Earth's Atmosphere | Earth Science

<!DOCTYPE html> <html lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head>  <meta http-equiv="X-UA-Compatible" content="ie=edge"> <meta charset="utf-8"> <base href="https://www.visionlearning.com"> <title>Earth's Atmosphere | Earth Science | Visionlearning</title> <link rel="canonical" href="https://www.visionlearning.com/en/library/Earth-Science/6/Composition-of-Earths-Atmosphere/107"> <meta name="description" content="Learn about the composition and structure of Earth's atmosphere. Includes a discussion of the ways in which atmospheric temperature and pressure are measured."> <meta name="keywords" content="composition of earth's atmosphere, temperature and pressure change with altitude, how altitude effects temperature, gases in the atmosphere"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1.0, shrink-to-fit=no"> <meta name="msvalidate.01" content="D8E20F39AD48052260032E56DE409970"> <script type="application/ld+json"> { "@context": "http://schema.org/", "@type": "Article", "mainEntityOfPage": { "@type": "WebPage", "@id": "https://visionlearning.com/en/library/Earth-Science/6/Composition-of-Earths-Atmosphere/107" }, "name": "Earth's Atmosphere", "headline": "Earth's Atmosphere: Composition, temperature, and pressure", "author": { "@type": "Person", "name": "Anne E. Egger, Ph.D." }, "datePublished": "2003-10-31 15:53:47", "dateModified": "2017-02-12T08:30:00+05:00", "image": { "@type": "ImageObject", "url": "/img/library/moduleImages/featured_image_107-23061209065920.jpeg", "width": 696, "height": 464 }, "publisher": { "@type": "Organization", "name": "Visionlearning, Inc.", "logo": { "@type": "ImageObject", "url": "http://visionlearning.com/images/logo.png", "width": 278, "height": 60 } }, "description": "Earth's atmosphere contains many components that can be measured in different ways. This module describes these different components and shows how temperature and pressure change with altitude. The scientific developments that led to an understanding of these concepts are discussed.", "keywords": "composition of earth's atmosphere, temperature and pressure change with altitude, how altitude effects temperature, gases in the atmosphere", "inLanguage": { "@type": "Language", "name": "English", "alternateName": "en" }, "copyrightHolder": { "@type": "Organization", "name": "Visionlearning, Inc." }, "copyrightYear": "2003"} </script> <meta property="og:url" content="https://visionlearning.com/en/library/Earth-Science/6/Composition-of-Earths-Atmosphere/107"> <meta property="og:title" content="Earth's Atmosphere | Earth Science | Visionlearning" /> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <meta property="og:site_name" content="Visionlearning"> <meta property="og:description" content="Learn about the composition and structure of Earth's atmosphere. 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Periodic Table of Elements II</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/chemistry/1/the-periodic-table-of-elements-iii/297">The Periodic Table of Elements III</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/chemistry/1/the-periodic-table-of-elements-iv/298">The Periodic Table of Elements IV</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/chemistry/1/the-periodic-table-of-elements-v/299">The Periodic Table of Elements V</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/chemistry/1/atomic-theory-i/50">Atomic Theory I</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/chemistry/1/atomic-theory-ii/51">Atomic Theory II</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/chemistry/1/atomic-theory-iii/223">Atomic Theory III</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/chemistry/1/atomic-theory-iv/231">Atomic Theory IV</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/chemistry/1/the-mole-and-atomic-mass/53">The Mole and Atomic Mass</a></li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-physical-states-and-properties" data-accordion="button" 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<span class="accordion__button__label"> Earth Science </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-earth-science" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-earth-science" role="region"> <div class="accordion accordion--secondary"> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-plate-tectonics" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-plate-tectonics" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Plate Tectonics </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-plate-tectonics" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-plate-tectonics" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/earth-science/6/origins-of-plate-tectonic-theory/65">Origins of Plate Tectonic Theory</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/earth-science/6/plate-boundaries/66">Plate Boundaries</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/earth-science/6/earth-structure/69">Earth Structure</a></li> </ul> </div> <button 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aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Rocks and Minerals </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-rocks-and-minerals" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-rocks-and-minerals" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/earth-science/6/defining-minerals/119">Defining Minerals</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/earth-science/6/identifying-minerals/130">Identifying Minerals</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/earth-science/6/the-silicate-minerals/140">The Silicate Minerals</a></li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-atmosphere-and-oceans" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-atmosphere-and-oceans" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Atmosphere and Oceans </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-atmosphere-and-oceans" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-atmosphere-and-oceans" role="region"> <ul class="nav 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id="acc-panel-hazards" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-hazards" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/earth-science/6/natural-hazards-and-risk/288">Natural Hazards and Risk</a></li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-earth-history" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-earth-history" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Earth History </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-earth-history" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-earth-history" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/earth-science/6/extinction/295">Extinction</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/earth-science/6/mass-extinctions/294">Mass Extinctions</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-environmental-science" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-environmental-science" 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href="/en/library/environmental-science/61/population-biology/287">Population Biology</a></li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-earth-cycles" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-earth-cycles" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Earth Cycles </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-earth-cycles" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-earth-cycles" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/environmental-science/61/the-nitrogen-cycle/98">The Nitrogen Cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/environmental-science/61/the-carbon-cycle/95">The Carbon Cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/environmental-science/61/the-phosphorus-cycle/197">The Phosphorus Cycle</a></li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-scientific-research" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-scientific-research" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Scientific Research </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-scientific-research" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-scientific-research" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/environmental-science/61/collaborative-research-in-the-arctic-towards-understanding-climate-change/183">Collaborative Research in the Arctic Towards Understanding Climate Change</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/environmental-science/61/atmospheric-chemistry-research-that-changed-global-policy/211">Atmospheric Chemistry Research that Changed Global Policy</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-general-science" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-general-science" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> General Science </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-general-science" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-general-science" role="region"> <div class="accordion accordion--secondary"> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-methods" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-methods" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Methods </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-methods" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-methods" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/general-science/3/the-scientific-method/45">The Scientific Method</a></li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-measurement" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-measurement" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Measurement </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-measurement" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-measurement" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/general-science/3/the-metric-system/47">The Metric System</a></li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-physical-properties" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-physical-properties" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Physical Properties </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-physical-properties" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-physical-properties" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/general-science/3/temperature/48">Temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/general-science/3/density-and-buoyancy/37">Density and Buoyancy</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-math-in-science" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-math-in-science" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Math in Science </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-math-in-science" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-math-in-science" role="region"> <div class="accordion accordion--secondary"> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-equations" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-equations" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Equations </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-equations" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-equations" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/math-in-science/62/unit-conversion/144">Unit Conversion</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/math-in-science/62/linear-equations/194">Linear Equations</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/math-in-science/62/exponential-equations-i/206">Exponential Equations I</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/math-in-science/62/exponential-equations-ii/210">Exponential Equations II</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/math-in-science/62/scientific-notation/250">Scientific Notation</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/math-in-science/62/measurement/257">Measurement</a></li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-statistics" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-statistics" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Statistics </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-statistics" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-statistics" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/math-in-science/62/introduction-to-descriptive-statistics/218">Introduction to Descriptive Statistics</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/math-in-science/62/introduction-to-inferential-statistics/224">Introduction to Inferential Statistics</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/math-in-science/62/statistical-techniques/239">Statistical Techniques</a></li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-trigonometric-functions" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-trigonometric-functions" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Trigonometric Functions </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-trigonometric-functions" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-trigonometric-functions" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/math-in-science/62/wave-mathematics/131">Wave Mathematics</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-physics" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-physics" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Physics </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-physics" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-physics" role="region"> <div class="accordion accordion--secondary"> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-light-and-optics" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-light-and-optics" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Light and Optics </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-light-and-optics" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-light-and-optics" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/physics/24/the-nature-of-light/132">The Nature of Light</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/physics/24/electromagnetism-and-light/138">Electromagnetism and Light</a></li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-mechanics" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-mechanics" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Mechanics </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-mechanics" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-mechanics" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/physics/24/defining-energy/199">Defining Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/physics/24/waves-and-wave-motion/102">Waves and Wave Motion</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/physics/24/gravity/118">Gravity</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/physics/24/thermodynamics-i/200">Thermodynamics I</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-process-of-science" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-process-of-science" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Process of Science </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-process-of-science" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-process-of-science" role="region"> <div class="accordion accordion--secondary"> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-introduction" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-introduction" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Introduction </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-introduction" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-introduction" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/the-process-of-science/176">The Process of Science</a></li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-the-culture-of-science" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-the-culture-of-science" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> The Culture of Science </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-the-culture-of-science" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-the-culture-of-science" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/the-nature-of-scientific-knowledge/185">The Nature of Scientific Knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/scientists-and-the-scientific-community/172">Scientists and the Scientific Community</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/scientific-ethics/161">Scientific Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/scientific-institutions-and-societies/162">Scientific Institutions and Societies</a></li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-ideas-in-science" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-ideas-in-science" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Ideas in Science </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-ideas-in-science" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-ideas-in-science" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/theories-hypotheses-and-laws/177">Theories, Hypotheses, and Laws</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/scientific-controversy/181">Scientific Controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/creativity-in-science/182">Creativity in Science</a></li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-research-methods" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-research-methods" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Research Methods </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-research-methods" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-research-methods" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/the-practice-of-science/148">The Practice of Science</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/experimentation-in-scientific-research/150">Experimentation in Scientific Research</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/description-in-scientific-research/151">Description in Scientific Research</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/comparison-in-scientific-research/152">Comparison in Scientific Research</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/modeling-in-scientific-research/153">Modeling in Scientific Research</a></li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-data" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-data" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Data </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-data" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-data" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/data-analysis-and-interpretation/154">Data Analysis and Interpretation</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/uncertainty-error-and-confidence/157">Uncertainty, Error, and Confidence</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/statistics-in-science/155">Statistics in Science</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/using-graphs-and-visual-data-in-science/156">Using Graphs and Visual Data in Science</a></li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-scientific-communication" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-scientific-communication" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Scientific Communication </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-scientific-communication" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-scientific-communication" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/understanding-scientific-journals-and-articles/158">Understanding Scientific Journals and Articles</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/utilizing-the-scientific-literature/173">Utilizing the Scientific Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/peer-review-in-scientific-publishing/159">Peer Review in Scientific Publishing</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/the-how-and-why-of-scientific-meetings/186">The How and Why of Scientific Meetings</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-scientists-and-research" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-scientists-and-research" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Scientists and Research </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-scientists-and-research" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-scientists-and-research" role="region"> <div class="accordion accordion--secondary"> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-scientific-research" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-scientific-research" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Scientific Research </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-scientific-research" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-scientific-research" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/collaborative-research-in-the-arctic-towards-understanding-climate-change/183">Collaborative Research in the Arctic Towards Understanding Climate Change</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/from-stable-chromosomes-to-jumping-genes/184">From Stable Chromosomes to Jumping Genes</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/an-elegant-experiment-to-test-the-process-of-dna-replication/187">An Elegant Experiment to Test the Process of DNA Replication</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/the-founding-of-neuroscience/233">The Founding of Neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/tracking-endangered-jaguars-across-the-border/189">Tracking Endangered Jaguars across the Border</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/atmospheric-chemistry-research-that-changed-global-policy/211">Atmospheric Chemistry Research that Changed Global Policy</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/revolutionizing-medicine-with-monoclonal-antibodies/220">Revolutionizing Medicine with Monoclonal Antibodies</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/uncovering-the-mysteries-of-chronic-mountain-sickness/238">Uncovering the Mysteries of Chronic Mountain Sickness</a></li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-profiles-in-science" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-profiles-in-science" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Profiles in Science </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-profiles-in-science" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-profiles-in-science" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/luis-e.-miramontes/232">Luis E. Miramontes</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/bernardo-houssay/237">Bernardo Houssay</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/craig-lee/256">Craig Lee</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/david-ho/241">David Ho</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/louis-tompkins-wright/244">Louis Tompkins Wright</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/carlos-j.-finlay/217">Carlos J. Finlay</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/cecilia-payne/290">Cecilia Payne</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/jazmin-scarlett/291">Jazmin Scarlett</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/ramari-stewart/292">Ramari Stewart</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/johnson-cerda/300">Johnson Cerda</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/ellen-ochoa/201">Ellen Ochoa</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/ruth-benerito/205">Ruth Benerito</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/franklin-chang-díaz/219">Franklin Chang Díaz</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/percy-lavon-julian/221">Percy Lavon Julian</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/luis-walter-alvarez/229">Luis Walter Alvarez</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/france-anne-dominic-córdova/230">France Anne-Dominic Córdova</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </li> <li>  <button class="button" data-toggle="dropdown">Earth Science </button> <div class="nav__dropdown box-shadow-1 padding-1"> <div class="accordion accordion--secondary font-size-sm"> <div class="accordion accordion--secondary"> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-sub-button-plate-tectonics" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-sub-panel-plate-tectonics" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Plate Tectonics </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-sub-panel-plate-tectonics" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-sub-button-plate-tectonics" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/earth-science/6/origins-of-plate-tectonic-theory/65">Origins of Plate Tectonic Theory</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/earth-science/6/plate-boundaries/66">Plate Boundaries</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/earth-science/6/earth-structure/69">Earth Structure</a></li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-sub-button-earth-cycles" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-sub-panel-earth-cycles" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Earth Cycles </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-sub-panel-earth-cycles" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-sub-button-earth-cycles" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/earth-science/6/the-rock-cycle/128">The Rock Cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/earth-science/6/the-hydrologic-cycle/99">The Hydrologic Cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/earth-science/6/the-carbon-cycle/95">The Carbon Cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/earth-science/6/the-nitrogen-cycle/98">The Nitrogen Cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/earth-science/6/the-phosphorus-cycle/197">The Phosphorus Cycle</a></li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-sub-button-rocks-and-minerals" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-sub-panel-rocks-and-minerals" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Rocks and Minerals </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-sub-panel-rocks-and-minerals" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-sub-button-rocks-and-minerals" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/earth-science/6/defining-minerals/119">Defining Minerals</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/earth-science/6/identifying-minerals/130">Identifying Minerals</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/earth-science/6/the-silicate-minerals/140">The Silicate Minerals</a></li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-sub-button-atmosphere-and-oceans" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-sub-panel-atmosphere-and-oceans" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Atmosphere and Oceans </span> </button> <div 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data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-sub-panel-hazards" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Hazards </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-sub-panel-hazards" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-sub-button-hazards" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/earth-science/6/natural-hazards-and-risk/288">Natural Hazards and Risk</a></li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-sub-button-earth-history" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-sub-panel-earth-history" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Earth History </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-sub-panel-earth-history" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-sub-button-earth-history" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/earth-science/6/extinction/295">Extinction</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/earth-science/6/mass-extinctions/294">Mass Extinctions</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </li> </ul> </nav>  <div id="theTop"></div> <main id="skip-header-content"> <div class="margin-bottom-5"> <article class="container wide module"> <header class="grid grid--sidebar-right module__header"> <div class="module__header__title"> <span class="subcategory"> <strong><em>Atmosphere and Oceans</em></strong> </span> <h1>Earth's Atmosphere: <sub><em>Composition, temperature, and pressure</em></sub></h1> <p class="byline">by Anne E. Egger, Ph.D.</p> <nav class="module__header__tabs"> <ul class="tabs-nav tabs-nav--horizontal library"> <li> <a href="/en/library/Earth-Science/6/Composition-of-Earths-Atmosphere/107/reading" aria-current="page" >Reading</a> </li> <li> <a href="/en/library/Earth-Science/6/Composition-of-Earths-Atmosphere/107/quiz">Quiz</a> </li> <li> <a href="/en/library/Earth-Science/6/Composition-of-Earths-Atmosphere/107/resources">Teach with this</a> </li> </ul> </nav> </div> <script type="application/ld+json"> { "@context": "http://schema.org", "@type": "AudioObject", "contentUrl": "https://www.visionlearning.com/img/library/moduleAudio/module_107.mp3", "description": "Recording of Earth's Atmosphere : Earth's atmosphere contains many components that can be measured in different ways. This module describes these different components and shows how temperature and pressure change with altitude. The scientific developments that led to an understanding of these concepts are discussed.", "encodingFormat": "mp3", "name": "module_107.mp3" } </script> <div class="module_header_audio"> <div class="audio-player border border-radius"> <audio id="audio"> <source src="https://www.visionlearning.com/img/library/moduleAudio/module_107.mp3" type="audio/mpeg"> Your browser does not support the audio element. </audio> <div class="audio-player__title"> <p>Listen to this reading</p> <span class="audio-player__timestamp" id="timestamp"> 00:00 </span> </div> <div class="audio-player__controls" id="controls"> <button class="button button--icon-only" id="play-pause-button"> <span class="icon icon-play" aria-hidden="true"></span> </button> <div class="audio-player__progress" id="progress-bar" tabindex="0" aria-valuemin="0" aria-valuemax="100" aria-valuenow="0" aria-label="Use arrow keys to forward or rewind the audio" role="slider"> <div class="audio-player__progress__fill"> <span class="audio-player__thumb"></span> </div> </div> <div class="audio-player__volume-container"> <button id="mute-button"> <span class="icon icon-volume"></span> </button> <div class="audio-player__volume" tabindex="0" aria-valuemin="0" aria-valuemax="100" aria-valuenow="100" aria-label="Use arrow keys to adjust volume" role="slider"> <div class="audio-player__volume__fill"> <span class="audio-player__thumb"></span> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <hr class="divider"/>   <div class="grid grid--sidebar-right grid--divider"> <div class="order-2 order-1--lg module__main"> <div class="narrow margin-x-auto margin-y-5"> <div class="accordion margin-bottom-5">  <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-key-concepts" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-key-concepts" aria-expanded="true" tabindex="0"> Did you know? </button> <div class="accordion__panel shown show" id="acc-panel-key-concepts" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-key-concepts" role="region"> <div class="accordion__panel__content"> <p>Did you know that without the atmosphere, Earth's surface would be covered with meteor craters and life on this planet would be non-existent? Protecting us from meteorites, regulating temperature, and providing the air we breathe are only some of the ways that the atmosphere makes Earth the home it is.</p> </div> </div>  <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-table-of-contents" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-table-of-contents" aria-expanded="false" tabindex="0"> Key concepts </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-table-of-contents" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-table-of-contents" role="region" aria-hidden="true"> <div class="accordion__panel__content"> <ul class="bulleted"><li><p>Earth's atmosphere is made up of a combination of gases. The major components of nitrogen, oxygen, and argon remain constant over time and space, while trace components like CO<sub>2</sub> and water vapor vary considerably over both space and time.</p></li> <li><p>The atmosphere is divided into the thermosphere, mesosphere, stratosphere, and troposphere, and the boundaries between these layers are defined by changes in temperature gradients.</p></li> <li><p>Pressure decreases exponentially with altitude in the atmosphere.</p></li> <li><p>Our knowledge about the atmosphere has developed based on data from a variety of sources, including direct measurements from balloons and aircraft as well as remote measurements from satellites.</p></li></ul> </div> </div>  <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-terms-you-should-know" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-terms-you-should-know" aria-expanded="false" tabindex="0"> Terms you should know </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-terms-you-should-know" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-terms-you-should-know" role="region" aria-hidden="true"> <div class="accordion__panel__content"> <dl> <dt><a href="/en/glossary/view/ozone">ozone </a></dt> <dd> a form of oxygen, O<sub>3</sub>, produced by the reaction of sunlight with O<sub>2</sub> </dd> <dt>pressure </dt> <dd> the application of force; the weight of air in the atmosphere </dd> <dt><a href="/en/glossary/view/surface">surface </a></dt> <dd> the outside or external part; the topside face of something</dd> </dl> </div> </div> </div> <hr class="border-color-dark" /> <section> <div class="container narrow"> <p>The fact that the moon's <mark class="term" data-term="surface" data-term-def="The outside or external part; the topside face of something." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/surface/8275">surface</mark> is covered with meteorite impact craters is obvious to us today. Though the moon is not far from us, impact craters are few and far between on Earth. As it turns out, Earth has received just as many incoming meteorites as the moon, but the presence of the <mark class="term" data-term="atmosphere" data-term-def="The collective mass of gases that surrounds the Earth or another planet." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/atmosphere/8529">atmosphere</mark> has determined the fate of many of them. Small meteorites burn up in the atmosphere before ever reaching Earth. Those that do hit the surface and create an impact crater are lost to us in a different way – the craters are quickly eroded by weather generated in the atmosphere, and the <mark class="term" data-term="evidence" data-term-def="Support for an idea, opinion, or hypothesis." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/evidence/8243">evidence</mark> is washed away. <mark id="ngss-159" class="ngss">The moon, on the other hand, has no atmosphere, and thus every meteor aimed at the moon hits it, and the craters have remained essentially unchanged for 4 billion years (Figure 1).<mark></mark></mark></p> <div class="figure"> <figure> <button class="lightbox-button lightbox-button--icon" data-lightbox=""> <img src="/img/library/modules/mid107/Image/VLObject-5097-100713020731.jpg" alt="Figure 1: Craters on the far side of the moon (L) and Manicouagan crater in Quebec (R). Image courtesy of NASA." /> </button> <figcaption> <p><strong>Figure 1:</strong> Craters on the far side of the moon (L) and Manicouagan crater in Quebec (R). Image courtesy of NASA.</p> </figcaption> </figure> </div> <p><section id="toc_1" class=""> <h2>Composition of Earth's atmosphere</h2></p> <p>The early Greeks considered "air" to be one of four elementary substances; along with earth, fire, and water, air was viewed as a fundamental component of the <mark class="term" data-term="universe" data-term-def="The cosmos and everything that exists in it." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/universe/5288">universe</mark>. By the early 1800s, however, <mark id="ngss-160" class="ngss">scientists such as <mark class="term" data-term="John Dalton" data-term-def="English physicist, chemist and meteorologist born in Eaglesfield, Cumberland (1766-1844). Dalton published <i>Experimental Essays on the Constitution of Mixed Gases; on&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/Dalton%2C+John/4518">John Dalton</mark> recognized that the <mark class="term" data-term="atmosphere" data-term-def="The collective mass of gases that surrounds the Earth or another planet." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/atmosphere/8529">atmosphere</mark> was in fact composed of several chemically distinct gases, which he was able to separate and determine the relative amounts of within the lower atmosphere. He was easily able to discern the major components of the atmosphere: nitrogen, oxygen, and a small amount of something incombustible, later shown to be argon.</mark></p><p><mark id="ngss-161" class="ngss">The <mark class="term" data-term="development" data-term-def="The gradual exposure to stimuli in the early-developmental stages that influences the size, shape, and function of animal once mature." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/development/13147">development</mark> of the <mark class="term" data-term="mass spectrometer" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/mass+spectrometer" data-term-def="A spectrometer that measures the composition of samples by analyzing the mass to charge ratio (m/z) of components in the sample.&hellip;">spectrometer</mark> in the 1920s allowed scientists to find gases that existed in much smaller <mark class="term" data-term="concentration" data-term-def="The amount of one substance in relation to other components within a given area." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/concentration/8733">concentrations</mark> in the <mark class="term" data-term="atmosphere" data-term-def="The collective mass of gases that surrounds the Earth or another planet." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/atmosphere/8529">atmosphere</mark>, such as <mark class="term" data-term="ozone" data-term-def="A form of oxygen, O<sub>3</sub>, produced by the reaction of sunlight with O<sub>2</sub>." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/ozone/8744">ozone</mark> and carbon dioxide.</mark> The concentrations of these gases, while small, varied widely from place to place. In fact, atmospheric gases are often divided up into the major, <mark class="term" data-term="constant" data-term-def="In mathematics, a quantity that has a fixed value; something that does not vary." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/constant/8557">constant</mark> components and the highly <mark class="term" data-term="variable" data-term-def="In math, an expression that can be assigned any set of values. Variables are written as symbols, such as x, y&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/variable/3797">variable</mark> components, as shown in Table 1 and Table 2.</p><div class=\"table-container\"><table class="table" aria-describedby="configDescription"> <caption id="configDescription"> <strong>Table 1:</strong> Constant Components. Proportions remain the same over time and location. </caption> <tbody> <tr> <td scope="row">Nitrogen ($N_2$)</td> <td>78.08%</td> </tr> <tr> <td scope="row">Oxygen ($O_2$)</td> <td>20.95%</td> </tr> <tr> <td scope="row">Argon ($Ar$)</td> <td>0.93%</td> </tr> <tr> <td scope="row">Neon, Helium, Krypton</td> <td>0.0001%</td> </tr> </tbody> </table></div> <br><div class=\"table-container\"><table class="table" aria-describedby="configDescription2"> <caption id="configDescription2"> <strong>Table 2: </strong>Variable Components. Amounts vary over time and location. </caption> <tbody> <tr> <td scope="row">Carbon dioxide ($CO_2$)</td> <td>0.038%</td> </tr> <tr> <td scope="row">Water Vapor ($H_2O$)</td> <td>0-4%</td> </tr> <tr> <td scope="row">Methane ($CH_4$)</td> <td>trace</td> </tr> <tr> <td scope="row">Sulfur dioxide ($SO_2$)</td> <td>trace</td> </tr> <tr> <td scope="row">Ozone ($O_3$)</td> <td>trace</td> </tr> <tr> <td scope="row">Nitrogen oxide ($NO, NO_2, N_2O$)</td> <td>trace</td> </tr> </tbody> </table></div><p>Although both nitrogen and oxygen are essential to human life on the planet, they have little effect on weather and other atmospheric processes. <mark id="ngss-162" class="ngss">The <mark class="term" data-term="variable" data-term-def="In math, an expression that can be assigned any set of values. Variables are written as symbols, such as x, y&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/variable/3797">variable</mark> components, which make up far less than 1 percent of the <mark class="term" data-term="atmosphere" data-term-def="The collective mass of gases that surrounds the Earth or another planet." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/atmosphere/8529">atmosphere</mark>, have a much greater influence on both short-term weather and long-term <mark class="term" data-term="climate" data-term-def="Climate describes the average and patterns of a particular area’s weather over time. Climate includes such elements as temperature, precipitation, humidity,&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/climate/9334">climate</mark>.</mark> For example, variations in water vapor in the atmosphere are familiar to us as <mark class="term" data-term="relative humidity" data-term-def="expressed as a percentage, this is the amount of water vapor present in the air when compared with the amount needed&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/relative+humidity/12935">relative humidity</mark>. Water vapor, CO<sub>2</sub>, CH<sub>4</sub>, N<sub>2</sub>O, and SO<sub>2</sub> all have an important property: They <mark class="term" data-term="absorb" data-term-def="Take in or soak up (energy, liquids, or other substances), usually gradually, through a chemical or physical action." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/absorb/11219">absorb</mark> <mark class="term" data-term="heat" data-term-def="A measure of the total internal energy of a substance that can be increased or decreased when objects with different temperatures&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/heat/1506">heat</mark> emitted by Earth and thus warm the atmosphere, creating what we call the "greenhouse effect." Without these so-called greenhouse gases, the Earth's <mark class="term" data-term="surface" data-term-def="The outside or external part; the topside face of something." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/surface/8275">surface</mark> would be about 30 <mark class="term" data-term="degree" data-term-def="[<strong>temperature</strong>] One graduated unit of measure on a Fahrenheit or Celsius temperature scale. On the Kelvin scale, graduations are called Kelvins. <br> <br> [<strong>geometry</strong>]&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/degree/8535">degrees</mark> Celsius cooler – too cold for life to exist as we know it. Though the <mark class="term" data-term="greenhouse effect" data-term-def="The greenhouse effect is created by gases like carbon dioxide in the Earth's atmosphere. Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases allow&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/greenhouse+effect/2278">greenhouse effect</mark> is sometimes portrayed as a bad thing, trace amounts of gases like CO<sub>2</sub> warm our planet's atmosphere enough to sustain life. Global warming, on the other hand, is a separate <mark class="term" data-term="process" data-term-def="Method, procedure; series of actions or steps." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/process/8256">process</mark> that can be caused by increased amounts of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.</p><p>In addition to gases, the <mark class="term" data-term="atmosphere" data-term-def="The collective mass of gases that surrounds the Earth or another planet." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/atmosphere/8529">atmosphere</mark> also contains particulate <mark class="term" data-term="matter" data-term-def="The substance that makes up physical objects." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/matter/8264">matter</mark> such as dust, volcanic ash, rain, and snow. These are, of course, highly <mark class="term" data-term="variable" data-term-def="In math, an expression that can be assigned any set of values. Variables are written as symbols, such as x, y&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/variable/3797">variable</mark> and are generally less persistent than <mark class="term" data-term="gas" data-term-def="The state of matter characterized by its non-condensed nature and ability to flow. Unlike liquids, molecules within a gas remain far&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/gas/8725">gas</mark> <mark class="term" data-term="concentration" data-term-def="The amount of one substance in relation to other components within a given area." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/concentration/8733">concentrations</mark>, but they can sometimes remain in the atmosphere for relatively long periods of time. Volcanic ash from the 1991 eruption of Mt. Pinatubo in the Philippines, for example, darkened skies around the globe for over a year.</p><p><mark id="ngss-163" class="ngss">Though the major components of the <mark class="term" data-term="atmosphere" data-term-def="The collective mass of gases that surrounds the Earth or another planet." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/atmosphere/8529">atmosphere</mark> vary little today, they have changed dramatically over Earth's history, about 4.6 billion years. The early atmosphere was hardly the life-sustaining blanket of air that it is today; most geologists believe that the main constituents then were nitrogen <mark class="term" data-term="gas" data-term-def="The state of matter characterized by its non-condensed nature and ability to flow. Unlike liquids, molecules within a gas remain far&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/gas/8725">gas</mark> and carbon dioxide, but no free oxygen. In fact, there is no <mark class="term" data-term="evidence" data-term-def="Support for an idea, opinion, or hypothesis." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/evidence/8243">evidence</mark> for free oxygen in the atmosphere until about 2 billion years ago, when <mark class="term" data-term="photosynthesizing" data-term-def="The act of conducting photosynthesis." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/photosynthesizing/2381">photosynthesizing</mark> <mark class="term" data-term="bacteria" data-term-def="(plural of bacterium) A large group of one-celled organisms that are found almost everywhere." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/bacteria/8679">bacteria</mark> evolved and began taking in atmospheric carbon dioxide and releasing oxygen.</mark> The amount of oxygen in the atmosphere has risen steadily from 0 percent 2 billion years ago to about 21 percent today.</p> <div class="comprehension-checkpoint margin-y-4"> <h6 class="comprehension-checkpoint__header"> <span> <span class="icon icon-question"></span> </span> Comprehension Checkpoint </h6> <form class="" name="cc6181"> <div class="form-entry"> <div class="form-entry__field"> <span class="form-entry__field__label">Nitrogen and oxygen, which make up more than 99% of Earth's atmosphere, have a bigger influence on climate than other components of the atmosphere.</span> <div class="form-entry__option"> <div class="form-entry__option__radio" data-answer="incorrect"> <label> <input id="q1-6181-0-option-a" name="quiz-option-6181" type="radio" value="true" > <span class="option__label"> <span class="screen-reader-only">a.</span> true </span> </label> <span class="quiz__response" id="response-6181-0"> <strong>Incorrect.</strong> </span> </div> <div class="form-entry__option__radio" data-answer="correct"> <label> <input id="q1-6181-1-option-b" name="quiz-option-6181" type="radio" value="false" > <span class="option__label"> <span class="screen-reader-only">b.</span> false </span> </label> <span class="quiz__response" id="response-6181-1"> <strong>Correct!</strong> </span> </div> </div> </div> </div> </form> </div> </section> <section id="toc_2"> <h2>Measuring the atmosphere</h2><p><mark id="ngss-164" class="ngss">We now have continuous satellite monitoring of the <mark class="term" data-term="atmosphere" data-term-def="The collective mass of gases that surrounds the Earth or another planet." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/atmosphere/8529">atmosphere</mark> and Doppler <mark class="term" data-term="radar" data-term-def="a system for detecting the presence of objects, like raindrops, by sending out pulses of high-frequency electromagnetic waves that are reflected&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/radar/12931">radar</mark> to tell us whether or not we will experience rain anytime soon; however, atmospheric measurements used to be few and far between. Today, measurements such as temperature and pressure not only help us predict the weather, but also help us look at long-term changes in global <mark class="term" data-term="climate" data-term-def="Climate describes the average and patterns of a particular area’s weather over time. Climate includes such elements as temperature, precipitation, humidity,&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/climate/9334">climate</mark> (see our <a href=""/library/module_viewer.php?mid=48"">Temperature</a> module). The first atmospheric scientists were less concerned with weather prediction, however, and more interested in the composition and structure of the atmosphere.</mark></p><p>The two most important instruments for taking measurements in Earth's <mark class="term" data-term="atmosphere" data-term-def="The collective mass of gases that surrounds the Earth or another planet." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/atmosphere/8529">atmosphere</mark> were developed hundreds of years ago: Galileo is credited with inventing the thermometer in 1593, and <mark class="term" data-term="Evangelista Torricelli" data-term-def="Italian mathematician and astronomer, born in Faenza, Italy (1608-1647). He authored Torricelli's Theorem, which states that the flow of liquid through&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/Torricelli%2C+Evangelista/4481">Evangelista Torricelli</mark> invented the barometer in 1643. With these two instruments, temperature and pressure could be recorded at any time and at any place. Of course, the earliest pressure and temperature measurements were taken at Earth's <mark class="term" data-term="surface" data-term-def="The outside or external part; the topside face of something." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/surface/8275">surface</mark>. It was a hundred years before the thermometer and barometer went aloft.</p><p>While many people are familiar with Ben Franklin's kite and key <mark class="term" data-term="experiment" data-term-def="A test or trial carried out under controlled conditions so that specific actions can be performed and the results can be observed." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/experiment/8292">experiment</mark> that tested lightning for the presence of electricity, few realize that kites were the main vehicle for obtaining atmospheric measurements above Earth's <mark class="term" data-term="surface" data-term-def="The outside or external part; the topside face of something." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/surface/8275">surface</mark>. Throughout the 18<sup>th</sup> and 19<sup>th</sup> centuries, kite-mounted instruments collected pressure, temperature, and humidity readings; unfortunately, scientists could only reach up to an altitude of about 3 km with this technique.</p> <div class="figure"> <figure> <button class="lightbox-button lightbox-button--icon" data-lightbox=""> <img src="/img/library/modules/mid107/Image/VLObject-2329-031016061028.gif" alt="Figure 2: Scientist launches a radiosonde. Instruments for collecting data are in the white and orange box." /> </button> <figcaption> <p><strong>Figure 2:</strong> Scientist launches a radiosonde. Instruments for collecting data are in the white and orange box.</p> <span class="credit">image ©NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory</span> </figcaption> </figure> </div> <p>Unmanned balloons were able to take measurements at higher altitudes than kites, but because they were simply released with no passengers and no strings attached, they had to be retrieved in order to obtain the <mark class="term" data-term="data" data-term-def="(plural form of <b>datum</b>) A collection of pieces of information, generally taking the form of numbers, text, bits, or facts, that&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/data/3729">data</mark> that had been collected. This changed with the <mark class="term" data-term="development" data-term-def="The gradual exposure to stimuli in the early-developmental stages that influences the size, shape, and function of animal once mature." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/development/13147">development</mark> of the <em>radiosonde</em>, an unmanned balloon capable of achieving high altitudes, in the early 1930s. The <mark class="term" data-term="radiosonde" data-term-def="an instrument package carried by a weather balloon to various levels of the atmosphere. It transmits information like air temperature, pressure&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/radiosonde/12932">radiosonde</mark> included a radio transmitter among its many instruments, allowing data to be transmitted as it was being collected so that the balloons no longer needed to be retrieved. A radiosonde <mark class="term" data-term="network" data-term-def="An interconnected system; an interrelated net-like arrangement of parts." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/network/8740">network</mark> was developed in the United States in 1937, and continues to this day under the auspices of the National Weather Service.</p> <div class="comprehension-checkpoint margin-y-4"> <h6 class="comprehension-checkpoint__header"> <span> <span class="icon icon-question"></span> </span> Comprehension Checkpoint </h6> <form class="" name="cc6183"> <div class="form-entry"> <div class="form-entry__field"> <span class="form-entry__field__label">What was an advantage of the <em>radiosonde</em> over earlier data collection instruments?</span> <div class="form-entry__option"> <div class="form-entry__option__radio" data-answer="incorrect"> <label> <input id="q1-6183-0-option-a" name="quiz-option-6183" type="radio" value="The radiosonde was easy to retrieve." > <span class="option__label"> <span class="screen-reader-only">a.</span> The radiosonde was easy to retrieve. </span> </label> <span class="quiz__response" id="response-6183-0"> <strong>Incorrect.</strong> </span> </div> <div class="form-entry__option__radio" data-answer="correct"> <label> <input id="q1-6183-1-option-b" name="quiz-option-6183" type="radio" value="The radiosonde did not need to be retrieved." > <span class="option__label"> <span class="screen-reader-only">b.</span> The radiosonde did not need to be retrieved. </span> </label> <span class="quiz__response" id="response-6183-1"> <strong>Correct!</strong> </span> </div> </div> </div> </div> </form> </div> </section> <section id="toc_3"> <h2>Temperature in the atmosphere</h2><p>Through examination of measurements collected by <mark class="term" data-term="radiosonde" data-term-def="an instrument package carried by a weather balloon to various levels of the atmosphere. It transmits information like air temperature, pressure&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/radiosonde/12932">radiosonde</mark> and aircraft (and later by rockets), scientists became aware that the <mark class="term" data-term="atmosphere" data-term-def="The collective mass of gases that surrounds the Earth or another planet." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/atmosphere/8529">atmosphere</mark> is not uniform. Many people had long recognized that temperature decreased with altitude – if you've ever hiked up a tall mountain, you might learn to bring a jacket to wear at the top even when it is warm at the base – <mark id="ngss-165" class="ngss">but it wasn't until the early 1900s that radiosondes revealed a layer, about 18 km above the <mark class="term" data-term="surface" data-term-def="The outside or external part; the topside face of something." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/surface/8275">surface</mark>, where temperature abruptly changed and began to increase with altitude.</mark> <mark id="ngss-166" class="ngss">The discovery of this reversal led to division of the atmosphere into layers based on their <mark class="term" data-term="thermal" data-term-def="Relating to heat." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/thermal/8682">thermal</mark> properties.</mark></p> <div class="figure"> <figure> <button class="lightbox-button lightbox-button--icon" data-lightbox="" data-lightbox-src="/img/library/large_images/image_2349.png"> <img src="/img/library/modules/mid107/Image/VLObject-2349-031022101053.gif" alt="Figure 3: This graph shows how temperature varies with altitude in earth's atmosphere. Note Mt. Everest for reference." /> </button> <figcaption> <p><strong>Figure 3:</strong> This graph shows how temperature varies with altitude in earth's atmosphere. Note Mt. Everest for reference.</p> <span class="credit">image ©Dr. Anne E. Egger CC BY-NC-SA 4.0</span> </figcaption> </figure> </div> <p>The lowermost 12 to 18 km of the <mark class="term" data-term="atmosphere" data-term-def="The collective mass of gases that surrounds the Earth or another planet." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/atmosphere/8529">atmosphere</mark>, called the <em>troposphere</em>, is where all weather occurs – clouds form and <mark class="term" data-term="precipitation" data-term-def="Water that falls from the atmosphere to the ground in any form, such as rain, snow, hail, or sleet." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/precipitation/8562">precipitation</mark> falls, wind blows, humidity varies from place to place, and the atmosphere interacts with the <mark class="term" data-term="surface" data-term-def="The outside or external part; the topside face of something." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/surface/8275">surface</mark> below. Within the <mark class="term" data-term="troposphere" data-term-def="The lowermost 12-18 km of the atmosphere, where temperature decreases about 6.5 degrees Celsius per kilometer of altitude. Wind, precipitation, and&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/troposphere/2382">troposphere</mark>, temperature decreases with altitude at a rate of about 6.5° C per kilometer. At 8,856 m high, Mt. Everest still reaches less than halfway through the troposphere. Assuming a sea level temperature of 26° C (80° F), that means the temperature on the summit of Everest would be around -31° C (-24° F)! In fact, temperature at Everest's summit <mark class="term" data-term="average" data-term-def="In statistics, average commonly refers to the arithmetic mean, also called simply "mean," which is one measure of the mid-point of&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/average/8542">averages</mark> -36° C, whereas temperatures in New Delhi (in nearby India), at an elevation of 233 m, average about 28° C (82.4° F).</p><p>At the uppermost <mark class="term" data-term="boundary" data-term-def="A line or limit that divides one area from another." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/boundary/8272">boundary</mark> of the <mark class="term" data-term="troposphere" data-term-def="The lowermost 12-18 km of the atmosphere, where temperature decreases about 6.5 degrees Celsius per kilometer of altitude. Wind, precipitation, and&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/troposphere/2382">troposphere</mark>, air temperature reaches about -100° C and then begins to increase with altitude. This layer of increasing temperature is called the <em>stratosphere</em>. The cause of the temperature reversal is a layer of concentrated <mark class="term" data-term="ozone" data-term-def="A form of oxygen, O<sub>3</sub>, produced by the reaction of sunlight with O<sub>2</sub>." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/ozone/8744">ozone</mark>. Ozone's ability to <mark class="term" data-term="absorb" data-term-def="Take in or soak up (energy, liquids, or other substances), usually gradually, through a chemical or physical action." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/absorb/11219">absorb</mark> incoming <mark class="term" data-term="ultraviolet" data-term-def="Wavelengths between 1 and 380 nanometers (nm) on the electromagnetic spectrum, falling between X-rays (10<sup>-2</sup> nm to 1 nm) and visible&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/ultraviolet/8233">ultraviolet</mark> (UV) <mark class="term" data-term="radiation" data-term-def="Energy emitted as particles, waves, or rays." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/radiation/8266">radiation</mark> from the sun had been recognized in 1881, but the existence of the <mark class="term" data-term="ozone layer" data-term-def="A layer of higher than average concentrations of ozone within the stratosphere. Within the ozone layer, concentration are still in the&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/ozone+layer/2385">ozone layer</mark> at an altitude of 20 to 50 km was not postulated until the 1920s. By absorbing UV rays, the ozone layer both warms the air around it and protects us on the <mark class="term" data-term="surface" data-term-def="The outside or external part; the topside face of something." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/surface/8275">surface</mark> from the harmful short-wavelength radiation that can cause skin cancer.</p><p>It is important to recognize the difference between the <mark class="term" data-term="ozone" data-term-def="A form of oxygen, O<sub>3</sub>, produced by the reaction of sunlight with O<sub>2</sub>." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/ozone/8744">ozone</mark> layer in the <mark class="term" data-term="stratosphere" data-term-def="The layer of the atmosphere above the troposphere, where temperature increases with altitude because of the presence of the ozone layer.&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/stratosphere/2383">stratosphere</mark> and ozone present in trace amounts in the <mark class="term" data-term="troposphere" data-term-def="The lowermost 12-18 km of the atmosphere, where temperature decreases about 6.5 degrees Celsius per kilometer of altitude. Wind, precipitation, and&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/troposphere/2382">troposphere</mark>. Stratospheric ozone is produced when <mark class="term" data-term="energy" data-term-def="An abstract property defined as the capacity to do work. The basic forms of energy include chemical, electrical, mechanical, nuclear, and&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/energy/1497">energy</mark> from the sun breaks apart O<sub>2</sub> <mark class="term" data-term="gas" data-term-def="The state of matter characterized by its non-condensed nature and ability to flow. Unlike liquids, molecules within a gas remain far&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/gas/8725">gas</mark> <mark class="term" data-term="molecule" data-term-def="A particle formed by the chemical bonding of two or more atoms. The molecule is the smallest particle of a&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/molecule/1518">molecules</mark> into O <mark class="term" data-term="atom" data-term-def="The smallest unit of an element that retains the chemical properties of the element. Atoms can exist alone or in&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/atom/1509">atoms</mark>; these O atoms then <mark class="term" data-term="bond" data-term-def="The force that holds together units such as atoms or molecules. <br> <b>[verb]</b> To hold or fasten units such as atoms or molecules together." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/bond/8297">bond</mark> with other O<sub>2</sub> molecules to form O<sub>3</sub>, ozone. This <mark class="term" data-term="process" data-term-def="Method, procedure; series of actions or steps." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/process/8256">process</mark> was first described in 1930 by <mark class="term" data-term="Sydney Chapman" data-term-def="British-American geophysicist and mathematician born in Eccles, Lancashire (1888-1970). In 1939, Chapman co-authored the classic work <i>The Mathematical Theory of Non-Uniform&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/Chapman%2C+Sydney/4528">Sydney Chapman</mark>, a geophysicist who synthesized many of the known facts about the <mark class="term" data-term="ozone layer" data-term-def="A layer of higher than average concentrations of ozone within the stratosphere. Within the ozone layer, concentration are still in the&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/ozone+layer/2385">ozone layer</mark>. Tropospheric ozone, on the other hand, is a pollutant produced when emissions from fossil-fuel burning interact with sunlight.</p><p>Above the <mark class="term" data-term="stratosphere" data-term-def="The layer of the atmosphere above the troposphere, where temperature increases with altitude because of the presence of the ozone layer.&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/stratosphere/2383">stratosphere</mark>, temperature begins to drop again in the next layer of the <mark class="term" data-term="atmosphere" data-term-def="The collective mass of gases that surrounds the Earth or another planet." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/atmosphere/8529">atmosphere</mark> called the <em>mesosphere</em>, as seen in the previous figure. This temperature decrease results from the rapidly decreasing <mark class="term" data-term="density" data-term-def="A measure of the compactness of a substance given by the mass per unit volume (d = m/v). Common units of&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/density/863">density</mark> of the air at this altitude. Finally, at the outer reaches of Earth's atmosphere, the intense, unfiltered <mark class="term" data-term="radiation" data-term-def="Energy emitted as particles, waves, or rays." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/radiation/8266">radiation</mark> from the sun causes <mark class="term" data-term="molecule" data-term-def="A particle formed by the chemical bonding of two or more atoms. The molecule is the smallest particle of a&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/molecule/1518">molecules</mark> like O<sub>2</sub> and N<sub>2</sub> to break apart into <mark class="term" data-term="ion" data-term-def="An atom or molecule that has acquired an electrical charge by either gaining or losing electrons. A cation is an ion&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/ion/853">ions</mark>. The release of <mark class="term" data-term="energy" data-term-def="An abstract property defined as the capacity to do work. The basic forms of energy include chemical, electrical, mechanical, nuclear, and&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/energy/1497">energy</mark> from these <mark class="term" data-term="reaction" data-term-def="A chemical change when substances come into contact with each other." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/reaction/8263">reactions</mark> actually causes the temperature to rise again in the <em>thermosphere</em>, the outermost layer. The <mark class="term" data-term="thermosphere" data-term-def="The outermost layer of the atmosphere, where gas molecules split apart into ions." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/thermosphere/2384">thermosphere</mark> extends to about 500 km above Earth's <mark class="term" data-term="surface" data-term-def="The outside or external part; the topside face of something." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/surface/8275">surface</mark>, still a few hundred kilometers below the altitude of most orbiting satellites.</p> <div class="comprehension-checkpoint margin-y-4"> <h6 class="comprehension-checkpoint__header"> <span> <span class="icon icon-question"></span> </span> Comprehension Checkpoint </h6> <form class="" name="cc6184"> <div class="form-entry"> <div class="form-entry__field"> <span class="form-entry__field__label">All weather, including clouds, wind, and precipitation, occurs in the</span> <div class="form-entry__option"> <div class="form-entry__option__radio" data-answer="correct"> <label> <input id="q1-6184-0-option-a" name="quiz-option-6184" type="radio" value="troposphere." > <span class="option__label"> <span class="screen-reader-only">a.</span> troposphere. </span> </label> <span class="quiz__response" id="response-6184-0"> <strong>Correct!</strong> </span> </div> <div class="form-entry__option__radio" data-answer="incorrect"> <label> <input id="q1-6184-1-option-b" name="quiz-option-6184" type="radio" value="stratosphere." > <span class="option__label"> <span class="screen-reader-only">b.</span> stratosphere. </span> </label> <span class="quiz__response" id="response-6184-1"> <strong>Incorrect.</strong> </span> </div> </div> </div> </div> </form> </div> </section> <section id="toc_4"> <h2>Pressure in the atmosphere</h2> <div class="figure"> <figure> <button class="lightbox-button lightbox-button--icon" data-lightbox="" data-lightbox-src="/img/library/large_images/image_12133.png"> <img src="/img/library/modules/mid107/Image/VLObject-12133-200113100129.png" alt="Figure 4: The graph on the left shows how pressure changes with altitude in Earth's atmosphere. The mountain profile shown in the lower left represents Mt. Everest, the point of highest elevation on Earth's surface. The image on the right is a representation of the density of gas molecules in the atmosphere, with the layers of the atmosphere labeled." /> </button> <figcaption> <p><strong>Figure 4:</strong> The graph on the left shows how pressure changes with altitude in Earth's atmosphere. The mountain profile shown in the lower left represents Mt. Everest, the point of highest elevation on Earth's surface. The image on the right is a representation of the density of gas molecules in the atmosphere, with the layers of the atmosphere labeled.</p> <span class="credit">image ©Dr. Anne E. Egger CC BY-NC-SA 4.0</span> </figcaption> </figure> </div> <p>Atmospheric pressure can be imagined as the <mark class="term" data-term="weight" data-term-def="A measure of the force exerted on an object by a gravitational field. The weight of an object equals its mass&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/weight/3418">weight</mark> of the overlying column of air. Unlike temperature, pressure decreases exponentially with altitude. Traces of the <mark class="term" data-term="atmosphere" data-term-def="The collective mass of gases that surrounds the Earth or another planet." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/atmosphere/8529">atmosphere</mark> can be detected as far as 500 km above Earth's <mark class="term" data-term="surface" data-term-def="The outside or external part; the topside face of something." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/surface/8275">surface</mark>, but 80 percent of the atmosphere's <mark class="term" data-term="mass" data-term-def="A fundamental property of matter which is a numerical measure of the inertia of an object or the amount of matter&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/mass/3417">mass</mark> is contained within the 18 km closest to the surface. Atmospheric pressure is generally measured in <mark class="term" data-term="millibar" data-term-def="A unit of measurement of atmospheric pressure equivalent to 1 gram per square centimeter. Average sea level pressure is 1013 mb,&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/millibar/2379">millibars</mark> (mb); this <mark class="term" data-term="unit" data-term-def="An accepted quantity used as a standard of measurement. For example, the meter, liter, and gram." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/unit/848">unit</mark> of measurement is equivalent to 1 gram per centimeter squared (1 g/cm<sup>2</sup>). Other units are occasionally used, such as bars, atmospheres, or millimeters of mercury. The correspondence between these units is shown in the table below.</p><div class="table-container"><table class="table" aria-describedby="configDescription3"> <caption id="configDescription3"> <strong>Table 3:</strong> Correspondence of atmospheric measurement units. </caption> <head> <th scope="col">bars</th> <th scope="col">millibars</th> <th scope="col">atmospheres</th> <th scope="col">millimeters of mercury</th> </head> <tbody> <tr> <td scope="row">1.013 bar</td> <td>1013 mb</td> <td>1 atm</td> <td>760mm Hg</td> </tr> </tbody> </table></div><p><mark id="ngss-167" class="ngss">At sea level, pressure ranges from about 960 to 1,050 <mark class="term" data-term="mb" data-term-def="The abbreviation for millibar." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/mb/5505">mb</mark>, with an <mark class="term" data-term="average" data-term-def="In statistics, average commonly refers to the arithmetic mean, also called simply "mean," which is one measure of the mid-point of&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/average/8542">average</mark> of 1,013 mb. At the top of Mt. Everest, pressure is as low as 300 mb. Because <mark class="term" data-term="gas" data-term-def="The state of matter characterized by its non-condensed nature and ability to flow. Unlike liquids, molecules within a gas remain far&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/gas/8725">gas</mark> pressure is related to <mark class="term" data-term="density" data-term-def="A measure of the compactness of a substance given by the mass per unit volume (d = m/v). Common units of&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/density/863">density</mark>, this low pressure means that there are approximately one-third as many gas <mark class="term" data-term="molecule" data-term-def="A particle formed by the chemical bonding of two or more atoms. The molecule is the smallest particle of a&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/molecule/1518">molecules</mark> inhaled per breath on top of Mt. Everest as at sea level – which is why climbers experience ever more severe shortness of breath the higher they go, as less oxygen is inhaled with every breath.</mark></p><p>Though other planets host <mark class="term" data-term="atmosphere" data-term-def="The collective mass of gases that surrounds the Earth or another planet." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/atmosphere/8529">atmospheres</mark>, <mark id="ngss-168" class="ngss">the presence of free oxygen and water vapor makes our atmosphere unique as far as we know. These components both encouraged and protected life on Earth as it developed, not only by providing oxygen for <mark class="term" data-term="respiration" data-term-def="The physical and chemical processes by which an organism supplies its cells and tissues with the oxygen needed for metabolism and&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/respiration/2195">respiration</mark>, but by shielding <mark class="term" data-term="organism" data-term-def="Any connected living system, such as an animal, plant, fungus, or bacterium. Organisms may be composed of a single cell or&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/organism/2171">organisms</mark> from harmful UV rays and by incinerating small meteors before they hit the <mark class="term" data-term="surface" data-term-def="The outside or external part; the topside face of something." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/surface/8275">surface</mark>. Additionally, the composition and structure of this unique resource are important keys to understanding <mark class="term" data-term="circulation" data-term-def="Generally, movement within a system. 1. [Atmospheric] the movement of air masses within the troposphere, driven by the redistribution of energy&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/circulation/10355">circulation</mark> in the atmosphere, <mark class="term" data-term="biogeochemical" data-term-def="Of or relating to the partitioning and cycling of chemical elements and compounds between the living and nonliving parts of an ecosystem." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/biogeochemical/2179">biogeochemical</mark> cycling of <mark class="term" data-term="nutrient" data-term-def="A chemical substance (e.g., minerals, vitamins, proteins) that is needed by an organism to survive and grow. See also: macronutrient and micronutrient." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/nutrient/7058">nutrients</mark>, short-term local weather patterns, and long-term global <mark class="term" data-term="climate" data-term-def="Climate describes the average and patterns of a particular area’s weather over time. Climate includes such elements as temperature, precipitation, humidity,&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/climate/9334">climate</mark> changes.</mark></p> </div> </section> <hr class="border-color-dark" /> <footer class="module__footer"> <p class="citation"> <em> Anne E. Egger, Ph.D. “Earth's Atmosphere” Visionlearning Vol. EAS (5), 2003. </em> </p>  <div class="title-list" name="further"> <p class="h6 title-list__title"> Further Reading </p> <ul class="grid grid--column-2--md grid--column-3--md gap-1"> <li> <a class="no-hover-focus height-100" href="/en/library/Earth-Science/6/The-Carbon-Cycle/95"> <article class="flex-row align-items-center flex-column--md align-items-start--md height-100 theme-light padding-2 gap-2"> <div class="width-30 width-auto--md"> <img class="border-radius box-shadow-1" src="/img/library/moduleImages/featured_image_95-23061209065627.jpg" alt="The Carbon Cycle"> </div> <div class="flex-grow-shrink"> <h2 class="h6 font-weight-normal"> The Carbon Cycle: <em>Geology, biology, and the impact of human activities</em> </h2> </div> </article> </a> </li> <li> <a class="no-hover-focus height-100" href="/en/library/Earth-Science/6/The-Nitrogen-Cycle/98"> <article class="flex-row align-items-center flex-column--md align-items-start--md height-100 theme-light padding-2 gap-2"> <div class="width-30 width-auto--md"> <img class="border-radius box-shadow-1" src="/img/library/moduleImages/featured_image_98-23061209065638.jpeg" alt="The Nitrogen Cycle"> </div> <div class="flex-grow-shrink"> <h2 class="h6 font-weight-normal"> The Nitrogen Cycle: <em>Of microbes and men</em> </h2> </div> </article> </a> </li> <li> <a class="no-hover-focus height-100" href="/en/library/Earth-Science/6/The-Hydrologic-Cycle/99"> <article class="flex-row align-items-center flex-column--md align-items-start--md height-100 theme-light padding-2 gap-2"> <div class="width-30 width-auto--md"> <img class="border-radius box-shadow-1" src="/img/library/moduleImages/featured_image_99-23061209065611.jpg" alt="The Hydrologic Cycle"> </div> <div class="flex-grow-shrink"> <h2 class="h6 font-weight-normal"> The Hydrologic Cycle: <em>Reservoirs and fluxes of water on Earth</em> </h2> </div> </article> </a> </li> </ul> </div> </footer> </div>   </div>  <div class="order-1 order-2--lg module__tools"> <div class="narrow margin-x-auto position-sticky-top font-size-md"> <div class="padding-2 border-radius box-shadow-1--lg"> <div class="tabs" role="tablist"> <nav> <button class="button button--icon-label" id="tab-button-in-this-module" aria-label="Table of Contents" aria-controls="tab-panel-module__tools" aria-selected="true" role="tab"> <span class="icon icon-list" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="button__text">Contents</span> </button> <button class="button button--icon-label" id="tab-button-toggle-terms" aria-controls="tab-panel-toggle-terms" aria-selected="false" role="tab"> <span class="icon icon-glossary-highlight"></span> <span class="button__text">Glossary Terms</span> </button> <button class="button button--icon-label" id="tab-button-toggle-ngss" aria-controls="tab-panel-toggle-ngss" aria-selected="false" role="tab"> <span class="icon icon-ngss"></span> <span class="button__text">NGSS</span> </button> </nav> <hr class="divider" /> <div class="tabs__panel shown" id="tab-panel-module__tools" aria-labelledby="tab-button-module__tools" role="tabpanel"> <p class="font-weight-bold margin-bottom-1"> Table of Contents </p> <div class="table-of-contents" id="module-toc"> <ul> <li><a href="/en/library/Earth-Science/6/Composition-of-Earths-Atmosphere/107#toc_1">Composition of Earth's atmosphere</a> </li> <li><a href="/en/library/Earth-Science/6/Composition-of-Earths-Atmosphere/107#toc_2">Measuring the atmosphere</a> </li> <li><a href="/en/library/Earth-Science/6/Composition-of-Earths-Atmosphere/107#toc_3">Temperature in the atmosphere</a> </li> <li><a href="/en/library/Earth-Science/6/Composition-of-Earths-Atmosphere/107#toc_4">Pressure in the atmosphere</a> </li> </ul> </div> </div>   <div class="tabs__panel" id="tab-panel-toggle-terms" aria-labelledby="tab-button-toggle-terms" role="tabpanel"> <div class="reading-toggle"> <div class="reading-toggle__switch"> <div class="form-entry__option__switch"> <label> <input type="checkbox" name="termsToggleSwitch" id="terms-toggle-switch" /> <span class="switch__slider"></span> <span class="option__label text-decoration-none font-size-md"> Highlight Glossary Terms </span> </label> </div> </div> <div class="reading-toggle__help"> <p> <em> Activate glossary term highlighting to easily identify key terms within the module. 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