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id="toc-Religious,_racial,_and_cultural_tensions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religious,_racial,_and_cultural_tensions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Religious, racial, and cultural tensions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religious,_racial,_and_cultural_tensions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-French_invasion_of_Spain_and_political_crisis_in_New_Spain,_1808–1809" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#French_invasion_of_Spain_and_political_crisis_in_New_Spain,_1808–1809"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>French invasion of Spain and political crisis in New Spain, 1808–1809</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-French_invasion_of_Spain_and_political_crisis_in_New_Spain,_1808–1809-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Hidalgo_revolt,_1810–1811" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Hidalgo_revolt,_1810–1811"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>The Hidalgo revolt, 1810–1811</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Hidalgo_revolt,_1810–1811-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Insurgency_in_the_South_under_Morelos,_1811–1815" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Insurgency_in_the_South_under_Morelos,_1811–1815"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Insurgency in the South under Morelos, 1811–1815</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Insurgency_in_the_South_under_Morelos,_1811–1815-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Insurgency_under_Vicente_Guerrero,_1815–1820" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Insurgency_under_Vicente_Guerrero,_1815–1820"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Insurgency under Vicente Guerrero, 1815–1820</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Insurgency_under_Vicente_Guerrero,_1815–1820-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Guerrero,_Iturbide,_and_the_Plan_of_Iguala" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Guerrero,_Iturbide,_and_the_Plan_of_Iguala"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Guerrero, Iturbide, and the Plan of Iguala</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Guerrero,_Iturbide,_and_the_Plan_of_Iguala-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Collapse_of_imperial_rule_and_independence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Collapse_of_imperial_rule_and_independence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Collapse of imperial rule and independence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Collapse_of_imperial_rule_and_independence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Creation_of_the_First_Mexican_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Creation_of_the_First_Mexican_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Creation of the First Mexican Empire</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Creation_of_the_First_Mexican_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spanish_attempts_to_reconquer_Mexico" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spanish_attempts_to_reconquer_Mexico"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Spanish attempts to reconquer Mexico</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spanish_attempts_to_reconquer_Mexico-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Legacy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Mexican War of Independence</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 47 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-47" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">47 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meksikaanse_Onafhanklikheidsoorlog" title="Meksikaanse Onafhanklikheidsoorlog – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Meksikaanse Onafhanklikheidsoorlog" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D8%B1%D8%A8_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%82%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%84_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%83%D8%B3%D9%8A%D9%83%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="حرب الاستقلال المكسيكية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="حرب الاستقلال المكسيكية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independencia_de_M%C3%A9xicu" title="Independencia de Méxicu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Independencia de Méxicu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%DA%A9%D8%B2%DB%8C%DA%A9_%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%BA%DB%8C%D9%85%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%B2%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%82_%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B4%DB%8C" title="مکزیک باغیمسیزلیق ساواشی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="مکزیک باغیمسیزلیق ساواشی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B7%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B6%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%86%D1%8C_%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D1%96%D0%BA%D1%96" title="Вайна за незалежнасць Мексікі – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Вайна за незалежнасць Мексікі" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independ%C3%A8ncia_de_M%C3%A8xic" title="Independència de Mèxic – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Independència de Mèxic" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexick%C3%A1_v%C3%A1lka_za_nez%C3%A1vislost" title="Mexická válka za nezávislost – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Mexická válka za nezávislost" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexicos_uafh%C3%A6ngighedskrig" title="Mexicos uafhængighedskrig – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Mexicos uafhængighedskrig" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexikanischer_Unabh%C3%A4ngigkeitskrieg" title="Mexikanischer Unabhängigkeitskrieg – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Mexikanischer Unabhängigkeitskrieg" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mehhiko_iseseisvuss%C3%B5da" title="Mehhiko iseseisvussõda – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Mehhiko iseseisvussõda" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CE%B5%CE%BE%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C%CF%82_%CE%A0%CF%8C%CE%BB%CE%B5%CE%BC%CE%BF%CF%82_%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82_%CE%91%CE%BD%CE%B5%CE%BE%CE%B1%CF%81%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%83%CE%AF%CE%B1%CF%82" title="Μεξικανικός Πόλεμος της Ανεξαρτησίας – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Μεξικανικός Πόλεμος της Ανεξαρτησίας" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independencia_de_M%C3%A9xico" title="Independencia de México – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Independencia de México" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meksika_Milito_de_Sendependeco" title="Meksika Milito de Sendependeco – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Meksika Milito de Sendependeco" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexikoko_Independentzia_Gerra" title="Mexikoko Independentzia Gerra – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Mexikoko Independentzia Gerra" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%86%DA%AF_%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%82%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%84_%D9%85%DA%A9%D8%B2%DB%8C%DA%A9" title="جنگ استقلال مکزیک – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="جنگ استقلال مکزیک" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerre_d%27ind%C3%A9pendance_du_Mexique" title="Guerre d'indépendance du Mexique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Guerre d'indépendance du Mexique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independencia_de_M%C3%A9xico" title="Independencia de México – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Independencia de México" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%A9%95%EC%8B%9C%EC%BD%94_%EB%8F%85%EB%A6%BD_%EC%A0%84%EC%9F%81" title="멕시코 독립 전쟁 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="멕시코 독립 전쟁" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%A5%D6%84%D5%BD%D5%AB%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB_%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%AD%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%A6%D5%B4" title="Մեքսիկայի անկախության պատերազմ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Մեքսիկայի անկախության պատերազմ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meksi%C4%8Dki_rat_za_nezavisnost" title="Meksički rat za nezavisnost – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Meksički rat za nezavisnost" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perang_Kemerdekaan_Meksiko" title="Perang Kemerdekaan Meksiko – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Perang Kemerdekaan Meksiko" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_d%27indipendenza_del_Messico" title="Guerra d'indipendenza del Messico – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Guerra d'indipendenza del Messico" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%9C%D7%97%D7%9E%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%A2%D7%A6%D7%9E%D7%90%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%A9%D7%9C_%D7%9E%D7%A7%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%95" title="מלחמת העצמאות של מקסיקו – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מלחמת העצמאות של מקסיקו" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98_%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%A5%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%93%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A3%E1%83%99%E1%83%98%E1%83%93%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%91%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%97%E1%83%95%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1" title="ომი მექსიკის დამოუკიდებლობისათვის – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ომი მექსიკის დამოუკიდებლობისათვის" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%A8_endepandans_meksik%C3%A8n" title="Gè endepandans meksikèn – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Gè endepandans meksikèn" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meksikas_neatkar%C4%ABbas_kar%C5%A1" title="Meksikas neatkarības karš – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Meksikas neatkarības karš" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexik%C3%B3i_f%C3%BCggetlens%C3%A9gi_h%C3%A1bor%C3%BA" title="Mexikói függetlenségi háború – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Mexikói függetlenségi háború" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perang_Kemerdekaan_Mexico" title="Perang Kemerdekaan Mexico – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Perang Kemerdekaan Mexico" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nah badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://nah.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexico_itlacaxoxouhcayo" title="Mexico itlacaxoxouhcayo – Nahuatl" lang="nah" hreflang="nah" data-title="Mexico itlacaxoxouhcayo" data-language-autonym="Nāhuatl" data-language-local-name="Nahuatl" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nāhuatl</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexicaanse_Onafhankelijkheidsoorlog" title="Mexicaanse Onafhankelijkheidsoorlog – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Mexicaanse Onafhankelijkheidsoorlog" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%A1%E3%82%AD%E3%82%B7%E3%82%B3%E7%8B%AC%E7%AB%8B%E9%9D%A9%E5%91%BD" title="メキシコ独立革命 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="メキシコ独立革命" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexicos_uavhengighetskrig" title="Mexicos uavhengighetskrig – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Mexicos uavhengighetskrig" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D9%85%DA%A9%D8%B3%DB%8C%DA%A9%D9%88_%D8%AF_%D8%AE%D9%BE%D9%84%D9%88%D8%A7%DA%A9%DB%8D_%D8%AC%DA%AB%DA%93%D9%87" title="د مکسیکو د خپلواکۍ جګړه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د مکسیکو د خپلواکۍ جګړه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_da_Independ%C3%AAncia_do_M%C3%A9xico" title="Guerra da Independência do México – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Guerra da Independência do México" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B7%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C_%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B8" title="Война за независимость Мексики – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Война за независимость Мексики" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexican_War_of_Independence" title="Mexican War of Independence – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Mexican War of Independence" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mehi%C5%A1ka_vojna_za_neodvisnost" title="Mehiška vojna za neodvisnost – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Mehiška vojna za neodvisnost" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%DB%95%DA%95%DB%8C_%D8%B3%DB%95%D8%B1%D8%A8%DB%95%D8%AE%DB%86%DB%8C%DB%8C%DB%8C_%D9%85%DB%95%DA%A9%D8%B3%DB%8C%DA%A9" title="شەڕی سەربەخۆییی مەکسیک – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="شەڕی سەربەخۆییی مەکسیک" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82_%D0%B7%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82" title="Мексички рат за независност – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Мексички рат за независност" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meksikon_itsen%C3%A4isyyssota" title="Meksikon itsenäisyyssota – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Meksikon itsenäisyyssota" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexikanska_frihetskriget" title="Mexikanska frihetskriget – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Mexikanska frihetskriget" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8B_%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8B%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D" title="மெக்சிக்கோ விடுதலைப் போர் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="மெக்சிக்கோ விடுதலைப் போர்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a 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typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Protection_policy#semi" title="This article is semi-protected."><img alt="Page semi-protected" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/20px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/30px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Armed conflict which ended Spanish rule of New Spain</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with the <a href="/wiki/Mexican_Revolution" title="Mexican Revolution">Mexican Revolution</a> in the early 20th century.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r963460841">@media all and (min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .desktop-float-right{box-sizing:border-box;float:right;clear:right}}.mw-parser-output .infobox.vevent .status>p:first-child{margin:0}</style><table class="infobox vevent" style="width:25.5em;border-spacing:2px;"><tbody><tr><th class="summary" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Mexican War of Independence</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;">Part of the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_American_wars_of_independence" title="Spanish American wars of independence">Spanish American wars of independence</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;line-height:1.5em;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Collage_Independencia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Collage_Independencia.jpg/280px-Collage_Independencia.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="398" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Collage_Independencia.jpg/420px-Collage_Independencia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Collage_Independencia.jpg/560px-Collage_Independencia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1132" data-file-height="1608" /></a></span><br /><b>Clockwise from top left</b>: <a href="/wiki/Miguel_Hidalgo_y_Costilla" title="Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla">Miguel Hidalgo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Mar%C3%ADa_Morelos" title="José María Morelos">José María Morelos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Army_of_the_Three_Guarantees" title="Army of the Three Guarantees">Trigarante Army</a> in Mexico City, Mural of independence by <a href="/wiki/Juan_O%27Gorman" title="Juan O'Gorman">O'Gorman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Embrace_of_Acatempan" title="Embrace of Acatempan">Embrace of Acatempan</a> between <a href="/wiki/Agustin_de_Iturbide" class="mw-redirect" title="Agustin de Iturbide">Iturbide</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vicente_Guerrero" title="Vicente Guerrero">Guerrero</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><table style="width:100%;margin:0;padding:0;border:0;display:inline-table"><tbody><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Date</th><td>16 September 1810 – 27 September 1821<br />(11 years, 1 week and 4 days)</td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Location</th><td><div class="location"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Bandera_del_Primer_Imperio_Mexicano.svg/23px-Bandera_del_Primer_Imperio_Mexicano.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Bandera_del_Primer_Imperio_Mexicano.svg/35px-Bandera_del_Primer_Imperio_Mexicano.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Bandera_del_Primer_Imperio_Mexicano.svg/46px-Bandera_del_Primer_Imperio_Mexicano.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1400" data-file-height="800" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a></div></td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Result</th><td class="status"> <p><b>Independence agreement</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" title="Treaty of Córdoba">Treaty of Córdoba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Mexican_Empire" title="First Mexican Empire">First Mexican Empire</a> is established</li> <li>Signing of the <a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_Independence_of_the_Mexican_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Declaration of Independence of the Mexican Empire">Declaration of Independence of the Mexican Empire</a></li> <li>Spain would not recognize Mexican independence until signing of <a href="/wiki/Santa_Mar%C3%ADa%E2%80%93Calatrava_Treaty" title="Santa María–Calatrava Treaty">Santa María–Calatrava Treaty</a> in 1836</li></ul></td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Territorial<br />changes</th><td> Spain loses the continental area of <a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_New_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Viceroyalty of New Spain">Viceroyalty of New Spain</a> with the exception of <a href="/wiki/San_Juan_de_Ul%C3%BAa" title="San Juan de Ulúa">San Juan de Ulúa</a>, Veracruz</td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Belligerents</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Estandarte_de_Hidalgo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Estandarte_de_Hidalgo.svg/17px-Estandarte_de_Hidalgo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="17" height="24" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Estandarte_de_Hidalgo.svg/26px-Estandarte_de_Hidalgo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Estandarte_de_Hidalgo.svg/34px-Estandarte_de_Hidalgo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="744" data-file-height="1052" /></a></span> <span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Escudo_de_Allende_Reverso_Cruz.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Escudo_de_Allende_Reverso_Cruz.svg/17px-Escudo_de_Allende_Reverso_Cruz.svg.png" decoding="async" width="17" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Escudo_de_Allende_Reverso_Cruz.svg/26px-Escudo_de_Allende_Reverso_Cruz.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Escudo_de_Allende_Reverso_Cruz.svg/34px-Escudo_de_Allende_Reverso_Cruz.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1495" data-file-height="1394" /></a></span> <span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Doliente_de_Hidalgo.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Doliente_de_Hidalgo.png/17px-Doliente_de_Hidalgo.png" decoding="async" width="17" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Doliente_de_Hidalgo.png/26px-Doliente_de_Hidalgo.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Doliente_de_Hidalgo.png/34px-Doliente_de_Hidalgo.png 2x" data-file-width="522" data-file-height="438" /></a></span> <span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Bandera_y_Estandarte_de_Morelos.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Bandera_y_Estandarte_de_Morelos.svg/17px-Bandera_y_Estandarte_de_Morelos.svg.png" decoding="async" width="17" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Bandera_y_Estandarte_de_Morelos.svg/26px-Bandera_y_Estandarte_de_Morelos.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Bandera_y_Estandarte_de_Morelos.svg/34px-Bandera_y_Estandarte_de_Morelos.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="883" data-file-height="723" /></a></span> <span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Bandera_Nacional_de_Guerra_de_Mexico_en_1815.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Bandera_Nacional_de_Guerra_de_Mexico_en_1815.svg/17px-Bandera_Nacional_de_Guerra_de_Mexico_en_1815.svg.png" decoding="async" width="17" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Bandera_Nacional_de_Guerra_de_Mexico_en_1815.svg/26px-Bandera_Nacional_de_Guerra_de_Mexico_en_1815.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Bandera_Nacional_de_Guerra_de_Mexico_en_1815.svg/34px-Bandera_Nacional_de_Guerra_de_Mexico_en_1815.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2806" data-file-height="1684" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Mexican_Army#Independence" title="Mexican Army">Insurgents</a><br /><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Three_Guarantees.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_the_Three_Guarantees.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Three_Guarantees.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_the_Three_Guarantees.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Three_Guarantees.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_the_Three_Guarantees.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Three_Guarantees.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1400" data-file-height="800" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Army_of_the_Three_Guarantees" title="Army of the Three Guarantees">Army of the Three Guarantees</a></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <p><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Flag_of_Spain_%281785%E2%80%931873%2C_1875%E2%80%931931%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Spain_%281785%E2%80%931873%2C_1875%E2%80%931931%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Flag_of_Spain_%281785%E2%80%931873%2C_1875%E2%80%931931%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Spain_%281785%E2%80%931873%2C_1875%E2%80%931931%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Flag_of_Spain_%281785%E2%80%931873%2C_1875%E2%80%931931%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Spain_%281785%E2%80%931873%2C_1875%E2%80%931931%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a> </p> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain"><img alt="Spain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/23px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/35px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/45px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_New_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Viceroyalty of New Spain">Viceroyalty of New Spain</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Commanders and leaders</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Estandarte_de_Hidalgo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Estandarte_de_Hidalgo.svg/17px-Estandarte_de_Hidalgo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="17" height="24" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Estandarte_de_Hidalgo.svg/26px-Estandarte_de_Hidalgo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Estandarte_de_Hidalgo.svg/34px-Estandarte_de_Hidalgo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="744" data-file-height="1052" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Miguel_Hidalgo" class="mw-redirect" title="Miguel Hidalgo">Miguel Hidalgo</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment" title="Executed"><img alt="Executed" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/14px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/21px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/28px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="510" data-file-height="490" /></a></span><br /><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Escudo_de_Allende_Reverso_Cruz.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Escudo_de_Allende_Reverso_Cruz.svg/17px-Escudo_de_Allende_Reverso_Cruz.svg.png" decoding="async" width="17" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Escudo_de_Allende_Reverso_Cruz.svg/26px-Escudo_de_Allende_Reverso_Cruz.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Escudo_de_Allende_Reverso_Cruz.svg/34px-Escudo_de_Allende_Reverso_Cruz.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1495" data-file-height="1394" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Ignacio_Allende" title="Ignacio Allende">Ignacio Allende</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment" title="Executed"><img alt="Executed" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/14px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/21px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/28px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="510" data-file-height="490" /></a></span><br /><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Doliente_de_Hidalgo.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Doliente_de_Hidalgo.png/17px-Doliente_de_Hidalgo.png" decoding="async" width="17" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Doliente_de_Hidalgo.png/26px-Doliente_de_Hidalgo.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Doliente_de_Hidalgo.png/34px-Doliente_de_Hidalgo.png 2x" data-file-width="522" data-file-height="438" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Ignacio_L%C3%B3pez_Ray%C3%B3n" title="Ignacio López Rayón">Ignacio López Rayon</a> (<a href="/wiki/Prisoner_of_war" title="Prisoner of war"><abbr title="Prisoner of war">POW</abbr></a>)<br /><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Bandera_de_Jos%C3%A9_Mar%C3%ADa_Morelos_en_1812.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Bandera_de_Jos%C3%A9_Mar%C3%ADa_Morelos_en_1812.png/17px-Bandera_de_Jos%C3%A9_Mar%C3%ADa_Morelos_en_1812.png" decoding="async" width="17" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Bandera_de_Jos%C3%A9_Mar%C3%ADa_Morelos_en_1812.png/26px-Bandera_de_Jos%C3%A9_Mar%C3%ADa_Morelos_en_1812.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Bandera_de_Jos%C3%A9_Mar%C3%ADa_Morelos_en_1812.png/34px-Bandera_de_Jos%C3%A9_Mar%C3%ADa_Morelos_en_1812.png 2x" data-file-width="477" data-file-height="386" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Mar%C3%ADa_Morelos" title="José María Morelos">José María Morelos</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment" title="Executed"><img alt="Executed" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/14px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/21px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/28px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="510" data-file-height="490" /></a></span><br /><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Bandera_Nacional_de_Guerra_de_Mexico_en_1815.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Bandera_Nacional_de_Guerra_de_Mexico_en_1815.svg/17px-Bandera_Nacional_de_Guerra_de_Mexico_en_1815.svg.png" decoding="async" width="17" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Bandera_Nacional_de_Guerra_de_Mexico_en_1815.svg/26px-Bandera_Nacional_de_Guerra_de_Mexico_en_1815.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Bandera_Nacional_de_Guerra_de_Mexico_en_1815.svg/34px-Bandera_Nacional_de_Guerra_de_Mexico_en_1815.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2806" data-file-height="1684" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Vicente_Guerrero" title="Vicente Guerrero">Vicente Guerrero</a><br /><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Bandera_Nacional_de_Guerra_de_Mexico_en_1815.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Bandera_Nacional_de_Guerra_de_Mexico_en_1815.svg/17px-Bandera_Nacional_de_Guerra_de_Mexico_en_1815.svg.png" decoding="async" width="17" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Bandera_Nacional_de_Guerra_de_Mexico_en_1815.svg/26px-Bandera_Nacional_de_Guerra_de_Mexico_en_1815.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Bandera_Nacional_de_Guerra_de_Mexico_en_1815.svg/34px-Bandera_Nacional_de_Guerra_de_Mexico_en_1815.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2806" data-file-height="1684" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Mariano_Matamoros" title="Mariano Matamoros">Mariano Matamoros</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment" title="Executed"><img alt="Executed" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/14px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/21px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/28px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="510" data-file-height="490" /></a></span><br /><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Bandera_Nacional_de_Guerra_de_Mexico_en_1815.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Bandera_Nacional_de_Guerra_de_Mexico_en_1815.svg/17px-Bandera_Nacional_de_Guerra_de_Mexico_en_1815.svg.png" decoding="async" width="17" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Bandera_Nacional_de_Guerra_de_Mexico_en_1815.svg/26px-Bandera_Nacional_de_Guerra_de_Mexico_en_1815.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Bandera_Nacional_de_Guerra_de_Mexico_en_1815.svg/34px-Bandera_Nacional_de_Guerra_de_Mexico_en_1815.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2806" data-file-height="1684" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Guadalupe_Victoria" title="Guadalupe Victoria">Guadalupe Victoria</a><br /><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Bandera_Nacional_de_Guerra_de_Mexico_en_1815.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Bandera_Nacional_de_Guerra_de_Mexico_en_1815.svg/17px-Bandera_Nacional_de_Guerra_de_Mexico_en_1815.svg.png" decoding="async" width="17" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Bandera_Nacional_de_Guerra_de_Mexico_en_1815.svg/26px-Bandera_Nacional_de_Guerra_de_Mexico_en_1815.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Bandera_Nacional_de_Guerra_de_Mexico_en_1815.svg/34px-Bandera_Nacional_de_Guerra_de_Mexico_en_1815.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2806" data-file-height="1684" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Francisco_Xavier_Mina" class="mw-redirect" title="Francisco Xavier Mina">Francisco Xavier<br />Mina</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment" title="Executed"><img alt="Executed" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/14px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/21px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/28px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="510" data-file-height="490" /></a></span><br /><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Three_Guarantees.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_the_Three_Guarantees.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Three_Guarantees.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_the_Three_Guarantees.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Three_Guarantees.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_the_Three_Guarantees.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Three_Guarantees.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1400" data-file-height="800" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Agust%C3%ADn_de_Iturbide" title="Agustín de Iturbide">Agustín de Iturbide</a><br /><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Three_Guarantees.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_the_Three_Guarantees.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Three_Guarantees.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_the_Three_Guarantees.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Three_Guarantees.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_the_Three_Guarantees.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Three_Guarantees.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1400" data-file-height="800" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Antonio_L%C3%B3pez_de_Santa_Anna" title="Antonio López de Santa Anna">Antonio López de Santa Anna</a></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Flag_of_Spain_%281785%E2%80%931873%2C_1875%E2%80%931931%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Spain_%281785%E2%80%931873%2C_1875%E2%80%931931%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Flag_of_Spain_%281785%E2%80%931873%2C_1875%E2%80%931931%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Spain_%281785%E2%80%931873%2C_1875%E2%80%931931%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Flag_of_Spain_%281785%E2%80%931873%2C_1875%E2%80%931931%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Spain_%281785%E2%80%931873%2C_1875%E2%80%931931%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_VII_of_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Ferdinand VII of Spain">Ferdinand VII</a><br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain"><img alt="Spain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/23px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/35px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/45px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Francisco_Javier_Venegas" title="Francisco Javier Venegas">Francisco Venegas</a> (1810–13)<br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain"><img alt="Spain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/23px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/35px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/45px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9lix_Mar%C3%ADa_Calleja_del_Rey,_1st_Count_of_Calder%C3%B3n" class="mw-redirect" title="Félix María Calleja del Rey, 1st Count of Calderón">Félix María Calleja</a> (1810–16)<br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain"><img alt="Spain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/23px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/35px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/45px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Juan_Ruiz_de_Apodaca,_1st_Count_of_Venadito" title="Juan Ruiz de Apodaca, 1st Count of Venadito">Juan Ruiz de A.</a> (1816–21)<br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain"><img alt="Spain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/23px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/35px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/45px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Francisco_Novella_Azabal_P%C3%A9rez_y_Sicardo" title="Francisco Novella Azabal Pérez y Sicardo">Francisco Novella</a> (1821)<br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain"><img alt="Spain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/23px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/35px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg/45px-Flag_of_Cross_of_Burgundy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Juan_O%27Donoj%C3%BA" title="Juan O'Donojú">Juan O'Donojú</a> (1821)</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Casualties and losses</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="text-align:center"> 600,000 killed<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl 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href="/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_Mexican_War_of_Independence_first_stage" title="Template:Campaignbox Mexican War of Independence first stage"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_Mexican_War_of_Independence_first_stage" title="Template talk:Campaignbox Mexican War of Independence first stage"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_Mexican_War_of_Independence_first_stage" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox Mexican War of Independence first stage"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Mexican_War_of_Independence_First_Stage_(1810–1811)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="line-height:1.6em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Mexican War <br /> of Independence</a> <br /> <small><span class="nobold"><b>First Stage <br />(1810–1811)</b></span></small></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Alh%C3%B3ndiga_de_Granaditas" title="Capture of Alhóndiga de Granaditas">Alhóndiga de Granaditas</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Puerto_de_Carroza&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Puerto de Carroza (page does not exist)">Puerto de Carroza</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Capture_of_Valladolid&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Capture of Valladolid (page does not exist)">Valladolid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Monte_de_las_Cruces" title="Battle of Monte de las Cruces">Monte de las Cruces</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Zacoalco&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Zacoalco (page does not exist)">Zacoalco</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Aculco&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Aculco (page does not exist)">Aculco</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Capture_of_Guadalajara&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Capture of Guadalajara (page does not exist)">Guadalajara</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Capture_of_Acaponeta&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Capture of Acaponeta (page does not exist)">Acaponeta</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Capture_of_Tepic&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Capture of Tepic (page does not exist)">Tepic</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Capture_of_San_Blas&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Capture of San Blas (page does not exist)">San Blas</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Guanajuato&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Guanajuato (page does not exist)">Guanajuato</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Real_del_Rosario&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Real del Rosario (page does not exist)">Real del Rosario</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Tres_Palos&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Tres Palos (page does not exist)">Tres Palos</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Aguanueva&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Aguanueva (page does not exist)">Aguanueva</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Urepetiro&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Urepetiro (page does not exist)">Urepetiro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Calder%C3%B3n_Bridge" title="Battle of Calderón Bridge">Calderón Bridge</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Puerto_del_Carnero&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Puerto del Carnero (page does not exist)">Puerto del Carnero</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_San_Ignacio_de_Piaxtla&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of San Ignacio de Piaxtla (page does not exist)">San Ignacio de Piaxtla</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Mexican_War_of_Independence_Organizational_phase_(1811–1815)" style="margin:0;float:right;clear:right;width:25.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;margin-left:1em;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-vertical mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist 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class="mw-selflink selflink">Mexican War <br /> of Independence</a> <br /> <small><span class="nobold"><b>Organizational phase <br />(1811–1815)</b></span></small></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Puerto_de_Pi%C3%B1ones" title="Battle of Puerto de Piñones">Puerto de Piñones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Zacatecas_(1811)" title="Battle of Zacatecas (1811)">Zacatecas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_El_Veladero" title="Battle of El Veladero">El Veladero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_El_Maguey" title="Battle of El Maguey">El Maguey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Llanos_de_Santa_Juana" title="Battle of Llanos de Santa Juana">Llanos de Santa Juana</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Huauchinango&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Huauchinango (page does not exist)">Huauchinango</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Zit%C3%A1cuaro" title="Battle of Zitácuaro">Zitácuaro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tecualoya" title="Battle of Tecualoya">Tecualoya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tenancingo" title="Battle of Tenancingo">Tenancingo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Cuautla" title="Siege of Cuautla">Cuautla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Iz%C3%BAcar" title="Battle of Izúcar">Izúcar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Huajuapan_de_Le%C3%B3n" title="Siege of Huajuapan de León">Huajuapan de León</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tenango_del_Valle" title="Battle of Tenango del Valle">Tenango del Valle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Escamela" title="Battle of Escamela">Escamela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Zitlala" title="Battle of Zitlala">Zitlala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guti%C3%A9rrez%E2%80%93Magee_Expedition" title="Gutiérrez–Magee Expedition">Texas</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Capture_of_Nacogdoches&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Capture of Nacogdoches (page does not exist)">Nacogdoches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Rosillo_Creek" title="Battle of Rosillo Creek">Rosillo Creek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Alazan_Creek" title="Battle of Alazan Creek">Alazan Creek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Medina" title="Battle of Medina">Medina</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Recapture_of_San_Antonio&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Recapture of San Antonio (page does not exist)">San Antonio</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Orizaba" title="Capture of Orizaba">Orizaba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Oaxaca_(1812)" class="mw-redirect" title="Capture of Oaxaca (1812)">Oaxaca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Acapulco_(1813)" title="Siege of Acapulco (1813)">Acapulco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_La_Chinc%C3%BAa" title="Battle of La Chincúa">La Chincúa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lomas_de_Santa_Mar%C3%ADa" title="Battle of Lomas de Santa María">Lomas de Santa María</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Puruar%C3%A1n" title="Battle of Puruarán">Puruarán</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Temalaca" title="Battle of Temalaca">Temalaca</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Mexican_War_of_Independence_Resistance_and_Consummation_Phases_(1815–1821)" style="margin:0;float:right;clear:right;width:25.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;margin-left:1em;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-vertical mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_Mexican_War_of_Independence:_Resistance_and_Consummation_Phases" title="Template:Campaignbox Mexican War of Independence: Resistance and Consummation Phases"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_Mexican_War_of_Independence:_Resistance_and_Consummation_Phases" title="Template talk:Campaignbox Mexican War of Independence: Resistance and Consummation Phases"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_Mexican_War_of_Independence:_Resistance_and_Consummation_Phases" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox Mexican War of Independence: Resistance and Consummation Phases"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Mexican_War_of_Independence_Resistance_and_Consummation_Phases_(1815–1821)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="line-height:1.6em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink"><span class="wrap">Mexican War of Independence</span></a> <br /> <small><span class="nobold"><b>Resistance and Consummation Phases (1815–1821)</b></span></small></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Ca%C3%B1ada_de_Los_Naranjos&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Cañada de Los Naranjos (page does not exist)">Cañada de Los Naranjos</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mina_campaign&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mina campaign (page does not exist)">Mina campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Valle_de_Ma%C3%ADz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Valle de Maíz (page does not exist)">Valle de Maíz</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege_of_Soto_la_Marina&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Siege of Soto la Marina (page does not exist)">Soto la Marina</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Peotillos&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Peotillos (page does not exist)">Peotillos</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Los_Arrastraderos&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Los Arrastraderos (page does not exist)">Los Arrastraderos</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Fuerte_del_Sombrero&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Fuerte del Sombrero (page does not exist)">Fuerte del Sombrero</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Cerro_de_C%C3%B3poro&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Cerro de Cóporo (page does not exist)">Cerro de Cóporo</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_San_Diego_de_la_Uni%C3%B3n&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of San Diego de la Unión (page does not exist)">San Diego de la Unión</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_El_Tamo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of El Tamo (page does not exist)">El Tamo</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Cerro_de_Barrab%C3%A1s&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Cerro de Barrabás (page does not exist)">Cerro de Barrabás</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Agua_Zarca" title="Battle of Agua Zarca">Agua Zarca</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Zapotepec&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Zapotepec (page does not exist)">Zapotepec</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_C%C3%B3rdoba_(Mexico)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Córdoba (Mexico) (page does not exist)">Córdoba</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege_of_Veracruz_(1821)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Siege of Veracruz (1821) (page does not exist)">Veracruz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Azcapotzalco" title="Battle of Azcapotzalco">Azcapotzalco</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Spanish_colonial_campaigns" style="margin:0;float:right;clear:right;width:25.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;margin-left:1em;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-vertical mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_Spanish_colonial_campaigns" title="Template:Campaignbox Spanish colonial campaigns"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_Spanish_colonial_campaigns" title="Template talk:Campaignbox Spanish colonial campaigns"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_Spanish_colonial_campaigns" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox Spanish colonial campaigns"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Spanish_colonial_campaigns" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="line-height:1.6em"><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire"><span class="wrap">Spanish colonial campaigns</span></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>15th century</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_the_Canary_Islands" title="Conquest of the Canary Islands">Canary Islands (1402–96)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santa_Cruz_de_la_Mar_Peque%C3%B1a" title="Santa Cruz de la Mar Pequeña">Santa Cruz de la Mar Pequeña (1478)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Guinea" title="Battle of Guinea">Guinea (1478)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mers-el-K%C3%A9bir_(1497)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Mers-el-Kébir (1497)">Algeria (1497)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Melilla" title="Conquest of Melilla"> Melilla (1497)</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>16th century</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Mers-el-K%C3%A9bir_(1505)" title="Capture of Mers-el-Kébir (1505)">Algeria (1505)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mers-el-K%C3%A9bir_(1507)" title="Battle of Mers-el-Kébir (1507)">Algeria (1507)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_the_Pe%C3%B1%C3%B3n_de_V%C3%A9lez_de_la_Gomera_(1508)" title="Conquest of the Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera (1508)">Morocco (1508)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Oran_(1509)" title="Spanish conquest of Oran (1509)">Algeria (1509)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_B%C3%A9ja%C3%AFa_(1510)" title="Capture of Béjaïa (1510)">Algeria (1510)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Tripoli" title="Spanish conquest of Tripoli">Tripoli (1510)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_assault_on_Djerba_(1510)" title="Spanish assault on Djerba (1510)">Tunisia (1510)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93Ta%C3%ADno_War_of_San_Juan%E2%80%93Borik%C3%A9n" title="Spanish–Taíno War of San Juan–Borikén">Puerto Rico (1511–29)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algiers_expedition_(1516)" title="Algiers expedition (1516)">Algeria (1516)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Tlemcen_(1518)" title="Fall of Tlemcen (1518)">Algeria (1517–18)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican_Indian_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Mexican Indian Wars">Mexico (1519–1821)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Aztec_Empire" title="Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire">Mexico (1519–21)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algiers_expedition_(1519)" title="Algiers expedition (1519)">Algeria (1519)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_assault_on_Djerba_(1520)" title="Spanish assault on Djerba (1520)">Tunisia (1520)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Chiapas" title="Spanish conquest of Chiapas">Chiapas (1523–1695)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Guatemala" title="Spanish conquest of Guatemala">Guatemala (1524–1697)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_El_Salvador" title="Spanish conquest of El Salvador">El Salvador (1524–39)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Honduras" title="Spanish conquest of Honduras">Honduras (1524–39)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pe%C3%B1%C3%B3n_de_V%C3%A9lez_de_la_Gomera_expedition_(1525)" title="Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera expedition (1525)">Morocco (1525)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Yucat%C3%A1n" title="Spanish conquest of Yucatán">Yucatán (1527–1697)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Pe%C3%B1%C3%B3n_of_Algiers_(1529)" title="Capture of Peñón of Algiers (1529)">Algeria (1529)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campaign_of_Cherchell_(1531)" title="Campaign of Cherchell (1531)">Algeria (1531)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Inca_Empire" title="Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire">Peru (1532–72)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Tunis_(1534)" title="Conquest of Tunis (1534)">Tunisia (1534)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iguape_War" title="Iguape War"> Brazil (1534-36)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_expedition_to_Tlemcen_(1535)" title="Spanish expedition to Tlemcen (1535)">Algeria (1535)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Tunis_(1535)" title="Conquest of Tunis (1535)">Tunisia (1535)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Muisca" title="Spanish conquest of the Muisca">Colombia (1537–40)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algiers_expedition_(1541)" title="Algiers expedition (1541)">Algeria (1541)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expedition_to_Mostaganem_(1543)" title="Expedition to Mostaganem (1543)">Algeria (1543)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Jailolo" title="Attack on Jailolo">Halmahera (1545)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arauco_War" title="Arauco War">Chile (1546–1662)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expedition_to_Mostaganem_(1547)" title="Expedition to Mostaganem (1547)">Algeria (1547)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Mahdia_(1550)" title="Capture of Mahdia (1550)">Tunisia (1550)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Tripoli_(1551)" title="Siege of Tripoli (1551)">Libya (1551)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_B%C3%A9ja%C3%AFa_(1555)" title="Capture of Béjaïa (1555)">Algeria (1555)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Oran_(1556)" title="Siege of Oran (1556)">Algeria (1556)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expedition_to_Mostaganem_(1558)" title="Expedition to Mostaganem (1558)">Algeria (1558)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Djerba" title="Battle of Djerba">Tunisia (1560)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calchaqu%C3%AD_Wars" title="Calchaquí Wars">Argentine Northwest (1560–1667)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sieges_of_Oran_and_Mers_El_K%C3%A9bir" title="Sieges of Oran and Mers El Kébir">Algeria (1563)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pe%C3%B1%C3%B3n_de_V%C3%A9lez_de_la_Gomera_expedition_(1563)" title="Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera expedition (1563)">Morocco (1563)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Pe%C3%B1%C3%B3n_de_V%C3%A9lez_de_la_Gomera" class="mw-redirect" title="Conquest of Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera">Morocco (1564)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93Moro_conflict" title="Spanish–Moro conflict">Philippines (1565–1898)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_assault_on_French_Florida" title="Spanish assault on French Florida">Florida (1565)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippine_revolts_against_Spain" title="Philippine revolts against Spain">Philippines (1567–72)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Tunis_(1573)" title="Conquest of Tunis (1573)">Tunisia (1573)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Tunis_(1574)" title="Conquest of Tunis (1574)">Tunisia (1574)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Castilian_War" title="Castilian War">Brunei (1578)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ternate_expedition_(1582)" title="Ternate expedition (1582)">Insulindia (1582)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ternate_expedition_(1585)" title="Ternate expedition (1585)">Insulindia (1585)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambodian%E2%80%93Spanish_War" title="Cambodian–Spanish War">Cambodia (1593–97)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_San_Juan_(1595)" title="Battle of San Juan (1595)">Puerto Rico (1595)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mindanao_expedition" title="Mindanao expedition">Philippines (1596)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pinos" title="Battle of Pinos">Cuba (1596)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_San_Juan_(1598)" title="Battle of San Juan (1598)">Puerto Rico (1598)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raid_of_Visayas_(1599-1600)" class="mw-redirect" title="Raid of Visayas (1599-1600)">Philippines (1599-1600)</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>17th century</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jolo_expedition_(1602)" title="Jolo expedition (1602)">Philippines (1602)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ternate_expedition_(1603)" title="Ternate expedition (1603)">Insulindia (1603)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hammamet" title="Battle of Hammamet">Tunisia (1605)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Moluccas" title="Spanish conquest of the Moluccas">Moluccas (1606)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mehdya,_Morocco#Spanish_occupation_(1614–81)" title="Mehdya, Morocco">Morocco (1614)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Pet%C3%A9n" title="Spanish conquest of Petén">Petén (1618–97)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recapture_of_Bahia" title="Recapture of Bahia">Brazil (1625)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_expedition_to_Formosa" title="Spanish expedition to Formosa">Taiwan (1626)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_St._Kitts_(1629)" title="Battle of St. Kitts (1629)">St. Kitts <b>·</b> Nevis (1629)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jolo_expedition_(1630)" title="Jolo expedition (1630)">Philippines (1630)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Abrolhos" title="Battle of Abrolhos">Brazil (1631)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Salvador_(1638)" title="Siege of Salvador (1638)">Brazil (1638)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_occupation_of_Jolo_(1638)" title="Spanish occupation of Jolo (1638)">Philippines (1638-46)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Action_of_12%E2%80%9317_January_1640" title="Action of 12–17 January 1640">Brazil (1640)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_San_Salvador_(1641)" title="Battle of San Salvador (1641)">Taiwan (1641)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_San_Salvador_(1642)" title="Battle of San Salvador (1642)">Taiwan (1642)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_expedition_to_Valdivia" title="Dutch expedition to Valdivia">Chiloé <b>·</b> Valdivia (1643)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battles_of_La_Naval_de_Manila" title="Battles of La Naval de Manila">Philippines (1646)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Fort_Rocher" title="Capture of Fort Rocher">Tortuga (1654)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Santo_Domingo_(1655)" title="Siege of Santo Domingo (1655)">Hispaniola (1655)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Jamaica" title="Invasion of Jamaica">Jamaica (1655)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ocho_Rios" title="Battle of Ocho Rios">Jamaica (1657)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Rio_Nuevo" title="Battle of Rio Nuevo">Jamaica (1658)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Morgan%27s_raid_on_Porto_Bello" title="Henry Morgan's raid on Porto Bello">Porto Bello (1668)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Morgan%27s_raid_on_Lake_Maracaibo" title="Henry Morgan's raid on Lake Maracaibo">Lake Maracaibo (1669)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Morgan%27s_Panama_expedition" title="Henry Morgan's Panama expedition">Panama (1671)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pueblo_Revolt" title="Pueblo Revolt">New Mexico (1680–92)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Larache_(1689)" title="Siege of Larache (1689)">Morocco (1689)</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>18th century</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Queen_Anne%27s_War" title="Queen Anne's War">North America (1702–13)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huilliche_uprising_of_1712" title="Huilliche uprising of 1712">Chiloé (1712)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raid_on_Nassau_(1720)" title="Raid on Nassau (1720)">Bahamas (1720)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mapuche_uprising_of_1723" title="Mapuche uprising of 1723">Chile (1723–1726)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Oran_(1732)" title="Spanish conquest of Oran (1732)">Oran (1732)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93Portuguese_War_(1735%E2%80%931737)" title="Spanish–Portuguese War (1735–1737)">Banda Oriental (1735–37)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_Jenkins%27_Ear" title="War of Jenkins' Ear">Caribbean and North America (1739–48)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fantastic_War" title="Fantastic War">Iberian Peninsula and South America (1762–63)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_invasion_of_Portugal_(1762)" title="Spanish invasion of Portugal (1762)">Portugal (1762)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Cevallos_expedition" title="First Cevallos expedition">Banda Oriental and Rio Grande do Sul (1762–63)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Havana" title="Siege of Havana">Cuba (1762)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_for_R%C3%ADo_San_Juan_de_Nicaragua" title="Battle for Río San Juan de Nicaragua">Nicaragua (1762)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Manila_(1762)" title="Battle of Manila (1762)">Philippines (1762)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mapuche_uprising_of_1766" title="Mapuche uprising of 1766">Chile (1766–1767)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Algiers_(1775)" title="Invasion of Algiers (1775)">Algiers (1775)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93Portuguese_War_(1776%E2%80%931777)" title="Spanish–Portuguese War (1776–1777)">Banda Oriental (1776–1777)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spain_and_the_American_Revolutionary_War" title="Spain and the American Revolutionary War">North America (1779–83)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebellion_of_T%C3%BApac_Amaru_II" title="Rebellion of Túpac Amaru II">Peru (1780–82)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolt_of_the_Comuneros_(New_Granada)" title="Revolt of the Comuneros (New Granada)">New Granada (1781)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombardment_of_Algiers_(1783)" title="Bombardment of Algiers (1783)">Algiers (1783)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombardment_of_Algiers_(1784)" title="Bombardment of Algiers (1784)">Algiers (1784)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huilliche_uprising_of_1792" title="Huilliche uprising of 1792">Chile (1792)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Spanish_War_(1796%E2%80%931808)" title="Anglo-Spanish War (1796–1808)">Caribbean (1796–1802)</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>19th century</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/British_invasions_of_the_River_Plate" title="British invasions of the River Plate">Río de la Plata (1806–07)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_American_wars_of_independence" title="Spanish American wars of independence">Spanish America (1808–33)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bolivian_War_of_Independence" title="Bolivian War of Independence">Bolivia (1809–25)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argentine_War_of_Independence" title="Argentine War of Independence">Argentina (1810–18)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Florida_Controversy" title="West Florida Controversy">Florida (1810)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paraguay_campaign" title="Paraguay campaign">Paraguay (1810–11)</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Mexico (1810–21)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peruvian_War_of_Independence" title="Peruvian War of Independence">Peru (1811–24)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1811_Independence_Movement" title="1811 Independence Movement">El Salvador (1811)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Las_Piedras_(1811)" title="Battle of Las Piedras (1811)">Uruguay (1811)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venezuelan_War_of_Independence" title="Venezuelan War of Independence">Venezuela (1811–23)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chilean_War_of_Independence" title="Chilean War of Independence">Chile (1812–27)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_reconquest_of_New_Granada" title="Spanish reconquest of New Granada">Colombia (1815–16)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bol%C3%ADvar%27s_campaign_to_liberate_New_Granada" title="Bolívar's campaign to liberate New Granada">Colombia (1819–20)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecuadorian_War_of_Independence" title="Ecuadorian War of Independence">Ecuador (1820–22)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_attempts_to_reconquer_Mexico" title="Spanish attempts to reconquer Mexico">Mexico (1821–29)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_expedition_to_Balanguingui" title="Spanish expedition to Balanguingui">Balanguingui (1848)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cochinchina_campaign" title="Cochinchina campaign">Cochinchina (1858–62)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hispano-Moroccan_War_(1859%E2%80%931860)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hispano-Moroccan War (1859–1860)">Morocco (1859–1860)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominican_Restoration_War" title="Dominican Restoration War">Dominican Republic (1863–65)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chincha_Islands_War" title="Chincha Islands War">Peru and Chile (1864–66)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grito_de_Lares" title="Grito de Lares">Puerto Rico (1868)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ten_Years%27_War" title="Ten Years' War">Cuba (1868–78)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_War_(Cuba)" title="Little War (Cuba)">Cuba (1879–80)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Melillan_campaign" title="First Melillan campaign">Morocco (1893–94)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuban_War_of_Independence" title="Cuban War of Independence">Cuba (1895–98)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippine_Revolution" title="Philippine Revolution">Philippines (1896–98)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puerto_Rico_campaign" title="Puerto Rico campaign">Puerto Rico (1898)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Guam" title="Capture of Guam">Guam (1898)</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>20th century</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_Melillan_campaign" title="Second Melillan campaign">Morocco (1909)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kert_campaign" title="Kert campaign">Morocco (1911–12)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rif_War" title="Rif War">Morocco (1920–26)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ifni_War" title="Ifni War">Morocco (1957–58)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sahrawi_insurgency" title="Sahrawi insurgency">Western Sahara (1973–76)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_March" title="Green March">Western Sahara (1975)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <p>The <b>Mexican War of Independence</b> (Spanish: <i lang="es">Guerra de Independencia de México</i>, 16 September 1810 – 27 September 1821) was an armed conflict and political process resulting in <a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a>'s independence from the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a>. It was not a single, coherent event, but local and regional struggles that occurred within the same period, and can be considered a <a href="/wiki/List_of_wars_of_independence" title="List of wars of independence">revolutionary civil war</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It culminated with the drafting of the <a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_Independence_(Mexico)" title="Declaration of Independence (Mexico)">Declaration of Independence of the Mexican Empire</a> in Mexico City on September 28, 1821, following the collapse of royal government and the military triumph of forces for independence. </p><p>Mexican independence from Spain was not an inevitable outcome of the relationship between the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a> and its most valuable overseas possession, but events in Spain had a direct impact on the outbreak of the armed insurgency in 1810 and the course of warfare through the end of the conflict. <a href="/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoleon Bonaparte</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Peninsular_War" title="Peninsular War">invasion of Spain</a> in 1808 touched off a crisis of legitimacy of crown rule, since he had placed his brother <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Bonaparte" title="Joseph Bonaparte">Joseph</a> on the Spanish throne after forcing the abdication of the Spanish monarch <a href="/wiki/Charles_IV_of_Spain" title="Charles IV of Spain">Charles IV</a>. In Spain and many of its overseas possessions, the local response was to set up <a href="/wiki/Junta_(governing_body)" title="Junta (governing body)">juntas</a>, ruling in the name of the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Bourbon" title="House of Bourbon">Bourbon monarchy</a>. Delegates in Spain and overseas territories met in <a href="/wiki/C%C3%A1diz" title="Cádiz">Cádiz</a>—a small corner of the Iberian Peninsula still under Spanish control—as the <a href="/wiki/Cortes_of_C%C3%A1diz" title="Cortes of Cádiz">Cortes of Cádiz</a>, and drafted the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Constitution_of_1812" title="Spanish Constitution of 1812">Spanish Constitution of 1812</a>. That constitution sought to create a new governing framework in the absence of the legitimate Spanish monarch. It tried to accommodate the aspirations of American-born Spaniards (<i><a href="/wiki/Criollo_people" title="Criollo people">criollos</a></i>) for more local control and equal standing with Peninsular-born Spaniards, known locally as <a href="/wiki/Peninsulares" title="Peninsulares">peninsulares</a>. This political process had far-reaching impacts in New Spain during the independence war and beyond. Pre-existing cultural, religious, and racial divides in Mexico played a major role in not only the development of the independence movement but also the development of the conflict as it progressed.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:3_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The conflict had several phases. The first uprising for independence was led by parish priest <a href="/wiki/Miguel_Hidalgo_y_Costilla" title="Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla">Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla</a>, who issued the <a href="/wiki/Cry_of_Dolores" title="Cry of Dolores">Cry of Dolores</a> on 16 September 1810. The revolt was massive and not well organized. Hidalgo was captured by royalist forces, defrocked from the priesthood, and executed in July 1811. The second phase of the insurgency was led by Father <a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Mar%C3%ADa_Morelos" title="José María Morelos">José María Morelos</a>, who was captured by royalist forces and executed in 1815. The insurgency devolved into guerrilla warfare, with <a href="/wiki/Vicente_Guerrero" title="Vicente Guerrero">Vicente Guerrero</a> emerging as a leader. Neither royalists nor insurgents gained the upper hand, with military stalemate continuing until 1821, when former royalist commander <a href="/wiki/Agust%C3%ADn_de_Iturbide" title="Agustín de Iturbide">Agustín de Iturbide</a> made an alliance with Guerrero under the <a href="/wiki/Plan_of_Iguala" title="Plan of Iguala">Plan of Iguala</a> in 1821. They formed a <a href="/wiki/Army_of_the_Three_Guarantees" title="Army of the Three Guarantees">unified military force</a> rapidly bringing about the collapse of royal government and the establishment of independent Mexico. The unexpected turn of events in Mexico was prompted by events in Spain. When Spanish liberals overthrew the autocratic rule of <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_VII_of_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Ferdinand VII of Spain">Ferdinand VII</a> in 1820, conservatives in New Spain saw political independence as a way to maintain their position. The unified military force entered Mexico City in triumph in September 1821 and the Spanish viceroy <a href="/wiki/Juan_O%27Donoj%C3%BA" title="Juan O'Donojú">Juan O'Donojú</a> signed the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" title="Treaty of Córdoba">Treaty of Córdoba</a>, ending Spanish rule.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Following independence, the mainland of New Spain was organized as the <a href="/wiki/First_Mexican_Empire" title="First Mexican Empire">First Mexican Empire</a>, led by <a href="/wiki/Agust%C3%ADn_de_Iturbide" title="Agustín de Iturbide">Agustín de Iturbide</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-indMex_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-indMex-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This ephemeral constitutional monarchy was overthrown and a <a href="/wiki/First_Mexican_Republic" title="First Mexican Republic">federal republic</a> was declared in 1823 and codified in the <a href="/wiki/1824_Constitution_of_Mexico" title="1824 Constitution of Mexico">Constitution of 1824</a>. After some <a href="/wiki/Spanish_attempts_to_reconquer_Mexico" title="Spanish attempts to reconquer Mexico">Spanish reconquest attempts</a>, including the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tampico_(1829)" title="Battle of Tampico (1829)">expedition</a> of <a href="/wiki/Isidro_Barradas" class="mw-redirect" title="Isidro Barradas">Isidro Barradas</a> in 1829, Spain under the rule of <a href="/wiki/Isabella_II_of_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Isabella II of Spain">Isabella II</a> recognized the independence of Mexico in 1836.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prior_challenges_to_crown_rule">Prior challenges to crown rule</h2></div> <p>There is evidence that even from an early period in post-conquest Mexican history, some began articulating the idea of a separate Mexican identity, though at the time this would have occurred only among elite <a href="/wiki/Creole_peoples" title="Creole peoples">Creole</a> circles.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite these murmurings of independence, serious challenges to Spanish imperial power before 1810 were rare and relatively isolated. </p><p>One early challenge to crown authority came after the introduction of the <a href="/wiki/New_Laws" title="New Laws">New Laws</a> in 1542 by <a href="/wiki/Charles_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor">Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor</a>. Under these laws, the grants of the <i><a href="/wiki/Encomienda" title="Encomienda">encomenderos</a></i> were to be ended following the deaths of the current grant holders. The <i>encomenderos</i>' conspiracy included Don <a href="/wiki/Mart%C3%ADn_Cort%C3%A9s,_2nd_Marquess_of_the_Valley_of_Oaxaca" title="Martín Cortés, 2nd Marquess of the Valley of Oaxaca">Martín Cortés</a>, son of <a href="/wiki/Hern%C3%A1n_Cort%C3%A9s" title="Hernán Cortés">Hernán Cortés</a>, who was exiled, with other conspirators executed.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another challenge to crown authority occurred in 1624 when elites ousted the reformist <a href="/wiki/Viceroy" title="Viceroy">Viceroy</a> <a href="/wiki/Diego_Carrillo_de_Mendoza,_1st_Marquess_of_Gelves" title="Diego Carrillo de Mendoza, 1st Marquess of Gelves">Diego Carrillo de Mendoza, 1st Marquess of Gelves</a>, who sought to break up <a href="/wiki/Racketeering" title="Racketeering">crime rackets</a> from which the elites profited and curtail opulent displays of clerical power. The viceroy was removed following an urban religious riot of <a href="/wiki/Mexico_City" title="Mexico City">Mexico City</a> commoners in 1624 stirred up by the elites.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The crowd, which was mostly <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic</a>, was reported to have shouted, "Long live the King! Long live Christ! Death to bad government! Death to the heretic <a href="/wiki/Lutheranism" title="Lutheranism">Lutheran</a> [Viceroy Gelves]! Arrest the viceroy!" The attack was specifically against Gelves, seen as a bad representative of the crown, rather than against the monarchy or colonial rule itself.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1642, there was a brief conspiracy to unite American-born Spaniards, blacks, Indians and <a href="/wiki/Casta" title="Casta">castas</a> against the Spanish crown and proclaim Mexican independence. The man seeking to bring about independendence called himself Don Guillén Lampart y Guzmán, an Irishman with the birthname <a href="/wiki/William_Lamport" title="William Lamport">William Lamport</a>. Lamport's conspiracy was discovered, and he was arrested by the <a href="/wiki/Inquisition" title="Inquisition">Inquisition</a> in 1642 and executed fifteen years later for <a href="/wiki/Sedition" title="Sedition">sedition</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Today, there is a statue of Lamport in the mausoleum at the base of the <a href="/wiki/Angel_of_Independence" title="Angel of Independence">Angel of Independence</a> in Mexico City. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vista_de_la_Plaza_Mayor_de_la_Ciudad_de_M%C3%A9xico_-_Cristobal_de_Villalpando.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Vista_de_la_Plaza_Mayor_de_la_Ciudad_de_M%C3%A9xico_-_Cristobal_de_Villalpando.jpg/220px-Vista_de_la_Plaza_Mayor_de_la_Ciudad_de_M%C3%A9xico_-_Cristobal_de_Villalpando.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Vista_de_la_Plaza_Mayor_de_la_Ciudad_de_M%C3%A9xico_-_Cristobal_de_Villalpando.jpg/330px-Vista_de_la_Plaza_Mayor_de_la_Ciudad_de_M%C3%A9xico_-_Cristobal_de_Villalpando.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Vista_de_la_Plaza_Mayor_de_la_Ciudad_de_M%C3%A9xico_-_Cristobal_de_Villalpando.jpg/440px-Vista_de_la_Plaza_Mayor_de_la_Ciudad_de_M%C3%A9xico_-_Cristobal_de_Villalpando.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1963" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Crist%C3%B3bal_de_Villalpando" title="Cristóbal de Villalpando">Cristóbal de Villalpando</a>, 1695. <i>View of the Plaza Mayor of Mexico City</i>, showing damage of the viceroy's palace by the 1692 rioters (top right).</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1692, there was a major riot in Mexico City, where a plebeian mob attempted to burn down the viceroy's palace and the <a href="/wiki/Archbishop" title="Archbishop">archbishop</a>'s residence. A painting by <a href="/wiki/Crist%C3%B3bal_de_Villalpando" title="Cristóbal de Villalpando">Cristóbal de Villalpando</a> shows the damage of the <i>tumulto</i>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="What painting shows this? (February 2023)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Unlike the riot in 1624, in which elites were involved and the viceroy ousted with no repercussions against the instigators, the 1692 riot was instigated by plebeians alone and had an additional racial component. The rioters attacked key symbols of Spanish power and shouted political slogans, such as, "Kill the [American-born] Spaniards and the <i><a href="/wiki/Gachup%C3%ADn" title="Gachupín">Gachupines</a></i> [Iberian-born Spaniards] who eat our corn! We go to war happily! God wants us to finish off the Spaniards! We do not care if we die without <a href="/wiki/Confession_in_the_Catholic_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Confession in the Catholic Church">confession</a>! Is this not our land?"<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The viceroy attempted to address the cause of the riot, a hike in <a href="/wiki/Maize" title="Maize">maize</a> prices that affected the urban poor. But the 1692 riot "represented <a href="/wiki/Class_warfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Class warfare">class warfare</a> that put Spanish authority at risk. Punishment was swift and brutal, and no further riots in the capital challenged the Pax Hispanica."<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Food shortages almost a century later, due to a growing population and severe droughts, led to two food riots in 1785 and 1808. The first riot was more severe, but both culminated in violence and anger at officials of the colonial regime. However, there is no direct link between these riots and the independence movement of 1810, although the 1808–1809 food shortage may have been a contributory factor for popular resentment at the political regime.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Various indigenous rebellions in the colonial era occurred but were generally local in nature, attempting to redress perceived wrongs of immediate authorities rather than throw off crown rule more broadly. They were not a broad independence movement as such. However, during the War of Independence, issues at the local level in these rural areas were so widespread as to constitute what some historians have called "the other rebellion".<sup id="cite_ref-:4_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:3_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Finally, before the events of 1808 upended the political situation in New Spain, there was an isolated and abortive 1799 event called the <a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_of_the_Machetes" title="Conspiracy of the Machetes">Conspiracy of the Machetes</a>, perpetrated by a small group in Mexico City seeking independence.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Age_of_Revolution,_Spain_and_New_Spain"><span id="Age_of_Revolution.2C_Spain_and_New_Spain"></span>Age of Revolution, Spain and New Spain</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output 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.sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><div class="sidebar-pretitle" style="margin: -0.2em 0; font-size:69%; font-weight:normal;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Mexico" title="Category:History of Mexico">a series</a> on the</div></th> </tr><tr> <th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style=""><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mexico" title="History of Mexico">History of <span class="fn org label">Mexico</span></a></th> </tr><tr><td style="padding-bottom: 0.4em; border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Mexico" title="Coat of arms of Mexico"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Coat_of_arms_of_Mexico.svg/75px-Coat_of_arms_of_Mexico.svg.png" decoding="async" width="75" height="68" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Coat_of_arms_of_Mexico.svg/113px-Coat_of_arms_of_Mexico.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Coat_of_arms_of_Mexico.svg/150px-Coat_of_arms_of_Mexico.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="579" data-file-height="525" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-bottom:0.5em;"> <div style="background:#eee;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;"><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_Mexico" title="Pre-Columbian Mexico">Pre-Columbian</a></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee;padding-left:0.4em;;color: var(--color-base)">The New Spain</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Aztec_Empire" title="Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire">Spanish-Aztec War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Spain" title="New Spain">Viceroyalty of New Spain</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Mexican_Empire" title="First Mexican Empire">First Empire</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee;padding-left:0.4em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/First_Mexican_Republic" title="First Mexican Republic">First Republic</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Centralist_Republic_of_Mexico" title="Centralist Republic of Mexico">Centralist Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texas_Revolution" title="Texas Revolution">Texas Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pastry_War" title="Pastry War">Pastry War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican%E2%80%93American_War" title="Mexican–American War">Mexican–American War</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee;padding-left:0.4em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Second_Federal_Republic_of_Mexico" title="Second Federal Republic of Mexico">Second Federal Republic</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/La_Reforma" title="La Reforma">La Reforma</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reform_War" title="Reform War">Reform War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_French_intervention_in_Mexico" title="Second French intervention in Mexico">French intervention</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee;padding-left:0.4em;;color: var(--color-base)">1864–1928</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_Mexican_Empire" title="Second Mexican Empire">Second Mexican Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restored_Republic_(Mexico)" class="mw-redirect" title="Restored Republic (Mexico)">Restored Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porfiriato" title="Porfiriato">The Porfiriato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican_Revolution" title="Mexican Revolution">Revolution</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ten_Tragic_Days" title="Ten Tragic Days">La decena trágica</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plan_of_Guadalupe" title="Plan of Guadalupe">Plan of Guadalupe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tampico_Affair" title="Tampico Affair">Tampico Affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_occupation_of_Veracruz" class="mw-redirect" title="United States occupation of Veracruz">Occupation of Veracruz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cristero_War" title="Cristero War">Cristero War</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee;padding-left:0.4em;;color: var(--color-base)">Modern</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maximato" title="Maximato"><i>Maximato</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1928–1934)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican_oil_expropriation" title="Mexican oil expropriation">Petroleum nationalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican_miracle" title="Mexican miracle">Mexican miracle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican_Dirty_War" title="Mexican Dirty War">Mexican Dirty War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican_Movement_of_1968" title="Mexican Movement of 1968">Mexican Movement of 1968</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/La_D%C3%A9cada_Perdida" class="mw-redirect" title="La Década Perdida">La Década Perdida</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Mexico#1982_crisis_and_recovery" title="Economic history of Mexico">1982 economic crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chiapas_conflict" title="Chiapas conflict">Chiapas conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican_peso_crisis" title="Mexican peso crisis">Mexican peso crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mexico#The_end_of_the_PRI's_rule" title="History of Mexico">PRI downfall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican_drug_war" title="Mexican drug war">Mexican drug war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Mexico" title="COVID-19 pandemic in Mexico">Coronavirus pandemic</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.2em; border-top:#aaa 1px solid;"> <b><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Mexican_history" title="Timeline of Mexican history">Timeline</a></b></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Flag_of_Mexico.svg/16px-Flag_of_Mexico.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="9" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Flag_of_Mexico.svg/24px-Flag_of_Mexico.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Flag_of_Mexico.svg/32px-Flag_of_Mexico.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="980" data-file-height="560" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Mexico" title="Portal:Mexico">Mexico portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Mexico" title="Template:History of Mexico"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Mexico" title="Template talk:History of Mexico"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Mexico" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Mexico"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In the early 19th century, the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Revolution" title="Age of Revolution">Age of Revolution</a> was already underway when the 1808 Napoleonic <a href="/wiki/Peninsular_War" title="Peninsular War">invasion of the Iberian Peninsula</a> destabilized not only Spain but also Spain's overseas possessions. In 1776, the Anglo-American <a href="/wiki/Thirteen_Colonies" title="Thirteen Colonies">Thirteen Colonies</a> and the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a> successfully gained their independence in 1783, with the help of both the Spanish Empire and <a href="/wiki/Louis_XVI" title="Louis XVI">Louis XVI</a>'s French monarchy. Louis XVI was toppled in the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a> of 1789, with the aristocrats and the king himself losing his head in revolutionary violence. The rise of military strongman Napoleon Bonaparte brought some order within France, but the turmoil there set the stage for the black slave revolt in the French sugar colony of <a href="/wiki/Saint-Domingue" title="Saint-Domingue">Saint-Domingue</a> (Haiti) in 1791. The <a href="/wiki/Haitian_Revolution" title="Haitian Revolution">Haitian Revolution</a> obliterated the <a href="/wiki/Slavocracy" title="Slavocracy">slavocracy</a> and gained independence for Haiti in 1804. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Political_and_economic_instability">Political and economic instability</h3></div> <p>Tensions in New Spain were growing after the mid-eighteenth-century <a href="/wiki/Bourbon_reforms" class="mw-redirect" title="Bourbon reforms">Bourbon reforms</a>. With the reforms the crown sought to increase the power of the Spanish state, decrease the power of the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic church</a>, rationalize and tighten control over the royal bureaucracy by placing peninsular-born officials rather than American-born, and increase revenues to the crown by a series of measures that undermined the economic position of American-born elites. The reforms were an attempt to revive the political and economic fortunes of the Spanish empire, but many historians see the reforms as accelerating the breakdown of its unity.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This involved often removing large quantities of wealth that had been obtained in Mexico, before exporting to other parts of the empire to fund the many wars the Spanish were fighting. </p><p>The crown removed privileges (<i><a href="/wiki/Fuero" title="Fuero">fuero</a> eclesiástico</i>) from ecclesiastics that had a disproportionate impact on American-born priests, who filled the ranks of the lower clergy in New Spain. A number of parish priests, most famously <a href="/wiki/Miguel_Hidalgo" class="mw-redirect" title="Miguel Hidalgo">Miguel Hidalgo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Mar%C3%ADa_Morelos" title="José María Morelos">José María Morelos</a>, subsequently became involved in the insurgency for independence.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When the crown expelled the <a href="/wiki/Society_of_Jesus" class="mw-redirect" title="Society of Jesus">Jesuits</a> from Spain and the overseas empire in 1767, it had a major impact on elites in New Spain, whose Jesuit sons were sent into exile, and cultural institutions, especially universities and colleges where they taught were affected. In New Spain there were riots in protest of their expulsion.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Colonial rule was not based on outright coercion, until the early nineteenth century, since the crown did not have sufficient personnel and firepower to enforce its rule. Rather, the crown's <a href="/wiki/Hegemony" title="Hegemony">hegemony</a> and legitimacy to rule was accepted and ruled through institutions acting as mediators between competing groups, many organized as corporate entities. These were ecclesiastics, mining entrepreneurs, elite merchants, as well as indigenous communities. The crown's creation of a standing military in the 1780s began to shift the political calculus since the crown could now use an armed force to impose rule. To aid building a standing military, the crown created set of corporate privileges (<i><a href="/wiki/Fuero" title="Fuero">fuero</a></i>) for the military. For the first time, mixed-race castas and blacks had access to corporate privileges, usually reserved for white elites.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Silver entrepreneurs and large-scale merchants also had access to special privileges. Lucrative overseas trade was in the hands of family firms based in Spain with ties to New Spain. Silver mining was the motor of the economy of New Spain, but also fueled the economies of Spain and the entire Atlantic world. That industry was in the hands of peninsula-born mine owners and their elite merchant investors. The crown imposed new regulations to boost their revenues from their overseas territories, particularly the consolidation of loans held by the Catholic Church. The 1804 Act of Consolidation called for borrowers to immediately repay the entire principal of the loan rather than stretch payments over decades. Borrowers were criollo land owners who could in no way repay large loans on short notice. The impact threatened the financial stability of elite Americans. The crown's forced extraction of funds is considered by some a key factor in Creoles considering political independence.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religious,_racial,_and_cultural_tensions"><span id="Religious.2C_racial.2C_and_cultural_tensions"></span>Religious, racial, and cultural tensions</h3></div> <p>Within the Spanish Empire there was an unofficial yet apparent racial hierarchy which affected the social mobility of those not at the top of society.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> White, Spanish-born Peninsulares were at the top where many occupied the highest levels of government. This was followed by Mexican-born pure Spanish descendants, who also occupied most government positions, and Creoles. Below this were indigenous groups, African Mexicans and mixed race Mexicans. Many Creole elites deeply resented the lack of social mobility this brought as only Peninsular-born Spaniards could occupy the highest levels of government. This contributed to their reasoning behind backing the move for independence, to achieve power. They did not wish to overthrow the status quo entirely, as this would threaten their lucrative position in Mexican society. Instead, they wished to move up the social ladder, unable to under the unspoken racial hierarchy of the regime.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Religious tension is arguably one of the biggest contributions to tension before the French invasion of Spain in 1808.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:3_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many Creoles, Mexican Spaniards and the majority of indigenous, mixed and African groups in Mexico practiced <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_Mexico" title="Catholic Church in Mexico">Mexican Catholicism</a> while the ruling Peninsulares preferred <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Modern Catholicism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_3-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:3_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mexican or traditional Catholicism often worshiped through the use of relics, symbols and artifacts where they believe the Holy Spirit existed in the physical form of the artifact, and was a mix of traditional indigenous forms of worship and Catholicism. This contrasted with the view of modern Catholicism that many Peninsulares shared, where God was worshiped through divine artifacts and relics, but there was no religious presence within the physical artifact.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Laws prohibiting Lay preachers, a major part of Mexican Catholicism, from preaching and restrictions on villagers to engage in processions around communal land to protect from unwanted spirits caused much outcry and prompted a multitude of legal battles between indigenous groups and the colonial regime through the separate indigenous courts. Not only this, but new laws essentially forcing indigenous groups to learn Spanish in schools and the taxation of Cofradias or <a href="/wiki/Confraternity" title="Confraternity">Confraternities</a> negatively affected the literacy and living standards in villages.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The ruling white Spanish elite and the majority of the country had very different views not only in culture and religion but on the role of government and social relations, with many elites viewing the government as a tool for progressing their own power, while indigenous groups saw the government as a communal vessel.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Leading up to the crisis in 1808 both Creole and Mexican-born Spaniards, and indigenous and mixed groups had come to dislike the colonial regime for different reasons. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="French_invasion_of_Spain_and_political_crisis_in_New_Spain,_1808–1809"><span id="French_invasion_of_Spain_and_political_crisis_in_New_Spain.2C_1808.E2.80.931809"></span>French invasion of Spain and political crisis in New Spain, 1808–1809</h2></div> <p>The Napoleonic invasion of the Iberian Peninsula destabilized not only Spain but also Spain's overseas possessions. The viceroy was the "king's living image"<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in New Spain. In 1808 viceroy <a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_de_Iturrigaray" title="José de Iturrigaray">José de Iturrigaray</a> (1803–1808) was in office when Napoleon's forces invaded Iberia and deposed the Spanish monarch <a href="/wiki/Charles_IV_of_Spain" title="Charles IV of Spain">Charles IV</a> and Napoleon's brother <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Bonaparte" title="Joseph Bonaparte">Joseph</a> was declared the monarch. This turn of events set off a crisis of legitimacy.  Viceroy Iturrigaray had been appointed by Charles IV, so his legitimacy to rule was not in doubt. In Mexico City, the city council (<i>ayuntamiento</i>), a stronghold of American-born Spaniards, began promoting ideas of autonomy for New Spain, and declaring New Spain to be on an equal basis to Spain. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Viceroy_Jos%C3%A9_de_Iturrigaray.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Viceroy_Jos%C3%A9_de_Iturrigaray.jpg/220px-Viceroy_Jos%C3%A9_de_Iturrigaray.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="278" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Viceroy_Jos%C3%A9_de_Iturrigaray.jpg/330px-Viceroy_Jos%C3%A9_de_Iturrigaray.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Viceroy_Jos%C3%A9_de_Iturrigaray.jpg/440px-Viceroy_Jos%C3%A9_de_Iturrigaray.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1822" data-file-height="2299" /></a><figcaption>Viceroy <a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_de_Iturrigaray" title="José de Iturrigaray">José de Iturrigaray</a>, overthrown in a coup d'état by peninsular conspirators in 1808</figcaption></figure> <p>Their proposal would have created a legitimate, representative, and autonomous government in New Spain, but not necessarily breaking from the Spanish Empire. Opposition to that proposal came from conservative elements, including the peninsular-born judges of the High Court (<i>Audiencia</i>), who voiced Peninsular interests. Iturrigaray attempted to find a compromise between the two factions, but failed. Upon hearing the news of the Napoleonic invasion some elites suspected that Iturrigaray intended to declare the viceroyalty a sovereign state and perhaps establish himself as head of a new state. With the support of the archbishop, <a href="/wiki/Francisco_Javier_de_Lizana_y_Beaumont" title="Francisco Javier de Lizana y Beaumont">Francisco Javier de Lizana y Beaumont</a>, landowner <a href="/wiki/Gabriel_de_Yermo" class="mw-redirect" title="Gabriel de Yermo">Gabriel de Yermo</a>, the merchant guild of Mexico City (<i><a href="/wiki/Consulado" class="mw-redirect" title="Consulado">consulado</a></i>), and other members of elite society in the capital, Yermo led a coup d'état against the viceroy. They stormed the Viceregal Palace in Mexico City, the night of 15 September 1808, deposing the viceroy, and imprisoning him along with some American-born Spanish members of the city council. </p><p>The peninsular rebels installed <a href="/wiki/Pedro_de_Garibay" title="Pedro de Garibay">Pedro de Garibay</a> as viceroy. Since he was not a crown appointee, but rather the leader of a rebel faction, creoles viewed him as an illegitimate representative of the crown. The event radicalized both sides.  For creoles, it was clear that to gain power they needed to form conspiracies against Peninsular rule, and later they took up arms to achieve their goals.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Garibay was of advanced years and held office for just a year, replaced by Archbishop Lizana y Beaumont, also holding office for about a year. There was a precedent for the archbishop serving as viceroy, and given that Garibay came to power by coup, the archbishop had more legitimacy as ruler. <a href="/wiki/Francisco_Javier_Venegas" title="Francisco Javier Venegas">Francisco Javier Venegas</a> was appointed viceroy and landed in Veracruz in August, reaching Mexico City 14 September 1810. The next day, Hidalgo issued his <a href="/wiki/Cry_of_Dolores" title="Cry of Dolores">call to arms</a> in Dolores. </p><p>Immediately after the Mexico City coup ousting Iturrigaray, juntas in Spain created the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Central_and_Governing_Junta_of_the_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Supreme Central and Governing Junta of the Kingdom">Supreme Central Junta of Spain and the Indies</a>, on 25 September 1808 in Aranjuez. Its creation was a major step in the political development in the Spanish empire, once it became clear that there needed to be a central governing body rather than scattered juntas of particular regions. Joseph I of Spain had invited representatives from Spanish America to <a href="/wiki/Bayonne" title="Bayonne">Bayonne</a>, France for a constitutional convention to discuss their status in the new political order. It was a shrewd political move, but none accepted the invitation. However, it became clear to the Supreme Central Junta that keeping his overseas kingdoms loyal was imperative. Silver from New Spain was vital for funding the war against France. The body expanded to include membership from Spanish America, with the explicit recognition that they were kingdoms in their own right and not colonies of Spain. Elections were set to send delegates to Spain to participate in the Supreme Central Junta.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although in the Spanish Empire there was not an ongoing tradition of high level representative government, found in Britain and British North America, towns in Spain and New Spain had elected representative ruling bodies, the <i><a href="/wiki/Open_cabildo" title="Open cabildo">cabildos</a></i> or <i><a href="/wiki/Ayuntamiento" title="Ayuntamiento">ayuntamientos</a></i>, which came to play an important political role when the legitimate Spanish monarch was ousted in 1808. The successful 1809 elections in Mexico City for delegates to be sent to Spain had some precedents. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_Hidalgo_revolt,_1810–1811"><span id="The_Hidalgo_revolt.2C_1810.E2.80.931811"></span>The Hidalgo revolt, 1810–1811</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Orozco_Hidalgo_mural.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Orozco_Hidalgo_mural.jpg/220px-Orozco_Hidalgo_mural.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Orozco_Hidalgo_mural.jpg/330px-Orozco_Hidalgo_mural.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Orozco_Hidalgo_mural.jpg/440px-Orozco_Hidalgo_mural.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Miguel_Hidalgo_y_Costilla" title="Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla">Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Clemente_Orozco" title="José Clemente Orozco">José Clemente Orozco</a>, Jalisco Governmental Palace, Guadalajara</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Miguel_Hidalgo_y_Costilla" title="Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla">Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla</a> is now considered the father of Mexican independence. His uprising on 16 September 1810 is considered the spark igniting the Mexican War of Independence. He inspired tens of thousands of ordinary men to follow him, but did not organize them into a disciplined fighting force or have a broad military strategy, but he did want to destroy the old order. Fellow insurgent leader and second in command, <a href="/wiki/Ignacio_Allende" title="Ignacio Allende">Ignacio Allende</a>, said of Hidalgo, "Neither were his men amenable to discipline, nor was Hidalgo interested in regulations."<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hidalgo issued a few important decrees in the later stage of the insurgency, but did not articulate a coherent set of goals much beyond his initial call to arms denouncing bad government. Only following Hidalgo's death in 1811 under the leadership of his former seminary student, Father <a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Mar%C3%ADa_Morelos" title="José María Morelos">José María Morelos</a>, was a document created that made explicit the goals of the insurgency, the <i><a href="/wiki/Sentimientos_de_la_Naci%C3%B3n" title="Sentimientos de la Nación">Sentimientos de la Nación</a></i> ("Sentiments of the Nation") (1813). One clear point was political independence from Spain. Despite its having only a vague ideology, Hidalgo's movement demonstrated the massive discontent and power of Mexico's plebeians as an existential threat to the imperial regime. The government focused its resources on defeating Hidalgo's insurgents militarily and in tracking down and publicly executing its leadership. But by then the insurgency had spread beyond its original region and leadership. </p><p>Hidalgo was a learned priest who knew multiple languages, had a significant library, and was friends with men who held <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a> views. He held the important position of rector of the Seminary of San Nicolás, but had run afoul of the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Office_of_the_Inquisition" class="mw-redirect" title="Holy Office of the Inquisition">Inquisition</a> for unorthodox beliefs and speaking against the monarchy. He had already sired two daughters with Josefa Quintana. Following the death of his brother Joaquín in 1803, Hidalgo, who was having money problems due to debts on landed estates he owned, became curate of the poor parish of Dolores. He became member of a group of well-educated American-born Spaniards in <a href="/wiki/Quer%C3%A9taro_City" class="mw-redirect" title="Querétaro City">Querétaro</a>. They met under the guise of being a literary society, supported by the wife of crown official (<i>corregidor</i>) Miguel Domínguez, <a href="/wiki/Josefa_Ort%C3%ADz_de_Dom%C3%ADnguez" class="mw-redirect" title="Josefa Ortíz de Domínguez">Josefa Ortíz de Domínguez</a>, known now as "La Corregidora". Instead the members discussed the possibility of a popular rising, similar to one that already had recently been quashed in Valladolid (now <a href="/wiki/Morelia" title="Morelia">Morelia</a>) in 1809 in the name of <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_VII_of_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Ferdinand VII of Spain">Ferdinand VII</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Hidalgo was friends with <a href="/wiki/Ignacio_Allende" title="Ignacio Allende">Ignacio Allende</a>, a captain in the regiment of Dragoons in New Spain, who was also among the conspirators. The "Conspiracy of Querétaro" began forming cells in other Spanish cities in the north, including <a href="/wiki/Celaya" title="Celaya">Celaya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guanajuato_(city)" title="Guanajuato (city)">Guanajuato</a>, <a href="/wiki/San_Miguel_de_Allende" title="San Miguel de Allende">San Miguel el Grande</a>, now named after Allende. Allende had served in a royal regiment during the rule of <a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_de_Iturrigaray" title="José de Iturrigaray">José de Iturrigaray</a>, who was overthrown in 1808 by peninsular Spaniards who considered him too sympathetic to the grievances of American-born Spaniards. With the ouster of the viceroy, Allende turned against the new regime and was open to the conspiracy for independence. Hidalgo joined the conspiracy, and with Allende vouching for him rose to being one of its leaders. Word of the conspiracy got to crown officials, and the corregidor Domínguez cracked down, but his wife Josefa was able to warn Allende who then alerted Hidalgo. At this point there was no firm ideology or action plan, but the tip-off galvanized Hidalgo to action. On Sunday, 16 September 1810 with his parishioners gathered for mass, Hidalgo issued his call to arms, the <i><a href="/wiki/Cry_of_Dolores" title="Cry of Dolores">Grito de Dolores</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is unclear what Hidalgo actually said, since there are different accounts. The one which became part of the official record of accusation against Hidalgo was "Long live religion! Long live Our Most Holy Mother of Guadalupe! Long live Fernando VII! Long live America and down with bad government!"<sup id="cite_ref-Fernández_Tejedo_&_Nava_Nava_2001_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fernández_Tejedo_&_Nava_Nava_2001-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Guadalupano.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Guadalupano.jpg/220px-Guadalupano.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="282" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Guadalupano.jpg/330px-Guadalupano.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Guadalupano.jpg/440px-Guadalupano.jpg 2x" data-file-width="467" data-file-height="599" /></a><figcaption>Banner with the image of <a href="/wiki/Our_Lady_of_Guadalupe" title="Our Lady of Guadalupe">the Virgin of Guadalupe</a> carried by Hidalgo and his insurgent militia. Liberal bishop-elect <a href="/wiki/Manuel_Abad_y_Queipo" title="Manuel Abad y Queipo">Manuel Abad y Queipo</a> denounced the insurgents' use of her image as a sacrilege.</figcaption></figure> <p>From a small gathering at the Dolores church, others joined the uprising including workers on local landed estates, prisoners liberated from jail, and a few members of a royal army regiment. Many estate workers' weapons were agricultural tools now to be used against the regime. Some were mounted and acted as a cavalry under the direction of their estate foremen. Others were poorly armed Indians with bows and arrows.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_33-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The numbers joining the revolt rapidly swelled under Hidalgo's leadership, they began moving beyond the village of Dolores. Despite rising tensions following the events of 1808, the royal regime was largely unprepared for the suddenness, size, and violence of the movement. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Campa%C3%B1a_de_Hidalgo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Campa%C3%B1a_de_Hidalgo.svg/300px-Campa%C3%B1a_de_Hidalgo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="300" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Campa%C3%B1a_de_Hidalgo.svg/450px-Campa%C3%B1a_de_Hidalgo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Campa%C3%B1a_de_Hidalgo.svg/600px-Campa%C3%B1a_de_Hidalgo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="664" data-file-height="664" /></a><figcaption>Towns on the route of Hidalgo's campaign and the regions where the insurgency took hold in 1810–1811.</figcaption></figure> <p>The religious character of the movement was present from the beginning, embodied in leadership of the priest, Hidalgo. The movement's banner with image of the <a href="/wiki/Virgin_of_Guadalupe" class="mw-redirect" title="Virgin of Guadalupe">Virgin of Guadalupe</a>, seized by Hidalgo from the church at Atotonilco, was symbolically important. The "dark virgin" was seen as a protector of dark-skinned Mexicans, and now seen as well as a liberator.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many men in Hidalgo's forces put the image of Guadalupe on their hats.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Supporters of the imperial regime took as their patron the Virgin of Remedios, so that religious symbolism was used by both insurgents and royalists.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There were a number of parish priests and other lower clergy in the insurgency, most prominently Hidalgo and <a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Mar%C3%ADa_Morelos" title="José María Morelos">José María Morelos</a>, but the Church hierarchy was flatly opposed. Insurgents were excommunicated by the clergy and clerics preached sermons against the insurgency.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>They were not organized in any formal fashion, more of a mass movement than an army. Hidalgo inspired his followers, but did not organize or train them as a fighting force, nor impose order and discipline on them. A few militia men in uniform joined Hidalgo's movement and attempted to create some military order and discipline, but they were few in number. The bulk of the royal army remained loyal to the imperial regime, but Hidalgo's rising had caught them unprepared and their response was delayed. Hidalgo's early victories gave the movement momentum, but "the lack of weapons, trained soldiers, and good officers meant that except in unusual circumstances the rebels could not field armies capable of fighting conventional battles against the royalists."<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The growing insurgent force marched through towns including San Miguel el Grande and Celaya, where they met little resistance, and gained more followers. When they reached the town of Guanajuato on <a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Alh%C3%B3ndiga_de_Granaditas" title="Capture of Alhóndiga de Granaditas">28 September</a>, they found Spanish forces barricaded inside the public granary, <a href="/wiki/Alh%C3%B3ndiga_de_Granaditas" title="Alhóndiga de Granaditas">Alhóndiga de Granaditas</a>. Among them were some 'forced' Royalists, creoles who had served and sided with the Spanish. By this time, the rebels numbered 30,000 and the battle was horrific. They killed more than 500 European and American Spaniards, and marched on toward Mexico City. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Guanajuato18_guanajuato.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Guanajuato18_guanajuato.jpg/220px-Guanajuato18_guanajuato.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Guanajuato18_guanajuato.jpg/330px-Guanajuato18_guanajuato.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Guanajuato18_guanajuato.jpg/440px-Guanajuato18_guanajuato.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a><figcaption>The corner of the <a href="/wiki/Alh%C3%B3ndiga_de_Granaditas" title="Alhóndiga de Granaditas">Alhóndiga de Granaditas</a> in <a href="/wiki/Guanajuato_(city)" title="Guanajuato (city)">Guanajuato</a> where insurgents <a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Alh%C3%B3ndiga_de_Granaditas" title="Capture of Alhóndiga de Granaditas">massacred</a> all the Spaniards who went thinking it was a safe refuge. After his execution, Hidalgo's head hung on one corner.</figcaption></figure> <p>The new viceroy quickly organized a defense, sending out the Spanish general Torcuato Trujillo with 1,000 men, 400 horsemen, and two cannons—all that could be found on such short notice. The crown had established a standing military in the late eighteenth century, granting non-Spaniards who served the <i>fuero militar</i>, the only special privileges for mixed-race men were eligible. Indians were excluded from the military. Royal army troops of the professional army were supplemented by local militias. The regime was determined to crush the uprising and attempted to stifle malcontents who might be drawn to the insurgency.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Ignacio_L%C3%B3pez_Ray%C3%B3n" title="Ignacio López Rayón">Ignacio López Rayón</a> joined Hidalgo's forces whilst passing near <a href="/wiki/Maravat%C3%ADo" title="Maravatío">Maravatío</a>, <a href="/wiki/Michoacan" class="mw-redirect" title="Michoacan">Michoacan</a> while en route to Mexico City and on 30 October, Hidalgo's army encountered Spanish military resistance at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Monte_de_las_Cruces" title="Battle of Monte de las Cruces">Battle of Monte de las Cruces</a>. As the Hidalgo and his forces surrounded Mexico City, a group of 2,500 royalist women joined under Ana Iraeta de Mier, to create and distribute pamphlets based on their loyalty towards Spain and help fellow loyalist families.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hidalgo's forces continued to fight and achieved victory. When the cannons were captured by the rebels, the surviving Royalists retreated to the city. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Batalla_de_la_Alh%C3%B3ndiga_de_Granaditas.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Batalla_de_la_Alh%C3%B3ndiga_de_Granaditas.jpg/220px-Batalla_de_la_Alh%C3%B3ndiga_de_Granaditas.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Batalla_de_la_Alh%C3%B3ndiga_de_Granaditas.jpg/330px-Batalla_de_la_Alh%C3%B3ndiga_de_Granaditas.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Batalla_de_la_Alh%C3%B3ndiga_de_Granaditas.jpg/440px-Batalla_de_la_Alh%C3%B3ndiga_de_Granaditas.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="454" /></a><figcaption>On 28 September 1810, Hidalgo led the siege of the <a href="/wiki/Alh%C3%B3ndiga_de_Granaditas" title="Alhóndiga de Granaditas">Alhóndiga de Granaditas</a> in Guanajuato</figcaption></figure> <p>Despite apparently having the advantage, Hidalgo retreated, against the counsel of Allende. This retreat, on the verge of apparent victory, has puzzled historians and biographers ever since. They generally believe that Hidalgo wanted to spare the numerous Mexican citizens in Mexico City from the inevitable sacking and plunder that would have ensued. His retreat is considered Hidalgo's greatest tactical error<sup id="cite_ref-pricegrabber2000_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pricegrabber2000-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and his failure to act "was the beginning of his downfall."<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hidalgo moved west and set up headquarters in <a href="/wiki/Guadalajara" title="Guadalajara">Guadalajara</a>, where one of the worst incidents of violence against Spanish civilians occurred, a month of massacres from 12 December 1810 (the Feast of the Virgin of Guadalupe) to 13 January 1811. At his trial following his capture later that year, Hidalgo admitted to ordering the murders. None "were given a trial, nor was there any reason to do so, since he knew perfectly well they were innocent."<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Guadalajara, the image of the Virgin of Guadalupe suddenly disappeared from insurgents' hats and there were many desertions.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The royalist forces, led by <a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9lix_Mar%C3%ADa_Calleja_del_Rey" title="Félix María Calleja del Rey">Félix María Calleja del Rey</a>, were becoming more effective against disorganized and poorly armed of Hidalgo, defeating them at a bridge on the <a href="/wiki/Calder%C3%B3n_River" title="Calderón River">Calderón River</a>, forcing the rebels to flee north towards the United States, perhaps hoping they would attain financial and military support.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They were intercepted by <a href="/wiki/Ignacio_Elizondo" title="Ignacio Elizondo">Ignacio Elizondo</a>, who pretended to join the fleeing insurgent forces. Hidalgo and his remaining soldiers were captured in the state of <a href="/wiki/Coahuila" title="Coahuila">Coahuila</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Wells_of_Baj%C3%A1n" title="Wells of Baján">Wells of Baján</a> (<i>Norias de Baján</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-miranda_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-miranda-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 26–27">: 26–27 </span></sup> When the insurgents adopted the tactics of guerrilla warfare and operated where it was effective, such as in the hot country of southern Mexico, they were able to undermine the royalist army.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Around <a href="/wiki/Guanajuato_(city)" title="Guanajuato (city)">Guanajuato</a>, regional insurgent leader <a href="/w/index.php?title=Albino_Garc%C3%ADa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Albino García (page does not exist)">Albino García</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albino_Garc%C3%ADa_Ramos" class="extiw" title="es:Albino García Ramos">es</a>]</span> for a time successfully combined insurgency with banditry.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With the capture of Hidalgo and the creole leadership in the north, this phase of the insurgency was at an end. </p><p>The captured rebel leaders were found guilty of treason and sentenced to death, except for <a href="/wiki/Mariano_Abasolo" title="Mariano Abasolo">Mariano Abasolo</a>, who was sent to Spain to serve a life sentence in prison. Allende, Jiménez, and Aldama were executed on 26 June 1811, shot in the back as a sign of dishonor.<sup id="cite_ref-miranda_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-miranda-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 27">: 27 </span></sup> Hidalgo, as a priest, had to undergo a civil trial and review by the <a href="/wiki/Inquisition" title="Inquisition">Inquisition</a>. He was eventually stripped of his priesthood, found guilty, and executed on 30 July 1811. The heads of Hidalgo, Allende, Aldama, and Jiménez were preserved and hung from the four corners of the Alhóndiga de Granaditas of Guanajuato as a grim warning to those who dared follow in their footsteps.<sup id="cite_ref-miranda_47-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-miranda-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 27">: 27 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Insurgency_in_the_South_under_Morelos,_1811–1815"><span id="Insurgency_in_the_South_under_Morelos.2C_1811.E2.80.931815"></span>Insurgency in the South under Morelos, 1811–1815</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Morelos_por_autor_an%C3%B3nimo.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Morelos_por_autor_an%C3%B3nimo.jpg/220px-Morelos_por_autor_an%C3%B3nimo.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="262" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Morelos_por_autor_an%C3%B3nimo.jpg/330px-Morelos_por_autor_an%C3%B3nimo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Morelos_por_autor_an%C3%B3nimo.jpg/440px-Morelos_por_autor_an%C3%B3nimo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="980" data-file-height="1166" /></a><figcaption>Father <a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Mar%C3%ADa_Morelos" title="José María Morelos">José María Morelos</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Warfare in the northern Bajío region waned after the capture and execution of the insurgency's creole leadership, but the insurgency had already spread to other more southern regions, to the towns of Zitácuaro, Cuautla, Antequera (now Oaxaca) towns where a new leadership had emerged. Priests <a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Mar%C3%ADa_Morelos" title="José María Morelos">José María Morelos</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mariano_Matamoros" title="Mariano Matamoros">Mariano Matamoros</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/Vicente_Guerrero" title="Vicente Guerrero">Vicente Guerrero</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guadalupe_Victoria" title="Guadalupe Victoria">Guadalupe Victoria</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ignacio_L%C3%B3pez_Ray%C3%B3n" title="Ignacio López Rayón">Ignacio López Rayón</a> carried on the insurgency on a different basis, organizing their forces, using guerrilla tactics, and importantly for the insurgency, creating organizations and creating written documents that articulated the insurgents' goals. </p><p> Following the execution of Hidalgo and other insurgents, leadership of the remaining insurgent movement initially coalesced under <a href="/wiki/Ignacio_L%C3%B3pez_Ray%C3%B3n" title="Ignacio López Rayón">Ignacio López Rayón</a>, a civilian lawyer and businessman. He had been stationed in <a href="/wiki/Saltillo" title="Saltillo">Saltillo</a>, Coahuila with 3,500 men and 22 cannons. When he heard of the capture of the insurgent leaders, he fled south on 26 March 1811 to continue the fight. He subsequently fought the Spanish in the battles of <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Puerto_de_Pi%C3%B1ones" title="Battle of Puerto de Piñones">Puerto de Piñones</a>, <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Zacatecas_(1811)" title="Battle of Zacatecas (1811)">Zacatecas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_El_Maguey" title="Battle of El Maguey">El Maguey</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Zit%C3%A1cuaro" title="Battle of Zitácuaro">Zitácuaro</a>.</p><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Virrey_F%C3%A9lix_Mar%C3%ADa_Calleja.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Virrey_F%C3%A9lix_Mar%C3%ADa_Calleja.jpg/220px-Virrey_F%C3%A9lix_Mar%C3%ADa_Calleja.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="257" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Virrey_F%C3%A9lix_Mar%C3%ADa_Calleja.jpg/330px-Virrey_F%C3%A9lix_Mar%C3%ADa_Calleja.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Virrey_F%C3%A9lix_Mar%C3%ADa_Calleja.jpg/440px-Virrey_F%C3%A9lix_Mar%C3%ADa_Calleja.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1233" data-file-height="1440" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9lix_Mar%C3%ADa_Calleja" class="mw-redirect" title="Félix María Calleja">Félix María Calleja</a>, royalist military commander and then viceroy of New Spain</figcaption></figure><p>In an important step, Rayón organized the <i><a href="/wiki/Zitacuaro_Council" title="Zitacuaro Council">Suprema Junta Gubernativa de América</a></i> (Supreme National Governing Junta of America), which claimed legitimacy to lead the insurgency. Rayón articulated <i><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Elements" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitutional Elements">Elementos constitucionales</a></i>, which states that "Sovereignty arises directly from the people, resides in the person of <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_VII_of_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Ferdinand VII of Spain">Ferdinand VII</a>, and is exercised by the <i>Suprema Junta Gubernativa de América</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Supreme Junta generated a flood of detailed regulations and orders. On the ground, Father <a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Mar%C3%ADa_Morelos" title="José María Morelos">José María Morelos</a> pursued successful military engagements, accepting the authority of the Supreme Junta. After winning victories and taking the port of <a href="/wiki/Acapulco" title="Acapulco">Acapulco</a>, then the towns Tixtla, Izúcar, and Taxco, Morelos was besieged for 72 days by royalist troops under Calleja at <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Cuautla" title="Siege of Cuautla">Cuautla</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Junta failed to send aid to Morelos. Morelos's troops held out and broke out of the siege, going on to take Antequera, (now <a href="/wiki/Oaxaca_City" title="Oaxaca City">Oaxaca</a>). The relationship between Morelos and the Junta soured, with Morelos complaining, "Your disagreements have been of service to the enemy."<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Morelos was a real contrast to Hidalgo, although both were rebel priests. Both had sympathy for Mexico's downtrodden, but Morelos was of mixed-race while Hidalgo was an American-born Spaniard, so Morelos experientially understood racial discrimination in the colonial order. On more practical grounds, Morelos built an organized and disciplined military force, while Hidalgo's followers lacked arms, training, or discipline, an effective force that the royal army took seriously. Potentially Morelos could have taken the colony's second largest city, <a href="/wiki/Puebla_(city)" title="Puebla (city)">Puebla de los Angeles</a>, situated halfway between the port of Veracruz and the capital, Mexico City. To avert that strategic disaster, which would have left the capital cut off from its main port, viceroy Venegas transferred Calleja from the Bajío to deal with Morelos's forces. Morelos's forces moved south and took Oaxaca, allowing him to control most of the southern region. During this period, the insurgency had reason for optimism and formulated documents declaring independence and articulating a vision for a sovereign Mexico.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mariano_Matamoros.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Mariano_Matamoros.png/220px-Mariano_Matamoros.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="315" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Mariano_Matamoros.png/330px-Mariano_Matamoros.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Mariano_Matamoros.png/440px-Mariano_Matamoros.png 2x" data-file-width="1010" data-file-height="1445" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mariano_Matamoros" title="Mariano Matamoros">Mariano Matamoros</a>.</figcaption></figure><p>Morelos was not ambitious to become leader of the insurgency, but it was clear that he was recognized by insurgents as its supreme military commander. He moved swiftly and decisively, stripping Rayón of power, dissolving the Supreme Junta, and in 1813, Morelos convened the <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Chilpancingo" title="Congress of Chilpancingo">Congress of Chilpancingo</a>, also known as the Congress of Anáhuac. The congress brought together representatives of the insurgency together. Morelos formulated his Sentiments of the Nation, addressed to the congress. In point 1, he clearly and flatly states that "America is free and independent of Spain."</p><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sello_de_la_Junta_General_de_la_America_1811.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Sello_de_la_Junta_General_de_la_America_1811.png/220px-Sello_de_la_Junta_General_de_la_America_1811.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="214" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Sello_de_la_Junta_General_de_la_America_1811.png/330px-Sello_de_la_Junta_General_de_la_America_1811.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Sello_de_la_Junta_General_de_la_America_1811.png/440px-Sello_de_la_Junta_General_de_la_America_1811.png 2x" data-file-width="1744" data-file-height="1699" /></a><figcaption>Official seal of the Supreme Junta</figcaption></figure><p>On 6 November of that year, the Congress signed the first official document of independence, known as the <a href="/wiki/Solemn_Act_of_the_Declaration_of_Independence_of_Northern_America" title="Solemn Act of the Declaration of Independence of Northern America">Solemn Act of the Declaration of Independence of Northern America</a>. In addition to declaring independence from Spain, the Morelos called for the establishment of Catholicism as the only religion (but with certain restrictions), the abolition of slavery and racial distinctions between and of all other nations," going on in point 5 to say, "sovereignty springs directly from the People." His second point makes the "Catholic Religion" the only one permissible, and that "Catholic dogma shall be sustained by the Church hierarchy" (point 4). The importance of Catholicism is further emphasized to mandate December 12, the feast of the Virgin of Guadalupe, as a day to honor her. A provision of key importance to dark-skinned plebeians (point 15) is "That slavery is proscribed forever, as well as the distinctions of caste [race], so that all shall be equal; and that the only distinction between one American and another shall be that between vice and virtue.". Also important for Morelos's vision of the new nation was equality before the law (point 13), rather than maintaining special courts and privileges (<a href="/wiki/Fueros" class="mw-redirect" title="Fueros">fueros</a>) to particular groups, such as churchmen, miners, merchants, and the military.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Congreso_de_Chilpancingo.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Congreso_de_Chilpancingo.png/220px-Congreso_de_Chilpancingo.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="95" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Congreso_de_Chilpancingo.png/330px-Congreso_de_Chilpancingo.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Congreso_de_Chilpancingo.png/440px-Congreso_de_Chilpancingo.png 2x" data-file-width="2806" data-file-height="1206" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Chilpancingo" title="Congress of Chilpancingo">Congress of Chilpancingo</a> the day of the signing of Solemn Act of the Declaration of Independence of Northern America. Morelos is standing at far right, with the white kerchief</figcaption></figure><p>The Congress elected Morelos as the head of the executive branch of government, as well as supreme commander of the insurgency, coordinating its far-flung components.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The formal statement by the Congress of Chilpancingo, the Solemn Act of the Declaration of Independence, is an important formal document in Mexican history, since it declares Mexico an independent nation and lays out its powers as a sovereign state to make war and peace, to appoint ambassadors, and to have standing with the Papacy, rather than indirectly through the Spanish monarch. The document enshrines Roman Catholicism the sole religion. </p><p><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9lix_Mar%C3%ADa_Calleja_del_Rey" title="Félix María Calleja del Rey">Calleja</a> restructured the royal army in an attempt to crush the insurgency, creating commands in Puebla, Valladolid (now Morelia), Guanajuato, and Nueva Galicia, with experienced peninsular military officers to lead them. American-born officer <a href="/wiki/Agust%C3%ADn_de_Iturbide" title="Agustín de Iturbide">Agustín de Iturbide</a> was part of this royalist leadership. Brigadier Ciriaco de Llano captured and executed <a href="/wiki/Mariano_Matamoros" title="Mariano Matamoros">Mariano Matamoros</a>, an effective insurgent. After the dissolution of the Congress of Chilpancingo, Morelos was captured 5 November 1815, interrogated, was tried and executed by firing squad. With his death, conventional warfare ended and guerrilla warfare continued uninterrupted.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Insurgency_under_Vicente_Guerrero,_1815–1820"><span id="Insurgency_under_Vicente_Guerrero.2C_1815.E2.80.931820"></span>Insurgency under Vicente Guerrero, 1815–1820</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vicente_Guerrero.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Vicente_Guerrero.png/220px-Vicente_Guerrero.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="276" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Vicente_Guerrero.png/330px-Vicente_Guerrero.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Vicente_Guerrero.png/440px-Vicente_Guerrero.png 2x" data-file-width="2024" data-file-height="2536" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Vicente_Guerrero" title="Vicente Guerrero">Vicente Guerrero</a>, mixed-race leader of the insurgency in southern Mexico</figcaption></figure> <p>With the execution of Morelos in 1815, Vicente Guerrero emerged as the most important leader of the insurgency. From 1815 to 1821, most of the fighting for independence from Spain was by guerrilla forces in the <i>tierra caliente</i> (hot country) of southern Mexico and to a certain extent in northern New Spain. In 1816, <a href="/wiki/Mart%C3%ADn_Javier_Mina_y_Larrea" class="mw-redirect" title="Martín Javier Mina y Larrea">Francisco Javier Mina</a>, a Spanish military leader who had fought against <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_VII_of_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Ferdinand VII of Spain">Ferdinand VII</a>, joined the independence movement. Mina and 300 men landed at <i>Rio Santander</i> (<a href="/wiki/Tamaulipas" title="Tamaulipas">Tamaulipas</a>) in April, in 1817 and fought for seven months until his capture by royalist forces in November 1817.<sup id="cite_ref-miranda_47-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-miranda-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 55–58">: 55–58 </span></sup> </p><p> Two insurgent leaders arose: <a href="/wiki/Guadalupe_Victoria" title="Guadalupe Victoria">Guadalupe Victoria</a> (born José Miguel Fernández y Félix) in <a href="/wiki/Puebla_(city)" title="Puebla (city)">Puebla</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vicente_Guerrero" title="Vicente Guerrero">Vicente Guerrero</a> in the village of Tixla, in what is now the state of <a href="/wiki/Guerrero_(state)" class="mw-redirect" title="Guerrero (state)">Guerrero</a>. Both gained allegiance and respect from their followers. Believing the situation under control, the Spanish viceroy issued a general pardon to every rebel who would lay down his arms. Many did lay down their arms and received pardons, but when the opportunity arose, they often returned to the insurgency. The royal army controlled the major cities and towns, but whole swaths of the countryside were not pacified. From 1816 to 1820, the insurgency was stalemated, but not stamped out. Royalist military officer, <a href="/wiki/Antonio_L%C3%B3pez_de_Santa_Anna" title="Antonio López de Santa Anna">Antonio López de Santa Anna</a> led amnestied former insurgents, pursuing insurgent leader Guadalupe Victoria. Insurgents attacked key roads, vital for commerce and imperial control, such that the crown sent a commander from Peru, Brigadier Fernando Miyares y Mancebo, to build a fortified road between the port of Veracruz and Jalapa, the first major stopping point on the way to Mexico City.<sup id="cite_ref-Archer_1599_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Archer_1599-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The rebels faced stiff Spanish military resistance and the apathy of many of the most influential criollos.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Durango_8R.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Durango_8R.jpg/220px-Durango_8R.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Durango_8R.jpg/330px-Durango_8R.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Durango_8R.jpg/440px-Durango_8R.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5766" data-file-height="2871" /></a><figcaption>Royalist issue <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_VII" title="Ferdinand VII">Ferdinand VII</a> <a href="/wiki/Durango" title="Durango">Durango</a> 8 Reales</figcaption></figure><p>The period 1816–1820 is often considered a period of military stalemate, unable to delivery a knockout blow. Insurgents often settled into guerrilla warfare with some banditry, while royalist forces became increasingly demoralized. Spain sent insufficient reinforcements, although a number of senior officers arrived. By 1814, the Peninsular War against Napoleon was won and <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_VII_of_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Ferdinand VII of Spain">Ferdinand VII</a> became the monarch, initially as a constitutional ruler under the Spanish constitution of 1812, but once in power, reneged on promises to have constitutional limits on his power. Crown resources did not go toward funding the war against the insurgents, so that many expeditionary soldiers were not paid and left to their own devices in territory largely controlled by insurgents. Rather than risk life and limb fighting insurgents, they avoided risky operations and stayed close to fortified garrisons. Since money to pay and supply soldiers was not forthcoming from the crown, royal forces pressed local populations for supplies. As for high officers, many saw the hopelessness of the situation and decided to make the best of it by creating what one historian has called "veritable satrapies", becoming wealthy from confiscated insurgent properties, and taxing local merchants.<sup id="cite_ref-Archer_1599_57-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Archer_1599-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In what was supposed to be the final government campaign against the insurgents, in December 1820, Viceroy <a href="/wiki/Juan_Ruiz_de_Apodaca,_1st_Count_of_Venadito" title="Juan Ruiz de Apodaca, 1st Count of Venadito">Juan Ruiz de Apodaca</a> sent a force led by a royalist Colonel <a href="/wiki/Agust%C3%ADn_de_Iturbide" title="Agustín de Iturbide">Agustín de Iturbide</a>, to defeat Guerrero's army in Oaxaca. Iturbide, a native of Valladolid (now <a href="/wiki/Morelia" title="Morelia">Morelia</a>), had gained renown for his zeal against Hidalgo's and Morelos's rebels during the early independence struggle. A favorite of the Mexican church hierarchy, Iturbide symbolized conservative creole values; he was devoutly religious and committed to the defense of property rights and social privileges. He also resented his lack of promotion and failure to gain wealth.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Guerrero,_Iturbide,_and_the_Plan_of_Iguala"><span id="Guerrero.2C_Iturbide.2C_and_the_Plan_of_Iguala"></span>Guerrero, Iturbide, and the Plan of Iguala</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Abrazo_de_Acatempan.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Abrazo_de_Acatempan.JPG/220px-Abrazo_de_Acatempan.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Abrazo_de_Acatempan.JPG/330px-Abrazo_de_Acatempan.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Abrazo_de_Acatempan.JPG/440px-Abrazo_de_Acatempan.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3056" data-file-height="2292" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Embrace_of_Acatempan" title="Embrace of Acatempan">Abrazo de Acatempan</a></i>, Guerrero and Iturbide form an alliance, 1821.</figcaption></figure><p> Iturbide's assignment to the Oaxaca expedition in 1820 coincided with a successful military coup in Spain against the monarchy of Ferdinand VII. The coup leaders, part of an expeditionary force assembled to suppress the independence movements in the Americas, had turned against the autocratic monarchy. They compelled the reluctant Ferdinand to reinstate the liberal <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Constitution_of_1812" title="Spanish Constitution of 1812">Spanish Constitution of 1812</a> that created a constitutional monarchy. When news of the liberal charter reached New Spain, Iturbide perceived it both as a threat to the status quo and a catalyst to rouse the creole elites to gain control of Mexico. Independence was achieved when conservative Royalist forces in the colonies chose to rise up against the liberal regime in Spain; it was an about-face compared to their previous opposition to the peasant insurgency.</p><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Three_Guarantees.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_the_Three_Guarantees.svg/220px-Flag_of_the_Three_Guarantees.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="126" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_the_Three_Guarantees.svg/330px-Flag_of_the_Three_Guarantees.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_the_Three_Guarantees.svg/440px-Flag_of_the_Three_Guarantees.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1400" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>Flag of the <a href="/wiki/Army_of_the_Three_Guarantees" title="Army of the Three Guarantees">Army of the Three Guarantees</a></figcaption></figure><p>The royalist army was demoralized and the insurgents were unable to oust them. With the re-imposition of the Spanish Constitution, the relationship between newly elected town councils (<i>ayuntamientos</i>) and the military meant that councils could put limits on taxation and many voted to cease exacting taxes to support the royalist army. Commanders lost their financial support and could no longer compel men to join militias. Militias were demobilized and men who had served outside of their native areas went home. The insurgents no longer felt the continuous pressure of the royalist military. Militia men abandoned areas where insurgents were active.<sup id="cite_ref-Archer_1599_57-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Archer_1599-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mestizo.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Mestizo.jpg/220px-Mestizo.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Mestizo.jpg/330px-Mestizo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Mestizo.jpg/440px-Mestizo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="698" data-file-height="475" /></a><figcaption>A representation of mestizos in a "Caste Painting" from the colonial era.</figcaption></figure> <p>With the situation changed in part because of the Spanish Constitution, Guerrero realized that creole elites might move toward independence and exclude the insurgents. For that reason, his reaching an accommodation with the royalist army became a pragmatic move. From the royalist point of view, forging an alliance with their former foes created a way forward to independence. If creoles had declared independence for their own political purposes without coming to terms with the insurgency in the south, then an independent Mexico would have to contend with rebels who could threaten a new nation. Iturbide initiated contact with Guerrero in January 1821, indicating he was weighing whether to abandon the royalist cause. Guerrero was receptive to listening to Iturbide's vague proposal, but was not going to commit without further clarification. Iturbide replied to Guerrero's demand for clarity, saying that he had a plan for a constitution, one apparently based on the 1812 Spanish liberal constitution. Guerrero responded that the failure of that constitution to address the grievances of many in New Spain, and particularly objected to that constitution's exclusion of <a href="/wiki/Afro-Mexicans" title="Afro-Mexicans">Afro-Mexicans</a> from citizenship, while according it to European whites, Indians, and mestizos. </p><p>The question of equality for all races was a key matter for Guerrero and other insurgents, many of whom had African ancestry. Iturbide accepted that important change. The two men negotiated about how the merging of the old insurgent forces and the former royalist army would occur. Iturbide wrote the final draft of the <a href="/wiki/Plan_of_Iguala" title="Plan of Iguala">Plan of Iguala</a>, named for <a href="/wiki/Iguala" title="Iguala">the place</a> where it was proclaimed on 24 February 1821. Iturbide proclaimed three principles, or "guarantees", for Mexican independence from Spain. Mexico would be an independent monarchy governed by King Ferdinand, another Bourbon prince or some other conservative European prince; creoles would be given equal rights and privileges to <i><a href="/wiki/Peninsulars" class="mw-redirect" title="Peninsulars">peninsulares</a></i>; and the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church_in_Mexico" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic Church in Mexico">Roman Catholic Church in Mexico</a> would retain its privileges and position as the established religion of the land. </p><p>To reach an accord that both sides would accept, the plan explicitly laid out the terms of equality. For people of mixed race, point 12 made explicit "All inhabitants of New Spain, without distinction to their being Europeans, Africans, or Indians, are citizens of this Monarchy with the option to seek all employment according to their merits and virtues." For European whites, their privileged place in Mexico was to be maintained, guaranteeing their place in existing positions in government. "All branches of the government service will remain without alteration, and that all those presently employed in politics, the church, civilian business, or the military will retain the same positions held at present." Racial designations of Mexicans and distinctions between creole and peninsular Spaniards were abolished.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After convincing his troops to accept the Plan of Iguala, Iturbide persuaded Guerrero to join his forces in support of this conservative independence movement. A new army, the <a href="/wiki/Army_of_the_Three_Guarantees" title="Army of the Three Guarantees">Army of the Three Guarantees</a>, was placed under Iturbide's command to enforce the plan. The plan was so broadly based that it appealed both patriots and loyalists. The goal of independence and the protection of Roman Catholicism brought together most factions.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To symbolize these three guarantees of unity, religion, and independence, Iturbide adopted a green, white, and red flag; these colors are still used in the modern <a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Mexico" title="Flag of Mexico">Mexican flag</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-miranda_47-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-miranda-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 71">: 71 </span></sup> </p><p>Although the alliance of Iturbide and Guerrero resulted in the Plan of Iguala, there was not universal acclaim of the accord. A number of important insurgents, including <a href="/wiki/Juan_%C3%81lvarez" title="Juan Álvarez">Juan Álvarez</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Pedro_Ascensio&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pedro Ascensio (page does not exist)">Pedro Ascensio</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedro_Ascencio_Alquisiras" class="extiw" title="es:Pedro Ascencio Alquisiras">es</a>]</span> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Gordiano_Guzm%C3%A1n&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gordiano Guzmán (page does not exist)">Gordiano Guzmán</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gordiano_Guzm%C3%A1n" class="extiw" title="es:Gordiano Guzmán">es</a>]</span> rejected it. Guzmán articulated his objection to the plan, saying that it guaranteed the privileges of the elites, welcomed opportunists who supported independence late in the struggle, and cast doubt on the clause that was to guarantee racial equality. He focused on the final words that guaranteed rights "according to their merits and virtues". Álvarez, Ascencio and Guzmán declined to join the Army of the Three Guarantees, the military force created by Iturbide and Guerrero, but did continue to fight the royalists.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Collapse_of_imperial_rule_and_independence">Collapse of imperial rule and independence</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Agustin_de_Iturbide_Oleo_Primitivo_Miranda.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Agustin_de_Iturbide_Oleo_Primitivo_Miranda.png/220px-Agustin_de_Iturbide_Oleo_Primitivo_Miranda.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="324" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Agustin_de_Iturbide_Oleo_Primitivo_Miranda.png/330px-Agustin_de_Iturbide_Oleo_Primitivo_Miranda.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Agustin_de_Iturbide_Oleo_Primitivo_Miranda.png/440px-Agustin_de_Iturbide_Oleo_Primitivo_Miranda.png 2x" data-file-width="544" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>Oil painting of <a href="/wiki/Agust%C3%ADn_de_Iturbide" title="Agustín de Iturbide">Agustín de Iturbide</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Iturbide persuaded royalist officers to change sides and support independence as well as the mixed race old insurgent forces. For some royalist commanders, their forces simply left, some of them amnestied former insurgents. The high military command in Mexico City deposed the viceroy, <a href="/wiki/Juan_Ruiz_de_Apodaca,_1st_Count_of_Venadito" title="Juan Ruiz de Apodaca, 1st Count of Venadito">Juan Ruiz de Apodaca</a> in July 1821, replacing him with an interim viceroy, royalist general <a href="/wiki/Francisco_Novella_Azabal_P%C3%A9rez_y_Sicardo" title="Francisco Novella Azabal Pérez y Sicardo">Francisco Novella</a>. By the time that <a href="/wiki/Juan_O%27Donoj%C3%BA" title="Juan O'Donojú">Juan O'Donojú</a> became the new viceroy, practically the whole country supported the Plan of Iguala. Most soldiers had defected to Iturbide's Army of the Three Guarantees and the Spanish cause was lost.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 24 August 1821, representatives of the Spanish crown, including the new viceroy <a href="/wiki/Juan_O%27Donoj%C3%BA" title="Juan O'Donojú">Juan O'Donojú</a> and Iturbide signed the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" title="Treaty of Córdoba">Treaty of Córdoba</a>, which recognized Mexican independence under the Plan of Iguala. O'Donojú then resigned as viceroy. The Spanish government denied that O'Donojú had the authority to sign the treaty, but events on the ground saw Iturbide and the Army of Three Guarantees march into Mexico City in triumph on 27 September 1821. The next day, the Mexican independence was proclaimed in the <a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_Independence_(Mexico)" title="Declaration of Independence (Mexico)">Declaration of Independence of the Mexican Empire</a>. The Plan of Iguala and the Treaty of Córdoba had rapidly brought about an alliance of insurgents and former royalists turned autonomists resulting in the rapid achievement of independence virtually without further military conflict. Once independence was achieved, the fissures between different interests rapidly re-emerged.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Creation_of_the_First_Mexican_Empire">Creation of the First Mexican Empire</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Agust%C3%ADn_de_Iturbide" title="Agustín de Iturbide">Agustín de Iturbide</a> and <a href="/wiki/First_Mexican_Empire" title="First Mexican Empire">First Mexican Empire</a></div> <p>On 27 September 1821, the Army of the Three Guarantees entered Mexico City, and the following day Iturbide proclaimed the independence of the <a href="/wiki/First_Mexican_Empire" title="First Mexican Empire">Mexican Empire</a>, as <a href="/wiki/New_Spain" title="New Spain">New Spain</a> was henceforth to be called. The Treaty of Córdoba was not ratified by the <a href="/wiki/Cortes_Generales" title="Cortes Generales">Spanish Cortes</a>. Iturbide included a special clause in the treaty that left open the possibility for a criollo monarch to be appointed by a Mexican congress if no suitable member of the European royalty would accept the Mexican crown. Half of the new government employees appointed were Iturbide's followers.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On the night of 18 May 1822, a mass demonstration led by the Regiment of Celaya, which Iturbide had commanded during the war, marched through the streets and demanded their commander-in-chief to accept the throne. The following day, the Congress declared Iturbide <a href="/wiki/Emperor_of_Mexico" title="Emperor of Mexico">Emperor of Mexico</a>. On 31 October 1822, Iturbide dissolved Congress and replaced it with a sympathetic <a href="/wiki/List_of_heads_of_state_of_Mexico#First_Regency" title="List of heads of state of Mexico">junta</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Spanish_attempts_to_reconquer_Mexico">Spanish attempts to reconquer Mexico</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Spanish_attempts_to_reconquer_Mexico" title="Spanish attempts to reconquer Mexico">Spanish attempts to reconquer Mexico</a></div> <p>Despite the creation of the Mexican nation, the Spanish still managed to retain control of <a href="/wiki/San_Juan_de_Ul%C3%BAa" title="San Juan de Ulúa">San Juan de Ulúa</a>, a fortress complex overlooking the port of <a href="/wiki/Veracruz" title="Veracruz">Veracruz</a>, until it surrendered to Mexican forces on 23 November 1825. Spanish attempts to re-establish control over Mexico culminated in the 1829 <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tampico_(1829)" title="Battle of Tampico (1829)">Battle of Tampico</a>, during which a Spanish invasion force was surrounded in Tampico and forced to surrender.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 28 December 1836, Spain recognized the independence of Mexico under the <a href="/wiki/Santa_Mar%C3%ADa%E2%80%93Calatrava_Treaty" title="Santa María–Calatrava Treaty">Santa María–Calatrava Treaty</a>, signed in Madrid by the Mexican Commissioner Miguel Santa María and the Spanish state minister <a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Mar%C3%ADa_Calatrava_y_Peinado" title="José María Calatrava y Peinado">José María Calatrava</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mexico was the first former colony whose independence was recognized by Spain; the second was <a href="/wiki/Ecuador" title="Ecuador">Ecuador</a> on 16 February 1840. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Celebration_of_Mexican_political_anniversaries_in_2010" title="Celebration of Mexican political anniversaries in 2010">Celebration of Mexican political anniversaries in 2010</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bandera_del_Primer_Imperio_Mexicano.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Bandera_del_Primer_Imperio_Mexicano.svg/220px-Bandera_del_Primer_Imperio_Mexicano.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="126" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Bandera_del_Primer_Imperio_Mexicano.svg/330px-Bandera_del_Primer_Imperio_Mexicano.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Bandera_del_Primer_Imperio_Mexicano.svg/440px-Bandera_del_Primer_Imperio_Mexicano.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1400" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>Flag of the <a href="/wiki/First_Mexican_Empire" title="First Mexican Empire">Mexican Empire</a> of Iturbide, the template for the modern Mexican flag with the eagle perched on a cactus. The crown on the eagle's head symbolizes monarchy in Mexico.</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1910, as part of the celebrations marking the centennial of the Hidalgo revolt of 1810, President <a href="/wiki/Porfirio_D%C3%ADaz" title="Porfirio Díaz">Porfirio Díaz</a> inaugurated the monument to Mexico's political separation from Spain, the <a href="/wiki/Angel_of_Independence" title="Angel of Independence">Angel of Independence</a> on <a href="/wiki/Avenida_Reforma" title="Avenida Reforma">Avenida Reforma</a>. The creation of this architectural monument is part of the long process of the construction of historical memory of Mexican independence.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although Mexico gained its independence in September 1821, the marking of this historical event did not take hold immediately. The choice of date to celebrate was problematic, because Iturbide, who achieved independence from Spain, was rapidly created Emperor of Mexico. His short-lived rule from 1821 to 1823 ended when he was forced by the military to abdicate. This was a rocky start for the new nation, which made celebrating independence on the anniversary of Iturbide's <a href="/wiki/Army_of_the_Three_Guarantees" title="Army of the Three Guarantees">Army of the Three Guarantees</a> marching into Mexico City in triumph a less than perfect day for those who had opposed him. Celebrations of independence during his reign were marked on 27 September. Following his ouster, there were calls to commemorate Mexican independence along the lines that the United States celebrated in grand style its Independence Day on 4 July. The creation of a committee of powerful men to mark independence celebrations, the <i>Junta Patriótica</i>, organized celebrations of both 16 September, to commemorate Hidalgo's grito and the start of the independence insurgency, and 27 September, to celebrate actual political independence.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/Porfiriato" title="Porfiriato">Díaz regime</a> (1876–1911), the president's birthday coincided with the 15/16 September celebration of independence. The largest celebrations took place and continue to do so in the capital's main square, the <a href="/wiki/Z%C3%B3calo" title="Zócalo">zócalo</a>, with the pealing of the <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_Cathedral_of_Mexico_City" class="mw-redirect" title="Metropolitan Cathedral of Mexico City">Metropolitan Cathedral of Mexico City</a>'s bells. In the 1880s, government officials attempted to move the bell that Hidalgo rang in 1810 to gather parishioners in Dolores for what became his famous "grito". Initially the pueblo's officials said the bell no longer existed, but in 1896, the bell, known as the Bell of San José, was taken to the capital. It was renamed the "Bell of Independence" and ritually rung by Díaz. It is now an integral part of Independence Day festivities.<sup id="cite_ref-Fernández_Tejedo_&_Nava_Nava_2001_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fernández_Tejedo_&_Nava_Nava_2001-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Plans were drawn up for the commemoration of independence in 2021, as well as the establishment of the Mexican republic in 2024.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The 2021 event was termed the <i>Consummation of Independence</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_Spain.svg/32px-Flag_of_Spain.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="21" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_Spain.svg/48px-Flag_of_Spain.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_Spain.svg/64px-Flag_of_Spain.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="500" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Spain" title="Portal:Spain">Spain portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="map" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Latin_America_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/28px-Latin_America_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Latin_America_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/42px-Latin_America_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Latin_America_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/56px-Latin_America_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="550" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Latin_America" title="Portal:Latin America">Latin America portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Flag_of_Mexico.svg/32px-Flag_of_Mexico.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="18" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Flag_of_Mexico.svg/48px-Flag_of_Mexico.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Flag_of_Mexico.svg/64px-Flag_of_Mexico.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="980" data-file-height="560" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Mexico" title="Portal:Mexico">Mexico portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afro-Mexicans_in_the_Mexican_War_of_Independence" title="Afro-Mexicans in the Mexican War of Independence">Afro-Mexicans in the Mexican War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wars_involving_Mexico" title="List of wars involving Mexico">List of wars involving Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_attempts_to_reconquer_Mexico" title="Spanish attempts to reconquer Mexico">Spanish attempts to reconquer Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Mexican_War_of_Independence" title="Timeline of Mexican War of Independence">Timeline of Mexican War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Mexican_Empire" title="First Mexican Empire">First Mexican Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_American_wars_of_independence" title="Spanish American wars of independence">Spanish American wars of independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Spain" title="New Spain">New Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cry_of_Dolores" title="Cry of Dolores">Cry of Dolores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Our_Lady_of_Sorrows" title="Our Lady of Sorrows">Our Lady of Sorrows</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Spain_(1808%E2%80%931874)" title="History of Spain (1808–1874)">History of Spain (1808–1874)</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://necrometrics.com/wars19c.htm#Mex1818">"Statistics of Wars, Oppressions and Atrocities of the Nineteenth Century"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Statistics+of+Wars%2C+Oppressions+and+Atrocities+of+the+Nineteenth+Century&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnecrometrics.com%2Fwars19c.htm%23Mex1818&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMexican+War+of+Independence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Altman, Ida et al. <i>The Early History of Greater Mexico</i>. Prentice Hall 2003, pp. 341–358.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_3-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_3-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_3-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHamnett1999" class="citation book cs1">Hamnett, Brian (1999). <i>A Concise History of Mexico</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 147–186.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Concise+History+of+Mexico&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=147-186&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Hamnett&rft.aufirst=Brian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMexican+War+of+Independence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_4-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArcher2007" class="citation book cs1">Archer, Christon (2007). <i>The Birth of Modern Mexico, 1780–1824</i>. Rowman & Littlefield. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7425-5602-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7425-5602-7"><bdi>978-0-7425-5602-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Birth+of+Modern+Mexico%2C+1780%E2%80%931824&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-7425-5602-7&rft.aulast=Archer&rft.aufirst=Christon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMexican+War+of+Independence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Archer, Christon I. "Wars of Independence" in <i>Encyclopedia of Mexico</i>. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn 1997, pp. 1595–1601.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-indMex-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-indMex_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.monografias.com/trabajos96/mexico-independiente-1821-1851/mexico-independiente-1821-1851.shtml#eltriunfoa"><i>Mexico independiente, 1821–1851</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181222173214/https://www.monografias.com/trabajos96/mexico-independiente-1821-1851/mexico-independiente-1821-1851.shtml#eltriunfoa">Archived</a> 22 December 2018 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Monografias, 1996; accessed 21 December 2018.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://pares.mcu.es/Bicentenarios/portal/reconocimientoEspana.html">http://pares.mcu.es/Bicentenarios/portal/reconocimientoEspana.html</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181017163751/http://pares.mcu.es/Bicentenarios/portal/reconocimientoEspana.html">Archived</a> 17 October 2018 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> accessed 21 December 2018.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/David_Brading" title="David Brading">Brading, D. A.</a> <i>The First America: The Spanish Monarchy, Creole Patriots, and the Liberal State, 1492–1867</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1991.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John Charles Chasteen. <i>Born in Blood and Fire: A Concise History of Latin America</i>. New York: Norton, 2001. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-97613-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-97613-7">978-0-393-97613-7</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Ida_Altman" title="Ida Altman">Altman, Ida</a>, Sarah Cline, and Javier Pescador, <i>The Early History of Greater Mexico</i>. Prentice Hall 2003, pp. 246–247.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jonathan I. Israel. <i>Race, Class, and Politics in Colonial Mexico, 1610–1670</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press 1975.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Altman, et al., <i>The Early History of Greater Mexico</i>, p. 247.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrewe2010" class="citation journal cs1">Crewe, R. D. (2010-04-22). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093/pastj/gtq005">"Brave New Spain: An Irishman's Independence Plot in Seventeenth-Century Mexico"</a>. <i>Past & Present</i> (207): 53–87. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fpastj%2Fgtq005">10.1093/pastj/gtq005</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0031-2746">0031-2746</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Past+%26+Present&rft.atitle=Brave+New+Spain%3A+An+Irishman%27s+Independence+Plot+in+Seventeenth-Century+Mexico&rft.issue=207&rft.pages=53-87&rft.date=2010-04-22&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fpastj%2Fgtq005&rft.issn=0031-2746&rft.aulast=Crewe&rft.aufirst=R.+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1093%2Fpastj%2Fgtq005&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMexican+War+of+Independence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">quoted in Altman et al., <i>The Early History of Greater Mexico</i>, p. 248.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Altman et al., <i>The Early History of Greater Mexico</i>, p. 249.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:4_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_16-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Eric_Van_Young" title="Eric Van Young">Van Young, Eric</a> <i>The Other Rebellion: Popular Violence, Ideology, and the Mexican Struggle for Independence, 1810–1821</i>. Stanford: Stanford University Press 2001.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sánchez Gómez, Dolores del Mar. "El Virrey Miguel José de Azanza y la conspiración de los machetes¿ primer intento de independencia mexicana?." Una crisis atlántica: España, América, y los acontecimientos de 1808 (1808): 29–38.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Langley, Lester D. <i>The Americas in the Age of Revolution, 1750–1850</i>. New Haven: Yale University Press 1996, pp. 147–152.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Farriss, Nancy M. <i>Crown and Clergy in Colonial Mexico, 1759–1821</i>. London: Athlone Press 1968</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Taylor, William B. <i>Magistrates of the Sacred: Priests and Parishioners in Eighteenth-Century Mexico</i>. Stanford: Stanford University Press 1996.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rodríguez O., <i>The Independence of Spanish America</i>, pp. 27–28.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Archer, Christon I. <i>The Army in Bourbon Mexico, 1760–1810</i>. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 1977.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McAlister, Lyle C. <i>The "Fuero Militar" in New Spain, 1764–1800</i>. Gainesville: University of Florida Press 1957.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWobeser2006" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Wobeser, Gisela von (1 October 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://historiamexicana.colmex.mx/index.php/RHM/article/view/1566">"La Consolidación de Vales Reales como factor determinante de la lucha de independencia en México, 1804–1808"</a> [The Consolidation of Vales Reales as a determining factor in the struggle for independence in Mexico, 1804–1808]. <i>Historia Mexicana</i> (in Spanish): 373–425. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ProQuest" title="ProQuest">ProQuest</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.proquest.com/docview/2426912454">2426912454</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Historia+Mexicana&rft.atitle=La+Consolidaci%C3%B3n+de+Vales+Reales+como+factor+determinante+de+la+lucha+de+independencia+en+M%C3%A9xico%2C+1804%E2%80%931808&rft.pages=373-425&rft.date=2006-10-01&rft.aulast=Wobeser&rft.aufirst=Gisela+von&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhistoriamexicana.colmex.mx%2Findex.php%2FRHM%2Farticle%2Fview%2F1566&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMexican+War+of+Independence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTutino1989" class="citation book cs1">Tutino, John (1989). <i>From Insurrection to Revolution in Mexico : Social Bases of Agrarian Violence, 1750–1940</i>. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-02294-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-02294-9"><bdi>978-0-691-02294-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Insurrection+to+Revolution+in+Mexico+%3A+Social+Bases+of+Agrarian+Violence%2C+1750%E2%80%931940&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-691-02294-9&rft.aulast=Tutino&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMexican+War+of+Independence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Professor Benjamin T. Smith, University of Warwick, Lecture on <i>Mexican Independence</i> speaking at University of Warwick 21 October 2021. (<b>video recording lost</b>)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cañeque, Alejandro. <i>The King's Living Image: The Culture and Politics of Viceregal Power in Colonial Mexico</i>. New York: Routledge, 2004</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Guedea, Virginia. "Hidalgo Revolt" in <i>Encyclopedia of Mexico</i>. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn 1997, pp. 637–638.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rodríguez O., <i>The Independence of Spanish Ame ica</i>, pp. 59–61.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Nettie_Lee_Benson" title="Nettie Lee Benson">Benson, Nettie Lee</a>. "The Elections of 1809: Transforming Political Culture in New Spain." <a href="/wiki/Mexican_Studies" title="Mexican Studies">Mexican Studies</a>/Estudios Mexicanos, Feb. 2004, vol. 20(1). 1–20</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">quoted in Krauze, Enrique. <i>Mexico: Biography of Power</i>. New York: HarperCollins 1997, p. 106.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Guedea, Virginia. "Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla" in <i>Encyclopedia of Mexico</i>. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn 1997, p. 641.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_33-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Guedea, Virginia, "Hidalgo Revolt" in <i>Encyclopedia of Mexico</i>. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn 1997, p. 638.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fernández_Tejedo_&_Nava_Nava_2001-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fernández_Tejedo_&_Nava_Nava_2001_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fernández_Tejedo_&_Nava_Nava_2001_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFernández_TejedoNava_Nava2001" class="citation book cs1">Fernández Tejedo, Isabel; Nava Nava, Carmen (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tqxZzztmqygC&pg=PA1">"Images of Independence in the Nineteenth Century: The <i>Grito de Dolores</i>, History and Myth"</a>. In Beezley, William H.; Lorey, David E. (eds.). <i>Viva Mexico! Viva la Independencia!: Celebrations of September 16</i>. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 1–41. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8420-2915-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8420-2915-5"><bdi>978-0-8420-2915-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Images+of+Independence+in+the+Nineteenth+Century%3A+The+Grito+de+Dolores%2C+History+and+Myth&rft.btitle=Viva+Mexico%21+Viva+la+Independencia%21%3A+Celebrations+of+September+16&rft.pages=1-41&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-8420-2915-5&rft.aulast=Fern%C3%A1ndez+Tejedo&rft.aufirst=Isabel&rft.au=Nava+Nava%2C+Carmen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtqxZzztmqygC%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMexican+War+of+Independence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeterson1992" class="citation journal cs1">Peterson, Jeanette Favrot (December 1992). "The Virgin of Guadalupe: Symbol of Conquest or Liberation?". <i>Art Journal</i>. <b>51</b> (4): 39–47. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00043249.1992.10791596">10.1080/00043249.1992.10791596</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ProQuest" title="ProQuest">ProQuest</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.proquest.com/docview/223311874">223311874</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Art+Journal&rft.atitle=The+Virgin+of+Guadalupe%3A+Symbol+of+Conquest+or+Liberation%3F&rft.volume=51&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=39-47&rft.date=1992-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00043249.1992.10791596&rft.aulast=Peterson&rft.aufirst=Jeanette+Favrot&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMexican+War+of+Independence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Krauze, Enrique. Mexico, Biography of Power. A History of Modern Mexico 1810–1996. HarperCollins: New York, 1997.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCurcio-Nagy1996" class="citation journal cs1">Curcio-Nagy, Linda A. (1996). "Native Icon to City Protectress to Royal Patroness: Ritual, Political Symbolism and the Virgin of Remedies". <i>The Americas</i>. <b>52</b> (3): 367–391. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1008006">10.2307/1008006</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1008006">1008006</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:147175103">147175103</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Americas&rft.atitle=Native+Icon+to+City+Protectress+to+Royal+Patroness%3A+Ritual%2C+Political+Symbolism+and+the+Virgin+of+Remedies&rft.volume=52&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=367-391&rft.date=1996&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A147175103%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1008006%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1008006&rft.aulast=Curcio-Nagy&rft.aufirst=Linda+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMexican+War+of+Independence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_38-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_38-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Guedea, Virginia. "The Old Colonialism Ends, the New Colonialism Begins" in <i>The Oxford History of Mexico</i>. New York: Oxford University Press 2000, p. 289.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Archer, Christon. "Military: Bourbon New Spain" in <i>Encyclopedia of Mexico</i>. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn 1997, 903.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrewster2005" class="citation journal cs1">Brewster, Claire (2005). "Women and the Spanish-American Wars of Independence: An Overview". <i>Feminist Review</i>. <b>79</b> (1): 20–35. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2Fpalgrave.fr.9400200">10.1057/palgrave.fr.9400200</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3874426">3874426</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154141760">154141760</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Feminist+Review&rft.atitle=Women+and+the+Spanish-American+Wars+of+Independence%3A+An+Overview&rft.volume=79&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=20-35&rft.date=2005&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154141760%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3874426%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1057%2Fpalgrave.fr.9400200&rft.aulast=Brewster&rft.aufirst=Claire&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMexican+War+of+Independence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPacheco" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Pacheco, María Cristina Torales. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dbe.rah.es/biografias/60410/ana-maria-de-iraeta-ganuza">"Ana María de Iraeta Ganuza"</a>. <i>DB~e</i> (in Spanish). Real Academia de la Historia<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 December</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=DB~e&rft.atitle=Ana+Mar%C3%ADa+de+Iraeta+Ganuza&rft.aulast=Pacheco&rft.aufirst=Mar%C3%ADa+Cristina+Torales&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdbe.rah.es%2Fbiografias%2F60410%2Fana-maria-de-iraeta-ganuza&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMexican+War+of+Independence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pricegrabber2000-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-pricegrabber2000_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobert_Harvey2000" class="citation book cs1">Robert Harvey (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20130710093122/http://about.pricegrabber.com/search_getprod.php/masterid=950780298"><i>Liberators: Latin America's Struggle For Independence</i></a>. Woodstock: The Overlook Press. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://about.pricegrabber.com/search_getprod.php/masterid=950780298">the original</a> on 10 July 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Liberators%3A+Latin+America%27s+Struggle+For+Independence&rft.pub=Woodstock%3A+The+Overlook+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.au=Robert+Harvey&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fabout.pricegrabber.com%2Fsearch_getprod.php%2Fmasterid%3D950780298&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMexican+War+of+Independence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Krauze, <i>Mexico: Biography of Power</i>, p. 99.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">quoted in Krauze, <i>Mexico: Biography of Power</i>, p. 100.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Krauze, <i>Mexico: Biography of Power</i>, p. 100.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Young, Philip. <i>History of Mexico: Her Civil Wars and Colonial and Revolutionary Annals</i>. Gardners Books, [1847] 2007, pp. 84–86. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-548-32604-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-548-32604-6">978-0-548-32604-6</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-miranda-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-miranda_47-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-miranda_47-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-miranda_47-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-miranda_47-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-miranda_47-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFÁngel_Miranda_Basurto2002" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Ángel Miranda Basurto (2002). <i>La Evolución de México</i> [<i>The Evolution of Mexico</i>] (in Spanish) (6th ed.). Mexico City: Editorial Porrua. p. 358. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/970-07-3678-4" title="Special:BookSources/970-07-3678-4"><bdi>970-07-3678-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=La+Evoluci%C3%B3n+de+M%C3%A9xico&rft.place=Mexico+City&rft.pages=358&rft.edition=6th&rft.pub=Editorial+Porrua&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=970-07-3678-4&rft.au=%C3%81ngel+Miranda+Basurto&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMexican+War+of+Independence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Archer, "Military: Bourton New Spain", p. 904</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Archer, Christon. "Wars of Independence" in <i>Encyclopedia of Mexico</i>. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn 1997, p. 1597.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">quoted in Krauze, <i>Mexico: Biography of Power</i>, p. 107.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.lhistoria.com/mexico/sitio-de-cuautla">http://www.lhistoria.com/mexico/sitio-de-cuautla</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181222125522/http://www.lhistoria.com/mexico/sitio-de-cuautla">Archived</a> 2018-12-22 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> accessed Dec 21, 2018.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">quoted in Krauze, <i>Mexico: Biography of Power</i>, p. 110.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Archer, "Wars of Independence", pp. 1597–1598.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Morelos, José María. "Sentiments of the Nation, or Points Outlined by Morelos for the Constitution" in <i>The Mexico Reader</i>, ed. Gilbert M. Joseph et al. Durham: Duke University Press 2002, pp. 189–191.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Guedea, "The Old Colonialism Ends", p. 291.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Archer, "Wars of Independence" p. 1598.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Archer_1599-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Archer_1599_57-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Archer_1599_57-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Archer_1599_57-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Archer, "Wars of Independence" p. 1599.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTimothy_J._Henderson2009" class="citation book cs1">Timothy J. Henderson (2009). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mexicanwarsforin00hend"><i>The Mexican Wars for Independence</i></a></span>. Macmillan. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mexicanwarsforin00hend/page/115">115</a>–116. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8090-9509-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8090-9509-4"><bdi>978-0-8090-9509-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Mexican+Wars+for+Independence&rft.pages=115-116&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-8090-9509-4&rft.au=Timothy+J.+Henderson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmexicanwarsforin00hend&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMexican+War+of+Independence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArcher2008" class="citation journal cs1">Archer, Christon I. (1 August 2008). "Royalist Scourge or Liberator of the Patria? Agustín de Iturbide and Mexico's War of Independence, 1810–1821". <i>Mexican Studies/Estudios Mexicanos</i>. <b>24</b> (2): 325–361. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Fmsem.2008.24.2.325">10.1525/msem.2008.24.2.325</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mexican+Studies%2FEstudios+Mexicanos&rft.atitle=Royalist+Scourge+or+Liberator+of+the+Patria%3F+Agust%C3%ADn+de+Iturbide+and+Mexico%27s+War+of+Independence%2C+1810%E2%80%931821&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=325-361&rft.date=2008-08-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1525%2Fmsem.2008.24.2.325&rft.aulast=Archer&rft.aufirst=Christon+I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMexican+War+of+Independence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vincent, Theodore G. <i>The Legacy of Vicente Guerrero, Mexico's First Black Indian President</i>. Gainesville: University of Florida Press 2002, 123–127.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMichael_S._Werner2001" class="citation book cs1">Michael S. Werner (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Qxp-GWiDPioC&pg=PA308"><i>Concise Encyclopedia of Mexico</i></a>. Taylor & Francis. pp. 308–309. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57958-337-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57958-337-8"><bdi>978-1-57958-337-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Concise+Encyclopedia+of+Mexico&rft.pages=308-309&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-1-57958-337-8&rft.au=Michael+S.+Werner&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQxp-GWiDPioC%26pg%3DPA308&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMexican+War+of+Independence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vincent, <i>The Legacy of Vicente Guerrero</i>, pp. 130–131.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Archer, "Wars of Independence", p. 1600.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Guedea, "The Old Colonialism Ends", pp. 298–299.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPhilip_Russell2011" class="citation book cs1">Philip Russell (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=K5xdBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA132"><i>The History of Mexico: From Pre-Conquest to Present</i></a>. Routledge. p. 132. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-136-96828-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-136-96828-0"><bdi>978-1-136-96828-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160610173513/https://books.google.com/books?id=K5xdBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA132">Archived</a> from the original on 10 June 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 November</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+Mexico%3A+From+Pre-Conquest+to+Present&rft.pages=132&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-136-96828-0&rft.au=Philip+Russell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DK5xdBwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA132&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMexican+War+of+Independence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChriston_I._Archer2007" class="citation book cs1">Christon I. Archer (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PVqL8x_S-KEC&pg=PA220"><i>The Birth of Modern Mexico, 1780–1824</i></a>. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 220. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7425-5602-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7425-5602-7"><bdi>978-0-7425-5602-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160509222455/https://books.google.com/books?id=PVqL8x_S-KEC&pg=PA220">Archived</a> from the original on 9 May 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 November</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Birth+of+Modern+Mexico%2C+1780%E2%80%931824&rft.pages=220&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-7425-5602-7&rft.au=Christon+I.+Archer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPVqL8x_S-KEC%26pg%3DPA220&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMexican+War+of+Independence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndrewsGarcía_Martínez2007" class="citation book cs1">Andrews, Catherine; García Martínez, Leticia Dunay (2007). "Spanish Plans for the Reconquest of Mexico and the Invasion of Tampico". In Arboleyda, Ruth; Hawthorne, John; Cisneros, Gerardo Lara; Castilla, Gustavo Ramirez (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholarworks.utrgv.edu/digitalbooks/2/"><i>People, Places and Conflicts in Northeastern Mexico and Texas</i></a>. pp. 477–487.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Spanish+Plans+for+the+Reconquest+of+Mexico+and+the+Invasion+of+Tampico&rft.btitle=People%2C+Places+and+Conflicts+in+Northeastern+Mexico+and+Texas&rft.pages=477-487&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Andrews&rft.aufirst=Catherine&rft.au=Garc%C3%ADa+Mart%C3%ADnez%2C+Leticia+Dunay&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscholarworks.utrgv.edu%2Fdigitalbooks%2F2%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMexican+War+of+Independence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOrozco_Linares1996" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Orozco Linares, Fernando (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qHKohGnmyeAC&pg=PA128"><i>Fechas históricas de México: las efemérides más destacadas desde la época prehispánica hasta nuestros días</i></a> (in Spanish). Panorama Editorial. p. 128. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789683802958" title="Special:BookSources/9789683802958"><bdi>9789683802958</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 August</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fechas+hist%C3%B3ricas+de+M%C3%A9xico%3A+las+efem%C3%A9rides+m%C3%A1s+destacadas+desde+la+%C3%A9poca+prehisp%C3%A1nica+hasta+nuestros+d%C3%ADas&rft.pages=128&rft.pub=Panorama+Editorial&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=9789683802958&rft.aulast=Orozco+Linares&rft.aufirst=Fernando&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqHKohGnmyeAC%26pg%3DPA128&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMexican+War+of+Independence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304001128/http://www.biblioteca.tv/artman2/uploads/tratado28diciembre1836.pdf">"Tratado Definitivo de Paz entre Mexico y España"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (in Spanish). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biblioteca.tv/artman2/uploads/tratado28diciembre1836.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 4 March 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 April</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Tratado+Definitivo+de+Paz+entre+Mexico+y+Espa%C3%B1a&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.biblioteca.tv%2Fartman2%2Fuploads%2Ftratado28diciembre1836.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMexican+War+of+Independence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGutiérrez2007" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Gutiérrez, Arnaldo Moya (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://revistas.ucr.ac.cr/index.php/sociales/article/view/11023">"Historia, arquitectura y nación bajo el Régimen de Porfirio Díaz. Ciudad de México 1876–1910"</a>. <i>Revista de Ciencias Sociales</i> (in Spanish) (117–118). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.15517%2Frcs.v0i117-118.11023">10.15517/rcs.v0i117-118.11023</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2215-2601">2215-2601</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Revista+de+Ciencias+Sociales&rft.atitle=Historia%2C+arquitectura+y+naci%C3%B3n+bajo+el+R%C3%A9gimen+de+Porfirio+D%C3%ADaz.+Ciudad+de+M%C3%A9xico+1876%E2%80%931910&rft.issue=117%E2%80%93118&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.15517%2Frcs.v0i117-118.11023&rft.issn=2215-2601&rft.aulast=Guti%C3%A9rrez&rft.aufirst=Arnaldo+Moya&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frevistas.ucr.ac.cr%2Findex.php%2Fsociales%2Farticle%2Fview%2F11023&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMexican+War+of+Independence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Michael Costeloe, "The Junta Patriótica and the Celebration of Independence in Mexico City, 1825–1855" in <i>!Viva Mexico! !Viva la Independencia! Celebrations of 16 September</i>, eds. William H. Beezley and David E. Lorey. Wilmington: SR Books 2001, pp. 44–45.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.elsoldedurango.com.mx/analisis/2021-2024-bicentenario-de-la-independencia-y-la-republica-3371026.html">Emiliano Hernández Camargo, "Bicentenario de la independencia y la república". El Sol de Durango 2019/04/25</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200320173442/https://www.elsoldedurango.com.mx/analisis/2021-2024-bicentenario-de-la-independencia-y-la-republica-3371026.html">Archived</a> 20 March 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> accessed 20 March 2020</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://inah.gob.mx/boletines/8449-historiadores-se-reunen-con-miras-al-bicentenario-de-la-consumacion-de-la-independencia-en-2021">"Historiadores se reunen con miras al bicentenario de la consumación de la independencia en 2021". INAH, Gobierno de México.2019/09/10</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200320174052/https://inah.gob.mx/boletines/8449-historiadores-se-reunen-con-miras-al-bicentenario-de-la-consumacion-de-la-independencia-en-2021">Archived</a> 20 March 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> accessed 20 March 2020</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnna1978" class="citation book cs1">Anna, Timothy E. (1978). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/fallofroyalgover0000anna"><i>The Fall of Royal Government in Mexico City</i></a></span>. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8032-0957-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-8032-0957-6"><bdi>0-8032-0957-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Fall+of+Royal+Government+in+Mexico+City&rft.place=Lincoln&rft.pub=University+of+Nebraska+Press&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=0-8032-0957-6&rft.aulast=Anna&rft.aufirst=Timothy+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffallofroyalgover0000anna&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMexican+War+of+Independence" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Anna, Timonty E. "The Army of New Spain and the Wars of Independence, 1790–1821". <i><a href="/wiki/Hispanic_American_Historical_Review" class="mw-redirect" title="Hispanic American Historical Review">Hispanic American Historical Review</a></i> 61:4 (Nov. 1981).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArcher1994" class="citation journal cs1">Archer, Christon I. (1 January 1994). "Insurrection – Reaction – Revolution – Fragmentation: Reconstructing the Choreography of Meltdown in New Spain during the Independence Era". <i>Mexican Studies/Estudios Mexicanos</i>. <b>10</b> (1): 63–98. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1051967">10.2307/1051967</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1051967">1051967</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mexican+Studies%2FEstudios+Mexicanos&rft.atitle=Insurrection+%E2%80%93+Reaction+%E2%80%93+Revolution+%E2%80%93+Fragmentation%3A+Reconstructing+the+Choreography+of+Meltdown+in+New+Spain+during+the+Independence+Era&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=63-98&rft.date=1994-01-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1051967&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1051967%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Archer&rft.aufirst=Christon+I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMexican+War+of+Independence" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Archer, Christon I., ed. <i>The Birth of Modern Mexico</i>. Wilmington DL: SR Publishers 2003.</li> <li>Beezley, William H. and David E. Lorey, eds. <i>!Viva Mexico! !Viva la Independencia!: Celebrations of 16 September</i>. Wilmington DL: Scholarly Resources Books 2001.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBenson2004" class="citation journal cs1">Benson, Nettie (1 February 2004). "The Elections of 1809: Transforming Political Culture in New Spain". <i>Mexican Studies/Estudios Mexicanos</i>. <b>20</b> (1): 1–20. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Fmsem.2004.20.1.1">10.1525/msem.2004.20.1.1</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mexican+Studies%2FEstudios+Mexicanos&rft.atitle=The+Elections+of+1809%3A+Transforming+Political+Culture+in+New+Spain&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-20&rft.date=2004-02-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1525%2Fmsem.2004.20.1.1&rft.aulast=Benson&rft.aufirst=Nettie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMexican+War+of+Independence" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBenson1946" class="citation journal cs1">Benson, Nettie Lee (1 August 1946). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1215%2F00182168-26.3.336">"The Contested Mexican Election of 1812"</a>. <i>Hispanic American Historical Review</i>. <b>26</b> (3): 336–350. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1215%2F00182168-26.3.336">10.1215/00182168-26.3.336</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Hispanic+American+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=The+Contested+Mexican+Election+of+1812&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=336-350&rft.date=1946-08-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1215%2F00182168-26.3.336&rft.aulast=Benson&rft.aufirst=Nettie+Lee&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1215%252F00182168-26.3.336&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMexican+War+of+Independence" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Benson, Nettie Lee, ed. <i>Mexico and the Spanish Cortes</i>. Austin: University of Texas Press 1966.</li> <li>Dominguez, Jorge. <i>Insurrection or Loyalty: the Breakdown of the Spanish American Empire</i>. Cambridge: Harvard University Press 1980.</li> <li>Flores Caballero, Romero. <i>Counterrevolution: The Role of Spaniards in the Independence of Mexico, 1804–38</i>. Translated by Jaime E. Rodríguez O. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press 1974.</li> <li>García, Pedro. <i>Con el cura Hidalgo en la guerra de independencia en México</i>. Mexico City: Fondo de Cultura Económica 1982.</li> <li>Guedea, Virginia. "The First Popular Elections in Mexico City, 1812–1813" in <i>the Evolution of the Mexican Political System</i>. Jaime E. Rodríguez O., ed. Wilmington: Scholarly Resources 1993.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHamill1961" class="citation journal cs1">Hamill, Hugh M. (1961). "Early Psychological Warfare in the Hidalgo Revolt". <i>The Hispanic American Historical Review</i>. <b>41</b> (2): 206–235. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2510201">10.2307/2510201</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2510201">2510201</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Hispanic+American+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=Early+Psychological+Warfare+in+the+Hidalgo+Revolt&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=206-235&rft.date=1961&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2510201&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2510201%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Hamill&rft.aufirst=Hugh+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMexican+War+of+Independence" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHamill1966" class="citation book cs1">Hamill, Hugh M. (1966). <i>The Hidalgo Revolt: Prelude to Mexican Independence</i>. Gainesville: University of Florida Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Hidalgo+Revolt%3A+Prelude+to+Mexican+Independence&rft.place=Gainesville&rft.pub=University+of+Florida+Press&rft.date=1966&rft.aulast=Hamill&rft.aufirst=Hugh+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMexican+War+of+Independence" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHamnett1986" class="citation book cs1">Hamnett, Brian R. (1986). <i>Roots of Insurgency: Mexican Regions, 1750–1824</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-32148-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-32148-8"><bdi>978-0-521-32148-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Roots+of+Insurgency%3A+Mexican+Regions%2C+1750%E2%80%931824&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-521-32148-8&rft.aulast=Hamnett&rft.aufirst=Brian+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMexican+War+of+Independence" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHamnett1982" class="citation journal cs1">Hamnett, Brian R. (1 February 1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1215%2F00182168-62.1.19">"Royalist Counterinsurgency and the Continuity of Rebellion: Guanajuato and Michoacán, 1813–20"</a>. <i>Hispanic American Historical Review</i>. <b>62</b> (1): 19–48. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1215%2F00182168-62.1.19">10.1215/00182168-62.1.19</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2515413">2515413</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Hispanic+American+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=Royalist+Counterinsurgency+and+the+Continuity+of+Rebellion%3A+Guanajuato+and+Michoac%C3%A1n%2C+1813%E2%80%9320&rft.volume=62&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=19-48&rft.date=1982-02-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1215%2F00182168-62.1.19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2515413%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Hamnett&rft.aufirst=Brian+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1215%252F00182168-62.1.19&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMexican+War+of+Independence" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Hamnett, Brian R. <i>Roots of Insurgency: Mexican Regions 1750–1824</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1986.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKnight,_Alan2002" class="citation book cs1">Knight, Alan (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TNmDwXTrY3cC&pg=PA303"><i>Mexico: The Colonial Era</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-89196-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-89196-7"><bdi>978-0-521-89196-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mexico%3A+The+Colonial+Era&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-521-89196-7&rft.au=Knight%2C+Alan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DTNmDwXTrY3cC%26pg%3DPA303&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMexican+War+of+Independence" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Macías, Ana. <i>Génesis del gobierno constitucional en México</i>. Mexico City: Secretaría de Educación Pública 1973.</li> <li>Rodríguez O. Jaime E. <i>The Independence of Spanish America</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1998. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-62673-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-62673-6">978-0-521-62673-6</a></li> <li>Rodríguez O., Jaime E. <i>"We are Now the True Spaniards": Sovereignty, Revolution, Independence, and the Emergence of the Federal Republic of Mexico, 1808–1824</i>. Stanford: Stanford University Press 2012.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRodriguez_O.2018" class="citation book cs1">Rodriguez O., Jaime E. (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DY1CDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA31">"The Nature of Representation in New Spain"</a>. <i>Political Culture in Spanish America, 1500–1830</i>. U of Nebraska Press. pp. 31–50. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4962-0470-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4962-0470-7"><bdi>978-1-4962-0470-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1xhr7ns.7">j.ctt1xhr7ns.7</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Nature+of+Representation+in+New+Spain&rft.btitle=Political+Culture+in+Spanish+America%2C+1500%E2%80%931830&rft.pages=31-50&rft.pub=U+of+Nebraska+Press&rft.date=2018&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2Fj.ctt1xhr7ns.7%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.isbn=978-1-4962-0470-7&rft.aulast=Rodriguez+O.&rft.aufirst=Jaime+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDY1CDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA31&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMexican+War+of+Independence" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jaime_E._Rodr%C3%ADguez_O." title="Jaime E. Rodríguez O.">Rodríguez O., Jaime E.</a>, ed. <i>The Independence of Mexico and the Creation of the New Nation</i>. Los Angeles: UCLA Latin American Center Publications 1989. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87903-070-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87903-070-4">978-0-87903-070-4</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTimmons1963" class="citation book cs1">Timmons, Wilbert H. (1963). <i>Morelos of Mexico: Priest, Soldier, Statesman of Mexico</i>. El Paso: Texas Western College Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Morelos+of+Mexico%3A+Priest%2C+Soldier%2C+Statesman+of+Mexico&rft.place=El+Paso&rft.pub=Texas+Western+College+Press&rft.date=1963&rft.aulast=Timmons&rft.aufirst=Wilbert+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMexican+War+of+Independence" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Tutino, John. <i>From Insurrection to Revolution in Mexico: Social Bases of Agrarian Violence, 1750–1940</i>. Princeton: Princeton University Press 1986.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTutino1998" class="citation journal cs1">Tutino, John (1 August 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1215%2F00182168-78.3.367">"The Revolution in Mexican Independence: Insurgency and the Renegotiation of Property, Production, and Patriarchy in the Bajío, 1800–1855"</a>. <i>Hispanic American Historical Review</i>. <b>78</b> (3): 367–418. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1215%2F00182168-78.3.367">10.1215/00182168-78.3.367</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Hispanic+American+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=The+Revolution+in+Mexican+Independence%3A+Insurgency+and+the+Renegotiation+of+Property%2C+Production%2C+and+Patriarchy+in+the+Baj%C3%ADo%2C+1800%E2%80%931855&rft.volume=78&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=367-418&rft.date=1998-08-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1215%2F00182168-78.3.367&rft.aulast=Tutino&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1215%252F00182168-78.3.367&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMexican+War+of+Independence" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Tutino, John. <i>Mexico City, 1808: Power, Sovereignty, and Silver in an Age of War and Revolution</i>. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 2018.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVan_Young1988" class="citation journal cs1">Van Young, Eric (1988). 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Stanford: Stanford University Press 2001.</li> <li>Van Young, Eric. (2022). <i>Stormy Passage: Mexico from Colony to Republic, 1750–1850</i>. Lanham MD: Rowman and Littlefield 2022. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4422-0901-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4422-0901-5">978-1-4422-0901-5</a></li> <li>Vincent, Theodore G. <i>The Legacy of Vicente Guerrero, First Black Indian President of Mexico</i>. Gainesville: University of Florida Press 2001.</li> <li>Warren, Richard A. <i>Vagrants and citizens: Politics and the Masses in Mexico City from Colony to Republic</i>. Rowman & Littlefield, 2007.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070816133412/http://www.tamu.edu/ccbn/dewitt/chieftains.htm">Chieftains of Mexican Independence</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digital2.library.ucla.edu/viewItem.do?ark=21198/zz002dgbfw">Image of women participating in Mexican Independence Day celebrations, Los Angeles, 1935.</a> Los Angeles Times Photographic Archive (Collection 1429). UCLA Library Special Collections, Charles E. Young Research Library, University of California, Los Angeles.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Mexico_articles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a 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title="Pre-Columbian Mexico">Pre-Columbian era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Spain" title="New Spain">Colonial era</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Mexican_Empire" title="First Mexican Empire">First Mexican Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_America_under_Mexican_rule" title="Central America under Mexican rule">Control of Central America</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Executive_Power" class="mw-redirect" title="Supreme Executive Power">Supreme Executive Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Mexican_Republic" title="First Mexican Republic">First Mexican Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_attempts_to_reconquer_Mexico" title="Spanish attempts to reconquer Mexico">Spanish reconquest attempts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centralist_Republic_of_Mexico" title="Centralist Republic of Mexico">Centralist Republic of Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texas_Revolution" title="Texas Revolution">Texas Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pastry_War" title="Pastry War">Pastry War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican%E2%80%93American_War" title="Mexican–American War">Mexican–American War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Federal_Republic_of_Mexico" title="Second Federal Republic of Mexico">Second Mexican Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/La_Reforma" title="La Reforma">La Reforma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_French_intervention_in_Mexico" title="Second French intervention in Mexico">Second French intervention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Mexican_Empire" title="Second Mexican Empire">Second Mexican Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restored_Republic_(Mexico)" class="mw-redirect" title="Restored Republic (Mexico)">Restored Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caste_War_of_Yucat%C3%A1n" title="Caste War of Yucatán">Caste War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yaqui_Wars" title="Yaqui Wars">Yaqui Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porfiriato" title="Porfiriato">Porfiriato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican_Revolution" title="Mexican Revolution">Mexican Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_involvement_in_the_Mexican_Revolution" title="United States involvement in the Mexican Revolution">Second American intervention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cristero_War" title="Cristero War">Cristero War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maximato" title="Maximato">Maximato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_Revolutionary_Party" title="Institutional Revolutionary Party">Institutional Revolutionary Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexico_during_World_War_II" title="Mexico during World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican_miracle" title="Mexican miracle">Mexican miracle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/La_D%C3%A9cada_Perdida" class="mw-redirect" title="La Década Perdida">Lost Decade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican_peso_crisis" title="Mexican peso crisis">Peso crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chiapas_conflict" title="Chiapas conflict">Chiapas conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican_drug_war" title="Mexican drug war">War on drugs</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Mexico" title="Geography of Mexico">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Borders_of_Mexico" title="Borders of Mexico">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_Mexico" title="List of cities in Mexico">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_of_Mexico" title="Climate of Mexico">Climate</a> (<a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Mexico" title="Climate change in Mexico">Climate change</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_earthquakes_in_Mexico" title="List of earthquakes in Mexico">Earthquakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_Mexico" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental issues in Mexico">Environmental issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_extreme_points_of_Mexico" class="mw-redirect" title="List of extreme points of Mexico">Extreme points</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forests_of_Mexico" title="Forests of Mexico">Forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_Mexico" title="List of islands of Mexico">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lakes_of_Mexico" title="List of lakes of Mexico">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_areas_of_Mexico" title="Metropolitan areas of Mexico">Metropolitan areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountain_peaks_of_Mexico" title="List of mountain peaks of Mexico">Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protected_natural_areas_of_Mexico" title="Protected natural areas of Mexico">Protected natural areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_Mexico" title="List of rivers of Mexico">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_states_of_Mexico" title="List of states of Mexico">States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Municipalities_of_Mexico" title="Municipalities of Mexico">Municipalities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Territories_of_Mexico" title="Territories of Mexico">Territories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Territorial_evolution_of_Mexico" title="Territorial evolution of Mexico">Territorial evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time_in_Mexico" title="Time in Mexico">Time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexico_tropical_cyclone_rainfall_climatology" title="Mexico tropical cyclone rainfall climatology">Tropical cyclone rainfall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_volcanoes_in_Mexico" title="List of volcanoes in Mexico">Volcanos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_resources_in_Mexico" class="mw-redirect" title="Water resources in Mexico">Water resources</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_of_Mexico" title="Wildlife of Mexico">Wildlife</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Mexico" title="Politics of Mexico">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_Mexico" title="Administrative divisions of Mexico">Administrative divisions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_the_Union" title="Congress of the Union">Congress</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Senate_of_the_Republic_(Mexico)" title="Senate of the Republic (Mexico)">Senate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chamber_of_Deputies_(Mexico)" title="Chamber of Deputies (Mexico)">Chamber of Deputies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Mexico" title="Constitution of Mexico">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Mexico" title="Elections in Mexico">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_government_of_Mexico" title="Federal government of Mexico">Federal government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Mexico" title="Foreign relations of Mexico">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican_Armed_Forces" title="Mexican Armed Forces">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_Mexico" title="List of political parties in Mexico">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_Mexico" title="President of Mexico">President</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cabinet_of_Mexico" title="Cabinet of Mexico">Cabinet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Mexican_state_legislatures" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Mexican state legislatures">State legislatures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Justice_of_the_Nation" title="Supreme Court of Justice of the Nation">Supreme Court</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Mexico" title="Law of Mexico">Law</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Mexico" title="Abortion in Mexico">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_consent_in_Mexico" title="Age of consent in Mexico">Age of consent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Mexico" title="Human rights in Mexico">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersex_rights_in_Mexico" title="Intersex rights in Mexico">Intersex rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement_in_Mexico" title="Law enforcement in Mexico">Law enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Mexico" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in Mexico">LGBT rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Same-sex_marriage_in_Mexico" title="Same-sex marriage in Mexico">Same-sex marriage</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Mexico" title="Economy of Mexico">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Mexico" title="Agriculture in Mexico">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automotive_industry_in_Mexico" title="Automotive industry in Mexico">Automotive industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bank_of_Mexico" title="Bank of Mexico">Central bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_companies_of_Mexico" title="List of companies of Mexico">Companies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Mexico" title="Economic history of Mexico">Economic history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_Mexico" title="Energy in Mexico">Energy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Mexico" title="Renewable energy in Mexico">Renewable energy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bolsa_Institucional_de_Valores" title="Bolsa Institucional de Valores">Institutional stock exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irrigation_in_Mexico" title="Irrigation in Mexico">Irrigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican_labor_law" title="Mexican labor law">Labor law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_reform_in_Mexico" title="Land reform in Mexico">Land reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manufacturing_in_Mexico" title="Manufacturing in Mexico">Manufacturing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican_Stock_Exchange" title="Mexican Stock Exchange">National stock exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_American_Free_Trade_Agreement" title="North American Free Trade Agreement">North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_reserves_in_Mexico" title="Oil reserves in Mexico">Oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexico_Pension_Plan" class="mw-redirect" title="Mexico Pension Plan">Pension system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican_peso" title="Mexican peso">Peso <span style="font-size:85%;">(currency)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_industry_in_Mexico" title="Petroleum industry in Mexico">Petroleum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Mexico" title="History of science and technology in Mexico">Science and technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Mexican_states_by_GDP" title="List of Mexican states by GDP">States by GDP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Mexican_states_by_unemployment" title="List of Mexican states by unemployment">States by unemployment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Mexico" class="mw-redirect" title="Telecommunications in Mexico">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Mexico" title="Tourism in Mexico">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transportation_in_Mexico" title="Transportation in Mexico">Transportation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_scarcity_in_Mexico" title="Water scarcity in Mexico">Water scarcity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_Mexico" title="Category:Society of Mexico">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Mexico" title="Corruption in Mexico">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorship_in_Mexico" title="Censorship in Mexico">Censorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Mexico" title="Crime in Mexico">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Mexico" title="Demographics of Mexico">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Mexico" title="Education in Mexico">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Mexican_flags" title="List of Mexican flags">Flags</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_Mexico" title="Healthcare in Mexico">Healthcare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_to_Mexico" title="Immigration to Mexico">Immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Mexican_states_by_life_expectancy" title="List of Mexican states by life expectancy">Life expectancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican_nationality_law" title="Mexican nationality law">Nationality law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexicans" title="Mexicans">People</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Mexico" title="Indigenous peoples of Mexico">Indigenous peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Mexico" title="Women in Mexico">Women</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_Mexico" title="Poverty in Mexico">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_Mexico" title="Public holidays in Mexico">Public holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Mexican_states_by_Human_Development_Index" title="List of Mexican states by Human Development Index">States by HDI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoking_in_Mexico" title="Smoking in Mexico"> Smoking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Mexico" title="Water supply and sanitation in Mexico">Water supply and sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oportunidades" title="Oportunidades">Welfare</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Mexico" title="Culture of Mexico">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Mexico" title="Architecture of Mexico">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican_art" title="Mexican art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_Mexico" title="Cinema of Mexico">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican_cuisine" title="Mexican cuisine">Cuisine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mexican_wine" title="Mexican wine">Wine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folktales_of_Mexico" title="Folktales of Mexico">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican_handcrafts_and_folk_art" title="Mexican handcrafts and folk art">Handcrafts and folk art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Mexico" title="Languages of Mexico">Languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican_literature" title="Mexican literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Monuments_of_Mexico" title="National Monuments of Mexico">Monuments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Mexico" title="Music of Mexico">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_symbols_of_Mexico" title="National symbols of Mexico">National symbols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_in_Mexico" title="Radio in Mexico">Radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Mexico" title="Religion in Mexico">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Our_Lady_of_Guadalupe" title="Our Lady of Guadalupe">Our Lady of Guadalupe</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_Mexico" title="Sport in Mexico">Sports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_in_Mexico" title="Television in Mexico">Television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_Mexico" title="List of World Heritage Sites in Mexico">World Heritage Sites</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div><div style="margin-bottom:-0.4em;"><ul><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Mexico" title="Outline of Mexico">Outline</a></span></li><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Mexico-related_articles" title="Index of Mexico-related articles">Index</a></span></li></ul></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Mexico" title="Category:Mexico">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Mexico" title="Portal:Mexico">Portal</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Spanish_Empire" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Spanish_Empire" title="Template:Spanish Empire"><abbr title="View 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style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Monarchs" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic Monarchs">Catholic Monarchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Spanish colonization of the Americas">Conquest of the Americas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spanish_East_Indies" title="Spanish East Indies">Asia and the Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Tordesillas" title="Treaty of Tordesillas">Treaty of Tordesillas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Wars" title="Italian Wars">Italian Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habsburg_Spain" title="Habsburg Spain">Habsburgs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Golden_Age" title="Spanish Golden Age">Golden Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_League_of_Cognac" title="War of the League of Cognac">War of the League of Cognac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Encomienda" title="Encomienda">Encomiendas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Laws" title="New Laws">New Laws in favour of the indigenous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expulsion_of_the_Moriscos" title="Expulsion of the Moriscos">Expulsion of the Moriscos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman%E2%80%93Habsburg_wars" title="Ottoman–Habsburg wars">Ottoman–Habsburg wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Wars_of_Religion" title="French Wars of Religion">French Wars of Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Castilian_War" title="Castilian War">Bruneian–Spanish conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Spanish_War_(1585%E2%80%931604)" title="Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604)">Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piracy_in_the_Caribbean" title="Piracy in the Caribbean">Piracy in the Caribbean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eighty_Years%27_War" title="Eighty Years' War">Eighty Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93Moro_conflict" title="Spanish–Moro conflict">Spanish–Moro conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franco-Spanish_War_(1635%E2%80%931659)" title="Franco-Spanish War (1635–1659)">Franco-Spanish War (1635–1659)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Restoration_War" title="Portuguese Restoration War">Portuguese Restoration War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Spanish_Succession" title="War of the Spanish Succession">War of the Spanish Succession</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Queen_Anne%27s_War" title="Queen Anne's War">Queen Anne's War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Spain" title="Enlightenment in Spain">Bourbons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bourbon_Reforms" title="Bourbon Reforms">Bourbon Reforms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_Jenkins%27_Ear" title="War of Jenkins' Ear">War of Jenkins' Ear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Madrid_(13_January_1750)" title="Treaty of Madrid (13 January 1750)">Treaty of Madrid (1750)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Years%27_War" title="Seven Years' War">Seven Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nootka_Convention" title="Nootka Convention">Nootka Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peninsular_War" title="Peninsular War">Napoleonic invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Treaty_of_San_Ildefonso" title="Third Treaty of San Ildefonso">Third Treaty of San Ildefonso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_American_wars_of_independence" title="Spanish American wars of independence">Independence of Spanish continental Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adams%E2%80%93On%C3%ADs_Treaty" title="Adams–Onís Treaty">Adams–Onís Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Constitution_of_1812" title="Spanish Constitution of 1812">Liberal constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carlist_Wars" title="Carlist Wars">Carlist Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War" title="Spanish–American War">Spanish–American War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German%E2%80%93Spanish_Treaty_(1899)" title="German–Spanish Treaty (1899)">German–Spanish Treaty (1899)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War" title="Spanish Civil War">Spanish Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Morocco#Independent_Morocco_(since_1956)" title="History of Morocco">Independence of Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Guinea" title="Spanish Guinea">Independence of Equatorial Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Sahara_conflict" title="Western Sahara conflict">Western Sahara conflict</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div id="Territories" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Territories</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Europe" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Europe</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Castille" class="mw-redirect" title="Crown of Castille">Crown of Castille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon" title="Crown of Aragon">Crown of Aragon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iberian_Union" title="Iberian Union">Union with Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gibraltar" title="Gibraltar">Gibraltar</a></li></ul></li> <li>Southern Italy (Kingdoms of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Naples#Aragonese_dynasty" title="Kingdom of Naples">Naples</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sicily#The_insular_kingdom_of_Sicily_under_the_Crown_of_Aragon_and_Spain" title="Kingdom of Sicily">Sicily</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sardinia#Aragonese_period" title="Sardinia">Sardinia</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Milan" title="Duchy of Milan">Milan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor">Union with Holy Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Netherlands" title="Spanish Netherlands">Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, northernmost France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franche-Comt%C3%A9" title="Franche-Comté">Franche-Comté</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Catalonia" title="Northern Catalonia">Pyrénées-Orientales</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="North_America" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">North America</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Spain" title="New Spain">New Spain</a> (<a href="/wiki/Spanish_expeditions_to_the_Pacific_Northwest" title="Spanish expeditions to the Pacific Northwest">Coastal Alaska</a>, Central United States (<a href="/wiki/Louisiana_(New_Spain)" title="Louisiana (New Spain)">Spanish Louisiana</a>), Western United States (<a href="/wiki/Spanish_Texas" title="Spanish Texas">Spanish Texas</a>), <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Florida" title="Spanish Florida">Florida</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Mexico&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kingdom of Mexico (page does not exist)">Mexico</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reino_de_M%C3%A9xico" class="extiw" title="es:Reino de México">es</a>]</span>, Central America (<a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Yucatan" class="mw-redirect" title="Captaincy General of Yucatan">Captaincy General of Yucatan</a>), <a href="/wiki/Spanish_West_Indies" title="Spanish West Indies">Spanish Caribbean</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Central_America" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Central America</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Guatemala" title="Captaincy General of Guatemala">Captaincy General of Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_West_Indies" title="Spanish West Indies">Spanish West Indies</a> (<a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Cuba" title="Captaincy General of Cuba">Cuba</a>, <a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Santo_Domingo" title="Captaincy General of Santo Domingo">Dominican Republic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Puerto_Rico" title="Captaincy General of Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Trinidad_and_Tobago#Spanish_period" title="History of Trinidad and Tobago">Trinidad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Santiago" title="Colony of Santiago">Jamaica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Haiti#Spanish_history_(1492–1625)" title="History of Haiti">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aruba#History" title="Aruba">Aruba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cura%C3%A7ao#History" title="Curaçao">Curazao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bonaire#History" title="Bonaire">Bonaire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Belize_(1506%E2%80%931862)" title="History of Belize (1506–1862)">Belize</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="South_America" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">South America</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_New_Granada" title="Viceroyalty of New Granada">New Granada</a> (<a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Granada" title="New Kingdom of Granada">Colombia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Quito" title="Real Audiencia of Quito">Ecuador</a>, <a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Panama" title="Real Audiencia of Panama">Panama</a>, <a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Venezuela" title="Captaincy General of Venezuela">Venezuela, part of Guyana</a>, a northernmost portion of Brazilian Amazon)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_Peru" title="Viceroyalty of Peru">Peru</a> (Peru, <a href="/wiki/Acre_(state)" title="Acre (state)">Acre</a>, <a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Chile" title="Captaincy General of Chile">Chile</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_the_R%C3%ADo_de_la_Plata" title="Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata">Río de la Plata</a> (<a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_the_R%C3%ADo_de_la_Plata" title="Governorate of the Río de la Plata">Argentina</a>, <a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_Paraguay" title="Governorate of Paraguay">Paraguay</a>, <a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Charcas" title="Real Audiencia of Charcas">Charcas</a> (Bolivia), <a href="/wiki/Banda_Oriental" title="Banda Oriental">Banda Oriental</a> (Uruguay), <a href="/wiki/Misiones_Orientales" title="Misiones Orientales">Misiones Orientales</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Falkland_Islands" title="History of the Falkland Islands">Malvinas</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Asia_and_Oceania_(Spanish_East_Indies)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Asia and Oceania (<a href="/wiki/Spanish_East_Indies" title="Spanish East Indies">Spanish East Indies</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_the_Philippines" title="Captaincy General of the Philippines">Captaincy General of the Philippines</a> (<a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guam" title="Guam">Guam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Northern_Mariana_Islands" title="Northern Mariana Islands">Mariana</a>, <a href="/wiki/Caroline_Islands" title="Caroline Islands">Caroline</a>, <a href="/wiki/Federated_States_of_Micronesia" title="Federated States of Micronesia">Micronesia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Palau" title="Palau">Palau</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Formosa" title="Spanish Formosa">Northern Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidore" title="Tidore">Tidore</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Africa" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Africa</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Guinea" title="Spanish Guinea">Equatorial Guinea</a></li> <li>Northern Africa (<a href="/wiki/Spanish_Sahara" title="Spanish Sahara">Western Sahara</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spanish_protectorate_in_Morocco" title="Spanish protectorate in Morocco">Spanish Morocco</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Tripoli" title="Spanish Tripoli">Tripoli</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tunis#Spanish_occupation_and_Ottoman_control" title="Tunis">Tunis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pe%C3%B1%C3%B3n_of_Algiers" title="Peñón of Algiers">Peñón of Algiers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oran#Spanish_period_(1509–1708,_1732–1792)" title="Oran">Oran</a>, <a href="/wiki/B%C3%A9ja%C3%AFa#Muslim_and_feudal_rulers" title="Béjaïa">Béjaïa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ifni" title="Ifni">Ifni</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cape_Juby" title="Cape Juby">Cape Juby</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Antarctica" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Antarctica</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Terra_Australis,_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Terra Australis, Spain">Terra Australis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div id="Administration" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Administration</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;">Organization</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ayuntamiento" title="Ayuntamiento">Ayuntamiento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cabildo_(council)" title="Cabildo (council)">Cabildo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_the_Indies" title="Council of the Indies">Council of the Indies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germania_(guild)" title="Germania (guild)">Germania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santa_Hermandad" title="Santa Hermandad">Santa Hermandad</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;">Law</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Exequatur" title="Exequatur">Exequatur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laws_of_the_Indies" title="Laws of the Indies">Laws of the Indies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_bull" title="Papal bull">Papal bull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Decree_of_Graces_of_1815" title="Royal Decree of Graces of 1815">Royal Decree of Graces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Salamanca" title="School of Salamanca">School of Salamanca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trial_of_residence" title="Trial of residence">Trial of residence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;">Titles and positions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alcalde" title="Alcalde">Alcalde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corregidor_(position)" title="Corregidor (position)">Corregidor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipal_president" title="Municipal president">Municipal president</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regidor" title="Regidor">Regidor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syndic" title="Syndic">Syndic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vecino" title="Vecino">Vecino</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div id="Administrative_subdivisions" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Administrative subdivisions</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;"><a href="/wiki/Viceroy#In_the_Americas" title="Viceroy">Viceroyalties</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Columbian_Viceroyalty" title="Columbian Viceroyalty">Columbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_New_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Viceroyalty of New Spain">New Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_New_Granada" title="Viceroyalty of New Granada">New Granada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_Peru" title="Viceroyalty of Peru">Perú</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_the_R%C3%ADo_de_la_Plata" title="Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata">Río de la Plata</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;"><a href="/wiki/Captaincies_of_the_Spanish_Empire" title="Captaincies of the Spanish Empire">Captaincies General</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Chile" title="Captaincy General of Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Cuba" title="Captaincy General of Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Guatemala" title="Captaincy General of Guatemala">Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_the_Philippines" title="Captaincy General of the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provincias_Internas" title="Provincias Internas">Provincias Internas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Puerto_Rico" title="Captaincy General of Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Santo_Domingo" title="Captaincy General of Santo Domingo">Santo Domingo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Venezuela" title="Captaincy General of Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Yucat%C3%A1n" title="Captaincy General of Yucatán">Yucatán</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;"><a href="/wiki/Governorates_of_the_Spanish_Empire" title="Governorates of the Spanish Empire">Governorates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Castilla_de_Oro" title="Castilla de Oro">Castilla de Oro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_Cuba" title="Governorate of Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Florida" title="Spanish Florida">La Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_(New_Spain)" title="Louisiana (New Spain)">La Luisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_New_Andalusia_(1501%E2%80%931513)" title="Governorate of New Andalusia (1501–1513)">New Andalusia (1501–1513)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_New_Andalusia" title="Governorate of New Andalusia">New Andalusia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_New_Castile" title="Governorate of New Castile">New Castile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Navarre" title="New Navarre">New Navarre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Spain" title="New Spain">New Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_New_Toledo" title="Governorate of New Toledo">New Toledo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_Paraguay" title="Governorate of Paraguay">Paraguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_the_R%C3%ADo_de_la_Plata" title="Governorate of the Río de la Plata">Río de la Plata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_Terra_Australis" title="Governorate of Terra Australis">Terra Australis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;"><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia" title="Real Audiencia">Audiencias</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Granada" title="New Kingdom of Granada">Bogotá</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Audiencia_of_Buenos_Aires" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Audiencia of Buenos Aires">Buenos Aires</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Venezuela" title="Captaincy General of Venezuela">Caracas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Charcas" title="Real Audiencia of Charcas">Charcas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Concepci%C3%B3n" title="Real Audiencia of Concepción">Concepción</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Cusco" class="mw-redirect" title="Real Audiencia of Cusco">Cusco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Audiencia_of_Guadalajara" title="Royal Audiencia of Guadalajara">Guadalajara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Guatemala" title="Real Audiencia of Guatemala">Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Lima" title="Real Audiencia of Lima">Lima</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Manila" title="Real Audiencia of Manila">Manila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Audiencia_of_Mexico" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Audiencia of Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Panama" title="Real Audiencia of Panama">Panamá</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Quito" title="Real Audiencia of Quito">Quito</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Santiago" title="Real Audiencia of Santiago">Santiago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Santo_Domingo" title="Real Audiencia of Santo Domingo">Santo Domingo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div id="Economy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Economy</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Currency_of_Spanish_America" title="Currency of Spanish America">Currencies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_dollar" title="Spanish dollar">Dollar (Peso)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_colonial_real" title="Spanish colonial real">Real</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maraved%C3%AD" title="Maravedí">Maravedí</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_escudo" title="Spanish escudo">Escudo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columnarios" class="mw-redirect" title="Columnarios">Columnario</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doubloon" title="Doubloon">Doubloon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Trade</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Manila_galleon" title="Manila galleon">Manila galleon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_treasure_fleet" title="Spanish treasure fleet">Spanish treasure fleet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casa_de_Contrataci%C3%B3n" title="Casa de Contratación">Casa de Contratación</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Road" title="Spanish Road">Spanish Road</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guipuzcoan_Company_of_Caracas" title="Guipuzcoan Company of Caracas">Guipuzcoan Company of Caracas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barcelona_Trading_Company" title="Barcelona Trading Company">Barcelona Trading Company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consulate_of_the_Sea" title="Consulate of the Sea">Consulate of the Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camino_Real_de_Tierra_Adentro" title="Camino Real de Tierra Adentro">Camino Real de Tierra Adentro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commerce_Consulate_of_Buenos_Aires" title="Commerce Consulate of Buenos Aires">Commerce Consulate of Buenos Aires</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div id="Military" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Military</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;">Armies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tercio" title="Tercio">Tercio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Army_of_Flanders" title="Army of Flanders">Army of Flanders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Company_of_Volunteers_of_Catalonia" title="Free Company of Volunteers of Catalonia">Free Company of Volunteers of Catalonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_auxiliaries" title="Indian auxiliaries">Indian auxiliaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Armada" title="Spanish Armada">Spanish Armada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ships_of_the_line_of_Spain" title="List of ships of the line of Spain">Ships of the line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royalist_(Spanish_American_independence)" title="Royalist (Spanish American independence)">Royalists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Legion" title="Spanish Legion">Legión</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Army_of_Africa_(Spain)" title="Army of Africa (Spain)">Army of Africa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;">Strategists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fernando_%C3%81lvarez_de_Toledo,_3rd_Duke_of_Alba" title="Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba">Duke of Alba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_de_Leyva,_Duke_of_Terranova" title="Antonio de Leyva, Duke of Terranova">Antonio de Leyva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mart%C3%ADn_de_Goiti" title="Martín de Goiti">Martín de Goiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfonso_d%27Avalos" title="Alfonso d'Avalos">Alfonso d'Avalos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garc%C3%ADa_de_Toledo_Osorio,_4th_Marquis_of_Villafranca" class="mw-redirect" title="García de Toledo Osorio, 4th Marquis of Villafranca">García de Toledo Osorio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Philibert,_Duke_of_Savoy" title="Emmanuel Philibert, Duke of Savoy">Duke of Savoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%81lvaro_de_Baz%C3%A1n_the_Elder" title="Álvaro de Bazán the Elder">Álvaro de Bazán the Elder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_of_Austria" title="John of Austria">John of Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Bonaventure_de_Longueval,_Count_of_Bucquoy" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles Bonaventure de Longueval, Count of Bucquoy">Charles Bonaventure de Longueval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedro_de_Zubiaur" title="Pedro de Zubiaur">Pedro de Zubiaur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambrogio_Spinola,_1st_Marquis_of_the_Balbases" class="mw-redirect" title="Ambrogio Spinola, 1st Marquis of the Balbases">Ambrosio Spinola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blas_de_Lezo" title="Blas de Lezo">Blas de Lezo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernardo_de_G%C3%A1lvez" title="Bernardo de Gálvez">Bernardo de Gálvez</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;">Mariners</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Columbus" title="Christopher Columbus">Christopher Columbus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinz%C3%B3n_brothers" title="Pinzón brothers">Pinzón brothers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_Magellan" title="Ferdinand Magellan">Ferdinand Magellan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Sebasti%C3%A1n_Elcano" title="Juan Sebastián Elcano">Juan Sebastián Elcano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_de_la_Cosa" title="Juan de la Cosa">Juan de la Cosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Ponce_de_Le%C3%B3n" title="Juan Ponce de León">Juan Ponce de León</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miguel_L%C3%B3pez_de_Legazpi" title="Miguel López de Legazpi">Miguel López de Legazpi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedro_Men%C3%A9ndez_de_Avil%C3%A9s" title="Pedro Menéndez de Avilés">Pedro Menéndez de Avilés</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sebasti%C3%A1n_de_Ocampo" title="Sebastián de Ocampo">Sebastián de Ocampo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%81lvar_N%C3%BA%C3%B1ez_Cabeza_de_Vaca" title="Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca">Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alonso_de_Ojeda" title="Alonso de Ojeda">Alonso de Ojeda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasco_N%C3%BA%C3%B1ez_de_Balboa" title="Vasco Núñez de Balboa">Vasco Núñez de Balboa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alonso_de_Salazar" title="Alonso de Salazar">Alonso de Salazar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9s_de_Urdaneta" title="Andrés de Urdaneta">Andrés de Urdaneta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_de_Ulloa" title="Antonio de Ulloa">Antonio de Ulloa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruy_L%C3%B3pez_de_Villalobos" title="Ruy López de Villalobos">Ruy López de Villalobos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diego_Columbus" title="Diego Columbus">Diego Columbus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alonso_de_Ercilla" title="Alonso de Ercilla">Alonso de Ercilla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicol%C3%A1s_de_Ovando" title="Nicolás de Ovando">Nicolás de Ovando</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_de_Ayala" title="Juan de Ayala">Juan de Ayala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sebasti%C3%A1n_Vizca%C3%ADno" title="Sebastián Vizcaíno">Sebastián Vizcaíno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Fern%C3%A1ndez_(explorer)" title="Juan Fernández (explorer)">Juan Fernández</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luis_Fajardo_y_Ru%C3%ADz_de_Avenda%C3%B1o" class="mw-redirect" title="Luis Fajardo y Ruíz de Avendaño">Luis Fajardo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Felipe_Gonz%C3%A1lez_de_Ahedo" title="Felipe González de Ahedo">Felipe González de Ahedo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;"><a href="/wiki/Conquistador" title="Conquistador">Conquistadors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hern%C3%A1n_Cort%C3%A9s" title="Hernán Cortés">Hernán Cortés</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Pizarro" title="Francisco Pizarro">Francisco Pizarro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gonzalo_Jim%C3%A9nez_de_Quesada" title="Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada">Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hern%C3%A1n_P%C3%A9rez_de_Quesada" title="Hernán Pérez de Quesada">Hernán Pérez de Quesada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_V%C3%A1zquez_de_Coronado" title="Francisco Vázquez de Coronado">Francisco Vázquez de Coronado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diego_Vel%C3%A1zquez_de_Cu%C3%A9llar" title="Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar">Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedro_de_Valdivia" title="Pedro de Valdivia">Pedro de Valdivia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaspar_de_Portol%C3%A0" class="mw-redirect" title="Gaspar de Portolà">Gaspar de Portolà</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pere_Fages_i_Beleta" class="mw-redirect" title="Pere Fages i Beleta">Pere Fages i Beleta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joan_Orp%C3%AD" title="Joan Orpí">Joan Orpí</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedro_de_Alvarado" title="Pedro de Alvarado">Pedro de Alvarado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mart%C3%ADn_de_Urs%C3%BAa" title="Martín de Ursúa">Martín de Ursúa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diego_de_Almagro" title="Diego de Almagro">Diego de Almagro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P%C3%A1nfilo_de_Narv%C3%A1ez" title="Pánfilo de Narváez">Pánfilo de Narváez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diego_de_Mazariegos" title="Diego de Mazariegos">Diego de Mazariegos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jer%C3%B3nimo_Luis_de_Cabrera" title="Jerónimo Luis de Cabrera">Jerónimo Luis de Cabrera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pere_d%27Albern%C3%AD_i_Teixidor" class="mw-redirect" title="Pere d'Alberní i Teixidor">Pere d'Alberní i Teixidor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garc%C3%ADa_L%C3%B3pez_de_C%C3%A1rdenas" title="García López de Cárdenas">García López de Cárdenas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;">Notable battles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Old World</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Won</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Revolt_of_the_Comuneros" title="Revolt of the Comuneros">Comuneros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bicocca" title="Battle of Bicocca">Bicocca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Rome_(1527)" title="Sack of Rome (1527)">Rome (1527)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Landriano" title="Battle of Landriano">Landriano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pavia" title="Battle of Pavia">Pavia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Tunis_(1535)" title="Conquest of Tunis (1535)">Tunis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_M%C3%BChlberg" title="Battle of Mühlberg">Mühlberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_St._Quentin_(1557)" title="Battle of St. Quentin (1557)">St. Quentin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gravelines_(1558)" title="Battle of Gravelines (1558)">Gravelines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Siege_of_Malta" title="Great Siege of Malta">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lepanto" title="Battle of Lepanto">Lepanto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Antwerp" title="Fall of Antwerp">Antwerp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ponta_Delgada" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Ponta Delgada">Azores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Mons_(1572)" title="Siege of Mons (1572)">Mons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gembloux_(1578)" title="Battle of Gembloux (1578)">Gembloux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Ostend" title="Siege of Ostend">Ostend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_Armada" title="English Armada">English Armada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cape_Celidonia" title="Battle of Cape Celidonia">Cape Celidonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_White_Mountain" title="Battle of White Mountain">White Mountain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Breda_(1624)" title="Siege of Breda (1624)">Breda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_N%C3%B6rdlingen_(1634)" title="Battle of Nördlingen (1634)">Nördlingen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Valenciennes_(1656)" title="Battle of Valenciennes (1656)">Valenciennes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sieges_of_Ceuta_(1694%E2%80%931727)" title="Sieges of Ceuta (1694–1727)">Ceuta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bitonto" title="Battle of Bitonto">Bitonto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bail%C3%A9n" title="Battle of Bailén">Bailén</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Vitoria" title="Battle of Vitoria">Vitoria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_T%C3%A9touan" title="Battle of Tétouan">Tetouan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alhucemas_landing" title="Alhucemas landing">Alhucemas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lost</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Capo_d%27Orso" title="Battle of Capo d'Orso">Capo d'Orso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Vienna_(1529)" title="Siege of Vienna (1529)">Vienna (1529)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Preveza" title="Battle of Preveza">Preveza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Castelnuovo" title="Siege of Castelnuovo">Siege of Castelnuovo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algiers_expedition_(1541)" title="Algiers expedition (1541)">Algiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ceresole" title="Battle of Ceresole">Ceresole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_invasion_of_the_Balearic_Islands_(1558)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman invasion of the Balearic Islands (1558)">Balearic Islands (1558)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Djerba" title="Battle of Djerba">Djerba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Tunis_(1574)" title="Conquest of Tunis (1574)">Tunis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Armada" title="Spanish Armada">Spanish Armada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Leiden" title="Siege of Leiden">Leiden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Rocroi" title="Battle of Rocroi">Rocroi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Downs" title="Battle of the Downs">Downs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Montes_Claros" title="Battle of Montes Claros">Montes Claros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cape_Passaro" title="Battle of Cape Passaro">Passaro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Manila_Bay" title="Battle of Manila Bay">Manila Bay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Trafalgar" title="Battle of Trafalgar">Trafalgar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Somosierra" title="Battle of Somosierra">Somosierra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Annual" title="Battle of Annual">Annual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mactan" title="Battle of Mactan">Mactan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">New World</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Won</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Tenochtitlan" title="Fall of Tenochtitlan">Tenochtitlan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cajamarca" title="Battle of Cajamarca">Cajamarca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Cusco" title="Siege of Cusco">Cusco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Muisca" title="Spanish conquest of the Muisca">Bogotá savanna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Penco" title="Battle of Penco">Penco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mataquito" title="Battle of Mataquito">Mataquito</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Guadalupe_Island_(1595)" title="Battle of Guadalupe Island (1595)">Guadalupe Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Recife_(1595)" title="Capture of Recife (1595)">Recife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_San_Juan_(1595)" title="Battle of San Juan (1595)">San Juan (1595)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recapture_of_Bahia" title="Recapture of Bahia">Bahia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Colonia_del_Sacramento" title="Siege of Colonia del Sacramento">Colonia del Sacramento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolt_of_the_Comuneros_(Paraguay)" title="Revolt of the Comuneros (Paraguay)">Comuneros (Paraguay)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cartagena_de_Indias" title="Battle of Cartagena de Indias">Cartagena de Indias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuerno_Verde" title="Cuerno Verde">Cuerno Verde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebellion_of_T%C3%BApac_Amaru_II" title="Rebellion of Túpac Amaru II">Túpac Amaru II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%BApac_Katari" title="Túpac Katari">Túpac Katari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Pensacola" title="Siege of Pensacola">Pensacola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newfoundland_expedition" title="Newfoundland expedition">Newfoundland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_San_Juan_(1797)" title="Battle of San Juan (1797)">San Juan (1797)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lost</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/La_Noche_Triste" title="La Noche Triste">La Noche Triste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iguape_War" title="Iguape War">Iguape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tucapel" title="Battle of Tucapel">Tucapel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raleigh%27s_El_Dorado_Expedition" class="mw-redirect" title="Raleigh's El Dorado Expedition">Guiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Curalaba" title="Battle of Curalaba">Curalaba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolt_of_the_Comuneros_(New_Granada)" title="Revolt of the Comuneros (New Granada)">Comuneros (New Granada)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Trinidad_(1797)" title="Invasion of Trinidad (1797)">Trinidad (1797)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chacabuco" title="Battle of Chacabuco">Chacabuco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Boyac%C3%A1" title="Battle of Boyacá">Boyacá</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Carabobo" title="Battle of Carabobo">Carabobo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pichincha" title="Battle of Pichincha">Pichincha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ayacucho" title="Battle of Ayacucho">Ayacucho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Guam" title="Capture of Guam">Guam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Santiago_de_Cuba" title="Battle of Santiago de Cuba">Santiago de Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puerto_Rican_Campaign#Battle_of_Asomante" class="mw-redirect" title="Puerto Rican Campaign">Asomante</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div id="Spanish_conquests" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Spanish conquests</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_the_Canary_Islands" title="Conquest of the Canary Islands">Canary Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Spanish colonization of the Americas">The Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Aztec_Empire" title="Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Maya" title="Spanish conquest of the Maya">Maya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Chiapas" title="Spanish conquest of Chiapas">Chiapas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Yucat%C3%A1n" title="Spanish conquest of Yucatán">Yucatán</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Guatemala" title="Spanish conquest of Guatemala">Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Pet%C3%A9n" title="Spanish conquest of Petén">Petén</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_El_Salvador" title="Spanish conquest of El Salvador">El Salvador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Honduras" title="Spanish conquest of Honduras">Honduras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Nicaragua" title="Spanish conquest of Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Chibchan_Nations" class="mw-redirect" title="Spanish conquest of the Chibchan Nations">Chibchan Nations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Muisca" title="Spanish conquest of the Muisca">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Chile" title="Conquest of Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Inca_Empire" title="Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire">Inca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Philippines_(1521%E2%80%931898)#Spanish_expeditions_and_colonization" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Philippines (1521–1898)">Philippines</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" 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