiki/Economies_of_scale" title="Economies of scale">economies of scale</a>. </p><p>One area of interest in this field is its potential to support energy efficiency. Allowing thousands of instances of computation to occur on one single machine instead of thousands of individual machines could help save energy. It could also ease the transition to renewable energy source, since it would suffice to power one server farm with renewable energy, rather than millions of homes and offices.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, this centralized computing model poses several challenges, especially in security and privacy. Current legislation does not sufficiently protect users from companies mishandling their data on company servers. This suggests potential for further legislative regulations on cloud computing and tech companies.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Quantum_computing">Quantum computing</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computing&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Quantum computing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Quantum_computing" title="Quantum computing">Quantum computing</a> is an area of research that brings together the disciplines of computer science, information theory, and quantum physics. While the idea of information as part of physics is relatively new, there appears to be a strong tie between information theory and quantum mechanics.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Whereas traditional computing operates on a binary system of ones and zeros, quantum computing uses <a href="/wiki/Qubit" title="Qubit">qubits</a>. Qubits are capable of being in a superposition, i.e. in both states of one and zero, simultaneously. Thus, the value of the qubit is not between 1 and 0, but changes depending on when it is measured. This trait of qubits is known as <a href="/wiki/Quantum_entanglement" title="Quantum entanglement">quantum entanglement</a>, and is the core idea of quantum computing that allows quantum computers to do large scale computations.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Quantum computing is often used for scientific research in cases where traditional computers do not have the computing power to do the necessary calculations, such in <a href="/wiki/Molecular_modelling" title="Molecular modelling">molecular modeling</a>. Large molecules and their reactions are far too complex for traditional computers to calculate, but the computational power of quantum computers could provide a tool to perform such calculations.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computing&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_science" title="Computational science">Computational science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_thinking" title="Computational thinking">Computational thinking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_algebra" title="Computer algebra">Computer algebra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confidential_computing" title="Confidential computing">Confidential computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creative_computing" title="Creative computing">Creative computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data-centric_computing" title="Data-centric computing">Data-centric computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_data_processing" title="Electronic data processing">Electronic data processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enthusiast_computing" class="mw-redirect" title="Enthusiast computing">Enthusiast computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Computing/Index_of_history_of_computing_articles" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Computing/Index of history of computing articles">Index of history of computing articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instruction_set_architecture" title="Instruction set architecture">Instruction set architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lehmer_sieve" title="Lehmer sieve">Lehmer sieve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liquid_computing" title="Liquid computing">Liquid computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_computer_term_etymologies" title="List of computer term etymologies">List of computer term etymologies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_computing" title="Mobile computing">Mobile computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_computers" title="Outline of computers">Outline of computers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_computing" title="Outline of computing">Outline of computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_computing" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific computing">Scientific computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spatial_computing" title="Spatial computing">Spatial computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubiquitous_computing" title="Ubiquitous computing">Ubiquitous computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unconventional_computing" title="Unconventional computing">Unconventional computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_computing" title="Urban computing">Urban computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_reality" title="Virtual reality">Virtual reality</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computing&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-:0-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dl.acm.org/ccs">"Computing Classification System"</a>. <i>Digital Library</i>. 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"New Perspectives Computer Concepts Comprehensive | 21st Edition". <i>Cengage</i>. 21st edition. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780357674819" title="Special:BookSources/9780357674819"><bdi>9780357674819</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cengage&rft.atitle=New+Perspectives+Computer+Concepts+Comprehensive+%7C+21st+Edition&rft.volume=21st+edition&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=9780357674819&rft.aulast=Parsons&rft.aufirst=June&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://news.codecademy.com/5-skills-developers-need-beyond-writing-code/">"5 Skills Developers Need Beyond Writing Code"</a>. 23 January 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=5+Skills+Developers+Need+Beyond+Writing+Code&rft.date=2019-01-23&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnews.codecademy.com%2F5-skills-developers-need-beyond-writing-code%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIEEE_Computer_SocietyACM2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/IEEE_Computer_Society" title="IEEE Computer Society">IEEE Computer Society</a>; <a href="/wiki/Association_for_Computing_Machinery" title="Association for Computing Machinery">ACM</a> (12 December 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190612130313/https://www.acm.org/education/education/curric_vols/CE-Final-Report.pdf"><i>Computer Engineering 2004: Curriculum Guidelines for Undergraduate Degree Programs in Computer Engineering</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. p. iii. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.acm.org/education/education/curric_vols/CE-Final-Report.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 12 June 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 December</span> 2012</span>. <q>Computer System engineering has traditionally been viewed as a combination ofboth electronic engineering (EE) and computer science (CS).</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Computer+Engineering+2004%3A+Curriculum+Guidelines+for+Undergraduate+Degree+Programs+in+Computer+Engineering&rft.pages=iii&rft.date=2004-12-12&rft.au=IEEE+Computer+Society&rft.au=ACM&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.acm.org%2Feducation%2Feducation%2Fcurric_vols%2FCE-Final-Report.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrinity_College_Dublin" class="citation web cs1">Trinity College Dublin. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tcd.ie/Engineering/about/what_is_eng/computer_eng_intro.html">"What is Computer System Engineering"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 April</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=What+is+Computer+System+Engineering&rft.au=Trinity+College+Dublin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tcd.ie%2FEngineering%2Fabout%2Fwhat_is_eng%2Fcomputer_eng_intro.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputing" class="Z3988"></span>, "Computer engineers need not only to understand how computer systems themselves work, but also how they integrate into the larger picture. Consider the car. A modern car contains many separate computer systems for controlling such things as the engine timing, the brakes and the air bags. To be able to design and implement such a car, the computer engineer needs a broad theoretical understanding of all these various subsystems & how they interact.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BoDu04-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-BoDu04_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbranMooreBourqueDupuis2004" class="citation book cs1">Abran, Alain; Moore, James W.; Bourque, Pierre; Dupuis, Robert; Tripp, Leonard L. (2004). <i>Guide to the Software Engineering Body of Knowledge</i>. IEEE. p. 1. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7695-2330-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7695-2330-9"><bdi>978-0-7695-2330-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Guide+to+the+Software+Engineering+Body+of+Knowledge&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=IEEE&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-7695-2330-9&rft.aulast=Abran&rft.aufirst=Alain&rft.au=Moore%2C+James+W.&rft.au=Bourque%2C+Pierre&rft.au=Dupuis%2C+Robert&rft.au=Tripp%2C+Leonard+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFACM2006" class="citation web cs1">ACM (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110617053818/http://computingcareers.acm.org/?page_id=12">"Computing Degrees & Careers"</a>. 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(2009), "IT", <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oxfordreference.com/views/ENTRY.html?subview=Main&entry=t83.e1592"><i>A Dictionary of Physics</i></a>, Oxford University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199233991" title="Special:BookSources/9780199233991"><bdi>9780199233991</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 August</span> 2012</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=IT&rft.btitle=A+Dictionary+of+Physics&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9780199233991&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordreference.com%2Fviews%2FENTRY.html%3Fsubview%3DMain%26entry%3Dt83.e1592&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputing" class="Z3988"></span> <span style="font-size:0.95em; font-size:95%; color: var( --color-subtle, #555 )">(subscription required)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130415234011/http://foldoc.org/Information+Technology">"Free on-line dictionary of computing (FOLDOC)"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://foldoc.org/information+technology">the original</a> on 15 April 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 February</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Free+on-line+dictionary+of+computing+%28FOLDOC%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffoldoc.org%2Finformation%2Btechnology&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-DMC-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-DMC_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChandlerMunday2011" class="citation cs2">Chandler, Daniel; Munday, Rod (January 2011), "Information technology", <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oxfordreference.com/views/ENTRY.html?subview=Main&entry=t326.e1343"><i>A Dictionary of Media and Communication</i></a> (first ed.), Oxford University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-956875-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-956875-8"><bdi>978-0-19-956875-8</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 August</span> 2012</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Information+technology&rft.btitle=A+Dictionary+of+Media+and+Communication&rft.edition=first&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2011-01&rft.isbn=978-0-19-956875-8&rft.aulast=Chandler&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rft.au=Munday%2C+Rod&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordreference.com%2Fviews%2FENTRY.html%3Fsubview%3DMain%26entry%3Dt326.e1343&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputing" class="Z3988"></span> <span style="font-size:0.95em; font-size:95%; color: var( --color-subtle, #555 )">(subscription required)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ralston2000-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ralston2000_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">On the later more broad application of the term IT, Keary comments- "In its original application 'information technology' was appropriate to describe the convergence of technologies with application in the broad field of data storage, retrieval, processing, and dissemination. 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title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=ChemBioChem&rft.atitle=Quantum+Computing+for+Molecular+Biology%2A&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=13&rft.pages=e202300120&rft.date=2023-07-03&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F2212.12220&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F37151197&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fcbic.202300120&rft.aulast=Baiardi&rft.aufirst=Alberto&rft.au=Christandl%2C+Matthias&rft.au=Reiher%2C+Markus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fchemistry-europe.onlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2F10.1002%2Fcbic.202300120&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computing&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style 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hardware">Hardware</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Printed_circuit_board" title="Printed circuit board">Printed circuit board</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peripheral" title="Peripheral">Peripheral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">Integrated circuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Very_Large_Scale_Integration" class="mw-redirect" title="Very Large Scale Integration">Very Large Scale Integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/System_on_a_chip" title="System on a chip">Systems on Chip (SoCs)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_computing" title="Green computing">Energy consumption (Green computing)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_design_automation" title="Electronic design automation">Electronic design automation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hardware_acceleration" title="Hardware acceleration">Hardware acceleration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Processor_(computing)" title="Processor (computing)">Processor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_computer_size_categories" title="List of computer size categories">Size</a> / <a href="/wiki/Form_factor_(design)" title="Form factor (design)">Form</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Computer systems organization</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer_architecture" title="Computer architecture">Computer architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_complexity" title="Computational complexity">Computational complexity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dependability" title="Dependability">Dependability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embedded_system" title="Embedded system">Embedded system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real-time_computing" title="Real-time computing">Real-time computing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Computer_network" title="Computer network">Networks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Network_architecture" title="Network architecture">Network architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network_protocol" class="mw-redirect" title="Network protocol">Network protocol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Networking_hardware" title="Networking hardware">Network components</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network_scheduler" title="Network scheduler">Network scheduler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network_performance" title="Network performance">Network performance evaluation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network_service" title="Network service">Network service</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Software organization</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group 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<li><a href="/wiki/Programming_language" title="Programming language">Programming language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compiler_construction" class="mw-redirect" title="Compiler construction">Compiler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domain-specific_language" title="Domain-specific language">Domain-specific language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modeling_language" title="Modeling language">Modeling language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_framework" title="Software framework">Software framework</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_development_environment" title="Integrated development environment">Integrated development environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_configuration_management" title="Software configuration management">Software configuration management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Library_(computing)" title="Library (computing)">Software library</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_repository" title="Software repository">Software repository</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Software_development" title="Software development">Software development</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Control_variable_(programming)" class="mw-redirect" title="Control variable (programming)">Control variable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_development_process" title="Software development process">Software development process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Requirements_analysis" title="Requirements analysis">Requirements analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_design" title="Software design">Software design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_construction" title="Software construction">Software construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_deployment" title="Software deployment">Software deployment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_engineering" title="Software engineering">Software engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_maintenance" title="Software maintenance">Software maintenance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programming_team" title="Programming team">Programming team</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open-source_software" title="Open-source software">Open-source model</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_computation" title="Theory of computation">Theory of computation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Model_of_computation" title="Model of computation">Model of computation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stochastic_computing" title="Stochastic computing">Stochastic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formal_language" title="Formal language">Formal language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automata_theory" title="Automata theory">Automata theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computability_theory" title="Computability theory">Computability theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_complexity_theory" title="Computational complexity theory">Computational complexity theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logic_in_computer_science" title="Logic in computer science">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantics_(computer_science)" title="Semantics (computer science)">Semantics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Algorithm" title="Algorithm">Algorithms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algorithm_design" class="mw-redirect" title="Algorithm design">Algorithm design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analysis_of_algorithms" title="Analysis of algorithms">Analysis of algorithms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algorithmic_efficiency" title="Algorithmic efficiency">Algorithmic efficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Randomized_algorithm" title="Randomized algorithm">Randomized algorithm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_geometry" title="Computational geometry">Computational geometry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mathematics of <a class="mw-selflink selflink">computing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discrete_mathematics" title="Discrete mathematics">Discrete mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Probability" title="Probability">Probability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistics" title="Statistics">Statistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_software" title="Mathematical software">Mathematical software</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_theory" title="Information theory">Information theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_analysis" title="Mathematical analysis">Mathematical analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numerical_analysis" title="Numerical analysis">Numerical analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_computer_science" title="Theoretical computer science">Theoretical computer science</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Information_system" title="Information system">Information systems</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Database" title="Database">Database management system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_data_storage" title="Computer data storage">Information storage systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enterprise_information_system" title="Enterprise information system">Enterprise information system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_software" title="Social software">Social information systems</a></li> <li><a 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