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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Schizophrenia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.2</span> <span>Schizophrenia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Schizophrenia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conditions_related_to_neuronal_death" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conditions_related_to_neuronal_death"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Conditions related to neuronal death</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conditions_related_to_neuronal_death-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Amyotrophic_lateral_sclerosis_(ALS)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Amyotrophic_lateral_sclerosis_(ALS)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.1</span> <span>Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS)</span> </div> </a> <ul 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<div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.4</span> <span>Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Human_immunodeficiency_virus_(HIV)_and_Acquired_immunodeficiency_syndrome_(AIDS)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Huntington's_disease" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Huntington's_disease"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.5</span> <span>Huntington's disease</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Huntington's_disease-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Parkinson's_disease" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Parkinson's_disease"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.6</span> <span>Parkinson's disease</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Parkinson's_disease-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Other</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Treatment_focus" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Treatment_focus"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Treatment focus</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Treatment_focus-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label 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class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinolins%C3%A4ure" title="Chinolinsäure – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Chinolinsäure" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D9%88%D8%A6%DB%8C%D9%86%D9%88%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%8C%DA%A9_%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%AF" title="کوئینولینیک اسید – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="کوئینولینیک اسید" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acide_quinol%C3%A9ique" title="Acide quinoléique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Acide quinoléique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinolinezuur" title="Chinolinezuur – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Chinolinezuur" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%AD%E3%83%8E%E3%83%AA%E3%83%B3%E9%85%B8" title="キノリン酸 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="キノリン酸" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kwas_chinolinowy" title="Kwas chinolinowy – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Kwas chinolinowy" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81cido_2,3-piridinodicarbox%C3%ADlico" title="Ácido 2,3-piridinodicarboxílico – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Ácido 2,3-piridinodicarboxílico" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyselina_chinol%C3%ADnov%C3%A1" title="Kyselina chinolínová – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Kyselina chinolínová" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinolinska_kiselina" title="Hinolinska kiselina – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Hinolinska kiselina" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinolinska_kiselina" title="Hinolinska kiselina – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Hinolinska kiselina" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinoliinihappo" title="Kinoliinihappo – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kinoliinihappo" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" 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id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Dicarboxylic acid with pyridine backbone</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1268415487">.mw-parser-output .ib-chembox{border-collapse:collapse;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .ib-chembox td,.mw-parser-output .ib-chembox th{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:40%}.mw-parser-output .ib-chembox td+td{width:60%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .ib-chembox figure:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent){background:var(--background-color-inverted,#f8f9fa)}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .ib-chembox figure:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent){background:var(--background-color-inverted,#f8f9fa)}}</style> <table class="infobox ib-chembox"> <caption>Quinolinic acid </caption> <tbody><tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align:center; padding:2px;"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:2,3-Pyridine_Dicarboxylic_Acid_V.2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/2%2C3-Pyridine_Dicarboxylic_Acid_V.2.svg/180px-2%2C3-Pyridine_Dicarboxylic_Acid_V.2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="180" height="196" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/2%2C3-Pyridine_Dicarboxylic_Acid_V.2.svg/270px-2%2C3-Pyridine_Dicarboxylic_Acid_V.2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/2%2C3-Pyridine_Dicarboxylic_Acid_V.2.svg/360px-2%2C3-Pyridine_Dicarboxylic_Acid_V.2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="266" data-file-height="289" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="background: #f8eaba;color:inherit; text-align: center;">Names </th></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Preferred_IUPAC_name" title="Preferred IUPAC name">Preferred IUPAC name</a> <div style="max-width:22em; word-wrap:break-word; padding-left:1.7em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; max-width:22em;">Pyridine-2,3-dicarboxylic acid</div></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align:left;">Other names <div style="max-width:22em; word-wrap:break-word; padding-left:1.7em;">2,3-Pyridinedicarboxylic acid</div> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="background: #f8eaba;color:inherit; text-align: center;">Identifiers </th></tr> <tr> <td><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/CAS_Registry_Number" title="CAS Registry Number">CAS Number</a></div> </td> <td><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><span title="commonchemistry.cas.org"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://commonchemistry.cas.org/detail?cas_rn=89-00-9">89-00-9</a></span><sup> <span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="check" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fb/Yes_check.svg/7px-Yes_check.svg.png" decoding="async" width="7" height="7" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fb/Yes_check.svg/11px-Yes_check.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fb/Yes_check.svg/14px-Yes_check.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></span></span><span style="display:none">Y</span></sup></li></ul></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">3D model (<a href="/wiki/JSmol" class="mw-redirect" title="JSmol">JSmol</a>)</div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><span title="chemapps.stolaf.edu (3D interactive model)"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://chemapps.stolaf.edu/jmol/jmol.php?model=C1%3DCC%28%3DC%28N%3DC1%29C%28%3DO%29O%29C%28%3DO%29O">Interactive image</a></span></li></ul></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/ChEBI" title="ChEBI">ChEBI</a> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><span title="www.ebi.ac.uk"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ebi.ac.uk/chebi/searchId.do?chebiId=16675">CHEBI:16675</a></span><sup> <span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="☒" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/X_mark.svg/7px-X_mark.svg.png" decoding="async" width="7" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/X_mark.svg/11px-X_mark.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/X_mark.svg/14px-X_mark.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="525" data-file-height="600" /></span></span><span style="display:none">N</span></sup></li></ul></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/ChEMBL" title="ChEMBL">ChEMBL</a> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><span title="www.ebi.ac.uk"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ebi.ac.uk/chembl/explore/compound/ChEMBL286204">ChEMBL286204</a></span><sup> <span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="☒" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/X_mark.svg/7px-X_mark.svg.png" decoding="async" width="7" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/X_mark.svg/11px-X_mark.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/X_mark.svg/14px-X_mark.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="525" data-file-height="600" /></span></span><span style="display:none">N</span></sup></li></ul></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/ChemSpider" title="ChemSpider">ChemSpider</a> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><span title="www.chemspider.com"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.chemspider.com/Chemical-Structure.1037.html">1037</a></span><sup> <span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="☒" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/X_mark.svg/7px-X_mark.svg.png" decoding="async" width="7" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/X_mark.svg/11px-X_mark.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/X_mark.svg/14px-X_mark.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="525" data-file-height="600" /></span></span><span style="display:none">N</span></sup></li></ul></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/ECHA_InfoCard" class="mw-redirect" title="ECHA InfoCard"><span title="echa.europa.eu">ECHA InfoCard</span></a> </td> <td><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://echa.europa.eu/substance-information/-/substanceinfo/100.001.704">100.001.704</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q411945#P2566" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/European_Community_number" title="European Community number"><span title="European Community number (chemical identifier)">EC Number</span></a> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>201-874-8</li></ul></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/KEGG" title="KEGG">KEGG</a> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><span title="www.kegg.jp"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.kegg.jp/entry/C03722">C03722</a></span><sup> <span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="☒" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/X_mark.svg/7px-X_mark.svg.png" decoding="async" width="7" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/X_mark.svg/11px-X_mark.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/X_mark.svg/14px-X_mark.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="525" data-file-height="600" /></span></span><span style="display:none">N</span></sup></li></ul></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Medical_Subject_Headings" title="Medical Subject Headings">MeSH</a> </td> <td><span title="www.nlm.nih.gov"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nlm.nih.gov/cgi/mesh/2014/MB_cgi?mode=&term=D017378">D017378</a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/PubChem" title="PubChem">PubChem</a> <abbr title="Compound ID">CID</abbr></div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><span title="pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/1066">1066</a></span></li></ul></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Unique_Ingredient_Identifier" title="Unique Ingredient Identifier">UNII</a> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><span title="precision.fda.gov"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://precision.fda.gov/uniisearch/srs/unii/F6F0HK1URN">F6F0HK1URN</a></span><sup> <span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="check" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fb/Yes_check.svg/7px-Yes_check.svg.png" decoding="async" width="7" height="7" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fb/Yes_check.svg/11px-Yes_check.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fb/Yes_check.svg/14px-Yes_check.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></span></span><span style="display:none">Y</span></sup></li></ul></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/CompTox_Chemicals_Dashboard" title="CompTox Chemicals Dashboard">CompTox Dashboard</a> <span style="font-weight:normal">(<abbr title="U.S. Environmental Protection Agency">EPA</abbr>)</span></div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><span title="comptox.epa.gov"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://comptox.epa.gov/dashboard/chemical/details/DTXSID8041327">DTXSID8041327</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q411945#P3117" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></span></li></ul></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold; text-align:left; font-weight:normal;"><div><a href="/wiki/International_Chemical_Identifier" title="International Chemical Identifier">InChI</a></div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0; word-break:break-all;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><div style="border-top:1px solid #ccc; padding:0.2em 0 0.2em 1.5em; text-align:left;"><div style="word-wrap:break-word; text-indent:-1.5em; font-size:97%; line-height:120%;">InChI=1S/C7H5NO4/c9-6(10)4-2-1-3-8-5(4)7(11)12/h1-3H,(H,9,10)(H,11,12)<sup> <span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="☒" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/X_mark.svg/7px-X_mark.svg.png" decoding="async" width="7" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/X_mark.svg/11px-X_mark.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/X_mark.svg/14px-X_mark.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="525" data-file-height="600" /></span></span><span style="display:none">N</span></sup></div><div style="word-wrap:break-word; text-indent:-1.5em; font-size:97%; line-height:120%;">Key: GJAWHXHKYYXBSV-UHFFFAOYSA-N<sup> <span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="☒" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/X_mark.svg/7px-X_mark.svg.png" decoding="async" width="7" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/X_mark.svg/11px-X_mark.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/X_mark.svg/14px-X_mark.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="525" data-file-height="600" /></span></span><span style="display:none">N</span></sup></div></div></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><div style="border-top:1px solid #ccc; padding:0.2em 0 0.2em 1.5em; text-align:left;"><div style="word-wrap:break-word; text-indent:-1.5em; font-size:97%; line-height:120%;">InChI=1/C7H5NO4/c9-6(10)4-2-1-3-8-5(4)7(11)12/h1-3H,(H,9,10)(H,11,12)</div><div style="word-wrap:break-word; text-indent:-1.5em; font-size:97%; line-height:120%;">Key: GJAWHXHKYYXBSV-UHFFFAOYAW</div></div></li></ul> </div> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold; text-align:left; font-weight:normal;"><div><a href="/wiki/Simplified_molecular-input_line-entry_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Simplified molecular-input line-entry system">SMILES</a></div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0; word-break:break-all;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><div style="border-top:1px solid #ccc; padding:0.2em 0 0.2em 1.6em; word-wrap:break-word; text-indent:-1.5em; text-align:left; font-size:97%; line-height:120%;">C1=CC(=C(N=C1)C(=O)O)C(=O)O</div></li></ul> </div> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="background: #f8eaba;color:inherit; text-align: center;">Properties </th></tr> <tr> <td><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Chemical_formula" title="Chemical formula">Chemical formula</a></div> </td> <td>C<sub>7</sub>H<sub>5</sub>NO<sub>4</sub>  </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Molar_mass" title="Molar mass">Molar mass</a> </td> <td>167.12 g/mol    </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Melting_point" title="Melting point">Melting point</a> </td> <td>185 to 190 °C (365 to 374 °F; 458 to 463 K) (decomposes) </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="background: #f8eaba;color:inherit; text-align: center;">Hazards </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Safety_data_sheet" title="Safety data sheet">Safety data sheet</a> (SDS) </td> <td><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chemcas.org/chemical/msds/cas/AAA/AAA11414-14.asp">External MSDS</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align:left; background:#f8eaba; color:inherit; border:1px solid #a2a9b1;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their <a href="/wiki/Standard_state" title="Standard state">standard state</a> (at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa).</div> <div style="margin-top: 0.3em;"><div style="text-align:center;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="☒" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/X_mark.svg/12px-X_mark.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/X_mark.svg/18px-X_mark.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/X_mark.svg/24px-X_mark.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="525" data-file-height="600" /></span></span><span style="display:none">N</span> <span class="reflink plainlinks nourlexpansion"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:ComparePages&rev1=353127054&page2=Quinolinic+acid">verify</a></span> (<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Chemicals/Chembox_validation" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Chemicals/Chembox validation">what is</a> <sup><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="check" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fb/Yes_check.svg/7px-Yes_check.svg.png" decoding="async" width="7" height="7" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fb/Yes_check.svg/11px-Yes_check.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fb/Yes_check.svg/14px-Yes_check.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></span></span><span style="display:none">Y</span><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="☒" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/X_mark.svg/7px-X_mark.svg.png" decoding="async" width="7" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/X_mark.svg/11px-X_mark.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/X_mark.svg/14px-X_mark.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="525" data-file-height="600" /></span></span><span style="display:none">N</span></sup> ?) </div></div> <div style="margin-top: 0.3em; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Chemical_infobox#References" title="Wikipedia:Chemical infobox">Infobox references</a></div> </td></tr> </tbody></table><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Chemical compound</div> <p><b>Quinolinic acid</b> (abbreviated <b>QUIN</b> or <b>QA</b>), also known as pyridine-2,3-dicarboxylic acid, is a <a href="/wiki/Dicarboxylic_acid" title="Dicarboxylic acid">dicarboxylic acid</a> with a <a href="/wiki/Pyridine" title="Pyridine">pyridine</a> backbone. It is a colorless <a href="/wiki/Solid" title="Solid">solid</a>. It is the biosynthetic <a href="/wiki/Precursor_(chemistry)" title="Precursor (chemistry)">precursor</a> to <a href="/wiki/Niacin_(substance)" class="mw-redirect" title="Niacin (substance)">niacin</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Ashihara_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ashihara-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Quinolinic acid is a <a href="/wiki/Downstream_product" class="mw-redirect" title="Downstream product">downstream product</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Kynurenine_pathway" title="Kynurenine pathway">kynurenine pathway</a>, which <a href="/wiki/Metabolizes" class="mw-redirect" title="Metabolizes">metabolizes</a> the <a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">amino acid</a> <a href="/wiki/Tryptophan" title="Tryptophan">tryptophan</a>. It acts as an <a href="/wiki/NMDA_receptor" title="NMDA receptor">NMDA receptor</a> <a href="/wiki/Agonist" title="Agonist">agonist</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid8720470_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid8720470-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Quinolinic acid has a potent <a href="/wiki/Neurotoxic" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurotoxic">neurotoxic</a> effect. Studies have demonstrated that quinolinic acid may be involved in many <a href="/wiki/Psychiatric_disorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychiatric disorder">psychiatric disorders</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neurodegenerative" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurodegenerative">neurodegenerative</a> processes in the <a href="/wiki/Brain" title="Brain">brain</a>, as well as other disorders. Within the brain, quinolinic acid is only produced by activated <a href="/wiki/Microglia" title="Microglia">microglia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Macrophages" class="mw-redirect" title="Macrophages">macrophages</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Quinolinic_acid&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1949 L. Henderson was one of the earliest to describe quinolinic acid. Lapin followed up this research by demonstrating that quinolinic acid could induce <a href="/wiki/Convulsion" title="Convulsion">convulsions</a> when injected into mice <a href="/wiki/Brain_ventricle" class="mw-redirect" title="Brain ventricle">brain ventricles</a>. However, it was not until 1981 that Stone and Perkins showed that quinolinic acid activates the <a href="/wiki/NMDA_receptor" title="NMDA receptor"><i>N</i>-methyl-<span class="smallcaps"><span style="font-variant: small-caps; text-transform: lowercase;">D</span></span>-aspartate receptor</a> (NMDAR). After this, Schwarcz demonstrated that elevated quinolinic acid levels could lead to <a href="/wiki/Axon" title="Axon">axonal</a> <a href="/wiki/Neurodegeneration" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurodegeneration">neurodegeneration</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-History_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-History-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Synthesis">Synthesis</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Quinolinic_acid&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Synthesis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One of the earliest reported syntheses of this quinolinic acid was by <a href="/wiki/Zdenko_Hans_Skraup" title="Zdenko Hans Skraup">Zdenko Hans Skraup</a>, who found that <a href="/wiki/Methyl" class="mw-redirect" title="Methyl">methyl</a>-substituted <a href="/wiki/Quinolines" class="mw-redirect" title="Quinolines">quinolines</a> could be <a href="/wiki/Oxidized" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxidized">oxidized</a> to quinolinic acid by potassium permanganate.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This compound is commercially available. It is generally obtained by the oxidation of quinoline. <a href="/wiki/Oxidants" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxidants">Oxidants</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Ozone" title="Ozone">ozone</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_peroxide" title="Hydrogen peroxide">hydrogen peroxide</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Potassium_permanganate" title="Potassium permanganate">potassium permanganate</a> have been used. Electrolysis is able to perform the transformation as well.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Quinolinic acid may undergo further <a href="/wiki/Decarboxylation" title="Decarboxylation">decarboxylation</a> to nicotinic acid (<a href="/wiki/Niacin_(substance)" class="mw-redirect" title="Niacin (substance)">niacin</a>): </p> <dl><dd><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Synthesis_Niacin_I.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Synthesis_Niacin_I.svg/400px-Synthesis_Niacin_I.svg.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="61" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Synthesis_Niacin_I.svg/600px-Synthesis_Niacin_I.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Synthesis_Niacin_I.svg/800px-Synthesis_Niacin_I.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="620" data-file-height="95" /></a></span></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Biosynthesis">Biosynthesis</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Quinolinic_acid&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Biosynthesis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="From_aspartate">From aspartate</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Quinolinic_acid&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: From aspartate"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Oxidation of <a href="/wiki/Aspartate" class="mw-redirect" title="Aspartate">aspartate</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme">enzyme</a> aspartate oxidase gives <a href="/wiki/Iminosuccinate" class="mw-redirect" title="Iminosuccinate">iminosuccinate</a>, containing the two <a href="/wiki/Carboxylic_acid" title="Carboxylic acid">carboxylic acid</a> groups that are found in quinolinic acid. <a href="/wiki/Condensation" title="Condensation">Condensation</a> of iminosuccinate with <a href="/wiki/Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate" class="mw-redirect" title="Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate">glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate</a>, mediated by <a href="/wiki/Quinolinate_synthase" title="Quinolinate synthase">quinolinate synthase</a>, affords quinolinic acid.<sup id="cite_ref-Ashihara_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ashihara-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Catabolism_of_tryptophan">Catabolism of tryptophan</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Quinolinic_acid&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Catabolism of tryptophan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kynurenine_pathway_wordless.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Kynurenine_pathway_wordless.svg/280px-Kynurenine_pathway_wordless.svg.png" decoding="async" width="280" height="468" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Kynurenine_pathway_wordless.svg/420px-Kynurenine_pathway_wordless.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Kynurenine_pathway_wordless.svg/560px-Kynurenine_pathway_wordless.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="428" data-file-height="715" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Kynurenine_pathway" title="Kynurenine pathway">Kynurenine pathway</a>, which connects quinolinic acid to tryptophan. The pathway is named for the first intermediate, <a href="/wiki/Kynurenine" title="Kynurenine">Kynurenine</a>, which is a precursor to <a href="/wiki/Kynurenic_acid" title="Kynurenic acid">kynurenic acid</a> and <a href="/wiki/3-Hydroxykynurenine" title="3-Hydroxykynurenine">3-hydroxykynurenine</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Quinolinic acid is a <a href="/wiki/Byproduct" class="mw-redirect" title="Byproduct">byproduct</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Kynurenine_pathway" title="Kynurenine pathway">kynurenine pathway</a>, which is responsible for <a href="/wiki/Catabolism" title="Catabolism">catabolism</a> of tryptophan in <a href="/wiki/Mammals" class="mw-redirect" title="Mammals">mammals</a>. This pathway is important for its production of the <a href="/wiki/Coenzyme" class="mw-redirect" title="Coenzyme">coenzyme</a> <a href="/wiki/Nicotinamide_adenine_dinucleotide" title="Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide">nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide</a> (NAD<sup>+</sup>) and produces several <a href="/wiki/Neuroactive" title="Neuroactive">neuroactive</a> <a href="/wiki/Chemical_Intermediate" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemical Intermediate">intermediates</a> including quinolinic acid, <a href="/wiki/Kynurenine" title="Kynurenine">kynurenine</a> (KYN), <a href="/wiki/Kynurenic_acid" title="Kynurenic acid">kynurenic acid</a> (KYNA), <a href="/wiki/3-hydroxykynurenine" class="mw-redirect" title="3-hydroxykynurenine">3-hydroxykynurenine</a> (3-HK), and <a href="/wiki/3-Hydroxyanthranilic_acid" title="3-Hydroxyanthranilic acid">3-hydroxyanthranilic acid</a> (3-HANA).<sup id="cite_ref-Guillemin_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Guillemin-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Schwarcz_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schwarcz-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Quinolinic acid's neuroactive and excitatory properties are a result of <a href="/wiki/NMDA_receptor" title="NMDA receptor">NMDA receptor</a> agonism in the brain.<sup id="cite_ref-Schwarcz_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schwarcz-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It also acts as a <a href="/wiki/Neurotoxin" title="Neurotoxin">neurotoxin</a>, gliotoxin, proinflammatory mediator, and pro-oxidant molecule.<sup id="cite_ref-Guillemin_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Guillemin-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While quinolinic acid cannot pass the BBB, kynurenine,<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> tryptophan and 3-hydroxykynurenine do and subsequently act as precursors to the production of quinolinic acid in the brain. The quinolinic acid produced in <a href="/wiki/Microglia" title="Microglia">microglia</a> is then released and stimulates <a href="/wiki/NMDA_receptor" title="NMDA receptor">NMDA receptors</a>, resulting in excitatory neurotoxicity.<sup id="cite_ref-Schwarcz_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schwarcz-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While <a href="/wiki/Astrocytes" class="mw-redirect" title="Astrocytes">astrocytes</a> do not produce quinolinic acid directly, they do produce KYNA, which when released from the astrocytes can be taken in by migroglia that can in turn increase quinolinic acid production.<sup id="cite_ref-Guillemin_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Guillemin-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Schwarcz_11-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schwarcz-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Microglia and macrophages produce the vast majority of quinolinic acid present in the body. This production increases during an <a href="/wiki/Immune" class="mw-redirect" title="Immune">immune</a> response. It is suspected that this is a result of activation of <a href="/wiki/Indoleamine_2,3-dioxygenase" title="Indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase">indoleamine dioxygenases</a> (to be specific, IDO-1 and IDO-2) as well as <a href="/wiki/Tryptophan_2,3-dioxygenase" title="Tryptophan 2,3-dioxygenase">tryptophan 2,3-dioxygenase</a> (TDO) stimulation by <a href="/wiki/Inflammation" title="Inflammation">inflammatory</a> <a href="/wiki/Cytokines" class="mw-redirect" title="Cytokines">cytokines</a> (mainly <a href="/wiki/IFN" class="mw-redirect" title="IFN">IFN</a>-gamma, but also IFN-beta and IFN-alpha).<sup id="cite_ref-Guillemin_10-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Guillemin-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>IDO-1, IDO-2 and TDO are present in microglia and macrophages. Under inflammatory conditions and conditions of <a href="/wiki/T_cell" title="T cell">T cell</a> activation, <a href="/wiki/Leukocyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Leukocyte">leukocytes</a> are retained in the brain by cytokine and <a href="/wiki/Chemokine" title="Chemokine">chemokine</a> production, which can lead to the breakdown of the BBB, thus increasing the quinolinic acid that enters the brain. Furthermore, quinolinic acid has been shown to play a role in destabilization of the <a href="/wiki/Cytoskeleton" title="Cytoskeleton">cytoskeleton</a> within astrocytes and brain <a href="/wiki/Endothelial" class="mw-redirect" title="Endothelial">endothelial</a> cells, contributing to the degradation of the BBB, which results in higher <a href="/wiki/Concentrations" class="mw-redirect" title="Concentrations">concentrations</a> of quinolinic acid in the brain.<sup id="cite_ref-Combes_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Combes-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Toxicity">Toxicity</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Quinolinic_acid&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Toxicity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Quinolinic acid is an <a href="/wiki/Excitotoxicity" title="Excitotoxicity">excitotoxin</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Central_nervous_system" title="Central nervous system">CNS</a>. It reaches pathological levels in response to inflammation in the brain, which activates resident microglia and macrophages. High levels of quinolinic acid can lead to hindered <a href="/wiki/Neuronal" class="mw-redirect" title="Neuronal">neuronal</a> function or even <a href="/wiki/Apoptosis" title="Apoptosis">apoptotic</a> death.<sup id="cite_ref-Guillemin_10-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Guillemin-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Quinolinic acid produces its toxic effect through several mechanisms, primarily as its function as an NMDA receptor agonist, which triggers a chain of deleterious effects, but also through <a href="/wiki/Lipid_peroxidation" title="Lipid peroxidation">lipid peroxidation</a>, and cytoskeletal destabilization.<sup id="cite_ref-Guillemin_10-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Guillemin-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The gliotoxic effects of quinolinic acid further amplify the inflammatory response. Quinolinic acid affects neurons located mainly in the <a href="/wiki/Hippocampus" title="Hippocampus">hippocampus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Striatum" title="Striatum">striatum</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Neocortex" title="Neocortex">neocortex</a>, due to the selectivity toward quinolinic acid by the specific NMDA receptors residing in those regions.<sup id="cite_ref-Guillemin_10-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Guillemin-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When inflammation occurs, quinolinic acid is produced in excessive levels through the kynurenine pathway. This leads to over excitation of the NMDA receptor, which results in an influx of <a href="/wiki/Calcium" title="Calcium">Ca<sup>2+</sup></a> into the neuron. High levels of Ca<sup>2+</sup> in the neuron trigger an activation of destructive enzymatic pathways including <a href="/wiki/Protein_kinase" title="Protein kinase">protein kinases</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phospholipase" title="Phospholipase">phospholipases</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nitric_oxide_synthase" title="Nitric oxide synthase">NO synthase</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Protease" title="Protease">proteases</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Perez_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Perez-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These enzymes will degenerate crucial proteins in the cell and increase NO levels, leading to an apoptotic response by the cell, which results in cell death. </p><p>In normal cell conditions, <a href="/wiki/Astrocyte" title="Astrocyte">astrocytes</a> in the neuron will provide a <a href="/wiki/Glutamate%E2%80%93glutamine_cycle" title="Glutamate–glutamine cycle">glutamate–glutamine cycle</a>, which results in <a href="/wiki/Reuptake" title="Reuptake">reuptake</a> of <a href="/wiki/Glutamic_acid" title="Glutamic acid">glutamate</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Synapse" title="Synapse">synapse</a> into the pre-synaptic cell to be recycled, keeping glutamate from accumulating to lethal levels inside the synapse. At high concentrations, quinolinic acid <a href="/wiki/Enzyme_inhibitor" title="Enzyme inhibitor">inhibits</a> <a href="/wiki/Glutamine_synthetase" title="Glutamine synthetase">glutamine synthetase</a>, a critical enzyme in the glutamate–glutamine cycle. In addition, It can also promote glutamate release and block its reuptake by astrocytes. All three of these actions result in increased levels of glutamate activity that could be neurotoxic.<sup id="cite_ref-Guillemin_10-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Guillemin-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This results in a loss of function of the cycle, and results in an accumulation of glutamate. This glutamate further stimulates the NMDA receptors, thus acting <a href="/wiki/Synergy" title="Synergy">synergistically</a> with quinolinic acid to increase its neurotoxic effect by increasing the levels of glutamate, as well as inhibiting its uptake. In this way, quinolinic acid self-potentiates its own toxicity.<sup id="cite_ref-Guillemin_10-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Guillemin-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, quinolinic acid results in changes of the biochemistry and structure of the astrocytes themselves, resulting in an apoptotic response. A loss of astrocytes results in a pro-inflammatory effect, further increasing the initial inflammatory response which initiates quinolinic acid production.<sup id="cite_ref-Guillemin_10-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Guillemin-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Quinolinic acid can also exert neurotoxicity through lipid peroxidation, as a result of its <a href="/wiki/Pro-oxidant" title="Pro-oxidant">pro-oxidant</a> properties. Quinolinic acid can interact with Fe(II) to form a complex that induces a reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (<a href="/wiki/Reactive_oxygen_species" title="Reactive oxygen species">ROS</a>/<a href="/wiki/Reactive_nitrogen_species" title="Reactive nitrogen species">RNS</a>), notably the hydroxyl radical •OH. This free radical causes <a href="/wiki/Oxidative_stress" title="Oxidative stress">oxidative stress</a> by further increasing glutamate release and inhibiting its reuptake, and results in the breakdown of <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> in addition to lipid peroxidation.<sup id="cite_ref-Perez_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Perez-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Quinolinic acid has also been noted to increase phosphorylation of proteins involved in cell structure, leading to destabilization of the <a href="/wiki/Cytoskeleton" title="Cytoskeleton">cytoskeleton</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Guillemin_10-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Guillemin-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Clinical_implications">Clinical implications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Quinolinic_acid&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Clinical implications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Psychiatric_disorders">Psychiatric disorders</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Quinolinic_acid&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Psychiatric disorders"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mood_disorders">Mood disorders</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Quinolinic_acid&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Mood disorders"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Prefrontal_cortices" class="mw-redirect" title="Prefrontal cortices">prefrontal cortices</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Postmortem_studies" title="Postmortem studies">post-mortem brains</a> of patients with <a href="/wiki/Major_depression" class="mw-redirect" title="Major depression">major depression</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bipolar_depression" class="mw-redirect" title="Bipolar depression">bipolar depression</a> contain increased quinolinic acid <a href="/wiki/Immunoreactivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Immunoreactivity">immunoreactivity</a> compared to the brains of patients never having had depression.<sup id="cite_ref-Myint_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Myint-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The fact that <a href="/wiki/NMDA_receptor" title="NMDA receptor">NMDA receptor</a> <a href="/wiki/Antagonist" title="Antagonist">antagonists</a> possess <a href="/wiki/Antidepressant" title="Antidepressant">antidepressant</a> properties suggests that increased levels of quinolinic acid in patients with depression may overactivate NMDA receptors.<sup id="cite_ref-Schwarcz_11-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schwarcz-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By inducing increased levels of quinolinic acid in the <a href="/wiki/Cerebral_spinal_fluid" class="mw-redirect" title="Cerebral spinal fluid">cerebral spinal fluid</a> with <a href="/wiki/Interferon_%CE%B1" class="mw-redirect" title="Interferon α">interferon α</a>, researchers have demonstrated that increased quinolinic acid levels correlate with increased depressive symptoms.<sup id="cite_ref-Maes_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maes-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Increased levels of quinolinic acid might contribute to the <a href="/wiki/Apoptosis" title="Apoptosis">apoptosis</a> of <a href="/wiki/Astrocyte" title="Astrocyte">astrocytes</a> and certain neurons, resulting in decreased synthesis of <a href="/wiki/Neurotrophic_factor" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurotrophic factor">neurotrophic factors</a>. With less neurotrophic factors, the astrocyte-<a href="/wiki/Microglia" title="Microglia">microglia</a>-neuronal network is weaker and thus is more likely to be affected by environmental factors such as stress. In addition, increased levels of quinolinic acid could play a role in impairment of the <a href="/wiki/Glia" title="Glia">glial</a>-neuronal network, which could be associated with the recurrent and chronic nature of depression.<sup id="cite_ref-Myint_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Myint-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Furthermore, studies have shown that <a href="/wiki/Chronic_stress" title="Chronic stress">unpredictable chronic mild stress</a> (UCMS) can lead to the <a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism">metabolism</a> of quinolinic acid in the <a href="/wiki/Amygdala" title="Amygdala">amygdala</a> and <a href="/wiki/Striatum" title="Striatum">striatum</a> and a reduction in quinolinic acid pathway in the <a href="/wiki/Cingulate_cortex" title="Cingulate cortex">cingulate cortex</a>. Experiments with mice demonstrate how quinolinic acid can affect behavior and act as <a href="/wiki/Endogenous" class="mw-redirect" title="Endogenous">endogenous</a> <a href="/wiki/Anxiogenic" title="Anxiogenic">anxiogens</a>. For instance, when quinolinic acid levels are increased, mice socialize and groom for shorter periods of time.<sup id="cite_ref-Maes_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maes-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is also evidence that increased concentrations of quinolinic acid can play a role in <a href="/wiki/Depression_in_childhood_and_adolescence" title="Depression in childhood and adolescence">adolescent depression</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Myint_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Myint-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Schizophrenia">Schizophrenia</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Quinolinic_acid&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Schizophrenia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Quinolinic acid may be involved in <a href="/wiki/Schizophrenia" title="Schizophrenia">schizophrenia</a>; however, there has been no research done to examine the specific effects of quinolinic acid in schizophrenia. There are many studies that show that <a href="/wiki/Kynurenic_acid" title="Kynurenic acid">kynurenic acid</a> (KYNA) plays a role in the positive symptoms of schizophrenia, and there has been some research to suggest that <a href="/wiki/3-hydroxykynurenine" class="mw-redirect" title="3-hydroxykynurenine">3-hydroxykynurenine</a> (OHK) plays a role in the disease as well. Because quinolinic acid is strongly associated with KYNA and OHK, it may too play a role in schizophrenia.<sup id="cite_ref-Schwarcz_11-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schwarcz-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Myint_15-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Myint-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Conditions_related_to_neuronal_death">Conditions related to neuronal death</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Quinolinic_acid&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Conditions related to neuronal death"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Cytotoxic" class="mw-redirect" title="Cytotoxic">cytotoxic</a> effects of quinolinic acid elaborated upon in the toxicity section amplify cell death in <a href="/wiki/Neurodegenerative" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurodegenerative">neurodegenerative</a> conditions. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Amyotrophic_lateral_sclerosis_(ALS)"><span id="Amyotrophic_lateral_sclerosis_.28ALS.29"></span>Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Quinolinic_acid&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Quinolinic acid may contribute to the causes of <a href="/wiki/Amyotrophic_lateral_sclerosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis">amyotrophic lateral sclerosis</a> (ALS). Researchers have found elevated levels of quinolinic acid in the <a href="/wiki/Cerebral_spinal_fluid" class="mw-redirect" title="Cerebral spinal fluid">cerebral spinal fluid</a> (CSF), <a href="/wiki/Motor_cortex" title="Motor cortex">motor cortex</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Spinal_cord" title="Spinal cord">spinal cord</a> in ALS patients. These increased concentrations of quinolinic acid could lead to <a href="/wiki/Neurotoxicity" title="Neurotoxicity">neurotoxicity</a>. In addition, quinolinic acid is associated with overstimulating NMDA receptors on motor neurons. Studies have demonstrated that quinolinic acid leads to depolarization of spinal <a href="/wiki/Motor_neuron" title="Motor neuron">motor neurons</a> by interacting with the NMDA receptors on those cells in rats. Also, quinolinic acid plays a role in <a href="/wiki/Mitochondria" class="mw-redirect" title="Mitochondria">mitochondrial</a> dysfunction in neurons. All of these effects could contribute to ALS symptoms.<sup id="cite_ref-Tan_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tan-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Alzheimer's_disease"><span id="Alzheimer.27s_disease"></span>Alzheimer's disease</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Quinolinic_acid&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Alzheimer's disease"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Researchers have found a correlation between quinolinic acid and <a href="/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease" title="Alzheimer's disease">Alzheimer's disease</a>. For example, studies have found in the post-mortem brains of Alzheimer's disease patients higher neuronal quinolinic acid levels and that quinolinic acid can associate with <a href="/wiki/Tau_protein" title="Tau protein">tau protein</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Schwarcz_11-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schwarcz-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Severino_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Severino-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, researchers have demonstrated that quinolinic acid increases tau <a href="/wiki/Phosphorylation" title="Phosphorylation">phosphorylation</a> <a href="/wiki/In_vitro" title="In vitro">in vitro</a> in human <a href="/wiki/Fetus" title="Fetus">fetal</a> neurons <sup id="cite_ref-Schwarcz_11-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schwarcz-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Severino_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Severino-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and induces ten neuronal <a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">genes</a> including some known to correlate with Alzheimer's disease.<sup id="cite_ref-Severino_18-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Severino-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Immunoreactive" class="mw-redirect" title="Immunoreactive">immunoreactivity</a> studies, researchers have found that quinolinic acid immunoreactivity is strongest in <a href="/wiki/Glia" title="Glia">glial cells</a> that are located close to <a href="/wiki/Amyloid_plaque" class="mw-redirect" title="Amyloid plaque">amyloid plaques</a> and that there is immunoreactivity with <a href="/wiki/Neurofibrillary_tangle" title="Neurofibrillary tangle">neurofibrillary tangles</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Schwarcz_11-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schwarcz-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Brain_ischemia">Brain ischemia</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Quinolinic_acid&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Brain ischemia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Brain_ischemia" title="Brain ischemia">Brain ischemia</a> is characterized by insufficient <a href="/wiki/Blood_flow" class="mw-redirect" title="Blood flow">blood flow</a> to the brain. Studies with ischaemic gerbils indicate that, after a delay, levels of quinolinic acid significantly increase, which correlates with increased neuronal damage.<sup id="cite_ref-Myint_15-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Myint-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Stone-FEBS_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stone-FEBS-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, researchers have found that, after transient global ischaemia, there are <a href="/wiki/Microglia" title="Microglia">microglia</a> containing quinolinic acid within the brain. Following cerebral ischaemia, delayed neuronal death may occur in part because of central microglia and <a href="/wiki/Macrophage" title="Macrophage">macrophages</a>, which possess and secrete quinolinic acid. This delayed neurodegeneration could be associated with chronic brain damage that follows a <a href="/wiki/Stroke" title="Stroke">stroke</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Stone-FEBS_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stone-FEBS-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Human_immunodeficiency_virus_(HIV)_and_Acquired_immunodeficiency_syndrome_(AIDS)"><span id="Human_immunodeficiency_virus_.28HIV.29_and_Acquired_immunodeficiency_syndrome_.28AIDS.29"></span>Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Quinolinic_acid&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Studies have found that there is a correlation between levels of quinolinic acid in cerebral spinal fluid (CSF) and <a href="/wiki/HIV-associated_neurocognitive_disorder" title="HIV-associated neurocognitive disorder">HIV-associated neurocognitive disorder</a> (HAND) severity. About 20% of <a href="/wiki/Human_immunodeficiency_virus" class="mw-redirect" title="Human immunodeficiency virus">HIV</a> patients have this disorder. Concentrations of quinolinic acid in the CSF are associated to different stages of HAND. For example, raised levels of quinolinic acid after infection are correlated to perceptual-motor slowing in patients. Then, in later stages of HIV, increased concentrations of quinolinic acid in the CSF of HAND patients correlates with HIV <a href="/wiki/Encephalitis" title="Encephalitis">encephalitis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cerebral_atrophy" title="Cerebral atrophy">cerebral atrophy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kandanearatchi_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kandanearatchi-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Quinolinic acid has also been found in HAND patients' brains. In fact, the amount of quinolinic acid found in the brain of HAND patients can be up to 300 times greater than that found in the CSF.<sup id="cite_ref-Stone-Endo_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stone-Endo-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Neurons exposed to quinolinic acid for long periods of time can develop <a href="/wiki/Cytoskeleton" title="Cytoskeleton">cytoskeletal</a> abnormalities, <a href="/wiki/Vacuole" title="Vacuole">vacuolization</a>, and cell death. HAND patients' brains contain many of these defects. Furthermore, studies in rats have demonstrated that quinolinic acid can lead to <a href="/wiki/Neuron" title="Neuron">neuronal</a> death in brains structures that are affected by HAND, including the <a href="/wiki/Striatum" title="Striatum">striatum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hippocampus" title="Hippocampus">hippocampus</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Substantia_nigra" title="Substantia nigra">substantia nigra</a>, and non-limbic <a href="/wiki/Cerebral_cortex" title="Cerebral cortex">cortex</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kandanearatchi_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kandanearatchi-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Levels of quinolinic acid in the CSF of <a href="/wiki/Acquired_immunodeficiency_syndrome" class="mw-redirect" title="Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome">AIDS</a> patients with <a href="/wiki/HIV_associated_neurocognitive_disorder" class="mw-redirect" title="HIV associated neurocognitive disorder">AIDS- dementia</a> can be up to twenty times higher than normal. Similar to HIV patients, this increased quinolinic acid concentration correlates with cognitive and motor dysfunction. When patients were treated with <a href="/wiki/Zidovudine" title="Zidovudine">zidovudine</a> to decrease quinolinic acid levels, the amount of neurological improvement was related to the amount of quinolinic acid decreased.<sup id="cite_ref-Stone-Endo_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stone-Endo-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Huntington's_disease"><span id="Huntington.27s_disease"></span>Huntington's disease</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Quinolinic_acid&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Huntington's disease"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the initial stages of <a href="/wiki/Huntington%27s_disease" title="Huntington's disease">Huntington's disease</a>, patients have substantially increased quinolinic acid levels, in particular in the neo<a href="/wiki/Striatum" title="Striatum">striatum</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cerebral_cortex" title="Cerebral cortex">cortex</a>. These areas of the brain that had the most damage at these stages.<sup id="cite_ref-Tan_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tan-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Stone-FEBS_19-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stone-FEBS-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The increase in quinolinic acid correlates with the early activation of <a href="/wiki/Microglia" title="Microglia">microglia</a> and increased <a href="/wiki/Cerebrum" title="Cerebrum">cerebral</a> <a href="/wiki/3-hydroxykynurenine" class="mw-redirect" title="3-hydroxykynurenine">3-hydroxykynurenine</a> (3-HK) levels. Furthermore, these increased levels of quinolinic acid are great enough to produce <a href="/wiki/Excitotoxic" class="mw-redirect" title="Excitotoxic">excitotoxic</a> neuronal damage.<sup id="cite_ref-Schwarcz_11-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schwarcz-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Studies have demonstrated that activation of <a href="/wiki/NMDA_receptor" title="NMDA receptor">NMDA receptors</a> by quinolinic acid leads to neuronal dysfunction and death of <a href="/wiki/Striatum" title="Striatum">striatal</a> <a href="/wiki/GABAergic" title="GABAergic">GABAergic</a> <a href="/wiki/Medium_spiny_neuron" title="Medium spiny neuron">medium spiny neurons</a> (MSN).<sup id="cite_ref-Tan_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tan-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Researchers utilize quinolinic acid in order to study Huntington's disease in many model organisms. Because injection of quinolinic acid into the <a href="/wiki/Striatum" title="Striatum">striatum</a> of rodents induces electrophysiological, neuropathological, and behavioral changes similar to those found in Huntington's disease, this is the most common method researchers use to produce a Huntington's disease <a href="/wiki/Phenotype" title="Phenotype">phenotype</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Myint_15-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Myint-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Stone-FEBS_19-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stone-FEBS-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Neurological changes produced by quinolinic acid injections include altered levels of <a href="/wiki/Glutamate" class="mw-redirect" title="Glutamate">glutamate</a>, <a href="/wiki/GABA" title="GABA">GABA</a>, and other <a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">amino acids</a>. <a href="/wiki/Lesion" title="Lesion">Lesions</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Pallidum" class="mw-redirect" title="Pallidum">pallidum</a> can suppress effects of quinolinic acid in monkeys injected with quinolinic acid into their striatum. In humans, such lesions can also diminish some of the effects of Huntington's disease and <a href="/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease" title="Parkinson's disease">Parkinson's disease</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Stone-Endo_21-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stone-Endo-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Parkinson's_disease"><span id="Parkinson.27s_disease"></span>Parkinson's disease</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Quinolinic_acid&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Parkinson's disease"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Quinolinic acid neurotoxicity is thought to play a role in <a href="/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease" title="Parkinson's disease">Parkinson's disease</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Tan_17-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tan-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Szabó_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Szabó-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Studies show that quinolinic acid is involved in the degeneration of the <a href="/wiki/Dopaminergic_neuron" class="mw-redirect" title="Dopaminergic neuron">dopaminergic neurons</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Substantia_nigra" title="Substantia nigra">substantia nigra</a> (SN) of Parkinson's disease patients. SN degeneration is one of the key characteristics of Parkinson's disease. Microglia associated with dopaminergic cells in the SN produce quinolinic acid at this location when scientists induce Parkinson's disease symptoms in <a href="/wiki/Macaques" class="mw-redirect" title="Macaques">macaques</a>. Quinolinic acid levels are too high at these sites to be controlled by KYNA, causing neurotoxicity to occur.<sup id="cite_ref-Tan_17-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tan-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other">Other</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Quinolinic_acid&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Other"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Quinolinic acid levels are increased in the brains of children infected with a range of <a href="/wiki/List_of_infections_of_the_central_nervous_system" title="List of infections of the central nervous system">bacterial infections of the central nervous system (CNS)</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Stone-FEBS_19-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stone-FEBS-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Stone-Endo_21-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stone-Endo-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of <a href="/wiki/Poliovirus" title="Poliovirus">poliovirus</a> patients,<sup id="cite_ref-Stone-Endo_21-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stone-Endo-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and of <a href="/wiki/Lyme_disease" title="Lyme disease">Lyme disease</a> with <a href="/wiki/Central_nervous_system" title="Central nervous system">CNS</a> involvement patients.<sup id="cite_ref-Myint_15-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Myint-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Stone-Endo_21-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stone-Endo-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, raised quinolinic acid levels have been found in traumatic CNS injury patients, patients with cognitive decline with ageing, <a href="/wiki/Hyperammonaemia" class="mw-redirect" title="Hyperammonaemia">hyperammonaemia</a> patients, <a href="/wiki/Hypoglycaemia" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypoglycaemia">hypoglycaemia</a> patients, and <a href="/wiki/Systemic_lupus_erythematosus" class="mw-redirect" title="Systemic lupus erythematosus">systemic lupus erythematosus</a> patients. Also, it has been found that people with <a href="/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria">malaria</a> and patients with <a href="/wiki/Olivopontocerebellar_atrophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Olivopontocerebellar atrophy">olivopontocerebellar atrophy</a> have raised quinolinic acid <a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism">metabolism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Stone-Endo_21-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stone-Endo-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Treatment_focus">Treatment focus</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Quinolinic_acid&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Treatment focus"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Reduction of the excitotoxic effects of quinolinic acid is the subject of on-going research. <a href="/wiki/NMDA_receptor_antagonists" class="mw-redirect" title="NMDA receptor antagonists">NMDAr antagonists</a> have been shown to provide protection to <a href="/wiki/Motor_neuron" title="Motor neuron">motor neurons</a> from excitotoxicity resulting from quinolinic acid production.<sup id="cite_ref-Guillemin_10-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Guillemin-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kynurenic acid, another product of the kynurenine pathway acts as an NMDA <a href="/wiki/Receptor_antagonist" title="Receptor antagonist">receptor antagonist</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kalonia_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kalonia-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Kynurenic acid thus acts as a <a href="/wiki/Neuroprotection" title="Neuroprotection">neuroprotectant</a>, by reducing the dangerous over-activation of the NMDA receptors. Manipulation of the kynurenine pathway away from quinolinic acid and toward kynurenic acid is therefore a major therapeutic focus. Nicotinylalanine has been shown to be an inhibitor of kynurenine hydroxylase, which results in a decreased production of quinolinic acid, thus favoring kynurenic acid production.<sup id="cite_ref-Kalonia_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kalonia-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This change in balance has the potential to reduce hyperexcitability, and thus excitotoxic damage produced from elevated levels of quinolinic acid.<sup id="cite_ref-Kalonia_23-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kalonia-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Therapeutic efforts are also focusing on <a href="/wiki/Antioxidant" title="Antioxidant">antioxidants</a>, which have been shown to provide protection against the pro-oxidant properties of quinolinic acid.<sup id="cite_ref-Guillemin_10-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Guillemin-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Norharmane" class="mw-redirect" title="Norharmane">Norharmane</a> suppresses the production of quinolinic acid, <a href="/wiki/3-hydroxykynurenine" class="mw-redirect" title="3-hydroxykynurenine">3-hydroxykynurenine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nitric_oxide_synthase" title="Nitric oxide synthase">nitric oxide synthase</a>, thereby acting as a neuroprotectant.<sup id="cite_ref-Oxenkrug_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oxenkrug-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Natural_phenol" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural phenol">Natural phenols</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Catechin_hydrate" class="mw-redirect" title="Catechin hydrate">catechin hydrate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Curcumin" title="Curcumin">curcumin</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Epigallocatechin_gallate" title="Epigallocatechin gallate">epigallocatechin gallate</a> reduce the neurotoxicity of quinolinic acid, via anti-oxidant and possibly calcium influx mechanisms.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid20015232_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid20015232-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/COX-2_inhibitors" class="mw-redirect" title="COX-2 inhibitors">COX-2 inhibitors</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Licofelone" title="Licofelone">licofelone</a> have also demonstrated protective properties against the neurotoxic effects of quinolinic acid. COX-2 is upregulated in many neurotoxic disorders and is associated with increased ROS production. Inhibitors have demonstrated some evidence of efficacy in mental health disorders such as <a href="/wiki/Major_depressive_disorder" title="Major depressive disorder">major depressive disorder</a>, <a href="/wiki/Schizophrenia" title="Schizophrenia">schizophrenia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Huntington%27s_disease" title="Huntington's disease">Huntington's disease</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kalonia_23-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kalonia-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Quinolinic_acid&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Homoquinolinic_acid" title="Homoquinolinic acid">Homoquinolinic acid</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Quinolinic_acid&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Ashihara-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ashihara_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ashihara_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Hiroshi Ashihara, Alan Crozier, Atsushi Komamine "Nicotine Biosynthesis" in Plant Metabolism and Biotechnology, Tsubasa Shoji, Takashi Hashimoto Eds. Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, 2011. {{DOI: 10.1002/9781119991311.ch7}}</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid8720470-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-pmid8720470_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFMisztalFrankiewiczParsonsDanysz1996" class="citation journal cs1">Misztal M, Frankiewicz T, Parsons CG, Danysz W (January 1996). "Learning deficits induced by chronic intraventricular infusion of quinolinic acid--protection by MK-801 and memantine". <i>Eur. J. Pharmacol</i>. <b>296</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">1–</span>8. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0014-2999%2895%2900682-6">10.1016/0014-2999(95)00682-6</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8720470">8720470</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Eur.+J.+Pharmacol.&rft.atitle=Learning+deficits+induced+by+chronic+intraventricular+infusion+of+quinolinic+acid--protection+by+MK-801+and+memantine&rft.volume=296&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E8&rft.date=1996-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0014-2999%2895%2900682-6&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F8720470&rft.aulast=Misztal&rft.aufirst=M&rft.au=Frankiewicz%2C+T&rft.au=Parsons%2C+CG&rft.au=Danysz%2C+W&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQuinolinic+acid" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuillemin,_G.SmithSmytheArmati2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Gilles_J._Guillemin" title="Gilles J. Guillemin">Guillemin, G.</a>; Smith, Danielle G.; Smythe, George A.; Armati, Patricia J.; Brew, George J. (2003). "Expression of the Kynurenine Pathway Enzymes in Human Microglia and Macrophages". <i>Developments in Tryptophan and Serotonin Metabolism</i>. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology. Vol. 527. pp. <span class="nowrap">105–</span>12. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4615-0135-0_12">10.1007/978-1-4615-0135-0_12</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-306-47755-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-306-47755-3"><bdi>978-0-306-47755-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15206722">15206722</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Expression+of+the+Kynurenine+Pathway+Enzymes+in+Human+Microglia+and+Macrophages&rft.btitle=Developments+in+Tryptophan+and+Serotonin+Metabolism&rft.series=Advances+in+Experimental+Medicine+and+Biology&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E105-%3C%2Fspan%3E12&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15206722&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-1-4615-0135-0_12&rft.isbn=978-0-306-47755-3&rft.au=Guillemin%2C+G.&rft.au=Smith%2C+Danielle+G.&rft.au=Smythe%2C+George+A.&rft.au=Armati%2C+Patricia+J.&rft.au=Brew%2C+George+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQuinolinic+acid" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-History-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-History_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuillemin2012" class="citation journal cs1">Guillemin, Gilles J. (March 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1742-4658.2012.08493.x">"Quinolinic acid: neurotoxicity"</a>. <i>FEBS Journal</i>. <b>279</b> (8): 1355. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1742-4658.2012.08493.x">10.1111/j.1742-4658.2012.08493.x</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22251552">22251552</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=FEBS+Journal&rft.atitle=Quinolinic+acid%3A+neurotoxicity&rft.volume=279&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=1355&rft.date=2012-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1742-4658.2012.08493.x&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22251552&rft.aulast=Guillemin&rft.aufirst=Gilles+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1111%252Fj.1742-4658.2012.08493.x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQuinolinic+acid" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSkraup1881" class="citation journal cs1">Skraup, Zd. H. (1881). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zenodo.org/record/2208259">"Synthetische Versuche in der Chinolinreihe"</a>. <i>Monatshefte für Chemie</i>. <b>2</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">139–</span>170. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF01516502">10.1007/BF01516502</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:96574887">96574887</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Monatshefte+f%C3%BCr+Chemie&rft.atitle=Synthetische+Versuche+in+der+Chinolinreihe&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E139-%3C%2Fspan%3E170&rft.date=1881&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF01516502&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A96574887%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Skraup&rft.aufirst=Zd.+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fzenodo.org%2Frecord%2F2208259&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQuinolinic+acid" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1041539562">.mw-parser-output .citation{word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}</style><span class="citation patent" id="CITEREFH._Bruno"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://worldwide.espacenet.com/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=WO2010011134">WO 2010011134</a>, H. 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href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20811799">20811799</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Neural+Transmission&rft.atitle=Interferon-gamma-inducible+kynurenines%2Fpteridines+inflammation+cascade%3A+implications+for+aging+and+aging-associated+psychiatric+and+medical+disorders&rft.volume=118&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E75-%3C%2Fspan%3E85&rft.date=2011-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3026891%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20811799&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs00702-010-0475-7&rft.aulast=Oxenkrug&rft.aufirst=Gregory+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3026891&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQuinolinic+acid" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid20015232-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-pmid20015232_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBraidyGrantAdamsGuillemin2010" class="citation journal cs1">Braidy N, Grant R, Adams S, Guillemin GJ (January 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1742-4658.2009.07487.x">"Neuroprotective effects of naturally occurring polyphenols on quinolinic acid-induced excitotoxicity in human neurons"</a>. <i>FEBS J</i>. <b>277</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">368–</span>82. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1742-4658.2009.07487.x">10.1111/j.1742-4658.2009.07487.x</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20015232">20015232</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:20243001">20243001</a>.</cite><span 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navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Neurotransmitters" title="Template:Neurotransmitters"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Neurotransmitters" title="Template talk:Neurotransmitters"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Neurotransmitters" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Neurotransmitters"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Neurotransmitters114" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Neurotransmitter" title="Neurotransmitter">Neurotransmitters</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">Amino acid</a>-derived</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;">Major excitatory /<br />inhibitory systems</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Glutamate system</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agmatine" title="Agmatine">Agmatine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aspartic_acid" title="Aspartic acid">Aspartic acid (aspartate)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glutamate_(neurotransmitter)" title="Glutamate (neurotransmitter)">Glutamic acid (glutamate)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glutathione" title="Glutathione">Glutathione</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glycine" title="Glycine">Glycine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S-Nitrosoglutathione" title="S-Nitrosoglutathione">GSNO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glutathione_disulfide" title="Glutathione disulfide">GSSG</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kynurenic_acid" title="Kynurenic acid">Kynurenic acid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N-Acetylaspartic_acid" title="N-Acetylaspartic acid">NAA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N-Acetylaspartylglutamic_acid" title="N-Acetylaspartylglutamic acid">NAAG</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proline" title="Proline">Proline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serine" title="Serine">Serine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">GABA system</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/GABA" title="GABA">GABA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%CE%93-Amino-%CE%B2-hydroxybutyric_acid" title="Γ-Amino-β-hydroxybutyric acid">GABOB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%CE%93-Hydroxybutyric_acid" title="Γ-Hydroxybutyric acid">GHB</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Glycine system</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alanine" title="Alanine">α-Alanine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%CE%92-Alanine" title="Β-Alanine">β-Alanine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glycine" title="Glycine">Glycine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypotaurine" title="Hypotaurine">Hypotaurine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proline" title="Proline">Proline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarcosine" title="Sarcosine">Sarcosine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serine" title="Serine">Serine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taurine" title="Taurine">Taurine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/GHB_receptor" title="GHB receptor">GHB system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%CE%93-Hydroxybutyric_acid" title="Γ-Hydroxybutyric acid">GHB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T-HCA" title="T-HCA">T-HCA (GHC)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Biogenic_amine" title="Biogenic amine">Biogenic amines</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;">Monoamines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/6-Hydroxymelatonin" title="6-Hydroxymelatonin">6-OHM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dopamine" title="Dopamine">Dopamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adrenaline" title="Adrenaline">Epinephrine (adrenaline)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N-Acetylserotonin" title="N-Acetylserotonin">NAS (normelatonin)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norepinephrine" title="Norepinephrine">Norepinephrine (noradrenaline)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serotonin" title="Serotonin">Serotonin (5-HT)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;">Trace amines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/3-Iodothyronamine" title="3-Iodothyronamine">3-Iodothyronamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N-Methylphenethylamine" title="N-Methylphenethylamine">N-Methylphenethylamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N-Methyltryptamine" title="N-Methyltryptamine">N-Methyltryptamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norfenefrine" title="Norfenefrine"><i>m</i>-Octopamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Octopamine" title="Octopamine"><i>p</i>-Octopamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenylethanolamine" title="Phenylethanolamine">Phenylethanolamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenethylamine" title="Phenethylamine">Phenethylamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synephrine" title="Synephrine">Synephrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tryptamine" title="Tryptamine">Tryptamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta-Tyramine" title="Meta-Tyramine"><i>m</i>-Tyramine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyramine" title="Tyramine"><i>p</i>-Tyramine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Histamine" title="Histamine">Histamine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Neuropeptide" title="Neuropeptide">Neuropeptides</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>See <a href="/wiki/Template:Neuropeptides" title="Template:Neuropeptides">here</a> instead.</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lipid" title="Lipid">Lipid</a>-derived</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Endocannabinoids33" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;">Endocannabinoids</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2-Arachidonoylglycerol" title="2-Arachidonoylglycerol">2-AG</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2-Arachidonyl_glyceryl_ether" title="2-Arachidonyl glyceryl ether">2-AGE (noladin ether)</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=2-Arachidonoyl_lysophosphatidylinositol&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="2-Arachidonoyl lysophosphatidylinositol (page does not exist)">2-ALPI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2-Oleoylglycerol" title="2-Oleoylglycerol">2-OG</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arachidonoyl_serotonin" title="Arachidonoyl serotonin">AA-5-HT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anandamide" title="Anandamide">Anandamide (AEA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Docosatetraenoylethanolamide" title="Docosatetraenoylethanolamide">DEA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lysophosphatidylinositol" title="Lysophosphatidylinositol">LPI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N-Arachidonoyl_dopamine" title="N-Arachidonoyl dopamine">NADA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N-Arachidonylglycine" title="N-Arachidonylglycine">NAGly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oleoylethanolamide" title="Oleoylethanolamide">OEA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oleamide" title="Oleamide">Oleamide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palmitoylethanolamide" title="Palmitoylethanolamide">PEA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RVD-Hp%CE%B1" title="RVD-Hpα">RVD-Hpα</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stearoylethanolamide" title="Stearoylethanolamide">SEA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virodhamine" title="Virodhamine">Virodhamine (O-AEA)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Neurosteroid" title="Neurosteroid">Neurosteroids</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>See <a href="/wiki/Template:Steroid_hormones" title="Template:Steroid hormones">here</a> instead.</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nucleobase" class="mw-redirect" title="Nucleobase">Nucleobase</a>-derived</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Nucleosides11" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;">Nucleosides</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Adenosine_system20" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Adenosine" title="Adenosine">Adenosine</a> system</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adenosine_diphosphate" title="Adenosine diphosphate">ADP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adenosine_monophosphate" title="Adenosine monophosphate">AMP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adenosine_triphosphate" title="Adenosine triphosphate">ATP</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Vitamin" title="Vitamin">Vitamin</a>-derived</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Cholinergic_system18" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;">Cholinergic system</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acetylcholine" title="Acetylcholine">Acetylcholine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Gasotransmitters16" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;">Gasotransmitters</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_monoxide" title="Carbon monoxide">Carbon monoxide (CO)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_sulfide" title="Hydrogen sulfide">Hydrogen sulfide (H<sub>2</sub>S)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitric_oxide" title="Nitric oxide">Nitric oxide (NO)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Candidates10" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;">Candidates</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acetaldehyde" title="Acetaldehyde">Acetaldehyde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ammonia" title="Ammonia">Ammonia (NH<sub>3</sub>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbonyl_sulfide" title="Carbonyl sulfide">Carbonyl sulfide (COS)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrous_oxide" title="Nitrous oxide">Nitrous oxide (N<sub>2</sub>O)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfur_dioxide" title="Sulfur dioxide">Sulfur dioxide (SO<sub>2</sub>)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Neurotoxins205" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Neurotoxins" title="Template:Neurotoxins"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Neurotoxins" title="Template talk:Neurotoxins"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Neurotoxins" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Neurotoxins"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Neurotoxins205" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Neurotoxin" title="Neurotoxin">Neurotoxins</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Animal toxins</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Batrachotoxin" title="Batrachotoxin">Batrachotoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bestoxin" title="Bestoxin">Bestoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birtoxin" title="Birtoxin">Birtoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bungarotoxin" title="Bungarotoxin">Bungarotoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charybdotoxin" title="Charybdotoxin">Charybdotoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conotoxin" title="Conotoxin">Conotoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fasciculin" title="Fasciculin">Fasciculin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huwentoxin" title="Huwentoxin">Huwentoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poneratoxin" title="Poneratoxin">Poneratoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saxitoxin" title="Saxitoxin">Saxitoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetrodotoxin" title="Tetrodotoxin">Tetrodotoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vanillotoxin" title="Vanillotoxin">Vanillotoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ssm_spooky_toxin" title="Ssm spooky toxin">Spooky toxin (SsTx)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epibatidine" title="Epibatidine">Epibatidine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zetekitoxin_AB" title="Zetekitoxin AB">Zetekitoxin AB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dendrotoxin" title="Dendrotoxin">Dendrotoxin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bacterial_toxin" class="mw-redirect" title="Bacterial toxin">Bacterial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Botulinum_toxin" title="Botulinum toxin">Botulinum toxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetanospasmin" class="mw-redirect" title="Tetanospasmin">Tetanospasmin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cyanotoxin" title="Cyanotoxin">Cyanotoxins</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anatoxin-a" title="Anatoxin-a">Anatoxin-a</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guanitoxin" title="Guanitoxin">Guanitoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beta-Methylamino-L-alanine" class="mw-redirect" title="Beta-Methylamino-L-alanine">BMAA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saxitoxin" title="Saxitoxin">Saxitoxin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_toxin" class="mw-redirect" title="Plant toxin">Plant toxins</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aconitine" title="Aconitine">Aconitine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bicuculline" title="Bicuculline">Bicuculline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penitrem_A" title="Penitrem A">Penitrem A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Picrotoxin" title="Picrotoxin">Picrotoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strychnine" title="Strychnine">Strychnine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tutin_(toxin)" title="Tutin (toxin)">Tutin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rotenone" title="Rotenone">Rotenone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ginkgotoxin" title="Ginkgotoxin">Ginkgotoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicutoxin" title="Cicutoxin">Cicutoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oenanthotoxin" title="Oenanthotoxin">Oenanthotoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thujone" title="Thujone">Thujone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volkensin" title="Volkensin">Volkensin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veratridine" title="Veratridine">Veratridine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mycotoxin" title="Mycotoxin">Mycotoxins</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ibotenic_acid" title="Ibotenic acid">Ibotenic acid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscarine" title="Muscarine">Muscarine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscimol" title="Muscimol">Muscimol</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pesticide" title="Pesticide">Pesticides</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fenpropathrin" title="Fenpropathrin">Fenpropathrin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetramethylenedisulfotetramine" title="Tetramethylenedisulfotetramine">Tetramethylenedisulfotetramine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bromethalin" title="Bromethalin">Bromethalin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimidine" title="Crimidine">Crimidine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methamidophos" title="Methamidophos">Methamidophos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endosulfan" title="Endosulfan">Endosulfan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fipronil" title="Fipronil">Fipronil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenylsilatrane" title="Phenylsilatrane">Phenylsilatrane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chlorophenylsilatrane" title="Chlorophenylsilatrane">Chlorophenylsilatrane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfuryl_fluoride" title="Sulfuryl fluoride">Sulfuryl fluoride</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mipafox" title="Mipafox">Mipafox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schradan" title="Schradan">Schradan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dimefox" title="Dimefox">Dimefox</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nerve_agent" title="Nerve agent">Nerve agents</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cyclosarin" title="Cyclosarin">Cyclosarin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EA-3148" title="EA-3148">EA-3148</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Novichok_agent" class="mw-redirect" title="Novichok agent">Novichok agent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarin" title="Sarin">Sarin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soman" title="Soman">Soman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tabun_(nerve_agent)" title="Tabun (nerve agent)">Tabun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/VE_(nerve_agent)" title="VE (nerve agent)">VE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/VG_(nerve_agent)" title="VG (nerve agent)">VG</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/VM_(nerve_agent)" title="VM (nerve agent)">VM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/VP_(nerve_agent)" class="mw-redirect" title="VP (nerve agent)">VP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/VR_(nerve_agent)" title="VR (nerve agent)">VR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/VX_(nerve_agent)" title="VX (nerve agent)">VX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GV_(nerve_agent)" title="GV (nerve agent)">GV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EA-3990" title="EA-3990">EA-3990</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EA-4056" title="EA-4056">EA-4056</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T-1123" title="T-1123">T-1123</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Octamethylene-bis(5-dimethylcarbamoxyisoquinolinium_bromide)" title="Octamethylene-bis(5-dimethylcarbamoxyisoquinolinium bromide)">Octamethylene-bis(5-dimethylcarbamoxyisoquinolinium bromide)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fluorotabun" title="Fluorotabun">Fluorotabun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_VX" title="Chinese VX">Chinese VX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EA-2192" title="EA-2192">EA-2192</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bicyclic_phosphate" title="Bicyclic phosphate">Bicyclic phosphates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/TBPS" title="TBPS">TBPS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TBPO" title="TBPO">TBPO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IPTBO" title="IPTBO">IPTBO</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cholinergic neurotoxins</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Acetylcholine_mustard&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Acetylcholine mustard (page does not exist)">Acetylcholine mustard</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Catecholine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Catecholine (page does not exist)">Catecholine</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Choline_mustard&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Choline mustard (page does not exist)">Choline mustard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethylcholine_mustard" title="Ethylcholine mustard">Ethylcholine mustard</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hemicholinium_mustard&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hemicholinium mustard (page does not exist)">Hemicholinium mustard</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Psychoactive_drug" title="Psychoactive drug">Psychoactive drugs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_(drug)" title="Alcohol (drug)">Alcohol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrous_oxide" title="Nitrous oxide">Nitrous oxide</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dimethylcadmium" title="Dimethylcadmium">Dimethylcadmium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dimethylmercury" title="Dimethylmercury">Dimethylmercury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxopyrimidine" title="Toxopyrimidine">Toxopyrimidine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IDPN_(chemical)" title="IDPN (chemical)">IDPN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetraethyllead" title="Tetraethyllead">Tetraethyllead</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ionotropic_glutamate_receptor_modulators1643" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ionotropic_glutamate_receptor_modulators" title="Template:Ionotropic glutamate receptor modulators"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ionotropic_glutamate_receptor_modulators" title="Template talk:Ionotropic glutamate receptor modulators"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ionotropic_glutamate_receptor_modulators" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ionotropic glutamate receptor modulators"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ionotropic_glutamate_receptor_modulators1643" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ionotropic_glutamate_receptor" title="Ionotropic glutamate receptor">Ionotropic glutamate receptor</a> <a href="/wiki/Receptor_modulator" title="Receptor modulator">modulators</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/%CE%91-Amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic_acid_receptor" class="mw-redirect" title="Α-Amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid receptor"><abbr title="α-Amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid receptor">AMPAR</abbr></a><span class="sr-only" style="border: 0; clip: rect(0, 0, 0, 0); clip-path: polygon(0px 0px, 0px 0px, 0px 0px); height: 1px; margin: -1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0; position: absolute; width: 1px; white-space: nowrap;">Tooltip α-Amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid receptor</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b>Agonists:</b> <i>Main site agonists:</i> <a href="/wiki/5-Fluorowillardiine" title="5-Fluorowillardiine">5-Fluorowillardiine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acromelic_acid_A" title="Acromelic acid A">Acromelic acid (acromelate)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AMPA" title="AMPA">AMPA</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%CE%92-N-Oxalylamino-L-Alanine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Β-N-Oxalylamino-L-Alanine (page does not exist)">BOAA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domoic_acid" title="Domoic acid">Domoic acid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glutamate" class="mw-redirect" title="Glutamate">Glutamate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibotenic_acid" title="Ibotenic acid">Ibotenic acid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proline" title="Proline">Proline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quisqualic_acid" title="Quisqualic acid">Quisqualic acid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willardiine" title="Willardiine">Willardiine</a>; <i>Positive allosteric modulators:</i> <a href="/wiki/Aniracetam" title="Aniracetam">Aniracetam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyclothiazide" title="Cyclothiazide">Cyclothiazide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CX-516" title="CX-516">CX-516</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CX-546" title="CX-546">CX-546</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CX614" title="CX614">CX-614</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farampator" title="Farampator">Farampator (CX-691, ORG-24448)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CX717" title="CX717">CX-717</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CX-1739" class="mw-redirect" title="CX-1739">CX-1739</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=CX-1942&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="CX-1942 (page does not exist)">CX-1942</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diazoxide" title="Diazoxide">Diazoxide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrochlorothiazide" title="Hydrochlorothiazide">Hydrochlorothiazide (HCTZ)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IDRA-21" title="IDRA-21">IDRA-21</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=LY-392098&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="LY-392098 (page does not exist)">LY-392098</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=LY-395153&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="LY-395153 (page does not exist)">LY-395153</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LY-404187" title="LY-404187">LY-404187</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=LY-451646&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="LY-451646 (page does not exist)">LY-451646</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LY-503430" title="LY-503430">LY-503430</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mibampator" title="Mibampator">Mibampator (LY-451395)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nooglutyl" title="Nooglutyl">Nooglutyl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ORG-26576" title="ORG-26576">ORG-26576</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxiracetam" title="Oxiracetam">Oxiracetam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PEPA_(drug)" title="PEPA (drug)">PEPA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pesampator" title="Pesampator">Pesampator (BIIB-104, PF-04958242)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piracetam" title="Piracetam">Piracetam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pramiracetam" title="Pramiracetam">Pramiracetam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S-18986" title="S-18986">S-18986</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulrampator" title="Tulrampator">Tulrampator (S-47445, CX-1632)</a></li></ul> <ul><li><b>Antagonists:</b> <a href="/w/index.php?title=ACEA-1011&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ACEA-1011 (page does not exist)">ACEA-1011</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=ATPO&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ATPO (page does not exist)">ATPO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Becampanel" title="Becampanel">Becampanel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caroverine" title="Caroverine">Caroverine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CNQX" title="CNQX">CNQX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dasolampanel" title="Dasolampanel">Dasolampanel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DNQX" title="DNQX">DNQX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fanapanel" title="Fanapanel">Fanapanel (MPQX)</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gamma-D-Glutamylaminomethylsulfonic_acid&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gamma-D-Glutamylaminomethylsulfonic acid (page does not exist)">GAMS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaitocephalin" title="Kaitocephalin">Kaitocephalin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kynurenic_acid" title="Kynurenic acid">Kynurenic acid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kynurenine" title="Kynurenine">Kynurenine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Licostinel" title="Licostinel">Licostinel (ACEA-1021)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NBQX" title="NBQX">NBQX</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=PNQX&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="PNQX (page does not exist)">PNQX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selurampanel" title="Selurampanel">Selurampanel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tezampanel" title="Tezampanel">Tezampanel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theanine" title="Theanine">Theanine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Topiramate" title="Topiramate">Topiramate</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=YM90K&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="YM90K (page does not exist)">YM90K</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zonampanel" title="Zonampanel">Zonampanel</a>; <i>Negative allosteric modulators:</i> <a href="/wiki/Barbiturates" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbiturates">Barbiturates</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Pentobarbital" title="Pentobarbital">pentobarbital</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sodium_thiopental" title="Sodium thiopental">sodium thiopental</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyclopropane" title="Cyclopropane">Cyclopropane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enflurane" title="Enflurane">Enflurane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_(drug)" title="Alcohol (drug)">Ethanol (alcohol)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evans_blue_(dye)" title="Evans blue (dye)">Evans blue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GYKI_52466" title="GYKI 52466">GYKI-52466</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=GYKI-53655&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="GYKI-53655 (page does not exist)">GYKI-53655</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halothane" title="Halothane">Halothane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irampanel" title="Irampanel">Irampanel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isoflurane" title="Isoflurane">Isoflurane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perampanel" title="Perampanel">Perampanel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pregnenolone_sulfate" title="Pregnenolone sulfate">Pregnenolone sulfate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sevoflurane" title="Sevoflurane">Sevoflurane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talampanel" title="Talampanel">Talampanel</a>; <i>Unknown/unsorted antagonists:</i> <a href="/wiki/Minocycline" title="Minocycline">Minocycline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Kainate_receptor" title="Kainate receptor"><abbr title="Kainate receptor">KAR</abbr></a><span class="sr-only" style="border: 0; clip: rect(0, 0, 0, 0); clip-path: polygon(0px 0px, 0px 0px, 0px 0px); height: 1px; margin: -1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0; position: absolute; width: 1px; white-space: nowrap;">Tooltip Kainate receptor</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b>Agonists:</b> <i>Main site agonists:</i> <a href="/w/index.php?title=5-Bromowillardiine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="5-Bromowillardiine (page does not exist)">5-Bromowillardiine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/5-Iodowillardiine" title="5-Iodowillardiine">5-Iodowillardiine</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Acromelic_acid&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Acromelic acid (page does not exist)">Acromelic acid (acromelate)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AMPA" title="AMPA">AMPA</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=ATPA&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ATPA (page does not exist)">ATPA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domoic_acid" title="Domoic acid">Domoic acid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glutamate" class="mw-redirect" title="Glutamate">Glutamate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibotenic_acid" title="Ibotenic acid">Ibotenic acid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kainic_acid" title="Kainic acid">Kainic acid</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=LY-339434&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="LY-339434 (page does not exist)">LY-339434</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proline" title="Proline">Proline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quisqualic_acid" title="Quisqualic acid">Quisqualic acid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SYM-2081" title="SYM-2081">SYM-2081</a>; <i>Positive allosteric modulators:</i> <a href="/wiki/Cyclothiazide" title="Cyclothiazide">Cyclothiazide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diazoxide" title="Diazoxide">Diazoxide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enflurane" title="Enflurane">Enflurane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halothane" title="Halothane">Halothane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isoflurane" title="Isoflurane">Isoflurane</a></li></ul> <ul><li><b>Antagonists:</b> <a href="/w/index.php?title=ACEA-1011&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ACEA-1011 (page does not exist)">ACEA-1011</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CNQX" title="CNQX">CNQX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dasolampanel" title="Dasolampanel">Dasolampanel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DNQX" title="DNQX">DNQX</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gamma-D-Glutamylaminomethylsulfonic_acid&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gamma-D-Glutamylaminomethylsulfonic acid (page does not exist)">GAMS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaitocephalin" title="Kaitocephalin">Kaitocephalin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kynurenic_acid" title="Kynurenic acid">Kynurenic acid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Licostinel" title="Licostinel">Licostinel (ACEA-1021)</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=LY-382884&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="LY-382884 (page does not exist)">LY-382884</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NBQX" title="NBQX">NBQX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NS102" title="NS102">NS102</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selurampanel" title="Selurampanel">Selurampanel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tezampanel" title="Tezampanel">Tezampanel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theanine" title="Theanine">Theanine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Topiramate" title="Topiramate">Topiramate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UBP-302" title="UBP-302">UBP-302</a>; <i>Negative allosteric modulators:</i> <a href="/wiki/Barbiturates" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbiturates">Barbiturates</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Pentobarbital" title="Pentobarbital">pentobarbital</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sodium_thiopental" title="Sodium thiopental">sodium thiopental</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enflurane" title="Enflurane">Enflurane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_(drug)" title="Alcohol (drug)">Ethanol (alcohol)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evans_blue_(dye)" title="Evans blue (dye)">Evans blue</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=NS-3763&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="NS-3763 (page does not exist)">NS-3763</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pregnenolone_sulfate" title="Pregnenolone sulfate">Pregnenolone sulfate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/N-Methyl-D-aspartate_receptor" class="mw-redirect" title="N-Methyl-D-aspartate receptor"><abbr title="N-Methyl-D-aspartate receptor">NMDAR</abbr></a><span class="sr-only" style="border: 0; clip: rect(0, 0, 0, 0); clip-path: polygon(0px 0px, 0px 0px, 0px 0px); height: 1px; margin: -1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0; position: absolute; width: 1px; white-space: nowrap;">Tooltip N-Methyl-D-aspartate receptor</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b>Agonists:</b> <i>Main site agonists:</i> <a href="/w/index.php?title=2-Amino-2-(3-hydroxy-5-methylisoxazol-4-yl)acetic_acid&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="2-Amino-2-(3-hydroxy-5-methylisoxazol-4-yl)acetic acid (page does not exist)">AMAA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aspartate" class="mw-redirect" title="Aspartate">Aspartate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glutamate" class="mw-redirect" title="Glutamate">Glutamate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homocysteic_acid" title="Homocysteic acid">Homocysteic acid (<small>L</small>-HCA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homoquinolinic_acid" title="Homoquinolinic acid">Homoquinolinic acid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibotenic_acid" title="Ibotenic acid">Ibotenic acid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N-Methyl-D-aspartic_acid" title="N-Methyl-D-aspartic acid">NMDA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proline" title="Proline">Proline</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Quinolinic acid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetrazolylglycine" title="Tetrazolylglycine">Tetrazolylglycine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theanine" title="Theanine">Theanine</a>; <i>Glycine site agonists:</i> <a href="/w/index.php?title=%CE%92-Fluoro-D-alanine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Β-Fluoro-D-alanine (page does not exist)">β-Fluoro-<small>D</small>-alanine</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=ACBD_(drug)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ACBD (drug) (page does not exist)">ACBD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1-Aminocyclopropanecarboxylic_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="1-Aminocyclopropanecarboxylic acid">ACC (ACPC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ACPD" title="ACPD">ACPD</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=AK-51_(drug)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="AK-51 (drug) (page does not exist)">AK-51</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apimostinel" title="Apimostinel">Apimostinel (NRX-1074)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B6B21" class="mw-redirect" title="B6B21">B6B21</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carboxycyclopropylglycine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Carboxycyclopropylglycine (page does not exist)">CCG</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alanine" title="Alanine"><small>D</small>-Alanine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cycloserine" title="Cycloserine"><small>D</small>-Cycloserine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serine" title="Serine"><small>D</small>-Serine</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=N-(3,3-Diphenylpropyl)glycinamide&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="N-(3,3-Diphenylpropyl)glycinamide (page does not exist)">DHPG</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dimethylglycine" title="Dimethylglycine">Dimethylglycine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glycine" title="Glycine">Glycine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HA-966" title="HA-966">HA-966</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L-687,414" title="L-687,414">L-687,414</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alanine" title="Alanine"><small>L</small>-Alanine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serine" title="Serine"><small>L</small>-Serine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milacemide" title="Milacemide">Milacemide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neboglamine" title="Neboglamine">Neboglamine (nebostinel)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapastinel" title="Rapastinel">Rapastinel (GLYX-13)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarcosine" title="Sarcosine">Sarcosine</a>; <i>Polyamine site agonists:</i> <a href="/wiki/Neomycin" title="Neomycin">Neomycin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spermidine" title="Spermidine">Spermidine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spermine" title="Spermine">Spermine</a>; <i>Other positive allosteric modulators:</i> <a href="/wiki/24S-Hydroxycholesterol" title="24S-Hydroxycholesterol">24<i>S</i>-Hydroxycholesterol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dehydroepiandrosterone" title="Dehydroepiandrosterone"><abbr title="Dehydroepiandrosterone">DHEA</abbr></a><span class="sr-only" style="border: 0; clip: rect(0, 0, 0, 0); clip-path: polygon(0px 0px, 0px 0px, 0px 0px); height: 1px; margin: -1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0; position: absolute; width: 1px; white-space: nowrap;">Tooltip Dehydroepiandrosterone</span> (<a href="/wiki/Prasterone" title="Prasterone">prasterone</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dehydroepiandrosterone_sulfate" title="Dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate"><abbr title="Dehydroepiandrosterone">DHEA</abbr> sulfate</a> (<a href="/wiki/Prasterone_sulfate" title="Prasterone sulfate">prasterone sulfate</a>)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epipregnanolone_sulfate&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Epipregnanolone sulfate (page does not exist)">Epipregnanolone sulfate</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plazinemdor&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Plazinemdor (page does not exist)">Plazinemdor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pregnenolone_sulfate" title="Pregnenolone sulfate">Pregnenolone sulfate</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=SAGE-201&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="SAGE-201 (page does not exist)">SAGE-201</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=SAGE-301&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="SAGE-301 (page does not exist)">SAGE-301</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SAGE-718" class="mw-redirect" title="SAGE-718">SAGE-718</a></li></ul> <ul><li><b>Antagonists:</b> <i>Competitive antagonists:</i> <a href="/wiki/AP5" title="AP5">AP5 (APV)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AP-7_(drug)" title="AP-7 (drug)">AP7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CGP-37849" title="CGP-37849">CGP-37849</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CGP-39551" title="CGP-39551">CGP-39551</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=CGP-39653&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="CGP-39653 (page does not exist)">CGP-39653</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=CGP-40116&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="CGP-40116 (page does not exist)">CGP-40116</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CGS-19755" class="mw-redirect" title="CGS-19755">CGS-19755</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=3-(2-carboxypiperazin-4-yl)propyl-1-phosphonic_acid&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="3-(2-carboxypiperazin-4-yl)propyl-1-phosphonic acid (page does not exist)">CPP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaitocephalin" title="Kaitocephalin">Kaitocephalin</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=LY-233053&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="LY-233053 (page does not exist)">LY-233053</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LY-235959" title="LY-235959">LY-235959</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=LY-274614&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="LY-274614 (page does not exist)">LY-274614</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=MDL-100453&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="MDL-100453 (page does not exist)">MDL-100453</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midafotel" title="Midafotel">Midafotel (d-CPPene)</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=NPC-12626&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="NPC-12626 (page does not exist)">NPC-12626</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=NPC-17742&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="NPC-17742 (page does not exist)">NPC-17742</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=PBPD&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="PBPD (page does not exist)">PBPD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PEAQX" title="PEAQX">PEAQX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perzinfotel" title="Perzinfotel">Perzinfotel</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cis-1-(phenanthrene-2-carbonyl)piperazine-2,3-dicarboxylic_acid&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cis-1-(phenanthrene-2-carbonyl)piperazine-2,3-dicarboxylic acid (page does not exist)">PPDA</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=SDZ-220581&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="SDZ-220581 (page does not exist)">SDZ-220581</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selfotel" title="Selfotel">Selfotel</a>; <i>Glycine site antagonists:</i> <a href="/wiki/4-Chlorokynurenine" title="4-Chlorokynurenine">4-Cl-KYN (AV-101)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/5,7-Dichlorokynurenic_acid" title="5,7-Dichlorokynurenic acid">5,7-DCKA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/7-Chlorokynurenic_acid" title="7-Chlorokynurenic acid">7-CKA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1-Aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic_acid" title="1-Aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid">ACC</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=ACEA-1011&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ACEA-1011 (page does not exist)">ACEA-1011</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=ACEA-1328&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ACEA-1328 (page does not exist)">ACEA-1328</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apimostinel" title="Apimostinel">Apimostinel (NRX-1074)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AV-101" class="mw-redirect" title="AV-101">AV-101</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carisoprodol" title="Carisoprodol">Carisoprodol</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=CGP-39653&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="CGP-39653 (page does not exist)">CGP-39653</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CNQX" title="CNQX">CNQX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cycloserine" title="Cycloserine"><small>D</small>-Cycloserine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DNQX" title="DNQX">DNQX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Felbamate" title="Felbamate">Felbamate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gavestinel" title="Gavestinel">Gavestinel</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=GV-196771&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="GV-196771 (page does not exist)">GV-196771</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Harkoseride&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Harkoseride (page does not exist)">Harkoseride</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kynurenic_acid" title="Kynurenic acid">Kynurenic acid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kynurenine" title="Kynurenine">Kynurenine</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=L-689560&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="L-689560 (page does not exist)">L-689560</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L-701324" title="L-701324">L-701324</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Licostinel" title="Licostinel">Licostinel (ACEA-1021)</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=LU-73068&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="LU-73068 (page does not exist)">LU-73068</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=MDL-105519&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="MDL-105519 (page does not exist)">MDL-105519</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meprobamate" title="Meprobamate">Meprobamate</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=MRZ_2/576&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="MRZ 2/576 (page does not exist)">MRZ 2/576</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=PNQX&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="PNQX (page does not exist)">PNQX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapastinel" title="Rapastinel">Rapastinel (GLYX-13)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ZD-9379" title="ZD-9379">ZD-9379</a>; <i>Polyamine site antagonists:</i> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Arcaine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Arcaine (page does not exist)">Arcaine</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Co_101676&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Co 101676 (page does not exist)">Co 101676</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1,3-Diaminopropane" title="1,3-Diaminopropane">Diaminopropane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diethylenetriamine" title="Diethylenetriamine">Diethylenetriamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huperzine_A" title="Huperzine A">Huperzine A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Putrescine" title="Putrescine">Putrescine</a>; <i>Uncompetitive pore blockers (mostly dizocilpine site):</i> <a href="/wiki/2-MDP" title="2-MDP">2-MDP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/3-HO-PCP" title="3-HO-PCP">3-HO-PCP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/3-MeO-PCE" title="3-MeO-PCE">3-MeO-PCE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/3-MeO-PCMo" title="3-MeO-PCMo">3-MeO-PCMo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/3-MeO-PCP" title="3-MeO-PCP">3-MeO-PCP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/4-MeO-PCP" title="4-MeO-PCP">4-MeO-PCP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/8a-Phenyldecahydroquinoline" class="mw-redirect" title="8a-Phenyldecahydroquinoline">8A-PDHQ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/18-Methoxycoronaridine" title="18-Methoxycoronaridine">18-MC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alpha-Endopsychosin" class="mw-redirect" title="Alpha-Endopsychosin">α-Endopsychosin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alaproclate" title="Alaproclate">Alaproclate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alazocine" title="Alazocine">Alazocine (SKF-10047)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amantadine" title="Amantadine">Amantadine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aptiganel" title="Aptiganel">Aptiganel</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Argiotoxin-636&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Argiotoxin-636 (page does not exist)">Argiotoxin-636</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arketamine" title="Arketamine">Arketamine</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=ARL-12495&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ARL-12495 (page does not exist)">ARL-12495</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ARL-15896-AR" class="mw-redirect" title="ARL-15896-AR">ARL-15896-AR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ARL-16247" class="mw-redirect" title="ARL-16247">ARL-16247</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Budipine" title="Budipine">Budipine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coronaridine" title="Coronaridine">Coronaridine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delucemine" title="Delucemine">Delucemine (NPS-1506)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dexoxadrol" title="Dexoxadrol">Dexoxadrol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dextrallorphan" title="Dextrallorphan">Dextrallorphan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dextromethadone" class="mw-redirect" title="Dextromethadone">Dextromethadone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dextromethorphan" title="Dextromethorphan">Dextromethorphan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dextrorphan" title="Dextrorphan">Dextrorphan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dieticyclidine" title="Dieticyclidine">Dieticyclidine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diphenidine" title="Diphenidine">Diphenidine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dizocilpine" title="Dizocilpine">Dizocilpine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ephenidine" title="Ephenidine">Ephenidine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esketamine" title="Esketamine">Esketamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etoxadrol" title="Etoxadrol">Etoxadrol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eticyclidine" title="Eticyclidine">Eticyclidine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fluorolintane" title="Fluorolintane">Fluorolintane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gacyclidine" title="Gacyclidine">Gacyclidine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibogaine" title="Ibogaine">Ibogaine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibogamine" title="Ibogamine">Ibogamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indantadol" title="Indantadol">Indantadol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ketamine" title="Ketamine">Ketamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ketobemidone" title="Ketobemidone">Ketobemidone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lanicemine" title="Lanicemine">Lanicemine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levomethadone" title="Levomethadone">Levomethadone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levomethorphan" title="Levomethorphan">Levomethorphan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levomilnacipran" title="Levomilnacipran">Levomilnacipran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levorphanol" title="Levorphanol">Levorphanol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loperamide" title="Loperamide">Loperamide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memantine" title="Memantine">Memantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methadone" title="Methadone">Methadone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methorphan" title="Methorphan">Methorphan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methoxetamine" title="Methoxetamine">Methoxetamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methoxphenidine" title="Methoxphenidine">Methoxphenidine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milnacipran" title="Milnacipran">Milnacipran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morphanol" class="mw-redirect" title="Morphanol">Morphanol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NEFA_(drug)" title="NEFA (drug)">NEFA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neramexane" title="Neramexane">Neramexane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitromemantine" title="Nitromemantine">Nitromemantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noribogaine" title="Noribogaine">Noribogaine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norketamine" title="Norketamine">Norketamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orphenadrine" title="Orphenadrine">Orphenadrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PCPr" title="PCPr">PCPr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PD-137889" title="PD-137889">PD-137889</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pethidine" title="Pethidine">Pethidine (meperidine)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phencyclamine" class="mw-redirect" title="Phencyclamine">Phencyclamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phencyclidine" title="Phencyclidine">Phencyclidine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propoxyphene" class="mw-redirect" title="Propoxyphene">Propoxyphene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Remacemide" title="Remacemide">Remacemide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhynchophylline" title="Rhynchophylline">Rhynchophylline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rimantadine" title="Rimantadine">Rimantadine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rolicyclidine" title="Rolicyclidine">Rolicyclidine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sabeluzole" title="Sabeluzole">Sabeluzole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tabernanthine" title="Tabernanthine">Tabernanthine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tenocyclidine" title="Tenocyclidine">Tenocyclidine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiletamine" title="Tiletamine">Tiletamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tramadol" title="Tramadol">Tramadol</a>; <i>Ifenprodil (NR2B) site antagonists:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Besonprodil" title="Besonprodil">Besonprodil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buphenine" title="Buphenine">Buphenine (nylidrin)</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=CO-101244&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="CO-101244 (page does not exist)">CO-101244 (PD-174494)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eliprodil" title="Eliprodil">Eliprodil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haloperidol" title="Haloperidol">Haloperidol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isoxsuprine" title="Isoxsuprine">Isoxsuprine</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radiprodil&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radiprodil (page does not exist)">Radiprodil (RGH-896)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rislenemdaz" title="Rislenemdaz">Rislenemdaz (CERC-301, MK-0657)</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ro_8-4304&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ro 8-4304 (page does not exist)">Ro 8-4304</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ro_25-6981&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ro 25-6981 (page does not exist)">Ro 25-6981</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safaprodil" class="mw-redirect" title="Safaprodil">Safaprodil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traxoprodil" title="Traxoprodil">Traxoprodil (CP-101606)</a>; <i>NR2A-selective antagonists:</i> <a href="/w/index.php?title=MPX-004&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="MPX-004 (page does not exist)">MPX-004</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=MPX-007&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="MPX-007 (page does not exist)">MPX-007</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=TCN-201&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="TCN-201 (page does not exist)">TCN-201</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=TCN-213&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="TCN-213 (page does not exist)">TCN-213</a>; <i>Cations:</i> <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">Hydrogen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnesium" title="Magnesium">Magnesium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zinc" title="Zinc">Zinc</a>; <i>Alcohols/volatile anesthetics/related:</i> <a href="/wiki/Benzene" title="Benzene">Benzene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Butane" title="Butane">Butane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chloroform" title="Chloroform">Chloroform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyclopropane" title="Cyclopropane">Cyclopropane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desflurane" title="Desflurane">Desflurane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diethyl_ether" title="Diethyl ether">Diethyl ether</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enflurane" title="Enflurane">Enflurane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_(drug)" title="Alcohol (drug)">Ethanol (alcohol)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halothane" title="Halothane">Halothane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hexanol" title="Hexanol">Hexanol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isoflurane" title="Isoflurane">Isoflurane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methoxyflurane" title="Methoxyflurane">Methoxyflurane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrous_oxide" title="Nitrous oxide">Nitrous oxide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Octanol" title="Octanol">Octanol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sevoflurane" title="Sevoflurane">Sevoflurane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toluene" title="Toluene">Toluene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1,1,1-Trichloroethane" title="1,1,1-Trichloroethane">Trichloroethane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2,2,2-Trichloroethanol" title="2,2,2-Trichloroethanol">Trichloroethanol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trichloroethylene" title="Trichloroethylene">Trichloroethylene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethyl_carbamate" title="Ethyl carbamate">Urethane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenon" title="Xenon">Xenon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xylene" title="Xylene">Xylene</a>; <i>Unknown/unsorted antagonists:</i> <a href="/w/index.php?title=ARR-15896&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ARR-15896 (page does not exist)">ARR-15896</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bumetanide" title="Bumetanide">Bumetanide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caroverine" title="Caroverine">Caroverine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conantokin" title="Conantokin">Conantokin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D-%CE%B1-Aminoadipate" class="mw-redirect" title="D-α-Aminoadipate"><small>D</small>-αAA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dexanabinol" title="Dexanabinol">Dexanabinol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flufenamic_acid" title="Flufenamic acid">Flufenamic acid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flupirtine" title="Flupirtine">Flupirtine</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=FPL-12495&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="FPL-12495 (page does not exist)">FPL-12495</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=FR-115427&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="FR-115427 (page does not exist)">FR-115427</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Furosemide" title="Furosemide">Furosemide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hodgkinsine" title="Hodgkinsine">Hodgkinsine</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ipenoxazone&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ipenoxazone (page does not exist)">Ipenoxazone (MLV-6976)</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=MDL-27266&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="MDL-27266 (page does not exist)">MDL-27266</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphit" title="Metaphit">Metaphit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minocycline" title="Minocycline">Minocycline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2-Methyl-6-(phenylethynyl)pyridine" title="2-Methyl-6-(phenylethynyl)pyridine">MPEP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niflumic_acid" title="Niflumic acid">Niflumic acid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pentamidine" title="Pentamidine">Pentamidine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pentamidine_isethionate" class="mw-redirect" title="Pentamidine isethionate">Pentamidine isethionate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piretanide" title="Piretanide">Piretanide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychotridine" title="Psychotridine">Psychotridine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcrocetin" class="mw-redirect" title="Transcrocetin">Transcrocetin</a> (<a href="/wiki/Saffron" title="Saffron">saffron</a>)</li></ul> <ul><li><b>Unsorted:</b> <i>Allosteric modulators:</i> <a href="/wiki/AGN-241751" class="mw-redirect" title="AGN-241751">AGN-241751</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><i><b>See also:</b> <a href="/wiki/Template:Receptor_modulators" title="Template:Receptor modulators">Receptor/signaling modulators</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Template:Metabotropic_glutamate_receptor_modulators" title="Template:Metabotropic glutamate receptor modulators">Metabotropic glutamate receptor modulators</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Template:Glutamate_metabolism_and_transport_modulators" title="Template:Glutamate metabolism and transport modulators">Glutamate metabolism/transport modulators</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div 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