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id="toc-Violence_between_non-state_actors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Violence_between_non-state_actors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Violence between non-state actors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Violence_between_non-state_actors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ethnic_conflicts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ethnic_conflicts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.1</span> <span>Ethnic conflicts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ethnic_conflicts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-One-sided_violence_by_non-state_actors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#One-sided_violence_by_non-state_actors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>One-sided violence by non-state actors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-One-sided_violence_by_non-state_actors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Terrorism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Terrorism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.1</span> <span>Terrorism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Terrorism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-One-sided_violence_by_the_state" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#One-sided_violence_by_the_state"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>One-sided violence by the state</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-One-sided_violence_by_the_state-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Genocide" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genocide"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.1</span> <span>Genocide</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genocide-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Torture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Torture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.2</span> <span>Torture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Torture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Capital_punishment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Capital_punishment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.3</span> <span>Capital punishment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Capital_punishment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Famine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Famine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.4</span> <span>Famine</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Famine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Police_brutality" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Police_brutality"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.5</span> <span>Police brutality</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Police_brutality-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Violence_between_a_state_and_a_non-state_actor" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Violence_between_a_state_and_a_non-state_actor"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Violence between a state and a non-state actor</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Violence_between_a_state_and_a_non-state_actor-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Rebellion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rebellion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4.1</span> <span>Rebellion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rebellion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rioting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rioting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4.2</span> <span>Rioting</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rioting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Revolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Revolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4.3</span> <span>Revolution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Revolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Civil_war" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Civil_war"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4.4</span> <span>Civil war</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Civil_war-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Counter-insurgency" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Counter-insurgency"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4.5</span> <span>Counter-insurgency</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Counter-insurgency-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Electoral_violence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electoral_violence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4.6</span> <span>Electoral violence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electoral_violence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-War_between_states" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#War_between_states"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>War between states</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-War_between_states-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trends" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trends"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Trends</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Trends-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Trends subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Trends-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Long-run_trends" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Long-run_trends"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Long-run trends</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Long-run_trends-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Critique" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Critique"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.1</span> <span>Critique</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Critique-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Current_trends" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Current_trends"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Current trends</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Current_trends-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Armed_conflicts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Armed_conflicts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1</span> <span>Armed conflicts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Armed_conflicts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Terrorism_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Terrorism_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.2</span> <span>Terrorism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Terrorism_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Polling" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Polling"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.3</span> <span>Polling</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Polling-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theories" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theories"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Theories</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Theories-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Theories subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Theories-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Macro" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Macro"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Macro</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Macro-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Social_conflict_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_conflict_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.1</span> <span>Social conflict theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_conflict_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-War's_inefficiency_puzzle" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#War's_inefficiency_puzzle"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.2</span> <span>War's inefficiency puzzle</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-War's_inefficiency_puzzle-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Functionalism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Functionalism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.3</span> <span>Functionalism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Functionalism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mass_society" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mass_society"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.4</span> <span>Mass society</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mass_society-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Resource_mobilization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Resource_mobilization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.5</span> <span>Resource mobilization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Resource_mobilization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Primordialism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primordialism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.6</span> <span>Primordialism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primordialism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Instrumentalist" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Instrumentalist"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.7</span> <span>Instrumentalist</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Instrumentalist-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Constructivist" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Constructivist"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.8</span> <span>Constructivist</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Constructivist-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Youth_bulge" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Youth_bulge"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.9</span> <span>Youth bulge</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Youth_bulge-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Micro" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Micro"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Micro</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Micro-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Rational_choice_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rational_choice_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.1</span> <span>Rational choice theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rational_choice_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Relative_deprivation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relative_deprivation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.2</span> <span>Relative deprivation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relative_deprivation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Collective_action_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Collective_action_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.3</span> <span>Collective action theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Collective_action_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Greed_versus_grievance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Greed_versus_grievance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.4</span> <span>Greed versus grievance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Greed_versus_grievance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Consequences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Consequences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Consequences</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Consequences-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Consequences subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Consequences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Macro_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Macro_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Macro</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Macro_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-State-building" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#State-building"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.1</span> <span>State-building</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-State-building-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Micro_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Micro_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Micro</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Micro_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Political_impacts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_impacts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.1</span> <span>Political impacts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Political_impacts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economic_impacts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economic_impacts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.2</span> <span>Economic impacts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economic_impacts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Datasets" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Datasets"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Datasets</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Datasets-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Datasets subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Datasets-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Armed_Conflict_Location_and_Event_Data_Project_(ACLED)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Armed_Conflict_Location_and_Event_Data_Project_(ACLED)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Armed Conflict Location and Event Data Project (ACLED)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Armed_Conflict_Location_and_Event_Data_Project_(ACLED)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Human_Security_Report_Project_(HSRP)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Human_Security_Report_Project_(HSRP)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Human Security Report Project (HSRP)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Human_Security_Report_Project_(HSRP)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Uppsala_Conflict_Data_Program_(UCDP)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Uppsala_Conflict_Data_Program_(UCDP)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Uppsala Conflict Data Program (UCDP)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Uppsala_Conflict_Data_Program_(UCDP)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes_and_references" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes_and_references"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Notes and references</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes_and_references-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input 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href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%88%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BE" title="রাজনৈতিক সহিংসতা – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="রাজনৈতিক সহিংসতা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viol%C3%A8ncia_pol%C3%ADtica" title="Violència política – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Violència política" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trais_gwleidyddol" title="Trais gwleidyddol – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Trais gwleidyddol" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Violencia_pol%C3%ADtica" title="Violencia política – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Violencia política" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biolentzia_politiko" title="Biolentzia politiko – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Biolentzia politiko" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Violence_politique" title="Violence politique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Violence politique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A0%95%EC%B9%98_%ED%8F%AD%EB%A0%A5" title="정치 폭력 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="정치 폭력" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kekerasan_politik" title="Kekerasan politik – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kekerasan politik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%98%D7%99%D7%AA" title="אלימות פוליטית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אלימות פוליטית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keganasan_politik" title="Keganasan politik – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Keganasan politik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%94%BF%E6%B2%BB%E6%9A%B4%E5%8A%9B" title="政治暴力 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="政治暴力" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%8A_%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%AA%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C" title="سیاسي تاوتریخوالی – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="سیاسي تاوتریخوالی" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viol%C3%AAncia_pol%C3%ADtica" title="Violência política – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Violência política" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B5" title="Политическое насилие – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" 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searchaux" style="display:none">Violence conducted with political goals</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pasillo_de_la_memoria_UTN_FRA_(2015)_11.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Pasillo_de_la_memoria_UTN_FRA_%282015%29_11.JPG/250px-Pasillo_de_la_memoria_UTN_FRA_%282015%29_11.JPG" decoding="async" width="250" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Pasillo_de_la_memoria_UTN_FRA_%282015%29_11.JPG/375px-Pasillo_de_la_memoria_UTN_FRA_%282015%29_11.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Pasillo_de_la_memoria_UTN_FRA_%282015%29_11.JPG/500px-Pasillo_de_la_memoria_UTN_FRA_%282015%29_11.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2984" data-file-height="2082" /></a><figcaption>Photographs of victims of the <a href="/wiki/Dirty_War" title="Dirty War">Dirty War</a> under the <a href="/wiki/National_Reorganization_Process" title="National Reorganization Process">military dictatorship of Argentina</a> (1976–1983), part of the <a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_United_States#Covert_action" title="Foreign policy of the United States">U.S.-backed</a> <a href="/wiki/Operation_Condor" title="Operation Condor">Operation Condor</a> in <a href="/wiki/Latin_America" title="Latin America">Latin America</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p><b>Political violence</b> is <a href="/wiki/Violence" title="Violence">violence</a> which is perpetrated in order to achieve political goals.<sup id="cite_ref-Political_Stud._2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Political_Stud.-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It can include violence which is used by a <a href="/wiki/State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">state</a> against other states (<a href="/wiki/War" title="War">war</a>), violence which is used by a state against <a href="/wiki/Civilian" title="Civilian">civilians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Non-state_actor" title="Non-state actor">non-state actors</a> (<a href="/wiki/Forced_disappearance" class="mw-redirect" title="Forced disappearance">forced disappearance</a>, <a href="/wiki/Psychological_warfare" title="Psychological warfare">psychological warfare</a>, <a href="/wiki/Police_brutality" title="Police brutality">police brutality</a>, <a href="/wiki/Targeted_killing" title="Targeted killing">targeted assassinations</a>, <a href="/wiki/Torture" title="Torture">torture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing" title="Ethnic cleansing">ethnic cleansing</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">genocide</a>), and violence which is used by <a href="/wiki/Violent_non-state_actor" title="Violent non-state actor">violent non-state actors</a> against states and civilians (<a href="/wiki/Kidnapping" title="Kidnapping">kidnappings</a>, <a href="/wiki/Targeted_killing" title="Targeted killing">targeted assassinations</a>, <a href="/wiki/Terrorism" title="Terrorism">terrorist attacks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Torture" title="Torture">torture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Psychological_warfare" title="Psychological warfare">psychological</a> and/or <a href="/wiki/Guerrilla_warfare" title="Guerrilla warfare">guerrilla warfare</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Miller_2022_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Miller_2022-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Stepanova_2008_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stepanova_2008-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It can also describe politically motivated violence which is used by violent non-state actors against a state (<a href="/wiki/Rebellion" title="Rebellion">rebellion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rioting" class="mw-redirect" title="Rioting">rioting</a>, <a href="/wiki/Treason" title="Treason">treason</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Coup_d%27etat" class="mw-redirect" title="Coup d'etat">coup d'etat</a>) or it can describe violence which is used against other non-state actors and/or civilians.<sup id="cite_ref-Political_Stud._2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Political_Stud.-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Miller_2022_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Miller_2022-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Stepanova_2008_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stepanova_2008-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Non-action on the part of a <a href="/wiki/Government" title="Government">government</a> can also be characterized as a form of political violence, such as refusing to alleviate <a href="/wiki/Famine" title="Famine">famine</a> or otherwise denying resources to politically identifiable groups within their territory. </p><p>Due to the imbalances of power which exist between state and non-state actors, political violence often takes the form of <a href="/wiki/Asymmetric_warfare" title="Asymmetric warfare">asymmetric warfare</a> where neither side is able to directly assault the other, instead relying on tactics such as guerrilla warfare and terrorism.<sup id="cite_ref-Political_Stud._2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Political_Stud.-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Miller_2022_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Miller_2022-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Stepanova_2008_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stepanova_2008-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It can often include attacks on <a href="/wiki/Civilian" title="Civilian">civilian</a> or otherwise <a href="/wiki/Non-combatant" title="Non-combatant">non-combatant</a> targets.<sup id="cite_ref-Rossi_2021_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rossi_2021-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> People may be collectively targeted based on the perception that they are part of a social, ethnic, religious, or political group;<sup id="cite_ref-Rossi_2021_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rossi_2021-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or selectively, targeting specific individuals for actions that are perceived as challenging someone or aiding an opponent.<sup id="cite_ref-Rossi_2021_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rossi_2021-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Balcells_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Balcells-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many politically motivated <a href="/wiki/Militant" title="Militant">militant</a>, <a href="/wiki/Insurgency" title="Insurgency">insurgent</a>, <a href="/wiki/Extremism" title="Extremism">extremist</a>, and/or <a href="/wiki/Fundamentalism" title="Fundamentalism">fundamentalist</a> groups and individuals<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> are convinced that the states and political systems under which they live will never respond to their demands, and they thus believe that the only way to overthrow and/or reshape the government or state accordingly to their political and/or religious <a href="/wiki/Worldview" title="Worldview">worldview</a> is through violent means, which they regard as not only justified but also necessary in order to achieve their political and/or religious objectives.<sup id="cite_ref-Rossi_2021_5-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rossi_2021-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, many governments around the world believe that they need to use violence in order to intimidate their populaces into acquiescence. At other times, governments use force in order to defend their countries from outside invasions or other threats of force and coerce other governments or conquer territory.<sup id="cite_ref-Valentino_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Valentino-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Cohan_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cohan-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types">Types</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_violence&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Types"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Political violence varies widely in form, severity, and practice. In <a href="/wiki/Political_science" title="Political science">political science</a>, a common organizing framework is to consider the types of violence which are used by the relevant actors: violence between non-state actors, one-sided violence which is perpetrated by a state actor against civilians, and violence between states. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Stathis_Kalyvas" title="Stathis Kalyvas">Stathis Kalyvas</a> identifies eleven types of political violence: Interstate war, Civil war, Terrorism, Political assassination, Military coup, Mass protest/Rebellion, Intercommunal violence, Organized crime/Cartels, Ethnic cleansing, Genocide, and State repression.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Violence_between_non-state_actors">Violence between non-state actors</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_violence&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Violence between non-state actors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Fighting between non-state actors without state security forces playing a direct role in the conflict.<sup id="cite_ref-hsrgroup.org_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hsrgroup.org-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ethnic_conflicts">Ethnic conflicts</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_violence&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Ethnic conflicts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_conflict" title="Ethnic conflict">Ethnic conflict</a></div> <p>An ethnic conflict is fought between <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic group">ethnic groups</a>. While at times a specific ethnic group may have the backing (whether formal or informal) of the state (or conversely, a specific ethnic group may be targeted by the state), ethnic conflict can also take place between two groups without the direct intervention of the state, or despite the state's attempts to mediate between groups. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="One-sided_violence_by_non-state_actors">One-sided violence by non-state actors</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_violence&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: One-sided violence by non-state actors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Terrorism">Terrorism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_violence&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Terrorism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Terrorism" title="Terrorism">Terrorism</a></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Stochastic_terrorism" title="Stochastic terrorism">Stochastic terrorism</a></div> <p>Terrorism can be directed by non-state actors against political targets other than the state (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Yishai_Schlissel" title="Yishai Schlissel">Stabbing attacks at gay pride parades in Jerusalem</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charlie_Hebdo_shooting" title="Charlie Hebdo shooting">Charlie Hebdo shooting</a>). Because terrorism is a tactic often used by the weaker side of a conflict, it may also fall under violence between a state and non-state actor. </p><p>While there lacks a concrete <a href="/wiki/Definitions_of_terrorism" class="mw-redirect" title="Definitions of terrorism">definition of terrorism</a>, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Defense" title="United States Department of Defense">United States Department of Defense</a> however defines terrorism as, "the calculated use of unlawful violence or threat of unlawful violence to inculcate fear; intended to coerce or to intimidate governments or societies in the pursuit of goals that are generally political, religious, or ideological."<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> What is and is not considered terrorism is itself a controversial political question, as states have often used the label of terrorism to exclusively demonize the actions of their enemies while obscuring "legal" violence administered by the state (e.g. <a href="/wiki/The_Troubles" title="The Troubles">The Troubles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Communist_rebellion_in_the_Philippines" class="mw-redirect" title="Communist rebellion in the Philippines">communist rebellion in the Philippines</a>, <a href="/wiki/2014_Israel%E2%80%93Gaza_conflict" class="mw-redirect" title="2014 Israel–Gaza conflict">2014 Israel–Gaza conflict</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Schmid_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schmid-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="One-sided_violence_by_the_state">One-sided violence by the state</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_violence&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: One-sided violence by the state"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Mass_murder#By_states" title="Mass murder">Mass murder § By states</a></div> <p>The use of force by an organized armed group, be it a government or a non-state group, which results in the deaths of civilians is considered one-sided. According to the <a href="/wiki/Human_Security_Report_Project" title="Human Security Report Project">Human Security Report Project</a>, a campaign of one-sided violence is recorded whenever violence against civilians committed by one group results in at least 25 reported deaths in a calendar year.<sup id="cite_ref-hsrgroup.org_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hsrgroup.org-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Genocide">Genocide</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_violence&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Genocide"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">Genocide</a></div> <p>One form of political violence is genocide. <i>Genocide</i> is commonly defined as "the deliberate and systematic destruction, in whole or in part, of an <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic group">ethnic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Race_(classification_of_humans)" class="mw-redirect" title="Race (classification of humans)">racial</a>, <a href="/wiki/Religious_denomination" title="Religious denomination">religious</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Nationality" title="Nationality">national</a> group",<sup id="cite_ref-Funk_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Funk-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although what constitutes enough of a "part" to qualify as genocide has been subject to much debate by legal scholars.<sup id="cite_ref-What_is_Genocide_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-What_is_Genocide-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Genocide is typically carried out with either the overt or covert support of the governments of those countries where genocidal activities take place. <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">The Holocaust</a> is the most cited <a href="/wiki/Genocides_in_history" title="Genocides in history">historical example of genocide</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Torture">Torture</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_violence&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Torture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Torture" title="Torture">Torture</a></div> <p>Torture is the act of inflicting severe pain (whether physical or psychological) as a means of punishment, revenge, forcing information or confession, or simply as an act of cruelty. Torture is prohibited under <a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">international law</a> and the domestic laws of most countries in the 21st century. It is considered a <a href="/wiki/Human_rights_violation" class="mw-redirect" title="Human rights violation">human rights violation</a> and is declared unacceptable by Article 5 of the <a href="/wiki/UN_Declaration_of_Human_Rights" class="mw-redirect" title="UN Declaration of Human Rights">UN Declaration of Human Rights</a>. Signatories of the <a href="/wiki/Third_Geneva_Convention" title="Third Geneva Convention">Third Geneva Convention</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Geneva_Convention" title="Fourth Geneva Convention">Fourth Geneva Convention</a> have officially agreed not to torture prisoners in armed conflicts. National and international legal prohibitions on torture derive from a consensus that torture and similar ill-treatment are immoral, as well as impractical.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite international conventions, torture cases continue to arise such as the 2004 <a href="/wiki/Abu_Ghraib_torture_and_prisoner_abuse" title="Abu Ghraib torture and prisoner abuse">Abu Ghraib torture and prisoner abuse</a> scandal committed by military police personnel of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army" title="United States Army">United States Army</a>. Organizations such as <a href="/wiki/Amnesty_International" title="Amnesty International">Amnesty International</a> and the <a href="/wiki/International_Rehabilitation_Council_for_Torture_Victims" title="International Rehabilitation Council for Torture Victims">International Rehabilitation Council for Torture Victims</a> monitor abuses of human rights and reports widespread violations of human torture by states in many regions of the world.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Amnesty International estimates that at least 81 world governments currently practice torture, some of them openly.<sup id="cite_ref-Amnesty08_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Amnesty08-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Capital_punishment">Capital punishment</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_violence&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Capital punishment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment" title="Capital punishment">Capital punishment</a></div> <p>Capital punishment is the sentence of death upon a person by the state as a punishment for an offense. This does not include <a href="/wiki/Extrajudicial_killing" title="Extrajudicial killing">extrajudicial killing</a>, which is the killing of a person by governmental authorities without the sanction of any judicial proceeding or legal process. The <a href="/wiki/Use_of_capital_punishment_by_country" class="mw-redirect" title="Use of capital punishment by country">use of capital punishment by country</a> varies, but according to Amnesty International 58 countries still actively use the death penalty, and in 2010, 23 countries carried out executions and 67 imposed death sentences. Methods of execution in 2010 included beheading, electrocution, hanging, lethal injection and shooting.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Famine">Famine</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_violence&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Famine"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Famine" title="Famine">Famine</a></div> <p>Famine can be initiated or prolonged in order to deny resources, compel obedience, or to depopulate a region with a recalcitrant or untrusted populace.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Police_brutality">Police brutality</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_violence&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Police brutality"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Police_brutality" title="Police brutality">Police brutality</a></div> <p>Police brutality is another form of political violence. It is most commonly described in juxtaposition with the term excessive force. Police brutality can be defined as "a civil rights violation that occurs when a police officer acts with excessive force by using an amount of force with regards to a civilian that is more than necessary".<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Police brutality and the use of excessive force are present throughout the world and in the <a href="/wiki/Police_brutality_in_the_United_States" title="Police brutality in the United States">United States</a> alone, 4,861 incidents of police misconduct were reported during 2010. Of these, there were 6,826 victims involved and 247 fatalities. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Violence_between_a_state_and_a_non-state_actor">Violence between a state and a non-state actor</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_violence&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Violence between a state and a non-state actor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>At least one of the warring parties involved is the government of a state.<sup id="cite_ref-hsrgroup.org_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hsrgroup.org-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Rebellion">Rebellion</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_violence&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Rebellion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Rebellion" title="Rebellion">Rebellion</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rebellion&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Essay-like plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-essay-like" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>is written like a <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:What_Wikipedia_is_not#Wikipedia_is_not_a_publisher_of_original_thought" title="Wikipedia:What Wikipedia is not">personal reflection, personal essay, or argumentative essay</a></b> that states a Wikipedia editor's personal feelings or presents an original argument about a topic.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Political_violence&action=edit">help improve it</a> by rewriting it in an <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles#Information_style_and_tone" title="Wikipedia:Writing better articles">encyclopedic style</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">October 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><a href="/wiki/Rebellion" title="Rebellion">Rebellion</a> is a violent uprising against one's government.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rebellion_:0_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rebellion_:0-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A rebel is a person who engages in a rebellion. A rebel group is a consciously coordinated group that seeks to gain political control over an entire state or a portion of a state.<sup id="cite_ref-Rebellion_:0_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rebellion_:0-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A rebellion is often caused by political, religious, or social grievances that originate from a perceived inequality or marginalization. </p> The word "rebellion" comes from Latin "re" + "bellum,"<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and, in Lockian philosophy, refers to the <a href="/wiki/Right_of_revolution" title="Right of revolution">responsibility of the people to overthrow unjust government</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Rioting">Rioting</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_violence&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Rioting"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Riot" title="Riot">Riot</a></div> <p>A riot can be described as a violent disturbance by a group of individuals formed to protest perceived wrongs and/or injustice. These can range from poverty and inequality to unemployment and government oppression. They can manifest themselves in a number of ways but most commonly in the form of property damage. <a href="/wiki/Riot" title="Riot">Riots</a> are characterized by their lack of predictability and the anonymity of their participants. Both make it difficult for authorities to identify those participating.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Riots have been analyzed in a number of ways but most recently in the context of the frustration-aggression model theory, expressing that the aggression seen in most riots is a direct result of a groups frustration with a particular aspect of their lives. Widespread and prolonged rioting can lead to and/or produce rebellion or revolution. There are also a number of different types of riots including but not limited to police riots, <a href="/wiki/Race_riots" class="mw-redirect" title="Race riots">race riot</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prison_riots" class="mw-redirect" title="Prison riots">prison riots</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sports_riots" class="mw-redirect" title="Sports riots">sport riot</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Revolution">Revolution</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_violence&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Revolution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Revolution" title="Revolution">Revolution</a></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Political_science" title="Political science">political science</a>, a revolution is a fundamental and relatively sudden change in political power and political organization which occurs when the population revolts against the government, typically due to perceived oppression (political, social, economic) or political <a href="/wiki/Administrative_incompetence" class="mw-redirect" title="Administrative incompetence">incompetence</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In a revolution political violence is usually common.<sup id="cite_ref-Buchanan_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Buchanan-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The use of political violence is usually to fulfill a revolutionary objective, and in times of <a href="/wiki/Civil_strife" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil strife">civil strife</a> to challenge the <a href="/wiki/Status_quo" title="Status quo">status quo</a>. The goals of political violence can be varied such as to strengthen the position of a group, or to weaken an opposing side. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Civil_war">Civil war</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_violence&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Civil war"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Civil_war" title="Civil war">Civil war</a></div> <p>A civil war, also known as an intrastate war, is a war fought within the same state or country between organized groups. Less commonly, it can also be fought between two countries that have been created from one previously unified state. Often these conflicts involve one group wishing to take control of a region or expressing dissatisfaction with the government. There is typically a desire to overthrow the existing power or at least change some of their policies. In many cases, an outside power may intervene on behalf of one side if they share their ideology or condemn the methods/motives of their opponents. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Counter-insurgency">Counter-insurgency</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_violence&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Counter-insurgency"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Counter-insurgency" class="mw-redirect" title="Counter-insurgency">Counter-insurgency</a></div> <p>Counter-insurgency, another form of political violence, describes a spectrum of actions taken by the recognized government of a state to contain or quell an <a href="/wiki/Insurgency" title="Insurgency">insurgency</a> taken up against it.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are many different doctrines, theories, and tactics espoused regarding counter-insurgency that aim to protect the authority of the government and to reduce or eliminate the supplanting authority of the insurgents. Because it may be difficult or impossible to distinguish between an insurgent, a supporter of an insurgency who is a <a href="/wiki/Non-combatant" title="Non-combatant">non-combatant</a>, and entirely uninvolved members of the population, counter-insurgency operations have often rested on a confused, relativistic, or otherwise <a href="/wiki/Situational" class="mw-redirect" title="Situational">situational</a> distinction between insurgents and non-combatants. Counter-insurgency operations are common during <a href="/wiki/War" title="War">war</a>, <a href="/wiki/Military_occupation" title="Military occupation">occupation</a> and armed <a href="/wiki/Rebellion" title="Rebellion">rebellions</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Electoral_violence">Electoral violence</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_violence&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Electoral violence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Electoral violence includes any acts or threats of coercion, intimidation, or physical harm perpetrated to affect an electoral process or that arise in the context of electoral competition.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is used to influence the outcome of elections; to delay, disrupt or derail polls; and to protest election results or suppress protests against election results. Electoral violence is used to influence the outcome of elections because parties cannot win through fraud alone <sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and because candidates cannot rely on fraud agents to perpetrate fraud for them because fraud is hidden and violence is not.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="War_between_states">War between states</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_violence&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: War between states"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/War" title="War">War</a></div> <p>War is a state of organized, armed, and often prolonged conflict carried on between <a href="/wiki/State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">states</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nation" title="Nation">nations</a>, or other parties<sup id="cite_ref-AHD_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AHD-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-MWD_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MWD-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> typified by extreme aggression, social disruption, and usually high mortality.<sup id="cite_ref-AHD_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AHD-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> War should be understood as an actual, intentional and widespread armed conflict between political communities, and therefore is defined as a form of political violence.<sup id="cite_ref-Lazar_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lazar-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Three of the ten most costly wars, in terms of loss of life, have been waged in the last century: the death toll of <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, estimated at more than 60 million, surpasses all other war death tolls by a factor of two. It is estimated that 378,000 people died due to war each year between 1985 and 1994.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Trends">Trends</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_violence&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Trends"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Considerable scholarship and data has suggested that violence has declined since <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Based on battle deaths, one of the most frequently used measures of the Intensity of armed conflict, there was a decline in conflict from 1946 to 2013.<sup id="cite_ref-Cederman_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cederman-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another indicator, the number of civil conflicts, has gradually declined since the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> ended.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, more recent scholarship questions the conclusion that violence is decreasing world-wide, based on the measures used and the statistical basis for such interpretations. In addition indicators show a rise in violence in the 2010s, heavily driven by conflicts involving transnational jihadist groups in the Middle East.<sup id="cite_ref-Cederman_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cederman-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The numbers of active conflicts in 2016 and 2019 were the highest recorded.<sup id="cite_ref-Öberg_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Öberg-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Long-run_trends">Long-run trends</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_violence&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Long-run trends"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Following <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, there was a decline in worldwide battle deaths.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_44-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since 1946, battle death rates have not matched World War II levels. However, there have been oscillations, with sizable peaks in deaths corresponding the <a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_War" title="Iran–Iraq War">Iran–Iraq War</a> and <a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War" title="Soviet–Afghan War">Soviet–Afghan War</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Roser_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Roser-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Longer term statistical analysis suggests that this pattern is not unusual given the variability involved in a long-term datasets of historical wars, and that conclusions of a downward trend are premature.<sup id="cite_ref-Cunen_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cunen-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Center for Systemic Peace reports that armed conflict in the post-World War II era was at its peak when the <a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">Soviet Union collapsed</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>, from the 1990s to the early 2000s, there was a decline in this measure of conflict. Between 1992 and 2005, violent conflict around the world dropped by 40 percent.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_44-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other datasets on political violence have shown similar trends. The <a href="/wiki/Uppsala_Conflict_Data_Program" title="Uppsala Conflict Data Program">Uppsala Conflict Data Program</a> (UCDP), another project that collects armed conflict data, defines armed conflict as conflict that involves the government of a state which "results in at least 25 battle-related deaths in one calendar year."<sup id="cite_ref-:2_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In their overview of data on armed conflict, UCDP also found that the number of armed conflicts in the world decreased following the end of the Cold War.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <i><a href="/wiki/The_Better_Angels_of_Our_Nature" title="The Better Angels of Our Nature">The Better Angels of Our Nature</a></i> (2011), <a href="/wiki/Steven_Pinker" title="Steven Pinker">Steven Pinker</a> argued that this decline has not occurred over the past 60 years, but has been going on for over the past millennia.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, more recent upward trends show that armed conflict is increasing as political violence in the Middle East and Africa increases.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:3_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the past ten years, the UCDP has found an upward trend in the number of internationalized armed conflicts, "a conflict between a government of a state and internal opposition groups with intervention from other states."<sup id="cite_ref-:2_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:3_52-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Critique">Critique</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_violence&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Critique"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some scholars argue that data focusing on the number of battle deaths per country per year are misleading.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Tanisha_Fazal" title="Tanisha Fazal">Tanisha Fazal</a> argues that wars have become less fatal because of medical advancements that help keep more people alive during wars. Therefore, the battle death threshold used by the UCDP and other organizations to determine cases of armed conflict is misleading. A conflict "that produced 1,000 battle deaths in 1820 will likely produce many fewer overall casualties (where casualties, properly understood, include the dead and wounded) than a conflict with 1,000 battle deaths today."<sup id="cite_ref-:4_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The current data makes it seem like war is becoming less frequent, when it is not.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_54-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Bear F. Braumoeller argues that looking at data on per-capita death is a "misleading and irrelevant statistic" because it does not tell us how wars actually happen.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A decrease in battle-related deaths can mean that population growth is outpacing war deaths or that "fewer people are exposed to risk of death from war".<sup id="cite_ref-:5_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Instead, we should examine the willingness of a state to go to war. Braumoeller creates a new metric for conflicted called the "use of force", which is the number of militarized disputes that reach at least a level 4 on the 5-point <a href="/wiki/Correlates_of_War" title="Correlates of War">Correlates of War</a> Militarized Interstate Dispute scale. He finds that use of force has held steady from the 1800s through the <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">First World War</a>, but after World War I the use of force has steadily increased.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_56-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Braumoeller creates another metric called "uses of force per relevant dyad", which is the use of force between neighboring states or states with one major power.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_56-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Using this metric he finds that there is no downward trend in the rates of conflict initiation since the post-World War II period. Additionally, he finds that the rates of conflict have remained steady over the past two hundred years and the slight increases and decreases in use of force are random.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_56-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Current_trends">Current trends</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_violence&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Current trends"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Armed_conflicts">Armed conflicts</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_violence&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Armed conflicts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Based on data from the <a href="/wiki/Uppsala_Conflict_Data_Program" title="Uppsala Conflict Data Program">UCDP</a>, there were 221 intrastate armed conflicts in the period from 1946 to 2019, involving more than 100 countries worldwide.<sup id="cite_ref-Balcells_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Balcells-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While there has been a general decline in fatalities from such conflicts, the number of active conflicts in 2019 matched its highest record from 2016. In 2019, UCDP recorded 54 state-based conflicts, 28 of which involved transnational jihadist groups.<sup id="cite_ref-Öberg_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Öberg-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This compares to 40 active armed conflicts in 2014.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_52-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The three countries with the highest total fatalities in the 1989–2019 period were <a href="/wiki/Rwandan_Civil_War" title="Rwandan Civil War">Rwanda</a>, <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Syrian Civil War">Syria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan_conflict_(1978%E2%80%93present)" class="mw-redirect" title="Afghanistan conflict (1978–present)">Afghanistan</a>, with Afghanistan accounting for 40% of all fatalities worldwide in 2019.<sup id="cite_ref-Öberg_47-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Öberg-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As of 2014, regionally, Asia had the largest number of violent conflicts at 14, followed by Africa at 12, Europe at six, Middle East at six, and the Americas at two.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_52-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2014, four new conflicts began, all of them in <a href="/wiki/2014_pro-Russian_unrest_in_Ukraine" title="2014 pro-Russian unrest in Ukraine">Ukraine</a>. Three conflicts were restarted by new actors in  Egypt, Lebanon, and Libya. Additionally, six conflicts were restarted by previously registered actors in "<a href="/wiki/Armenian%E2%80%93Azerbaijani_border_conflict" class="mw-redirect" title="Armenian–Azerbaijani border conflict">Azerbaijan (Nagorno-Karabakh)</a>, India (<a href="/wiki/Garo_Hills" title="Garo Hills">Garoland</a>), <a href="/wiki/Indo-Pakistani_wars_and_conflicts" title="Indo-Pakistani wars and conflicts">India–Pakistan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Israeli%E2%80%93Palestinian_conflict" title="Israeli–Palestinian conflict">Israel (Palestine)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Northern_Mali_conflict" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern Mali conflict">Mali (Azawad)</a>, and <a href="/wiki/2015_Kokang_offensive" title="2015 Kokang offensive">Myanmar (Kokang)</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-:3_52-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Finally, seven conflicts in 2013 were no longer active in 2014. The conflicts were in <a href="/wiki/Central_African_Republic_Civil_War_(2012%E2%80%93present)" class="mw-redirect" title="Central African Republic Civil War (2012–present)">Central African Republic</a>, Ethiopia (Oromiya), Malaysia (Sabah), <a href="/wiki/Internal_conflict_in_Myanmar" class="mw-redirect" title="Internal conflict in Myanmar">Myanmar (Karen)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Internal_conflict_in_Myanmar" class="mw-redirect" title="Internal conflict in Myanmar">Myanmar (Shan)</a>, Mozambique, and <a href="/wiki/Kurdish%E2%80%93Turkish_conflict_(1978%E2%80%93present)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kurdish–Turkish conflict (1978–present)">Turkey (Kurdistan)</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_52-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Out of the 40 conflicts in 2014, 11 have been classified at the level of war, which means that there were at least 1,000 deaths in one calendar year.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_51-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:3_52-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The conflict between India and Pakistan was the only interstate conflict, conflict between two or more states. Out of the remaining 39 conflicts, 13 were internationalized, a conflict between a government and internal opposition group where other states intervene. The percentage of internationalized conflict is 33% (13/39), which is the largest proportion of external actors in intrastate conflicts since the post-World War II era. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Terrorism_2">Terrorism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_violence&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Terrorism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Just like armed conflict, there was an increase in fatalities associated with terrorism. In 2014, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_State" title="United States Department of State">United States State Department</a> reported 13,463 terrorist attacks in the world.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These attacks resulted in at least 32,700 deaths and 34,700 injuries.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_57-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, more than 9,400 people were kidnapped or taken hostage. Compared to 2013, the number of terrorist attacks increased by 35% and the total fatalities increased by 81%.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_57-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2014, the five countries that experienced the most terrorist attacks were Iraq, <a href="/wiki/Terrorism_in_Pakistan" title="Terrorism in Pakistan">Pakistan</a>, Afghanistan, <a href="/wiki/Terrorism_in_India" title="Terrorism in India">India</a>, and Nigeria. In 2013, Iraq, Pakistan, Afghanistan, India, and the <a href="/wiki/Terrorism_in_the_Philippines" title="Terrorism in the Philippines">Philippines</a> were the countries that experienced the most terrorist attacks.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_57-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2013 and 2014, the perpetrators responsible for the most terrorist attacks were <a href="/wiki/Islamic_State_of_Iraq_and_the_Levant" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant">ISIS</a>, <a href="/wiki/Taliban" title="Taliban">the Taliban</a>, <a href="/wiki/Al-Shabaab_(militant_group)" title="Al-Shabaab (militant group)">al-Shabaab</a>, <a href="/wiki/Boko_Haram" title="Boko Haram">Boko Haram</a>, and Maoists. Fifty-five percent of the targets were either private citizens, private property, or police. 66% of attacks in Nigeria and 41% of attacks in Iraq targeted private citizens and property.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_57-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Global_Terrorism_Database" title="Global Terrorism Database">Global Terrorism Database</a> estimates that  that between 2004 and 2013, about 50% of all terrorist attacks, and 60% of fatalities due to terrorist attacks, took place in Iraq, Afghanistan and Pakistan.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_57-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Polling">Polling</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_violence&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Polling"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:2021_storming_of_the_United_States_Capitol_DSC09254-2_(50820534063)_(retouched).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/2021_storming_of_the_United_States_Capitol_DSC09254-2_%2850820534063%29_%28retouched%29.jpg/220px-2021_storming_of_the_United_States_Capitol_DSC09254-2_%2850820534063%29_%28retouched%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/2021_storming_of_the_United_States_Capitol_DSC09254-2_%2850820534063%29_%28retouched%29.jpg/330px-2021_storming_of_the_United_States_Capitol_DSC09254-2_%2850820534063%29_%28retouched%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/2021_storming_of_the_United_States_Capitol_DSC09254-2_%2850820534063%29_%28retouched%29.jpg/440px-2021_storming_of_the_United_States_Capitol_DSC09254-2_%2850820534063%29_%28retouched%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4887" data-file-height="2998" /></a><figcaption>Protestors storming the US capital building</figcaption></figure> <p>A 2023 <a href="/wiki/Public_Religion_Research_Institute" title="Public Religion Research Institute">PRRI</a> poll found that 23% of those surveyed in 2023 believed that "American patriots may have to resort to political violence to save our country" in 2024, up from 15% of those surveyed in 2021.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Theories">Theories</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_violence&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Theories"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Theories of political violence can be organized by their <a href="/wiki/Level_of_analysis" title="Level of analysis">level of analysis</a>: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Level_of_analysis" title="Level of analysis">Macro theories</a> explain how political, economic, and social processes cause political violence</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Level_of_analysis" title="Level of analysis">Micro theories</a> discuss political violence processes that involve individuals and households, like who participates in violence and what motivates people to participate<sup id="cite_ref-Laia_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Laia-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>Some research does not fit clearly into this dichotomy.<sup id="cite_ref-Balcells_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Balcells-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Macro">Macro</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_violence&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Macro"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Social_conflict_theory">Social conflict theory</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_violence&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Social conflict theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Social_conflict_theory" title="Social conflict theory">Social conflict theory</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Marxist" class="mw-redirect" title="Marxist">Marxist</a>-based <a href="/wiki/Social_theory" title="Social theory">social theory</a> which states that social systems reflect the vested interests of those who own and control resources. The people in power use the political and economic institutions to exploit groups with less power. This causes the rest of society to become alienated or psychologically separated from the people in power. Revolutions occur to break down the social and economic separation between the people in power and the exploited people and "to achieve equity and social unity".<sup id="cite_ref-:7_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="War's_inefficiency_puzzle"><span id="War.27s_inefficiency_puzzle"></span>War's inefficiency puzzle</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_violence&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: War's inefficiency puzzle"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/War%27s_inefficiency_puzzle" class="mw-redirect" title="War's inefficiency puzzle">War's inefficiency puzzle</a> explains why states go to war even though war is costly. In <a href="/wiki/James_Fearon" title="James Fearon">James Fearon</a>'s <i>Rationalist Explanations for War</i>, he asserts war is costly and that creates an incentive to bargain with the other side. However, states do not bargain and instead go to war because of private information on the capability to fight and the incentives to misrepresent this information.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Functionalism">Functionalism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_violence&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Functionalism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(sociology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Functionalism (sociology)">Functionalism</a> sees society as "an organism whose entire system has to be in good working order for systemic equilibrium to be maintained."<sup id="cite_ref-:7_60-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, when there is a shock to the system, society becomes disorientated allowing for collective violence.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_60-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mass_society">Mass society</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_violence&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Mass society"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Mass_society" title="Mass society">Mass society</a> argues that violent social movements come from people who are isolated socially and from political institutions. People who are alienated are easily convinced to join radical or extremist movements. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Resource_mobilization">Resource mobilization</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_violence&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Resource mobilization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Resource_mobilization" title="Resource mobilization">Resource mobilization</a> is a theory on social movement that emphasizes the capacity of competing groups to organize and use adequate resources to achieve their goals.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_60-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The resources can be time, money, organizational skills, and certain social or political opportunities. Political violence occurs when individuals are able to mobilize sufficient resources to take action. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Primordialism">Primordialism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_violence&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Primordialism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_conflict" title="Ethnic conflict">Primordialism</a> is an explanation of <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_violence" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic violence">ethnic violence</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_conflict" title="Ethnic conflict">ethnic conflict</a>. "Interethnic differences based on racial, language, religious, regional characteristics, and other visible markers produce interethnic conflicts because members of that same group emotionally identify with their in-group, but feel no such identify with those outside their ethnic group."<sup id="cite_ref-:7_60-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>   </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Instrumentalist">Instrumentalist</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_violence&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Instrumentalist"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_conflict" title="Ethnic conflict">Instrumentalism</a> is an explanation of <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_violence" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic violence">ethnic violence</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_conflict" title="Ethnic conflict">ethnic conflict</a>. Ethnicity is not inherent in human nature. Conflict occurs when leaders manipulate ethnicity for the sake of political power or economic gain.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Constructivist">Constructivist</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_violence&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Constructivist"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_conflict" title="Ethnic conflict">Constructivist</a> is an explanation of <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_violence" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic violence">ethnic violence</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_conflict" title="Ethnic conflict">ethnic conflict</a>. Ethnic and national identities are socially constructed and are formed through social, economic and political processes, like colonization and conquest. Ethnic conflict is a product of the factors shaping ethnic identity and not from ethnicity itself.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_62-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Youth_bulge">Youth bulge</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_violence&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Youth bulge"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Population_pyramid" title="Population pyramid">youth bulge</a> occurs when there is disproportionate percentage of a state population being between the ages of 15 and 24 years old. It occurs when infant mortality rates decrease and fertility rate increase. This youth bulge increases the working-age population; however, it does not translate to more jobs being available, which leads to severe unemployment. This will cause the young adult male population to "prolong dependency on parents, diminish self-esteem and fuel frustrations".<sup id="cite_ref-:9_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This leads the youth to "seek social and economic advancement by alternative, extralegal means", which means that the <a href="/wiki/Opportunity_cost" title="Opportunity cost">opportunity costs</a> to join armed movements are low.<sup id="cite_ref-:9_63-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Micro">Micro</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_violence&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Micro"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Rational_choice_theory">Rational choice theory</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_violence&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Rational choice theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Rational_choice_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Rational choice theory">Rational choice theory</a> is a decision-making approach in which the decisions makers compare the expected utility of competing options and select the option that produces the most favorable outcome. Political violence occurs when the benefits in participating in political violence outweighs the costs.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_60-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Relative_deprivation">Relative deprivation</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_violence&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Relative deprivation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <i>Why Men Rebel</i>, <a href="/wiki/Ted_Robert_Gurr" title="Ted Robert Gurr">Ted Robert Gurr</a> uses <a href="/wiki/Relative_deprivation" title="Relative deprivation">relative deprivation theory</a> to explain why men commit acts of violence. As Gurr explains, relative deprivation "is defined as actors' perception of discrepancy between their value expectations and their value capabilities."<sup id="cite_ref-:10_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In other words, relative deprivation is the gap between the wants and needs people feel they deserve versus what they are capable of "getting and keeping."<sup id="cite_ref-:10_64-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The collective discontent, the gap between the expected and achieved welfare, leads people to resort to violence. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Collective_action_theory">Collective action theory</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_violence&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Collective action theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Collective_action_theory" title="Collective action theory">Collective action theory</a> explains why people participate in rebellions.<sup id="cite_ref-:11_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:11-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A person decides to participate or not participate in a rebellion based on the benefits and costs. Generally, people decide to be <a href="/wiki/Free_rider_problem" class="mw-redirect" title="Free rider problem">free riders</a> and not to participate in the rebellion. These people will still receive the benefits of the rebellion since the benefits are a <a href="/wiki/Public_good_(economics)" title="Public good (economics)">public good</a>. However, if people are expected to receive <a href="/wiki/Private_good" title="Private good">private goods</a>, like material rewards or power, then that person is expected to rebel.<sup id="cite_ref-:11_65-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:11-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Greed_versus_grievance">Greed versus grievance</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_violence&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Greed versus grievance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Greed_versus_grievance" title="Greed versus grievance">Greed versus grievance</a> provides two lines of explanations as to why individuals will fight. Individuals are said to be motivated by greed when they decide to join a conflict in an effort to better their situation and find that benefits of joining a rebellion or any kind of collective violence is greater than not joining.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Individuals are said to be motivated by grievance when they fight over "high inequality, a lack of political rights or ethnic and religious divisions in society."<sup id="cite_ref-:12_66-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In "Greed and Grievance in Civil War", Paul Collier and Anke Hoeffler argue that greed is a better predictor of participating in violence than grievance.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_66-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Consequences">Consequences</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_violence&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Consequences"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the aftermath of political violence, there are many changes that occur within the state, society, and the individual. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Macro_2">Macro</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_violence&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Macro"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Social science literature that examines how political violence affects the region, state, nation, and society. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="State-building">State-building</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_violence&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: State-building"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Charles Tilly argues that "war making", eliminating rivals outside a territory, "state making", eliminating rivals within a territory, "protection", protecting subjects within a territory, and "extraction", extracting resources to "[carry] out the first three activities", are what defines a state.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All four actives depend on the state's ability to use and <a href="/wiki/Monopoly_on_violence" title="Monopoly on violence">monopolize violence</a>. In other words, politically and non-politically motivated violence is necessary in state-building and building <a href="/wiki/Fiscal_capacity" title="Fiscal capacity">fiscal capacity</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Micro_2">Micro</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_violence&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Micro"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are a growing number of social science studies that examine how political violence affects individuals and households. It is important to keep in mind that what happens at the individual and household level can affect what happens at the macro level. For example, political violence effects an individual's income, health, and education attainment, but these individual consequences combined can effect a state or nation's economic growth.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In other words, the macro and micro consequences of political violence do not occur in a vacuum. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Political_impacts">Political impacts</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_violence&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Political impacts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are empirical studies that link violence with increases in political participation. One <a href="/wiki/Natural_experiment" title="Natural experiment">natural experiment</a> examines the effect of being abducted by <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Kony" title="Joseph Kony">Joseph Kony</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Lord%27s_Resistance_Army" title="Lord's Resistance Army">LRA</a> on political participation. An abducted male Ugandan youth, or in other words a former child soldier, had a greater probability of voting for <a href="/wiki/Ugandan_multi-party_referendum,_2005" class="mw-redirect" title="Ugandan multi-party referendum, 2005">Uganda's 2005 referendum</a> and being a community mobilizer/leader than a male Ugandan youth who was not abducted.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, this effect is not just contained to Uganda. Another natural experiment on the effects of the <a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone_Civil_War" title="Sierra Leone Civil War">Sierra Leone civil war</a> found that victimized households, household whose members were killed, injured, maimed, captured, or made refugees, were more likely to register to vote, attend community meetings, and participate in local political and community groups than households that did not experience violence.<sup id="cite_ref-Bellows_1144–1157_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bellows_1144–1157-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Economic_impacts">Economic impacts</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_violence&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Economic impacts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A study on the effects of the <a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone_Civil_War" title="Sierra Leone Civil War">Sierra Leone civil war</a> found that victimized households, household whose members were killed, injured, maimed, captured, or displaced, did not have long-term impacts on owning assets, child nutrition, consumption expenditures and earnings.<sup id="cite_ref-Bellows_1144–1157_70-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bellows_1144–1157-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Datasets">Datasets</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_violence&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: Datasets"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Primary_sources plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Primary_sources" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>relies excessively on <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">references</a> to <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">primary sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please improve this section by adding <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">secondary or tertiary sources</a>. <br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Political+violence%22">"Political violence"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Political+violence%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Political+violence%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Political+violence%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Political+violence%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Political+violence%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">April 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Armed_Conflict_Location_and_Event_Data_Project_(ACLED)"><span id="Armed_Conflict_Location_and_Event_Data_Project_.28ACLED.29"></span>Armed Conflict Location and Event Data Project (ACLED)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_violence&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: Armed Conflict Location and Event Data Project (ACLED)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Armed_Conflict_Location_and_Event_Data_Project" class="mw-redirect" title="Armed Conflict Location and Event Data Project">Armed Conflict Location and Event Data Project</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Armed_Conflict_Location_and_Event_Data_Project" class="mw-redirect" title="Armed Conflict Location and Event Data Project">Armed Conflict Location and Event Data Project</a> (ACLED) is a project that collates data on political violence and protest in <a href="/wiki/Developing_countries" class="mw-redirect" title="Developing countries">developing countries</a>, from 1997 to the present. As of early 2016, ACLED has recorded over 100,000 individual events, with ongoing data collection focused on <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a> and ten countries in <a href="/wiki/South_Asia" title="South Asia">South</a> and <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a>. The data can be used for medium- and long-term analysis and mapping of political violence across developing countries through use of historical data from 1997, as well as informing humanitarian and development work in crisis and conflict-affected contexts through real time data updates and reports.<sup id="cite_ref-ACLED_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ACLED-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>ACLED defines "political violence" as "the use of force by a group with a political purpose or motivation." The database uses this definition to catalog a number of what it refers to as political events across Africa and Southeast Asia. Political events are described as "a single altercation where often force is used by one or more groups for a political end. The data project catalogs nine different types of events.<sup id="cite_ref-acleddata.com_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-acleddata.com-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Human_Security_Report_Project_(HSRP)"><span id="Human_Security_Report_Project_.28HSRP.29"></span>Human Security Report Project (HSRP)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_violence&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: Human Security Report Project (HSRP)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Human_Security_Report_Project" title="Human Security Report Project">Human Security Report Project</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Human_Security_Report_Project" title="Human Security Report Project">Human Security Report Project</a> (HSRP) catalogs global and regional trends in organized violence, their causes and consequences. Research findings and analyses are published in the Human Security Report, Human Security Brief series, and the miniAtlas of Human Security based in Vancouver, Canada.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Using data from the <a href="/wiki/Uppsala_Conflict_Data_Program" title="Uppsala Conflict Data Program">Uppsala Conflict Data Program</a>, the report tracks 5 types of violence: </p> <ul><li><b>State-based armed conflict</b> is cataloged as international conflicts and civil wars—in which at least one of the warring parties is the government of a state.</li> <li><b>Interstate Conflicts</b> are conflicts between two states.</li> <li><b>Intrastate Conflicts</b> happen within a state such as a civil war.</li> <li><b>Non-state armed conflicts</b> are conflicts which consist of fighting between two armed groups, neither of which is the government of a state</li> <li><b>One-sided violence</b> is thought of as targeted attacks against unarmed civilians.<sup id="cite_ref-hsrgroup.org_14-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hsrgroup.org-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Uppsala_Conflict_Data_Program_(UCDP)"><span id="Uppsala_Conflict_Data_Program_.28UCDP.29"></span>Uppsala Conflict Data Program (UCDP)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_violence&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: Uppsala Conflict Data Program (UCDP)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Uppsala_Conflict_Data_Program" title="Uppsala Conflict Data Program">Uppsala Conflict Data Program</a></div> <ul><li class="mw-empty-elt"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes_and_references">Notes and references</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_violence&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: Notes and references"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFMcSherry2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/J._Patrice_McSherry" title="J. Patrice McSherry">McSherry, J. Patrice</a> (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=acGNAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA107">"Part 2: The Mechanisms of Violence – Chapter 5: "Industrial repression" and Operation Condor in Latin America"</a>. In Esparza, Marcia; Huttenbach, Henry R.; Feierstein, Daniel (eds.). <i>State Violence and Genocide in Latin America: The Cold War Years</i>. Routledge Critical Terrorism Studies (1st ed.). <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a> and <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York</a>: <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. p. 107. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-49637-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-49637-7"><bdi>978-0-415-49637-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1120355660">1120355660</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Part+2%3A+The+Mechanisms+of+Violence+%E2%80%93+Chapter+5%3A+%22Industrial+repression%22+and+Operation+Condor+in+Latin+America&rft.btitle=State+Violence+and+Genocide+in+Latin+America%3A+The+Cold+War+Years&rft.place=London+and+New+York&rft.series=Routledge+Critical+Terrorism+Studies&rft.pages=107&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1120355660&rft.isbn=978-0-415-49637-7&rft.aulast=McSherry&rft.aufirst=J.+Patrice&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DacGNAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA107&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+violence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Political_Stud.-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Political_Stud._2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Political_Stud._2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Political_Stud._2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBardallBjarnegårdPiscopo2020" class="citation journal cs1">Bardall, Gabrielle; Bjarnegård, Elin; Piscopo, Jennifer M. (November 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0032321719881812">"How is Political Violence Gendered? Disentangling Motives, Forms, and Impacts"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Political_Studies_(journal)" title="Political Studies (journal)">Political Studies</a></i>. <b>68</b> (4). <a href="/wiki/SAGE_Publications" class="mw-redirect" title="SAGE Publications">SAGE Publications</a> on behalf of the <a href="/wiki/Political_Studies_Association" title="Political Studies Association">Political Studies Association</a>: 916–935. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0032321719881812">10.1177/0032321719881812</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1467-9248">1467-9248</a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2008233815">2008233815</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1641383">1641383</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:213536755">213536755</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Political+Studies&rft.atitle=How+is+Political+Violence+Gendered%3F+Disentangling+Motives%2C+Forms%2C+and+Impacts&rft.volume=68&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=916-935&rft.date=2020-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A213536755%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0032321719881812&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1641383&rft.issn=1467-9248&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2008233815&rft.aulast=Bardall&rft.aufirst=Gabrielle&rft.au=Bjarneg%C3%A5rd%2C+Elin&rft.au=Piscopo%2C+Jennifer+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1177%252F0032321719881812&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+violence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Miller_2022-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Miller_2022_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Miller_2022_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Miller_2022_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiller2022" class="citation book cs1">Miller, Martin A. (2022). "The Dynamics of Entangled Political Violence: From the Greensboro Massacre (1979) to the War on Terror (2001)". In Larres, Klaus; Hof, Tobias (eds.). <i>Terrorism and Transatlantic Relations: Threats and Challenges</i>. Security, Conflict, and Cooperation in the Contemporary World (SCCCW). <a href="/wiki/Cham,_Switzerland" title="Cham, Switzerland">Cham, Switzerland</a>: <a href="/wiki/Palgrave_Macmillan" title="Palgrave Macmillan">Palgrave Macmillan</a>. pp. 33–42. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-030-83347-3_3">10.1007/978-3-030-83347-3_3</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-030-83347-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-030-83347-3"><bdi>978-3-030-83347-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:244740339">244740339</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Dynamics+of+Entangled+Political+Violence%3A+From+the+Greensboro+Massacre+%281979%29+to+the+War+on+Terror+%282001%29&rft.btitle=Terrorism+and+Transatlantic+Relations%3A+Threats+and+Challenges&rft.place=Cham%2C+Switzerland&rft.series=Security%2C+Conflict%2C+and+Cooperation+in+the+Contemporary+World+%28SCCCW%29&rft.pages=33-42&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2022&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A244740339%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-030-83347-3_3&rft.isbn=978-3-030-83347-3&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=Martin+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+violence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stepanova_2008-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Stepanova_2008_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stepanova_2008_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stepanova_2008_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStepanova2008" class="citation book cs1">Stepanova, Ekaterina (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sipri.org/sites/default/files/files/RR/SIPRIRR23.pdf"><i>Terrorism in Asymmetrical Conflict: Ideological and Structural Aspects</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. SIPRI Research Report. Vol. 23. <a href="/wiki/Oxford" title="Oxford">Oxford</a> and <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York</a>: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fe549992011-001">10.1037/e549992011-001</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-953356-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-953356-5"><bdi>978-0-19-953356-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/912414984">912414984</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:142573156">142573156</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220228121823/https://www.sipri.org/sites/default/files/files/RR/SIPRIRR23.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 28 February 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 March</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Terrorism+in+Asymmetrical+Conflict%3A+Ideological+and+Structural+Aspects&rft.place=Oxford+and+New+York&rft.series=SIPRI+Research+Report&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F912414984&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A142573156%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2Fe549992011-001&rft.isbn=978-0-19-953356-5&rft.aulast=Stepanova&rft.aufirst=Ekaterina&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sipri.org%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Ffiles%2FRR%2FSIPRIRR23.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+violence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rossi_2021-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rossi_2021_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rossi_2021_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rossi_2021_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rossi_2021_5-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRossi2021" class="citation journal cs1">Rossi, Federica (April 2021). Treiber, Kyle (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F14773708211008441">"The failed amnesty of the 'years of lead' in Italy: Continuity and transformations between (de)politicization and punitiveness"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/European_Journal_of_Criminology" title="European Journal of Criminology">European Journal of Criminology</a></i>. <b>20</b> (2). <a href="/wiki/Los_Angeles" title="Los Angeles">Los Angeles</a> and <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a>: <a href="/wiki/SAGE_Publications" class="mw-redirect" title="SAGE Publications">SAGE Publications</a> on behalf of the <a href="/wiki/European_Society_of_Criminology" title="European Society of Criminology">European Society of Criminology</a>: 381–400. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F14773708211008441">10.1177/14773708211008441</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1741-2609">1741-2609</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:234835036">234835036</a>. <q>The <a href="/wiki/Years_of_Lead_(Italy)" title="Years of Lead (Italy)">1970s in Italy</a> were characterized by the persistence and prolongation of political and social unrest that many Western countries experienced during the late 1960s. The decade saw the multiplication of <a href="/wiki/Far-left_politics" title="Far-left politics">far-left</a> <a href="/wiki/Terrorism_in_Italy" title="Terrorism in Italy">extra-parliamentary organizations</a>, the presence of a <a href="/wiki/Militant" title="Militant">militant</a> <a href="/wiki/Far-right_politics_in_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Far-right politics in Italy">far right movement</a>, and an upsurge in the use of politically motivated violence and an upsurge in the use of repressive measures by a state. The increasing militarization and the increasing use of political violence, from <a href="/wiki/Sabotage" title="Sabotage">sabotage</a> and damage to property, to <a href="/wiki/Kidnapping" title="Kidnapping">kidnappings</a> and <a href="/wiki/Targeted_killing" title="Targeted killing">targeted assassinations</a>, were justified by left-wing groups both as necessary means to achieve a revolutionary project and as defences against the threat of a <a href="/wiki/Neo-fascism" title="Neo-fascism">neo-fascist</a> coup.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=European+Journal+of+Criminology&rft.atitle=The+failed+amnesty+of+the+%27years+of+lead%27+in+Italy%3A+Continuity+and+transformations+between+%28de%29politicization+and+punitiveness&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=381-400&rft.date=2021-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A234835036%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1741-2609&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F14773708211008441&rft.aulast=Rossi&rft.aufirst=Federica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1177%252F14773708211008441&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+violence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Balcells-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Balcells_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Balcells_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Balcells_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBalcellsStanton2021" class="citation journal cs1">Balcells, Laia; Stanton, Jessica A. (May 2021). <a href="/wiki/Margaret_Levi" title="Margaret Levi">Levi, Margaret</a>; <a href="/wiki/Nancy_L._Rosenblum" title="Nancy L. Rosenblum">Rosenblum, Nancy L.</a> (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev-polisci-041719-102229">"Violence Against Civilians During Armed Conflict: Moving Beyond the Macro- and Micro-Level Divide"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Annual_Review_of_Political_Science" title="Annual Review of Political Science">Annual Review of Political Science</a></i>. <b>24</b> (1). <a href="/wiki/Annual_Reviews_(publisher)" title="Annual Reviews (publisher)">Annual Reviews</a>: 45–69. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev-polisci-041719-102229">10.1146/annurev-polisci-041719-102229</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1545-1577">1545-1577</a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/98643699">98643699</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/42836185">42836185</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:229425267">229425267</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Political+Science&rft.atitle=Violence+Against+Civilians+During+Armed+Conflict%3A+Moving+Beyond+the+Macro-+and+Micro-Level+Divide&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=45-69&rft.date=2021-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A229425267%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev-polisci-041719-102229&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F42836185&rft.issn=1545-1577&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F98643699&rft.aulast=Balcells&rft.aufirst=Laia&rft.au=Stanton%2C+Jessica+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1146%252Fannurev-polisci-041719-102229&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+violence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGalland2020" class="citation book cs1">Galland, Olivier (2020). "Religious Radicalism: from Absolutism to Violence". In Galland, Olivier; Muxel, Anne (eds.). <i>Radical Thought among the Young: A Survey of French Lycée Students</i>. Youth in a Globalizing World. Vol. 11. 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Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-973747-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-973747-5"><bdi>978-0-19-973747-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Victims%27+Rights+and+Advocacy+at+the+International+Criminal+Court&rft.place=Oxford%2C+England&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-19-973747-5&rft.aulast=Funk&rft.aufirst=T.+Marcus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fglobal.oup.com%2Facademic%2Fproduct%2Fvictims-rights-and-advocacy-at-the-international-criminal-court-9780199941469&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+violence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-What_is_Genocide-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-What_is_Genocide_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://efchr.mcgill.ca/WhatIsGenocide_en.php?menu=2">What is Genocide?</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070505161753/http://efchr.mcgill.ca/WhatIsGenocide_en.php?menu=2">Archived</a> 2007-05-05 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> McGill Faculty of Law (<a href="/wiki/McGill_University" title="McGill University">McGill University</a>)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amnesty.org/en/library/info/ACT40/014/2005/en">"Torture and Ill-Treatment in the 'War on Terror'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Amnesty_International" title="Amnesty International">Amnesty International</a>. 2005-11-01<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-10-22</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Torture+and+Ill-Treatment+in+the+%27War+on+Terror%27&rft.pub=Amnesty+International&rft.date=2005-11-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.amnesty.org%2Fen%2Flibrary%2Finfo%2FACT40%2F014%2F2005%2Fen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+violence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Amnesty_International" title="Amnesty International">Amnesty International</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web.amnesty.org/library/index/engPOL100012005">Report 2005</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050601024732/http://web.amnesty.org/library/index/engPOL100012005">Archived</a> 2005-06-01 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070317170847/http://web.amnesty.org/report2006/2af-summary-eng">Report 2006</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Amnesty08-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Amnesty08_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080708202906/http://thereport.amnesty.org/eng/report-08-at-a-glance">"Report 08: At a Glance"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Amnesty_International" title="Amnesty International">Amnesty International</a>. 2008. 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(1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2095806">"Dependency and Rebellion: A Cross-National Analysis"</a>. <i>American Sociological Review</i>. <b>55</b> (4): 540–559. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2095806">10.2307/2095806</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0003-1224">0003-1224</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2095806">2095806</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Sociological+Review&rft.atitle=Dependency+and+Rebellion%3A+A+Cross-National+Analysis&rft.volume=55&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=540-559&rft.date=1990&rft.issn=0003-1224&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2095806%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2095806&rft.aulast=Boswell&rft.aufirst=Terry&rft.au=Dixon%2C+William+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2095806&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+violence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rebellion_:0-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rebellion_:0_29-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rebellion_:0_29-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKasfir2015" class="citation cs2">Kasfir, Nelson (2015), Arjona, Ana; Kasfir, Nelson; Mampilly, Zachariah (eds.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/rebel-governance-in-civil-war/rebel-governance-constructing-a-field-of-inquiry-definitions-scope-patterns-order-causes/79377BBCB3E7A314EA9FFCDEE3902203">"Rebel Governance – Constructing a Field of Inquiry: Definitions, Scope, Patterns, Order, Causes"</a>, <i>Rebel Governance in Civil War</i>, Cambridge University Press, p. 24, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-10222-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-10222-4"><bdi>978-1-107-10222-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Rebel+Governance+in+Civil+War&rft.atitle=Rebel+Governance+%E2%80%93+Constructing+a+Field+of+Inquiry%3A+Definitions%2C+Scope%2C+Patterns%2C+Order%2C+Causes&rft.pages=24&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-107-10222-4&rft.aulast=Kasfir&rft.aufirst=Nelson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fbooks%2Frebel-governance-in-civil-war%2Frebel-governance-constructing-a-field-of-inquiry-definitions-scope-patterns-order-causes%2F79377BBCB3E7A314EA9FFCDEE3902203&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+violence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/rebel">"Definition of REBEL"</a>. <i>www.merriam-webster.com</i>. 2024-10-13<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 August</span> 2021</span>. <q>This spiral of strategic violence is not merely a theoretical possibility: some of the leading empirical work on revolutions indicates that it is typical of the revolutionary environment.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Revolution&rft.btitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.edition=Fall+2017&rft.date=2017&rft.aulast=Buchanan&rft.aufirst=Allen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Frevolution%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+violence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeedeMuller1998" class="citation journal cs1">Weede, Erich; Muller, Edward N. (1998). 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-05-13</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Human+Security+Report+Project%3A+About+Us&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hsrgroup.org%2Fabout-hsrp%2Fabout-us.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+violence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_violence&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Hollander" title="Paul Hollander">Paul Hollander</a>, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20130128034102/http://us.macmillan.com/politicalviolence">Political Violence</a>: Belief, Behavior, and Legitimation</i>, <a href="/wiki/Palgrave_Macmillan" title="Palgrave Macmillan">Palgrave Macmillan</a>, 2008.</li> <li>Philip Herbst, <i>Talking terrorism: a dictionary of the loaded language of political violence</i>, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2003.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_violence&action=edit&section=55" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Political_violence" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Political violence">Political violence</a> at Wikimedia Commons</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.marsh.com/us/services/political-risk/insights/political-risk-report.html">Political Risk Report</a> by <a href="/wiki/Marsh_McLennan" title="Marsh McLennan">Marsh McLennan</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline 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id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3399774#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3399774#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, 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href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12534189r">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12534189r">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="politické násilí"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph115877&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007551496405171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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