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</li> <li id="toc-Intermediate_Era_(379–498)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Intermediate_Era_(379–498)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Intermediate Era (379–498)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Intermediate_Era_(379–498)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Second_Golden_Era_(498–622)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Second_Golden_Era_(498–622)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Second Golden Era (498–622)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Second_Golden_Era_(498–622)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Decline_and_fall_(622–651)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Decline_and_fall_(622–651)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Decline and fall (622–651)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Decline_and_fall_(622–651)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Descendants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Descendants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Descendants</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Descendants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Government" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Government"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Government</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Government-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Government subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Government-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sasanian_military" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sasanian_military"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Sasanian military</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sasanian_military-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Role_of_priests" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Role_of_priests"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.1</span> <span>Role of priests</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Role_of_priests-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Infantry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Infantry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.2</span> <span>Infantry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Infantry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Navy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Navy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.3</span> <span>Navy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Navy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cavalry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cavalry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.4</span> <span>Cavalry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cavalry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Relations_with_neighboring_regimes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relations_with_neighboring_regimes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Relations with neighboring regimes</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Relations_with_neighboring_regimes-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Relations with neighboring regimes subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Relations_with_neighboring_regimes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Frequent_warfare_with_the_Romans_and_to_a_lesser_extent_others" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Frequent_warfare_with_the_Romans_and_to_a_lesser_extent_others"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Frequent warfare with the Romans and to a lesser extent others</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Frequent_warfare_with_the_Romans_and_to_a_lesser_extent_others-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-War_with_Axum" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#War_with_Axum"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>War with Axum</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-War_with_Axum-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Relations_with_China" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relations_with_China"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Relations with China</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relations_with_China-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Relations_with_India" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relations_with_India"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Relations with India</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relations_with_India-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Society" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Society"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Society</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Society-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Society subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Society-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Urbanism_and_nomadism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Urbanism_and_nomadism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Urbanism and nomadism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Urbanism_and_nomadism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Shahanshah" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Shahanshah"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Shahanshah</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Shahanshah-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Class_division" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Class_division"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Class division</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Class_division-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Slavery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Slavery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Slavery</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Slavery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Culture</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Culture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Culture subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Education</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Society_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Society_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Society</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Society_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arts,_science,_and_literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arts,_science,_and_literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Arts, science, and literature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arts,_science,_and_literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Economy</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Economy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Economy subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Economy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Industry_and_trade" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Industry_and_trade"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Industry and trade</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Industry_and_trade-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Religion</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Religion-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Religion subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Zoroastrianism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Zoroastrianism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Zoroastrianism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Zoroastrianism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Tansar_and_his_justification_for_Ardashir_I's_rebellion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tansar_and_his_justification_for_Ardashir_I's_rebellion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1.1</span> <span>Tansar and his justification for Ardashir I's rebellion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tansar_and_his_justification_for_Ardashir_I's_rebellion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Influence_of_Kartir" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Influence_of_Kartir"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1.2</span> <span>Influence of Kartir</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Influence_of_Kartir-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Zoroastrian_calendar_reforms_under_the_Sasanians" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Zoroastrian_calendar_reforms_under_the_Sasanians"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1.3</span> <span>Zoroastrian calendar reforms under the Sasanians</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Zoroastrian_calendar_reforms_under_the_Sasanians-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Three_Great_Fires" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Three_Great_Fires"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1.4</span> <span>Three Great Fires</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Three_Great_Fires-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Iconoclasm_and_the_elevation_of_Persian_over_other_Iranian_languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Iconoclasm_and_the_elevation_of_Persian_over_other_Iranian_languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1.5</span> <span>Iconoclasm and the elevation of Persian over other Iranian languages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Iconoclasm_and_the_elevation_of_Persian_over_other_Iranian_languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Developments_in_Zoroastrian_literature_and_liturgy_by_the_Sasanians" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Developments_in_Zoroastrian_literature_and_liturgy_by_the_Sasanians"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1.6</span> <span>Developments in Zoroastrian literature and liturgy by the Sasanians</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Developments_in_Zoroastrian_literature_and_liturgy_by_the_Sasanians-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Christianity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Christianity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Christianity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Christianity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_religions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_religions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>Other religions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_religions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Language" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Language"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Language</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Language-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Language subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Language-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Official_languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Official_languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Official languages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Official_languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Regional_languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Regional_languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Regional languages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Regional_languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy_and_importance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy_and_importance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Legacy and importance</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Legacy_and_importance-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Legacy and importance subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Legacy_and_importance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-In_Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>In Europe</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_Jewish_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_Jewish_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.2</span> <span>In Jewish history</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_Jewish_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_India" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_India"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.3</span> <span>In India</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_India-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chronology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chronology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Chronology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chronology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">17</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Sasanian Empire</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 101 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-101" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">101 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sassanidiese_Ryk" title="Sassanidiese Ryk – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Sassanidiese Ryk" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D9%85%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B7%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="الإمبراطورية الساسانية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الإمبراطورية الساسانية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperio_Sasanida" title="Imperio Sasanida – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Imperio Sasanida" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8D%D5%A1%D5%BD%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%A5%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%8A%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%BD%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%BD%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%B6" title="Սասանեան Պարսկաստան – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Սասանեան Պարսկաստան" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Արեւմտահայերէն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperiu_sas%C3%A1nida" title="Imperiu sasánida – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Imperiu sasánida" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-av mw-list-item"><a href="https://av.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B7%D1%83%D0%BB_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Сасанилазул империя – Avaric" lang="av" hreflang="av" data-title="Сасанилазул империя" data-language-autonym="Авар" data-language-local-name="Avaric" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Авар</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sasanil%C9%99r_imperiyas%C4%B1" title="Sasanilər imperiyası – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Sasanilər imperiyası" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%D9%84%D8%B1" title="ساسانیلر – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="ساسانیلر" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF" title="সাসানীয় সাম্রাজ্য – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="সাসানীয় সাম্রাজ্য" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sasan_T%C3%A8-kok" title="Sasan Tè-kok – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Sasan Tè-kok" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D3%99%D1%81%D3%99%D0%BD%D0%B8%D2%99%D3%99%D1%80_%D0%B4%D3%99%D2%AF%D0%BB%D3%99%D1%82%D0%B5" title="Сәсәниҙәр дәүләте – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Сәсәниҙәр дәүләте" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B7%D1%8F%D1%80%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D0%A1%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%9E" title="Дзяржава Сасанідаў – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Дзяржава Сасанідаў" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B7%D1%8F%D1%80%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D0%A1%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%9E" title="Дзяржава Сасанідаў – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Дзяржава Сасанідаў" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B4%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Сасанидска империя – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Сасанидска империя" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sasanidsko_Carstvo" title="Sasanidsko Carstvo – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Sasanidsko Carstvo" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sasanided" title="Sasanided – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Sasanided" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperi_Sass%C3%A0nida" title="Imperi Sassànida – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Imperi Sassànida" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B4%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%88%D0%B0%D0%BB%D3%91%D1%85%D3%97" title="Сасанидсен патшалӑхӗ – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Сасанидсен патшалӑхӗ" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A1s%C3%A1novsk%C3%A1_%C5%99%C3%AD%C5%A1e" title="Sásánovská říše – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Sásánovská říše" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sassaniaid" title="Sassaniaid – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Sassaniaid" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sassaniderne" title="Sassaniderne – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Sassaniderne" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sassanidenreich" title="Sassanidenreich – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Sassanidenreich" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sassaniidide_riik" title="Sassaniidide riik – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Sassaniidide riik" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CF%85%CF%84%CE%BF%CE%BA%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%B1_%CF%84%CF%89%CE%BD_%CE%A3%CE%B1%CF%83%CF%83%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%B4%CF%8E%CE%BD" title="Αυτοκρατορία των Σασσανιδών – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Αυτοκρατορία των Σασσανιδών" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperio_sas%C3%A1nida" title="Imperio sasánida – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Imperio sasánida" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sasanida_Imperio" title="Sasanida Imperio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Sasanida Imperio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sasandar_Inperioa" title="Sasandar Inperioa – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Sasandar Inperioa" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%87%D9%86%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%87%DB%8C_%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C" title="شاهنشاهی ساسانی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="شاهنشاهی ساسانی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sassanides" title="Sassanides – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Sassanides" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sassanidyske_Ryk" title="Sassanidyske Ryk – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Sassanidyske Ryk" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperio_Sas%C3%A1nida" title="Imperio Sasánida – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Imperio Sasánida" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%B8%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%B8%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%A8%E0%AB%80_%E0%AA%B8%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%AE%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%B0%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%9C%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%AF" title="સાસાની સામ્રાજ્ય – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="સાસાની સામ્રાજ્ય" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ગુજરાતી</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%82%AC%EC%82%B0_%EC%A0%9C%EA%B5%AD" title="사산 제국 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="사산 제국" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daular_Sasanian" title="Daular Sasanian – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Daular Sasanian" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8D%D5%A1%D5%BD%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B5%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%8A%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%BD%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%BD%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%B6" title="Սասանյան Պարսկաստան – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Սասանյան Պարսկաստան" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF" title="सासानी साम्राज्य – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="सासानी साम्राज्य" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sasanidsko_Perzijsko_Carstvo" title="Sasanidsko Perzijsko Carstvo – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Sasanidsko Perzijsko Carstvo" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kekaisaran_Sasaniyah" title="Kekaisaran Sasaniyah – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kekaisaran Sasaniyah" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sassan%C3%ADdar" title="Sassanídar – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Sassanídar" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impero_sasanide" title="Impero sasanide – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Impero sasanide" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%90%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%94%D7%A1%D7%90%D7%A1%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%AA" title="האימפריה הסאסאנית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="האימפריה הסאסאנית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%97%E1%83%90_%E1%83%98%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9E%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="სასანიანთა იმპერია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="სასანიანთა იმპერია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D3%99%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%96" title="Сасани әулеті – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Сасани әулеті" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milki_ya_Wasasani" title="Milki ya Wasasani – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Milki ya Wasasani" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%8Emperatoriya_Sasan%C3%AE" title="Împeratoriya Sasanî – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Împeratoriya Sasanî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%80_%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8" title="Сасанийлер мамлекети – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Сасанийлер мамлекети" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regnum_Sassanidarum" title="Regnum Sassanidarum – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Regnum Sassanidarum" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sasan%C4%ABdu_imp%C4%93rija" title="Sasanīdu impērija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Sasanīdu impērija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sasanid%C5%B3_imperija" title="Sasanidų imperija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Sasanidų imperija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impero_Sasanan" title="Impero Sasanan – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Impero Sasanan" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sz%C3%A1sz%C3%A1nida_Birodalom" title="Szászánida Birodalom – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Szászánida Birodalom" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B4%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE_%D0%A6%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Сасанидско Царство – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Сасанидско Царство" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empira_Sasanida" title="Empira Sasanida – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Empira Sasanida" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%BB_%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%9C%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%82" title="സസാനിയൻ സാമ്രാജ്യം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="സസാനിയൻ സാമ്രാജ്യം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A6_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF" title="सासानिद साम्राज्य – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="सासानिद साम्राज्य" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98%E1%83%A8_%E1%83%98%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9E%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="სასანიანეფიშ იმპერია – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="სასანიანეფიშ იმპერია" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%87%D9%86%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%87%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="الشاهنشاهية الساسانية – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="الشاهنشاهية الساسانية" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%86" title="ساسانیون – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="ساسانیون" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مازِرونی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empayar_Sasan" title="Empayar Sasan – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Empayar Sasan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sassaniden" title="Sassaniden – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Sassaniden" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF" title="सासानी साम्राज्य – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="सासानी साम्राज्य" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF" title="सासानी साम्राज्य – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="सासानी साम्राज्य" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B5%E3%83%BC%E3%82%B5%E3%83%BC%E3%83%B3%E6%9C%9D" title="サーサーン朝 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="サーサーン朝" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sasanideriket" title="Sasanideriket – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Sasanideriket" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sasanidane" title="Sasanidane – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Sasanidane" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emp%C3%A8ri_Sassanida" title="Empèri Sassanida – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Empèri Sassanida" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sosoniylar_davlati" title="Sosoniylar davlati – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Sosoniylar davlati" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EF%BB%BF%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%A8%E0%A9%80_%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%B2%E0%A8%A4%E0%A8%A8%E0%A8%A4" title="ਸਾਸਾਨੀ ਸਲਤਨਤ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਸਾਸਾਨੀ ਸਲਤਨਤ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C_%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%B7%D9%86%D8%AA" title="ساسانی سلطنت – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="ساسانی سلطنت" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88_%D9%88%D8%A7%DA%A9%D9%85%D9%86%D9%8A" title="د ساسانيانو واکمني – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د ساسانيانو واکمني" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sassanidenriek" title="Sassanidenriek – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Sassanidenriek" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperium_Sasanid%C3%B3w" title="Imperium Sasanidów – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Imperium Sasanidów" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imp%C3%A9rio_Sass%C3%A2nida" title="Império Sassânida – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Império Sassânida" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperiul_Sasanid" title="Imperiul Sasanid – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Imperiul Sasanid" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D0%A1%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B2" title="Государство Сасанидов – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Государство Сасанидов" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Sasanian Empire" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perandoria_Sasanide" title="Perandoria Sasanide – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Perandoria Sasanide" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sassanid_Empire" title="Sassanid Empire – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Sassanid Empire" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A_%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%B7%D9%86%D8%AA" title="ساساني سلطنت – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="ساساني سلطنت" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novoperzsk%C3%A1_r%C3%AD%C5%A1a" title="Novoperzská ríša – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Novoperzská ríša" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sasanidsko_cesarstvo" title="Sasanidsko cesarstvo – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Sasanidsko cesarstvo" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%DB%8C%D9%85%D9%BE%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA%DB%86%D8%B1%DB%8C%DB%95%D8%AA%DB%8C%DB%8C_%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C" title="ئیمپراتۆریەتیی ساسانی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ئیمپراتۆریەتیی ساسانی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B4%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE_%D1%86%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Сасанидско царство – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Сасанидско царство" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sasanidska_Monarhija" title="Sasanidska Monarhija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Sasanidska Monarhija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sassanidit" title="Sassanidit – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Sassanidit" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sasaniderna" title="Sasaniderna – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Sasaniderna" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperyong_Sasanida" title="Imperyong Sasanida – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Imperyong Sasanida" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%87%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%81" title="சாசானியப் பேரரசு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="சாசானியப் பேரரசு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80_%D0%B4%D3%99%D2%AF%D0%BB%D3%99%D1%82%D0%B5" title="Сасанидлар дәүләте – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Сасанидлар дәүләте" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%8B%E0%B8%B2%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%8B%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%99" title="จักรวรรดิซาเซเนียน – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="จักรวรรดิซาเซเนียน" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D0%BE%D2%B3%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%88%D0%BE%D2%B3%D0%B8%D0%B8_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BD%D3%A3" title="Шоҳаншоҳии Сосонӣ – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Шоҳаншоҳии Сосонӣ" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sasani_%C4%B0mparatorlu%C4%9Fu" title="Sasani İmparatorluğu – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Sasani İmparatorluğu" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D0%A1%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%B4%D1%96%D0%B2" title="Держава Сасанідів – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Держава Сасанідів" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C_%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%B7%D9%86%D8%AA" title="ساسانی سلطنت – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="ساسانی سلطنت" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%BF_qu%E1%BB%91c_Sasan" title="Đế quốc Sasan – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Đế quốc Sasan" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperyo_Sasanida" title="Imperyo Sasanida – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Imperyo Sasanida" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%90%A8%E7%8F%8A%E7%8E%8B%E6%9C%9D" title="萨珊王朝 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="萨珊王朝" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/30px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"><span class="mw-redirectedfrom">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sassanid_era&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Sassanid era">Sassanid era</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Last pre-Islamic Iranian empire (224–651 AD)</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1043282317">.mw-parser-output .ib-country{border-collapse:collapse;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country td,.mw-parser-output .ib-country th{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-header,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-full-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-below{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-full-data{border:0;padding:0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-full-data{border-top:0;border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-header{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-above{font-size:125%;line-height:1.2}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-names{padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-name-style{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-image{padding:0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-anthem{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding-top:0.5em;margin-top:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-largest,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-lang{font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-ethnic,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-religion,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-sovereignty{font-weight:normal;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li{text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li2{text-indent:0.5em;margin-left:1em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-website{line-height:11pt}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption3{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn{text-align:left;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-num{margin-left:1em}</style><table class="infobox ib-country vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above adr"><div class="fn org country-name">Empire of the Iranians</div><div class="ib-country-names"><span title="Middle Persian-language text"><span lang="pal" dir="rtl">𐭠𐭩𐭥𐭠𐭭𐭱𐭲𐭥𐭩</span></span> <span class="languageicon" style="font-size:100%; font-weight:normal">(<a href="/wiki/Middle_Persian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle Persian language">Middle Persian</a>)</span><br /><span title="Middle Persian-language romanization"><i lang="pal-Latn">Ērānšahr</i></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader">224–651</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><div class="noresize" style="display:table; width:100%;"> <div style="display:table-cell; vertical-align:middle; padding-left:5px;"> <div style="padding-bottom:3px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Derafsh_kaviani.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Flag of Persia"><img alt="Flag of Persia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Derafsh_kaviani.svg/100px-Derafsh_kaviani.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Derafsh_kaviani.svg/150px-Derafsh_kaviani.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Derafsh_kaviani.svg/200px-Derafsh_kaviani.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div> <div><a href="/wiki/Derafsh_Kaviani" title="Derafsh Kaviani">Derafsh Kaviani</a><br />(imperial standard)</div> </div> <div style="display:table-cell; vertical-align:middle; padding: 0px 5px;"> <div style="padding-bottom:3px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Senmurv.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Simurgh (imperial emblem) of Persia"><img alt="Simurgh (imperial emblem) of Persia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Senmurv.svg/85px-Senmurv.svg.png" decoding="async" width="85" height="85" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Senmurv.svg/128px-Senmurv.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Senmurv.svg/170px-Senmurv.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="644" data-file-height="645" /></a></span></div> <div><a href="/wiki/Simurgh" title="Simurgh">Simurgh</a><br />(imperial emblem)</div> </div> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Sasanian_Empire_at_its_apex_under_Khosrow_II.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Sasanian Empire at its greatest extent, c. 620, under Khosrow II[citation needed]"><img alt="The Sasanian Empire at its greatest extent, c. 620, under Khosrow II[citation needed]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/The_Sasanian_Empire_at_its_apex_under_Khosrow_II.svg/250px-The_Sasanian_Empire_at_its_apex_under_Khosrow_II.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/The_Sasanian_Empire_at_its_apex_under_Khosrow_II.svg/375px-The_Sasanian_Empire_at_its_apex_under_Khosrow_II.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/The_Sasanian_Empire_at_its_apex_under_Khosrow_II.svg/500px-The_Sasanian_Empire_at_its_apex_under_Khosrow_II.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2474" data-file-height="1452" /></a></span><div class="ib-country-map-caption">The Sasanian Empire at its greatest extent, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 620</span>, under <a href="/wiki/Khosrow_II" title="Khosrow II">Khosrow II</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Capital</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Istakhr" title="Istakhr">Istakhr</a> <small>(224–226)</small><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ctesiphon" title="Ctesiphon">Ctesiphon</a> <small>(226–637)</small></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Common languages</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Persian" title="Middle Persian">Middle Persian</a> <small>(official)</small><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaryaee200899–100_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaryaee200899–100-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br /><a href="#Regional_languages">Other languages</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Religion <div class="ib-country-religion"></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a> <small>(official)</small></li><li><small><a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_East" title="Church of the East">Christianity</a></small></li><li><small><a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a></small></li><li><small><a href="/wiki/Manichaeism" title="Manichaeism">Manichaeism</a></small></li><li><small><a href="/wiki/Mazdakism" title="Mazdakism">Mazdakism</a></small></li><li><small><a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a></small></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Politics of Persia">Government</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Examples_of_feudalism" title="Examples of feudalism">Feudal</a> <a href="/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy">monarchy</a><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/List_of_monarchs_of_the_Sasanian_Empire" title="List of monarchs of the Sasanian Empire">Shahanshah</a></th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 224–241 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Ardashir_I" title="Ardashir I">Ardashir I</a> <small>(first)</small></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 632–651 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Yazdegerd_III" title="Yazdegerd III">Yazdegerd III</a> <small>(last)</small></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Historical era</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Late_Antiquity" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Antiquity">Late Antiquity</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hormozdgan" title="Battle of Hormozdgan">Battle of Hormozdgan</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">28 April 224</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• The <a href="/wiki/Iberian_War" title="Iberian War">Iberian War</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">526–532</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Sasanian_War_of_602%E2%80%93628" title="Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628">Climactic Roman–Sasanian War of 602–628</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">602–628</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_civil_war_of_628%E2%80%93632" title="Sasanian civil war of 628–632">Civil war</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPourshariati20084_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPourshariati20084-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">628–632</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Persia" title="Muslim conquest of Persia">Rashidun conquest</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">633–651</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Sasanian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Fall of the Sasanian Empire">Empire collapses</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">651</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Area</th></tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">550<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></th><td class="infobox-data">3,500,000 km<sup>2</sup> (1,400,000 sq mi)</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"> <table style="width:95%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; display:inline-table;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="text-align:center; border:0; padding-bottom:0"><div id="before-after"></div> <b>Preceded by</b></td> <td style="text-align:center;border:0; padding-bottom:0;"><b>Succeeded by</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; border:0;"> <table style="width:100%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian Empire</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Iberia" title="Kingdom of Iberia">Kingdom of Iberia</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushan Empire</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(antiquity)" title="Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)">Kingdom of Armenia</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Persis" title="Kings of Persis">Kings of Persis</a> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center;border:0;"> <table style="width:92%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun Caliphate</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Dabuyid_dynasty" title="Dabuyid dynasty">Dabuyid dynasty</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Bavand_dynasty" title="Bavand dynasty">Bavand dynasty</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Zarmihrids" title="Zarmihrids">Zarmihrids</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Masmughans_of_Damavand" title="Masmughans of Damavand">Masmughans of Damavand</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Qarinvand_dynasty" title="Qarinvand dynasty">Qarinvand dynasty</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Tokhara_Yabghus" title="Tokhara Yabghus">Tokhara Yabghus</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output 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.sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><div class="sidebar-pretitle" style="margin: -0.2em 0; font-size:69%; font-weight:normal;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Iran" title="Category:History of Iran">a series</a> on the</div></th> </tr><tr> <th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style=""><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iran" title="History of Iran">History of <span class="fn org label">Iran</span></a></th> </tr><tr><td style="padding-bottom: 0.4em; border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wall_decoration_from_Ctesiphon_DP-1091-001.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Wall_decoration_from_Ctesiphon_DP-1091-001.jpg/200px-Wall_decoration_from_Ctesiphon_DP-1091-001.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Wall_decoration_from_Ctesiphon_DP-1091-001.jpg/300px-Wall_decoration_from_Ctesiphon_DP-1091-001.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Wall_decoration_from_Ctesiphon_DP-1091-001.jpg/400px-Wall_decoration_from_Ctesiphon_DP-1091-001.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="2201" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Prehistory_of_Iran" title="Prehistory of Iran">Prehistoric period</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><i><a href="/wiki/Common_Era" title="Common Era">BCE / BC</a></i> <table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Baradostian_culture" title="Baradostian culture">Baradostian culture</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 36,000–18,000</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Zarzian_culture" title="Zarzian culture">Zarzian culture</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 20,000–10,000</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Shulaveri%E2%80%93Shomu_culture" title="Shulaveri–Shomu culture">Shulaveri–Shomu culture</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 6000–5000</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Zayandeh_River_Culture" title="Zayandeh River Culture">Zayandeh River Culture</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 6th millennium</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Dalma_culture" title="Dalma culture">Dalma culture</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 5th millennium</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iran#Prehistory" title="History of Iran">Ancient period</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Kura%E2%80%93Araxes_culture" title="Kura–Araxes culture">Kura–Araxes culture</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 3400–2000</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Helmand_culture" title="Helmand culture">Helmand culture</a>/<a href="/wiki/Jiroft_culture" title="Jiroft culture">Jiroft culture</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 3300–2200</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Proto-Elamite" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Elamite">Proto-Elamite</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 3200–2700</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Lullubi" title="Lullubi">Lullubi Kingdom</a>/<a href="/wiki/Zamua" title="Zamua">Zamua</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 3100-675</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Elam" title="Elam">Elam</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 2700–539</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Marhasi" title="Marhasi">Marhaši</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2550-2020</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Bactria%E2%80%93Margiana_Archaeological_Complex" title="Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex">Oxus Civilization</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2400–1700</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian Empire</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 2400–2150</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Kassites" title="Kassites">Kassites</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1500–1155</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Avestan_period" title="Avestan period">Avestan period</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1500–500</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian Empire</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 911–609</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Urartu" title="Urartu">Urartu</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 860–590</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Mannaea" title="Mannaea">Mannaea</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 850–616</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Zikirti" title="Zikirti">Zikirti</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 750-521</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Saparda" title="Saparda">Saparda</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 720-670</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iran#Classical_antiquity" title="History of Iran">Imperial period</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Median_state" class="mw-redirect" title="Median state">Median Empire</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 678–550 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Scythians" title="Scythians">Scythian Kingdom</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 652–625 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Teispids" title="Teispids">Anshanite Kingdom</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 635 BC–550 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian Empire</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 626 BC–539 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Sogdia" title="Sogdia">Sogdia</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 6th century BC</span>–11th century AD</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 550 BC–330 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(antiquity)" title="Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)">Kingdom of Armenia</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 331 BC–428 AD</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Atropatene" title="Atropatene">Atropatene</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 323 BC</span>–226 AD</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Cappadocia" title="Kingdom of Cappadocia">Kingdom of Cappadocia</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 320s BC–17 AD</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 312 BC–63 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Pontus" title="Kingdom of Pontus">Kingdom of Pontus</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 281 BC–62 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Fratarakas" class="mw-redirect" title="Fratarakas">Fratarakas</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 3rd-century BC–132 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian Empire</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 247 BC–224 AD</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Elymais" title="Elymais">Elymais</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 147 BC–224 AD</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Characene" title="Characene">Characene</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 141 BC–222 AD</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Persis" title="Kings of Persis">Kings of Persis</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 132 BC–224 AD</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Indo-Parthian_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Parthian Kingdom">Indo-Parthian Kingdom</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 19 AD–224/5</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Paratarajas" title="Paratarajas">Paratarajas</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 125–300</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Sasanian Empire</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 224–651</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Zarmihrids" title="Zarmihrids">Zarmihrids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 6th century–785</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Qarinvand_dynasty" title="Qarinvand dynasty">Qarinvandids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 550s–11th century</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iran#Medieval_period" title="History of Iran">Medieval period</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><i><a href="/wiki/Common_Era" title="Common Era">CE / AD</a></i> <table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun Caliphate</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 632-661</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 661–750</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid Caliphate</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 750–1258</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Dabuyid_dynasty" title="Dabuyid dynasty">Dabuyids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 642–760</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Bavand_dynasty" title="Bavand dynasty">Bavandids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 651–1349</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Masmughans_of_Damavand" title="Masmughans of Damavand">Masmughans of Damavand</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 651–760</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Baduspanids" title="Baduspanids">Baduspanids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 665–1598</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Justanids" title="Justanids">Justanids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 791 – 11th century</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Alid_dynasties_of_northern_Iran" title="Alid dynasties of northern Iran">Alid dynasties</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 864 – 14th century</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Tahirid_dynasty" title="Tahirid dynasty">Tahirid dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 821–873</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Samanid_Empire" title="Samanid Empire">Samanid Empire</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 819–999</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Saffarid_dynasty" title="Saffarid dynasty">Saffarid dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 861–1003</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Ghurid_dynasty" title="Ghurid dynasty">Ghurid dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> pre-879 – 1215</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Sajid_dynasty" title="Sajid dynasty">Sajid dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 889–929</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Sallarid_dynasty" title="Sallarid dynasty">Sallarid dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 919–1062</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Ziyarid_dynasty" title="Ziyarid dynasty">Ziyarid dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 930–1090</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Banu_Ilyas" title="Banu Ilyas">Ilyasids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 932–968</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Buyid_dynasty" title="Buyid dynasty">Buyid dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 934–1062</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Rawadid_dynasty" title="Rawadid dynasty">Rawadid dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 955–1070</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Hasanwayhids" title="Hasanwayhids">Hasanwayhids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 959–1095</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Ghaznavids" title="Ghaznavids">Ghaznavid dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 977–1186</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Annazids" title="Annazids">Annazids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 990/1–1117</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Kakuyids" title="Kakuyids">Kakuyids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1008–1141</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Nasrid_dynasty_(Sistan)" title="Nasrid dynasty (Sistan)">Nasrid dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1029–1236</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Shabankara" title="Shabankara">Shabankara</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1030–1355</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Seljuk_Empire" title="Seljuk Empire">Seljuk Empire</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1037–1194</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Khwarazmian_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Khwarazmian dynasty">Khwarazmian dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1077–1231</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Eldiguzids" title="Eldiguzids">Eldiguzids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1135–1225</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Atabegs_of_Yazd" title="Atabegs of Yazd">Atabegs of Yazd</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1141–1319</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Salghurids" title="Salghurids">Salghurids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1148–1282</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Hazaraspids" title="Hazaraspids">Hazaraspids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1155–1424</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Pishkinid_dynasty" title="Pishkinid dynasty">Pishkinid dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1155–1231</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Khorshidi_dynasty" title="Khorshidi dynasty">Khorshidi dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1184-1597</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Qutlugh-Khanids" title="Qutlugh-Khanids">Qutlugh-Khanids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1223-1306</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Mihrabanids" title="Mihrabanids">Mihrabanids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1236–1537</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Kurt_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Kurt dynasty">Kurt dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1244–1396</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Ilkhanate" title="Ilkhanate">Ilkhanate Empire</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1256–1335</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Chobanids" title="Chobanids">Chobanid dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1335–1357</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Muzaffarids_(Iran)" title="Muzaffarids (Iran)">Muzaffarid dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1335–1393</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Jalayirid_Sultanate" title="Jalayirid Sultanate">Jalayirid Sultanate</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1337–1376</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Sarbadars" title="Sarbadars">Sarbadars</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1337–1376</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Injuids" title="Injuids">Injuids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1335–1357</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Afrasiyab_dynasty" title="Afrasiyab dynasty">Afrasiyab dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1349–1504</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Mar%27ashis" title="Mar'ashis">Mar'ashis</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1359–1596</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Timurid_Empire" title="Timurid Empire">Timurid Empire</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1370–1507</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Kar-Kiya_dynasty" title="Kar-Kiya dynasty">Kar-Kiya dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1370s–1592</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Qara_Qoyunlu" title="Qara Qoyunlu">Qara Qoyunlu</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1406–1468</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Aq_Qoyunlu" title="Aq Qoyunlu">Aq Qoyunlu</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1468–1508</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iran#Early_modern_period" title="History of Iran">Early modern period</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Safavid_Iran" title="Safavid Iran">Safavid Iran</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1501–1736</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> (<a href="/wiki/Hotak_dynasty" title="Hotak dynasty">Hotak dynasty</a>)</td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1722–1729</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Afsharid_Iran" title="Afsharid Iran">Afsharid Iran</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1736–1796</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Zand_dynasty" title="Zand dynasty">Zand dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1751–1794</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iran#Modern_period" title="History of Iran">Modern period</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Qajar_Iran" title="Qajar Iran">Qajar Iran</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1789–1925</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Pahlavi_Iran" title="Pahlavi Iran">Pahlavi Iran</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1925–1979</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iran#Contemporary_period" title="History of Iran">Contemporary period</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Iranian_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian Revolution">Iranian Revolution</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1979</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Interim_Government_of_Iran" title="Interim Government of Iran">Interim Government</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1979</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Islamic_Republic_of_Iran" title="History of the Islamic Republic of Iran">Islamic Republic</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1979–present</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Related articles</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Name_of_Iran" title="Name of Iran">Name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_monarchs_of_Persia" title="List of monarchs of Persia">Monarchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_heads_of_state_of_Iran" title="List of heads of state of Iran">Heads of state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Iran" title="Economic history of Iran">Economic history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_history_in_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT history in Iran">LGBT history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Iran" title="Military history of Iran">Military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_women_in_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="History of women in Iran">Women's history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wars_involving_Iran" title="List of wars involving Iran">Wars</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Iranian_history" title="Timeline of Iranian history">Timeline</a><br /><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Flag_of_Iran.svg/16px-Flag_of_Iran.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="9" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Flag_of_Iran.svg/24px-Flag_of_Iran.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Flag_of_Iran.svg/32px-Flag_of_Iran.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="630" data-file-height="360" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Iran" title="Portal:Iran">Iran portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Iran" title="Template:History of Iran"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Iran" title="Template talk:History of Iran"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Iran" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Iran"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>Sasanian Empire</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span><span title="/ɑː/: 'a' in 'father'">ɑː</span><span title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</span><span title="/i/: 'y' in 'happy'">i</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</span></span>,<span class="wrap"> </span><span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span><span title="/eɪ/: 'a' in 'face'">eɪ</span><span title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</span><span title="/i/: 'y' in 'happy'">i</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</span></span>/</a></span></span>), officially <b>Ērānšahr</b> (<a href="/wiki/Middle_Persian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle Persian language">Middle Persian</a>: <span lang="pal" dir="rtl">𐭠𐭩𐭥𐭠𐭭𐭱𐭲𐭥𐭩</span>, <abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr><span style="white-space: nowrap;"> </span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">Empire of the <a href="/wiki/Arya_(Iran)" title="Arya (Iran)">Iranians</a></span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>),<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECanepa20189_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECanepa20189-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaryaee20181_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaryaee20181-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-native-name_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-native-name-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was the <a href="/wiki/History_of_Iran" title="History of Iran">last pre-Islamic Iranian empire</a>. Named after the <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_dynasty" title="Sasanian dynasty">House of Sasan</a>, it endured for over four centuries, from 224 to 651, making it the second longest-lived <a href="/wiki/List_of_monarchs_of_Persia" title="List of monarchs of Persia">Persian imperial dynasty</a> after the directly preceding <a href="/wiki/Arsacid_dynasty_of_Parthia" class="mw-redirect" title="Arsacid dynasty of Parthia">Arsacid dynasty of Parthia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-wiesehofer_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wiesehofer-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It fell to the <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun Caliphate</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">early Muslim conquests</a>, which marked the beginning of a monumental societal shift by initiating the <a href="/wiki/Islamization_of_Iran" title="Islamization of Iran">Islamization of Iran</a>. </p><p>Upon succeeding the Parthians, the Sasanian dynasty re-established the Persian nation as a major power in <a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">late antiquity</a>, and also continued to compete extensively with the neighbouring <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-EIr-Sasanian_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EIr-Sasanian-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Norman_A._Stillman_pp_22_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Norman_A._Stillman_pp_22-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Byzantine_Studies_2006,_pp_29_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Byzantine_Studies_2006,_pp_29-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was founded by <a href="/wiki/Ardashir_I" title="Ardashir I">Ardashir I</a>, a ruler who rose to power as Parthia weakened amidst internal strife and the <a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Persian_Wars" title="Roman–Persian Wars">Roman–Persian Wars</a>. After defeating <a href="/wiki/Artabanus_IV_of_Parthia" title="Artabanus IV of Parthia">Artabanus IV of Parthia</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hormozdgan" title="Battle of Hormozdgan">Battle of Hormozdgan</a> in 224, Ardashir's dynasty replaced that of the Arsacids and promptly set out to restore the legacy of the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a> by expanding the newly acquired Sasanian dominions. </p><p>At its greatest territorial extent, the Sasanian Empire encompassed all of modern-day <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a> and <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a> and parts of the <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabian Peninsula</a> (particularly <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Arabia" title="Eastern Arabia">Eastern Arabia</a> and <a href="/wiki/South_Arabia" title="South Arabia">South Arabia</a>), as well as the <a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a>, and parts of <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a> and <a href="/wiki/South_Asia" title="South Asia">South Asia</a>. </p><p>One of the high points in Iranian civilization,<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the Sasanian dynasty's rule was characterized by a complex and centralized government bureaucracy, and also revitalized <a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a> as a legitimizing and unifying ideal.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This period saw the construction of many grand monuments, public works, and patronized cultural and educational institutions. The Sasanian Empire's cultural influence extended far beyond the physical territory that it controlled, impacting regions as distant as <a href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">Western Europe</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/East_Africa" title="East Africa">Eastern Africa</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_China" title="History of China">China</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_India" title="History of India">India</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It also helped shape European and Asian medieval art.<sup id="cite_ref-Iransaga:_The_art_of_Sassanians_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Iransaga:_The_art_of_Sassanians-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>With the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Persia" title="Muslim conquest of Persia">Muslim conquest of Persia</a>, the influence of <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_art" title="Sasanian art">Sasanian art</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_architecture" title="Sasanian architecture">architecture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_music" title="Sasanian music">music</a>, <a href="/wiki/Middle_Persian_literature" title="Middle Persian literature">literature</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">philosophy</a> was gradually absorbed into nascent <a href="/wiki/Islamic_culture" title="Islamic culture">Islamic culture</a>, which, in turn, ensured the spread of Iranian culture, knowledge, and ideas throughout the expanding <a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">Muslim world</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Name">Name</h2></div> <p>Officially, the empire was known as the Empire of the <a href="/wiki/Arya_(Iran)" title="Arya (Iran)">Iranians</a> (<a href="/wiki/Middle_Persian" title="Middle Persian">Middle Persian</a>: <span title="Middle Persian-language text"><span lang="pal" dir="rtl">𐭠𐭩𐭥𐭠𐭭𐭱𐭲𐭥𐭩</span></span>, <span title="Middle Persian-language romanization"><i lang="pal-Latn">ērānšahr</i></span>, <a href="/wiki/Parthian_language" title="Parthian language">Parthian</a>: <span title="Parthian-language text"><span lang="xpr" dir="rtl">𐭀𐭓𐭉𐭀𐭍𐭇𐭔𐭕𐭓</span></span>, <span title="Parthian-language romanization"><i lang="xpr-Latn">aryānšahr</i></span>, <a href="/wiki/Koine_Greek" title="Koine Greek">Greek</a>: <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">Ἀριανῶν ἔθνος</span></span>, <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">Arianōn ethnos</i></span>), the term is first attested in the trilingual <a href="/wiki/Shapur_I%27s_inscription_at_the_Ka%27ba-ye_Zartosht" title="Shapur I's inscription at the Ka'ba-ye Zartosht">Great Inscription of Shapur I</a>, where the <a href="/wiki/Shapur_I" title="Shapur I">king</a> says "I am the lord of the Empire of the Iranians".<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>More commonly, as the <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_dynasty" title="Sasanian dynasty">ruling dynasty</a> was named after <a href="/wiki/Sasan" title="Sasan">Sasan</a>, the empire is known as the Sasanian Empire in historical and academic sources. This term is also recorded in English as the <b>Sassanian Empire</b>, the <b>Sasanid Empire</b>, and the <b>Sassanid Empire</b>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Sasanian_Empire" title="Timeline of the Sasanian Empire">Timeline of the Sasanian Empire</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Origins_and_early_history_(205–310)"><span id="Origins_and_early_history_.28205.E2.80.93310.29"></span>Origins and early history (205–310)</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Persis" title="Kings of Persis">Kings of Persis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sasan" title="Sasan">Sasan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/House_of_Sasan" class="mw-redirect" title="House of Sasan">House of Sasan</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SASANIAN_KINGS._Ardashir_I._As_King_of_Persis,_AD_205-6-223-4.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/SASANIAN_KINGS._Ardashir_I._As_King_of_Persis%2C_AD_205-6-223-4.jpg/220px-SASANIAN_KINGS._Ardashir_I._As_King_of_Persis%2C_AD_205-6-223-4.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="107" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/SASANIAN_KINGS._Ardashir_I._As_King_of_Persis%2C_AD_205-6-223-4.jpg/330px-SASANIAN_KINGS._Ardashir_I._As_King_of_Persis%2C_AD_205-6-223-4.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/SASANIAN_KINGS._Ardashir_I._As_King_of_Persis%2C_AD_205-6-223-4.jpg/440px-SASANIAN_KINGS._Ardashir_I._As_King_of_Persis%2C_AD_205-6-223-4.jpg 2x" data-file-width="797" data-file-height="386" /></a><figcaption>Initial coinage of founder <a href="/wiki/Ardashir_I" title="Ardashir I">Ardashir I</a>, as <a href="/wiki/King_of_Persis" class="mw-redirect" title="King of Persis">King of Persis</a> Artaxerxes (Ardaxsir) V. <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 205/6–223/4</span> AD.<br /><i><b>Obv:</b></i> Bearded facing head, wearing diadem and Parthian-style tiara, legend <i>"The divine Ardaxir, king"</i> in Pahlavi.<br /><i><b>Rev:</b></i> Bearded head of <a href="/wiki/Papak" class="mw-redirect" title="Papak">Papak</a>, wearing diadem and Parthian-style tiara, legend <i>"son of the divinity Papak, king"</i> in Pahlavi.</figcaption></figure> <p>Conflicting accounts shroud the details of the fall of the <a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian Empire</a> and subsequent rise of the Sassanian Empire in mystery.<sup id="cite_ref-Fyre461_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fyre461-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Sassanian Empire was established in <a href="/wiki/Istakhr" title="Istakhr">Estakhr</a> by <a href="/wiki/Ardashir_I" title="Ardashir I">Ardashir I</a>. </p><p>Ardashir's father, <a href="/wiki/Pabag" title="Pabag">Papak</a>, was originally the ruler of a region called Khir. However, by 200, Papak had managed to overthrow <a href="/wiki/Gochihr" title="Gochihr">Gochihr</a> and appoint himself the new ruler of the <a href="/wiki/Bazrangi" title="Bazrangi">Bazrangids</a>. Papak's mother, Rodhagh, was the daughter of the provincial governor of <a href="/wiki/Pars_(Sasanian_province)" title="Pars (Sasanian province)">Pars</a>. Papak and his eldest son Shapur managed to expand their power over all of Pars. Subsequent events are unclear due to the elusive nature of the sources. It is certain that following the death of Papak, Ardashir, the governor of <a href="/wiki/Darab" title="Darab">Darabgerd</a>, became involved in a power struggle with his elder brother Shapur. Sources reveal that Shapur was killed when the roof of a building collapsed on him. By 208, over the protests of his other brothers, who were put to death, Ardashir declared himself ruler of Pars.<sup id="cite_ref-Farrokh178_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Farrokh178-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ardachir_relief_Firuzabad_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Ardachir_relief_Firuzabad_1.jpg/330px-Ardachir_relief_Firuzabad_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Ardachir_relief_Firuzabad_1.jpg/495px-Ardachir_relief_Firuzabad_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Ardachir_relief_Firuzabad_1.jpg/660px-Ardachir_relief_Firuzabad_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1403" data-file-height="579" /></a><figcaption>1840 illustration of a Sasanian relief at <a href="/wiki/Firuzabad,_Fars" title="Firuzabad, Fars">Firuzabad</a>, showing <a href="/wiki/Ardashir_I" title="Ardashir I">Ardashir I</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hormozdgan" title="Battle of Hormozdgan">victory</a> over <a href="/wiki/Artabanus_IV" class="mw-redirect" title="Artabanus IV">Artabanus IV</a> and his forces.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Irnp105-Grobowce_Naqsh-E_Rustam.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Irnp105-Grobowce_Naqsh-E_Rustam.jpg/220px-Irnp105-Grobowce_Naqsh-E_Rustam.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Irnp105-Grobowce_Naqsh-E_Rustam.jpg/330px-Irnp105-Grobowce_Naqsh-E_Rustam.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Irnp105-Grobowce_Naqsh-E_Rustam.jpg/440px-Irnp105-Grobowce_Naqsh-E_Rustam.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6016" data-file-height="4016" /></a><figcaption>Rock relief of <a href="/wiki/Ardashir_I" title="Ardashir I">Ardashir I</a> receiving the ring of kingship by the <a href="/wiki/Zoroastrian" class="mw-redirect" title="Zoroastrian">Zoroastrian</a> supreme god <a href="/wiki/Ahura_Mazda" title="Ahura Mazda">Ahura Mazda</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Once Ardashir was appointed <i><a href="/wiki/Shah" title="Shah">shah</a></i> (king), he moved his capital further to the south of Pars and founded <a href="/wiki/Ardashir-Khwarrah" title="Ardashir-Khwarrah">Ardashir-Khwarrah</a> (formerly <i>Gur</i>, modern day <a href="/wiki/Firuzabad,_Fars" title="Firuzabad, Fars">Firuzabad</a>). The city, well protected by high mountains and easily defensible due to the narrow passes that approached it, became the center of Ardashir's efforts to gain more power. It was surrounded by a high, circular wall, probably copied from that of Darabgerd. Ardashir's palace was on the north side of the city; remains of it are extant. After establishing his rule over Pars, Ardashir rapidly extended his territory, demanding fealty from the local princes of Fars, and gaining control over the neighbouring provinces of <a href="/wiki/Kerman_province" title="Kerman province">Kerman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Isfahan_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Isfahan Province">Isfahan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Susa" title="Susa">Susiana</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mesene" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesene">Mesene</a>. This expansion quickly came to the attention of Artabanus IV, the Parthian king, who initially ordered the governor of Khuzestan to wage war against Ardashir in 224, but Ardashir was victorious in the ensuing battles. In a second attempt to destroy Ardashir, Artabanus himself met Ardashir in battle at Hormozgan, where the former met his death. Following the death of the Parthian ruler, Ardashir went on to invade the western provinces of the now defunct Parthian Empire.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Naghsh-e_rostam,_Ir%C3%A1n,_2016-09-24,_DD_12.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Naghsh-e_rostam%2C_Ir%C3%A1n%2C_2016-09-24%2C_DD_12.jpg/220px-Naghsh-e_rostam%2C_Ir%C3%A1n%2C_2016-09-24%2C_DD_12.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="126" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Naghsh-e_rostam%2C_Ir%C3%A1n%2C_2016-09-24%2C_DD_12.jpg/330px-Naghsh-e_rostam%2C_Ir%C3%A1n%2C_2016-09-24%2C_DD_12.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Naghsh-e_rostam%2C_Ir%C3%A1n%2C_2016-09-24%2C_DD_12.jpg/440px-Naghsh-e_rostam%2C_Ir%C3%A1n%2C_2016-09-24%2C_DD_12.jpg 2x" data-file-width="7727" data-file-height="4421" /></a><figcaption>Rock-face relief at <a href="/wiki/Naqsh-e_Rostam" title="Naqsh-e Rostam">Naqsh-e Rostam</a> of Persian emperor Shapur I (on horseback) capturing Roman emperor <a href="/wiki/Valerian_(emperor)" title="Valerian (emperor)">Valerian</a> (standing) and <a href="/wiki/Philip_the_Arab" title="Philip the Arab">Philip the Arab</a> (kneeling), suing for peace, following the victory at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Edessa" title="Battle of Edessa">Edessa</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>At that time the Arsacid dynasty was divided between supporters of <a href="/wiki/Artabanus_IV_of_Parthia" title="Artabanus IV of Parthia">Artabanus IV</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vologases_VI" title="Vologases VI">Vologases VI</a>, which probably allowed Ardashir to consolidate his authority in the south with little or no interference from the Parthians. Ardashir was aided by the geography of the province of Fars, which was separated from the rest of Iran.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Crowned in 224 at <a href="/wiki/Ctesiphon" title="Ctesiphon">Ctesiphon</a> as the sole ruler of Persia, Ardashir took the title <i>shahanshah</i>, or "King of Kings" (the inscriptions mention <a href="/wiki/Adur-Anahid" title="Adur-Anahid">Adhur-Anahid</a> as his <a href="/wiki/Banbishn" title="Banbishn">Banbishnan banbishn</a>, "Queen of Queens", but her relationship with Ardashir has not been fully established), bringing the 400-year-old Parthian Empire to an end, and beginning four centuries of Sassanid rule.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the next few years, local rebellions occurred throughout the empire. Nonetheless, Ardashir I further expanded his new empire to the east and northwest, conquering the provinces of <a href="/wiki/Sakastan_(Sasanian_province)" title="Sakastan (Sasanian province)">Sakastan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gorgan" title="Gorgan">Gorgan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greater_Khorasan" title="Greater Khorasan">Khorasan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Margiana" title="Margiana">Marw</a> (in modern <a href="/wiki/Turkmenistan" title="Turkmenistan">Turkmenistan</a>), <a href="/wiki/Balkh" title="Balkh">Balkh</a> and <a href="/wiki/Khwarazm" title="Khwarazm">Chorasmia</a>. He also added <a href="/wiki/Bahrain" title="Bahrain">Bahrain</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mosul" title="Mosul">Mosul</a> to the Sassanid possessions. Later Sassanid inscriptions also claim the submission of the kings of <a href="/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turan_(Sasanian_province)" title="Turan (Sasanian province)">Turan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Makran" title="Makran">Makuran</a> to Ardashir, although based on numismatic evidence it is more likely that these actually submitted to Ardashir's son, the future <a href="/wiki/Shapur_I" title="Shapur I">Shapur I</a>. In the west, assaults against <a href="/wiki/Hatra" title="Hatra">Hatra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(antiquity)" title="Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)">Armenia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Adiabene" title="Adiabene">Adiabene</a> met with less success. In 230, Ardashir raided deep into Roman territory, and a Roman counter-offensive two years later ended inconclusively. Ardashīr began leading campaigns into Greater Khurasan as early as 233, extending his power to Khwarazm in the north and Sistan in the south while capturing lands from Gorgan to Abarshahr, Marw, and as far east as <a href="/wiki/Balkh" title="Balkh">Balkh</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaug201951_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaug201951-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:HumiliationValerianusHolbein.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/HumiliationValerianusHolbein.jpg/220px-HumiliationValerianusHolbein.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="230" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/HumiliationValerianusHolbein.jpg/330px-HumiliationValerianusHolbein.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/HumiliationValerianusHolbein.jpg/440px-HumiliationValerianusHolbein.jpg 2x" data-file-width="839" data-file-height="877" /></a><figcaption><i>The Humiliation of Valerian by Shapur</i> (<a href="/wiki/Hans_Holbein_the_Younger" title="Hans Holbein the Younger">Hans Holbein the Younger</a>, 1521, pen and black ink on a chalk sketch, <a href="/wiki/Kunstmuseum_Basel" title="Kunstmuseum Basel">Kunstmuseum Basel</a>)</figcaption></figure> <p>Ardashir I's son Shapur I continued the expansion of the empire, conquering <a href="/wiki/Bactria" title="Bactria">Bactria</a> and the western portion of the Kushan Empire, while leading several campaigns against Rome. Invading <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia_(Roman_province)" title="Mesopotamia (Roman province)">Roman Mesopotamia</a>, Shapur I captured <a href="/wiki/Harran" title="Harran">Carrhae</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nusaybin" title="Nusaybin">Nisibis</a>, but in 243 the Roman general <a href="/wiki/Gaius_Furius_Sabinius_Aquila_Timesitheus" title="Gaius Furius Sabinius Aquila Timesitheus">Timesitheus</a> defeated the Persians at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Resaena" title="Battle of Resaena">Rhesaina</a> and regained the lost territories.<sup id="cite_ref-Frye125_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Frye125-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The emperor <a href="/wiki/Gordian_III" title="Gordian III">Gordian III</a>'s (238–244) subsequent advance down the <a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a> was defeated at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Misiche" title="Battle of Misiche">Meshike</a> (244), leading to Gordian's murder by his own troops and enabling Shapur to conclude a highly advantageous peace treaty with the new emperor <a href="/wiki/Philip_the_Arab" title="Philip the Arab">Philip the Arab</a>, by which he secured the immediate payment of 500,000 <i><a href="/wiki/Denarii" class="mw-redirect" title="Denarii">denarii</a></i> and further annual payments. </p><p>Shapur soon resumed the war, defeated the Romans at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Barbalissos" title="Battle of Barbalissos">Barbalissos</a> (253), and then probably took and plundered <a href="/wiki/Antioch" title="Antioch">Antioch</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Frye125_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Frye125-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Roman counter-attacks under the emperor <a href="/wiki/Valerian_(emperor)" title="Valerian (emperor)">Valerian</a> ended in disaster when the Roman army was defeated and besieged at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Edessa" title="Battle of Edessa">Edessa</a> and Valerian was captured by Shapur, remaining his prisoner for the rest of his life. Shapur celebrated his victory by carving the impressive rock reliefs in <a href="/wiki/Naqsh-e_Rostam" title="Naqsh-e Rostam">Naqsh-e Rostam</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bishapur" title="Bishapur">Bishapur</a>, as well as a monumental inscription in Persian and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Greek</a> in the vicinity of <a href="/wiki/Persepolis" title="Persepolis">Persepolis</a>. He exploited his success by advancing into <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a> (260), but withdrew in disarray after defeats at the hands of the Romans and their <a href="/wiki/Palmyra" title="Palmyra">Palmyrene</a> ally <a href="/wiki/Odaenathus" title="Odaenathus">Odaenathus</a>, suffering the capture of his harem and the loss of all the Roman territories he had occupied.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Spread_of_Manicheanism.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Spread_of_Manicheanism.png/220px-Spread_of_Manicheanism.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="109" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Spread_of_Manicheanism.png/330px-Spread_of_Manicheanism.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Spread_of_Manicheanism.png/440px-Spread_of_Manicheanism.png 2x" data-file-width="3269" data-file-height="1624" /></a><figcaption>The spread of <a href="/wiki/Manichaeism" title="Manichaeism">Manichaeism</a> (300–500)<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Shapur had intensive development plans. He ordered the construction of the <a href="/wiki/Band-e_Kaisar" title="Band-e Kaisar">first dam bridge in Iran</a> and founded many cities, some settled in part by emigrants from the Roman territories, including Christians who could exercise their faith freely under Sassanid rule. Two cities, <a href="/wiki/Bishapur" title="Bishapur">Bishapur</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nishapur" title="Nishapur">Nishapur</a>, are named after him. He particularly favoured <a href="/wiki/Manichaeism" title="Manichaeism">Manichaeism</a>, protecting <a href="/wiki/Mani_(prophet)" title="Mani (prophet)">Mani</a> (who dedicated one of his books, the <a href="/wiki/Shabuhragan" title="Shabuhragan">Shabuhragan</a>, to him) and sent many Manichaean missionaries abroad. He also befriended a <a href="/wiki/Babylon" title="Babylon">Babylonian</a> rabbi called <a href="/wiki/Samuel_of_Nehardea" title="Samuel of Nehardea">Samuel</a>. </p><p>This friendship was advantageous for the <a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jewish</a> community and gave them a respite from the oppressive laws enacted against them. Later kings reversed Shapur's policy of religious tolerance. When Shapur's son <a href="/wiki/Bahram_I" title="Bahram I">Bahram I</a> acceded to the throne, he was pressured by the <a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrian</a> high-priest <a href="/wiki/Kartir" title="Kartir">Kartir</a> <a href="/wiki/Bahram_I" title="Bahram I">Bahram I</a> to kill Mani and persecute his followers. <a href="/wiki/Bahram_II" title="Bahram II">Bahram II</a> was also amenable to the wishes of the Zoroastrian priesthood.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During his reign, the Sassanid capital Ctesiphon was sacked by the Romans under Emperor <a href="/wiki/Carus" title="Carus">Carus</a>, and most of Armenia, after half a century of Persian rule, was ceded to <a href="/wiki/Diocletian" title="Diocletian">Diocletian</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Succeeding <a href="/wiki/Bahram_III" title="Bahram III">Bahram III</a> (who ruled briefly in 293), <a href="/wiki/Narseh" title="Narseh">Narseh</a> embarked on another war with the Romans. After an early success against the Emperor <a href="/wiki/Galerius" title="Galerius">Galerius</a> near <a href="/wiki/Raqqa" title="Raqqa">Callinicum</a> on the Euphrates in 296, he was eventually decisively defeated by them. Galerius had been reinforced, probably in the spring of 298, by a new contingent collected from the empire's <a href="/wiki/Danubian" class="mw-redirect" title="Danubian">Danubian</a> holdings.<sup id="cite_ref-BNSCE18_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BNSCE18-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Narseh did not advance from Armenia and <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>, leaving Galerius to lead the offensive in 298 with an attack on northern Mesopotamia via Armenia. Narseh retreated to Armenia to fight Galerius's force, to the former's disadvantage: the rugged Armenian terrain was favourable to Roman infantry, but not to Sassanid cavalry. Local aid gave Galerius the advantage of surprise over the Persian forces, and, in two successive battles, Galerius secured victories over Narseh.<sup id="cite_ref-Barnes,_p._18_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Barnes,_p._18-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Caucasus_300_map_alt_de.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Caucasus_300_map_alt_de.png/220px-Caucasus_300_map_alt_de.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Caucasus_300_map_alt_de.png/330px-Caucasus_300_map_alt_de.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Caucasus_300_map_alt_de.png/440px-Caucasus_300_map_alt_de.png 2x" data-file-width="2990" data-file-height="2324" /></a><figcaption>Rome and satellite kingdom of Armenia around 300, after Narseh's defeat</figcaption></figure> <p>During the second encounter, Roman forces seized Narseh's camp, his treasury, his harem, and his wife.<sup id="cite_ref-Barnes,_p._18_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Barnes,_p._18-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Galerius advanced into <a href="/wiki/Media_(region)" title="Media (region)">Media</a> and <a href="/wiki/Adiabene" title="Adiabene">Adiabene</a>, winning successive victories, most prominently near <a href="/wiki/Erzurum" title="Erzurum">Erzurum</a>, and securing Nisibis (<a href="/wiki/Nusaybin" title="Nusaybin">Nusaybin</a>, Turkey) before 1 October 298. He then advanced down the <a href="/wiki/Tigris" title="Tigris">Tigris</a>, taking Ctesiphon. Narseh had previously sent an ambassador to Galerius to plead for the return of his wives and children. Peace negotiations began in the spring of 299, with both Diocletian and Galerius presiding. </p><p>The conditions of the peace were heavy: Persia would give up territory to Rome, making the Tigris the boundary between the two empires. Further terms specified that Armenia was returned to Roman domination, with the fort of Ziatha as its border; <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Iberia_(antiquity)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Iberia (antiquity)">Caucasian Iberia</a> would pay allegiance to Rome under a Roman appointee; Nisibis, now under Roman rule, would become the sole conduit for trade between Persia and Rome; and Rome would exercise control over the five satrapies between the Tigris and Armenia: <a href="/wiki/Angeghtun" title="Angeghtun">Ingilene</a>, Sophanene (<a href="/wiki/Sophene" title="Sophene">Sophene</a>), Arzanene (<a href="/wiki/Arzanene" title="Arzanene">Aghdznik</a>), <a href="/wiki/Corduene" class="mw-redirect" title="Corduene">Corduene</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Zabdicene" title="Zabdicene">Zabdicene</a> (near modern <a href="/wiki/Hakk%C3%A2ri_(city)" title="Hakkâri (city)">Hakkâri</a>, Turkey).<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Sassanids ceded five provinces west of the Tigris, and agreed not to interfere in the affairs of Armenia and Georgia.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the aftermath of this defeat, Narseh gave up the throne and died a year later, leaving the Sassanid throne to his son, <a href="/wiki/Hormizd_II" title="Hormizd II">Hormizd II</a>. Unrest spread throughout the land, and while the new king suppressed revolts in <a href="/wiki/Sakastan_(Sasanian_province)" title="Sakastan (Sasanian province)">Sakastan</a> and Kushan, he was unable to control the nobles and was subsequently killed by <a href="/wiki/Bedouin" title="Bedouin">Bedouins</a> on a hunting trip in 309. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="First_Golden_Era_(309–379)"><span id="First_Golden_Era_.28309.E2.80.93379.29"></span>First Golden Era (309–379)</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bust_of_Shapur_II_the_Great_in_the_Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Bust_of_Shapur_II_the_Great_in_the_Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art.jpg/220px-Bust_of_Shapur_II_the_Great_in_the_Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="279" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Bust_of_Shapur_II_the_Great_in_the_Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art.jpg/330px-Bust_of_Shapur_II_the_Great_in_the_Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Bust_of_Shapur_II_the_Great_in_the_Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art.jpg/440px-Bust_of_Shapur_II_the_Great_in_the_Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3155" data-file-height="4000" /></a><figcaption>Bust of <a href="/wiki/Shapur_II" title="Shapur II">Shapur II</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 309–379</span>), <a href="/wiki/Met_Museum" class="mw-redirect" title="Met Museum">Met Museum</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Following Hormizd II's death, northern Arabs started to ravage and plunder the western cities of the empire, even attacking the province of Fars, the birthplace of the Sassanid kings. Meanwhile, Persian nobles killed Hormizd II's eldest son, blinded the second, and imprisoned the third (who later escaped into Roman territory). The throne was reserved for <a href="/wiki/Shapur_II" title="Shapur II">Shapur II</a>, the unborn child of one of Hormizd II's wives who was crowned <i>in utero</i>: the crown was placed upon his mother's stomach.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During his youth the empire was controlled by his mother and the nobles. Upon coming of age, Shapur II assumed power and quickly proved to be an active and effective ruler. </p><p>He first led his small but disciplined army south against the Arabs, whom he defeated, securing the southern areas of the empire.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He then began his first campaign against the Romans in the west, where Persian forces won a series of battles but were unable to make territorial gains due to the failure of repeated sieges of the key frontier city of Nisibis, and Roman success in retaking the cities of <a href="/wiki/Singara" title="Singara">Singara</a> and <a href="/wiki/Diyarbak%C4%B1r" title="Diyarbakır">Amida</a> after they had previously fallen to the Persians. </p><p>These campaigns were halted by nomadic raids along the eastern borders of the empire, which threatened <a href="/wiki/Transoxiana" title="Transoxiana">Transoxiana</a>, a strategically critical area for control of the <a href="/wiki/Silk_Road" title="Silk Road">Silk Road</a>. Shapur therefore marched east toward Transoxiana to meet the eastern nomads, leaving his local commanders to mount nuisance raids on the Romans.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He crushed the Central Asian tribes, and annexed the area as a new province. </p><p>In the east around 325, <a href="/wiki/Shapur_II" title="Shapur II">Shapur II</a> regained the upper hand against the <a href="/wiki/Kushano-Sasanian_Kingdom" title="Kushano-Sasanian Kingdom">Kushano-Sasanian Kingdom</a> and took control of large territories in areas now known as <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a>. Cultural expansion followed this victory, and Sasanian art penetrated <a href="/wiki/Transoxiana" title="Transoxiana">Transoxiana</a>, reaching as far as China. Shapur, along with the nomad King <a href="/wiki/Grumbates" title="Grumbates">Grumbates</a>, started his second campaign against the Romans in 359 and soon succeeded in retaking Singara and Amida. In response the Roman emperor <a href="/wiki/Julian_(emperor)" title="Julian (emperor)">Julian</a> struck deep into Persian territory and defeated Shapur's forces at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ctesiphon_(363)" title="Battle of Ctesiphon (363)">Ctesiphon</a>. He failed to take the capital, however, and was killed while trying to retreat to Roman territory.<sup id="cite_ref-Frye137-138_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Frye137-138-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His successor <a href="/wiki/Jovian_(emperor)" title="Jovian (emperor)">Jovian</a>, trapped on the east bank of the Tigris, had to hand over all the provinces the Persians had ceded to Rome in 298, as well as Nisibis and Singara, to secure safe passage for his army out of Persia. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alchon_Huns._Anonymous._Circa_400-440_CE_Imitating_Sasanian_king_Shahpur_II.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Alchon_Huns._Anonymous._Circa_400-440_CE_Imitating_Sasanian_king_Shahpur_II.jpg/220px-Alchon_Huns._Anonymous._Circa_400-440_CE_Imitating_Sasanian_king_Shahpur_II.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Alchon_Huns._Anonymous._Circa_400-440_CE_Imitating_Sasanian_king_Shahpur_II.jpg/330px-Alchon_Huns._Anonymous._Circa_400-440_CE_Imitating_Sasanian_king_Shahpur_II.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Alchon_Huns._Anonymous._Circa_400-440_CE_Imitating_Sasanian_king_Shahpur_II.jpg/440px-Alchon_Huns._Anonymous._Circa_400-440_CE_Imitating_Sasanian_king_Shahpur_II.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="228" /></a><figcaption>Early <a href="/wiki/Alchon_Huns" title="Alchon Huns">Alchon Huns</a> coin based on the coin design of <a href="/wiki/Shapur_II" title="Shapur II">Shapur II</a>, adding the Alchon <a href="/wiki/Tamgha" class="mw-redirect" title="Tamgha">Tamgha</a> symbol <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Alchon_Tamga.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Alchon_Tamga.png/16px-Alchon_Tamga.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="18" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Alchon_Tamga.png/24px-Alchon_Tamga.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Alchon_Tamga.png/32px-Alchon_Tamga.png 2x" data-file-width="1660" data-file-height="1870" /></a></span> and "Alchono" (αλχοννο) in <a href="/wiki/Bactrian_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Bactrian script">Bactrian script</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Obverse" class="mw-redirect" title="Obverse">obverse</a>. Dated 400–440.<sup id="cite_ref-JB_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JB-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>From around 370, however, towards the end of the reign of <a href="/wiki/Shapur_II" title="Shapur II">Shapur II</a>, the Sasanians lost the control of <a href="/wiki/Bactria" title="Bactria">Bactria</a> to invaders from the north: first the <a href="/wiki/Kidarites" title="Kidarites">Kidarites</a>, then the <a href="/wiki/Hephthalites" title="Hephthalites">Hephthalites</a> and finally the <a href="/wiki/Alchon_Huns" title="Alchon Huns">Alchon Huns</a>, who would follow up with an invasion of <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These invaders initially issued coins based on Sasanian designs.<sup id="cite_ref-Tandon2013_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tandon2013-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Various coins minted in Bactria and based on Sasanian designs are extant, often with busts imitating Sassanian kings Shapur II (r. 309 to 379) and <a href="/wiki/Shapur_III" title="Shapur III">Shapur III</a> (r. 383 to 388), adding the Alchon <a href="/wiki/Tamga" title="Tamga">Tamgha</a> and the name "Alchono" in <a href="/wiki/Bactrian_language" title="Bactrian language">Bactrian script</a> on the obverse, and with attendants to a <a href="/wiki/Fire_temple" title="Fire temple">fire altar</a> on the reverse.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Shapur II pursued a harsh religious policy. Under his reign, the collection of the <a href="/wiki/Avesta" title="Avesta">Avesta</a>, the sacred texts of Zoroastrianism, was completed, <a href="/wiki/Heresy" title="Heresy">heresy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Apostasy" title="Apostasy">apostasy</a> were punished, and Christians were persecuted. The latter was a reaction against the <a href="/wiki/Christianization" title="Christianization">Christianization</a> of the Roman Empire by <a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great" title="Constantine the Great">Constantine the Great</a>. Shapur II, like Shapur I, was amicable towards <a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jews</a>, who lived in relative freedom and gained many advantages during his reign.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the time of his death, the Persian Empire was stronger than ever, with its enemies to the east pacified and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(antiquity)" title="Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)">Armenia</a> under Persian control.<sup id="cite_ref-Frye137-138_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Frye137-138-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Intermediate_Era_(379–498)"><span id="Intermediate_Era_.28379.E2.80.93498.29"></span>Intermediate Era (379–498)</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Folio_from_a_Khamsa-c.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Folio_from_a_Khamsa-c.jpg/220px-Folio_from_a_Khamsa-c.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="491" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Folio_from_a_Khamsa-c.jpg/330px-Folio_from_a_Khamsa-c.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Folio_from_a_Khamsa-c.jpg/440px-Folio_from_a_Khamsa-c.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="1340" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Bahram_V" title="Bahram V">Bahram V</a> is a great favourite in <a href="/wiki/Persian_literature" title="Persian literature">Persian literature</a> and poetry. "Bahram and the Indian princess in the black pavilion." Depiction of a Khamsa (Quintet) by the great Persian poet <a href="/wiki/Nizami_Ganjavi" title="Nizami Ganjavi">Nizami</a>, mid-16th-century <a href="/wiki/Safavid" class="mw-redirect" title="Safavid">Safavid</a> era.</figcaption></figure> <p>From Shapur II's death until <a href="/wiki/Kavad_I" title="Kavad I">Kavad I</a>'s first coronation, there was a largely peaceful period with the Romans (by this time the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Eastern Roman</a> or <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>) engaged in just two brief wars with the Sasanian Empire, the <a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Sasanian_War_of_421%E2%80%93422" title="Roman–Sasanian War of 421–422">first in 421–422</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Sasanian_War_of_440" title="Byzantine–Sasanian War of 440">second in 440</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Neusner68_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Neusner68-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Throughout this era, Sasanian religious policy differed dramatically from king to king. Despite a series of weak leaders, the <a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_the_Sasanian_Empire" title="Administrative divisions of the Sasanian Empire">administrative system</a> established during Shapur II's reign remained strong, and the empire continued to function effectively.<sup id="cite_ref-Neusner68_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Neusner68-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After Shapur II died in 379, the empire passed on to his half-brother <a href="/wiki/Ardashir_II" title="Ardashir II">Ardashir II</a> (379–383; son of Hormizd II) and his son <a href="/wiki/Shapur_III" title="Shapur III">Shapur III</a> (383–388), neither of whom demonstrated their predecessor's skill in ruling. <a href="/wiki/Bahram_IV" title="Bahram IV">Bahram IV</a> (388–399) also failed to achieve anything important for the empire. During this time Armenia was divided by a treaty between the Roman and Sasanian empires. The Sasanians reestablished their rule over Greater Armenia, while the Byzantine Empire held a small portion of western Armenia. </p><p>Bahram IV's son <a href="/wiki/Yazdegerd_I" title="Yazdegerd I">Yazdegerd I</a> (399–421) is often compared to <a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great" title="Constantine the Great">Constantine I</a>. Both were physically and diplomatically powerful, opportunistic, practiced religious tolerance and provided freedom for the rise of religious minorities. Yazdegerd stopped the persecution against the Christians and punished nobles and priests who persecuted them. His reign marked a relatively peaceful era with the Romans, and he even took the young <a href="/wiki/Theodosius_II" title="Theodosius II">Theodosius II</a> (408–450) under his guardianship. Yazdegerd also married a Jewish princess, who bore him a son called Narsi. </p><p>Yazdegerd I's successor was his son <a href="/wiki/Bahram_V" title="Bahram V">Bahram V</a> (421–438), one of the most well-known Sasanian kings and the hero of many myths. These myths persisted even after the destruction of the Sasanian Empire by the Arabs. Bahram gained the crown after Yazdegerd's sudden death (or assassination), which occurred when the grandees opposed the king with the help of <a href="/wiki/Al-Mundhir_I_ibn_al-Nu%27man" title="Al-Mundhir I ibn al-Nu'man">al-Mundhir</a>, the Arabic dynast of <a href="/wiki/Al-Hirah" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Hirah">al-Hirah</a>. Bahram's mother was <a href="/wiki/Shushandukht" title="Shushandukht">Shushandukht</a>, the daughter of the Jewish <a href="/wiki/Exilarch" title="Exilarch">Exilarch</a>. In 427, he crushed an invasion in the east by the nomadic <a href="/wiki/Hephthalites" title="Hephthalites">Hephthalites</a>, extending his influence into Central Asia, where his portrait survived for centuries on the coinage of <a href="/wiki/Bukhara" title="Bukhara">Bukhara</a> (in modern <a href="/wiki/Uzbekistan" title="Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a>). Bahram deposed the vassal king of the Iranian-held area of <a href="/wiki/Armenia" title="Armenia">Armenia</a> and made it a province of the empire. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:YazdegerdIICoinHistoryofIran.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/YazdegerdIICoinHistoryofIran.jpg/220px-YazdegerdIICoinHistoryofIran.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="107" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/YazdegerdIICoinHistoryofIran.jpg/330px-YazdegerdIICoinHistoryofIran.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/YazdegerdIICoinHistoryofIran.jpg/440px-YazdegerdIICoinHistoryofIran.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="388" /></a><figcaption>A coin of <a href="/wiki/Yazdegerd_II" title="Yazdegerd II">Yazdegerd II</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Bahram V's son <a href="/wiki/Yazdegerd_II" title="Yazdegerd II">Yazdegerd II</a> (438–457) was in some ways a moderate ruler, but, in contrast to Yazdegerd I, he practised a harsh policy towards minority religions, particularly <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Avarayr" title="Battle of Avarayr">Battle of Avarayr</a> in 451, the <a href="/wiki/Persian_Armenia" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian Armenia">Armenian subjects</a> led by <a href="/wiki/Vardan_Mamikonian" title="Vardan Mamikonian">Vardan Mamikonian</a> reaffirmed Armenia's right to profess Christianity freely.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHewsen198732_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewsen198732-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Pattie_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pattie-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was to be later confirmed by the <a href="/wiki/Nvarsak_Treaty" class="mw-redirect" title="Nvarsak Treaty">Nvarsak Treaty</a> (484). </p><p>At the beginning of his reign in 441, Yazdegerd II assembled an army of soldiers from various nations, including his Indian allies, and attacked the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>, but peace was soon restored after some small-scale fighting. He then gathered his forces in <a href="/wiki/Nishapur" title="Nishapur">Nishapur</a> in 443 and launched a prolonged campaign against the <a href="/wiki/Kidarites" title="Kidarites">Kidarites</a>. After a number of battles he crushed them and drove them out beyond the <a href="/wiki/Oxus" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxus">Oxus river</a> in 450.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During his eastern campaign, Yazdegerd II grew suspicious of the Christians in the army and expelled them all from the governing body and army. He then persecuted the Christians in his land, and, to a much lesser extent, the <a href="/wiki/Jew" class="mw-redirect" title="Jew">Jews</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Zarinkoob219_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zarinkoob219-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In order to reestablish Zoroastrianism in Armenia, he crushed an uprising of Armenian Christians at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Vartanantz" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Vartanantz">Battle of Vartanantz</a> in 451. The Armenians, however, remained primarily Christian. In his later years, he was engaged yet again with the Kidarites right up until his death in 457. <a href="/wiki/Hormizd_III" title="Hormizd III">Hormizd III</a> (457–459), the younger son of Yazdegerd II, then ascended to the throne. During his short rule, he continually fought with his elder brother <a href="/wiki/Peroz_I" title="Peroz I">Peroz I</a>, who had the support of the nobility,<sup id="cite_ref-Zarinkoob219_61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zarinkoob219-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and with the Hephthalites in <a href="/wiki/Bactria" title="Bactria">Bactria</a>. He was killed by his brother Peroz in 459. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Plate_of_Peroz_I_hunting.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Plate_of_Peroz_I_hunting.jpg/220px-Plate_of_Peroz_I_hunting.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Plate_of_Peroz_I_hunting.jpg/330px-Plate_of_Peroz_I_hunting.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Plate_of_Peroz_I_hunting.jpg/440px-Plate_of_Peroz_I_hunting.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1278" data-file-height="1271" /></a><figcaption>Plate of <a href="/wiki/Peroz_I" title="Peroz I">Peroz I</a> hunting <a href="/wiki/Argali" title="Argali">argali</a></figcaption></figure> <p>At the beginning of the 5th century, the Hephthalites (White Huns), along with other nomadic groups, attacked Iran. At first Bahram V and Yazdegerd II inflicted decisive defeats against them and drove them back eastward. The Huns returned at the end of the 5th century and defeated Peroz I (457–484) in 483. Following this victory, the Huns invaded and plundered parts of eastern Iran continually for two years. They exacted heavy tribute for some years thereafter. </p><p>These attacks brought instability and chaos to the kingdom. Peroz tried again to drive out the Hephthalites, but on the way to <a href="/wiki/Balkh" title="Balkh">Balkh</a> his army was trapped by the Huns in the desert. Peroz was <a href="/wiki/Hephthalite%E2%80%93Sasanian_War_of_484" title="Hephthalite–Sasanian War of 484">defeated and killed</a> by a Hephthalite army near Balkh.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcDonough2011305_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcDonough2011305-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchindel2013a136–141_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchindel2013a136–141-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His army was completely destroyed, and his body was never found.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPayne2015b287_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPayne2015b287-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Four of his sons and brothers had also died.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPotts2018295_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPotts2018295-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The main Sasanian cities of the eastern region of <a href="/wiki/Greater_Khorasan" title="Greater Khorasan">Khorasan</a>−<a href="/wiki/Nishapur" title="Nishapur">Nishapur</a>, <a href="/wiki/Herat" title="Herat">Herat</a> and <a href="/wiki/Merv" title="Merv">Marw</a> were now under Hephthalite rule.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchindel2013a136–141_63-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchindel2013a136–141-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Sukhra" title="Sukhra">Sukhra</a>, a member of the Parthian <a href="/wiki/House_of_Karen" title="House of Karen">House of Karen</a>, one of the <a href="/wiki/Seven_Great_Houses_of_Iran" title="Seven Great Houses of Iran">Seven Great Houses of Iran</a>, quickly raised a new force and stopped the Hephthalites from achieving further success.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPayne2015b288_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPayne2015b288-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Peroz's brother, <a href="/wiki/Balash" title="Balash">Balash</a>, was elected as shah by the Iranian magnates, most notably Sukhra and the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Mihran" title="House of Mihran">Mihranid</a> general <a href="/wiki/Shapur_Mihran" title="Shapur Mihran">Shapur Mihran</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShahbazi2005_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShahbazi2005-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Balash (484–488) was a mild and generous monarch, and showed care towards his subjects, including the Christians.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChaumontSchippmann1988574–580_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChaumontSchippmann1988574–580-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, he proved unpopular among the nobility and clergy who had him deposed after just four years in 488.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChaumontSchippmann1988574–580_68-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChaumontSchippmann1988574–580-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sukhra, who had played a key role in Balash's deposition,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChaumontSchippmann1988574–580_68-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChaumontSchippmann1988574–580-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> appointed Peroz's son <a href="/wiki/Kavad_I" title="Kavad I">Kavad I</a> as the new shah of Iran.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPourshariati200878_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPourshariati200878-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to <a href="/wiki/Miskawayh" title="Miskawayh">Miskawayh</a> (d. 1030), Sukhra was Kavad's maternal uncle.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchindel2013a136–141_63-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchindel2013a136–141-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kavad I (488–531) was an energetic and reformist ruler. He gave his support to the sect founded by <a href="/wiki/Mazdak" title="Mazdak">Mazdak</a>, son of Bamdad, who demanded that the rich should divide their wives and their wealth with the poor. By adopting the doctrine of the Mazdakites, his intention evidently was to break the influence of the magnates and the growing aristocracy. These reforms led to his being deposed and imprisoned in the <a href="/wiki/Castle_of_Oblivion" title="Castle of Oblivion">Castle of Oblivion</a> in <a href="/wiki/Khuzestan" class="mw-redirect" title="Khuzestan">Khuzestan</a>, and his younger brother <a href="/wiki/Jamasp" title="Jamasp">Jamasp</a> (Zamaspes) became king in 496. Kavad, however, quickly escaped and was given refuge by the Hephthalite king.<sup id="cite_ref-PRO6_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PRO6-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaryaee200827_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaryaee200827-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Jamasp" title="Jamasp">Jamasp</a> (496–498) was installed on the Sasanian throne upon the deposition of Kavad I by members of the nobility. He was a good and kind king; he reduced taxes in order to improve the condition of the <a href="/wiki/Peasant" title="Peasant">peasants</a> and the poor. He was also an adherent of the mainstream Zoroastrian religion, diversions from which had cost Kavad I his throne and freedom. Jamasp's reign soon ended, however, when Kavad I, at the head of a large army granted to him by the Hephthalite king, returned to the empire's capital. Jamasp stepped down from his position and returned the throne to his brother.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPourshariati2008114_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPourshariati2008114-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> No further mention of Jamasp is made after the restoration of Kavad I, but it is widely believed that he was treated favourably at the court of his brother.<sup id="cite_ref-iranologie_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-iranologie-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Second_Golden_Era_(498–622)"><span id="Second_Golden_Era_.28498.E2.80.93622.29"></span>Second Golden Era (498–622)</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Plate_with_king_hunting_rams_(white_background).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Plate_with_king_hunting_rams_%28white_background%29.jpg/220px-Plate_with_king_hunting_rams_%28white_background%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Plate_with_king_hunting_rams_%28white_background%29.jpg/330px-Plate_with_king_hunting_rams_%28white_background%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Plate_with_king_hunting_rams_%28white_background%29.jpg/440px-Plate_with_king_hunting_rams_%28white_background%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3696" data-file-height="3658" /></a><figcaption>Plate of a Sasanian king hunting rams, perhaps <a href="/wiki/Kavad_I" title="Kavad I">Kavad I</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 488–496, 498–531</span>).</figcaption></figure> <p>The second golden era began after the second reign of Kavad I. With the support of the <a href="/wiki/Hephthalites" title="Hephthalites">Hephthalites</a>, Kavad launched a campaign against the Romans. In 502, he took <a href="/wiki/Theodosiopolis_(Armenia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Theodosiopolis (Armenia)">Theodosiopolis</a> in Armenia, but lost it soon afterwards. In 503 he took <a href="/wiki/Amida_(Roman_city)" class="mw-redirect" title="Amida (Roman city)">Amida</a> on the Tigris. In 504, an invasion of Armenia by the western Huns from the Caucasus led to an armistice, the return of Amida to Roman control and a peace treaty in 506. In 521/522 Kavad lost control of <a href="/wiki/Lazica" title="Lazica">Lazica</a>, whose rulers switched their allegiance to the Romans; an attempt by the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Iberia_(antiquity)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Iberia (antiquity)">Iberians</a> in 524/525 to do likewise triggered a war between Rome and Persia. </p><p>In 527, a Roman offensive against Nisibis was repulsed and Roman efforts to fortify positions near the frontier were thwarted. In 530, Kavad sent an army under <a href="/wiki/Perozes" title="Perozes">Perozes</a> to attack the important Roman frontier city of <a href="/wiki/Dara_(Mesopotamia)" title="Dara (Mesopotamia)">Dara</a>. The army was met by the Roman general <a href="/wiki/Belisarius" title="Belisarius">Belisarius</a>, and, though superior in numbers, was defeated at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Daras" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Daras">Battle of Dara</a>. In the same year, a second Persian army under <a href="/wiki/Mihr-Mihroe" title="Mihr-Mihroe">Mihr-Mihroe</a> was defeated at <a href="/wiki/Satala" title="Satala">Satala</a> by Roman forces under <a href="/wiki/Sittas" title="Sittas">Sittas</a> and Dorotheus, but in 531 a Persian army accompanied by a <a href="/wiki/Lakhmids" class="mw-redirect" title="Lakhmids">Lakhmid</a> contingent under <a href="/wiki/Al-Mundhir_III_ibn_al-Nu%27man" title="Al-Mundhir III ibn al-Nu'man">Al-Mundhir III</a> defeated Belisarius at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Callinicum" title="Battle of Callinicum">Battle of Callinicum</a>, and in 532 an "eternal peace" was concluded.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kavad succeeded in restoring order in the interior and fought with general success against the Eastern Romans, founded several cities, some of which were named after him, and began to regulate taxation and internal administration. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Plate_of_the_Sasanian_king_Khosrow_I_Anushirvan.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Plate_of_the_Sasanian_king_Khosrow_I_Anushirvan.jpg/220px-Plate_of_the_Sasanian_king_Khosrow_I_Anushirvan.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Plate_of_the_Sasanian_king_Khosrow_I_Anushirvan.jpg/330px-Plate_of_the_Sasanian_king_Khosrow_I_Anushirvan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Plate_of_the_Sasanian_king_Khosrow_I_Anushirvan.jpg/440px-Plate_of_the_Sasanian_king_Khosrow_I_Anushirvan.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="640" /></a><figcaption>Plate depicting <a href="/wiki/Khosrow_I" title="Khosrow I">Khosrow I</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>After the reign of Kavad I, his son <a href="/wiki/Khosrow_I" title="Khosrow I">Khosrow I</a>, also known as Anushirvan ("with the immortal soul"; ruled 531–579), ascended to the throne. He is the most celebrated of the Sassanid rulers. Khosrow I is most famous for his reforms in the aging governing body of Sassanids. He introduced a rational system of <a href="/wiki/Taxation" class="mw-redirect" title="Taxation">taxation</a> based upon a survey of <a href="/wiki/Landed_possession" class="mw-redirect" title="Landed possession">landed possessions</a>, which his father had begun, and he tried in every way to increase the welfare and the revenues of his empire. Previous great feudal lords fielded their own military equipment, followers, and retainers. Khosrow I developed a new force of <a href="/wiki/Dehqan" title="Dehqan">dehqans</a>, or "knights", paid and equipped by the central government<sup id="cite_ref-Frye_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Frye-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the bureaucracy, tying the army and bureaucracy more closely to the central government than to local lords.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERichard_Frye._The_History_of_Ancient_Iran._76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERichard_Frye._The_History_of_Ancient_Iran.-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Emperor <a href="/wiki/Justinian_I" title="Justinian I">Justinian I</a> (527–565) paid Khosrow I 440,000 pieces of gold as a part of the "eternal peace" treaty of 532. In 540, Khosrow broke the treaty and invaded Syria, sacking Antioch and extorting large sums of money from a number of other cities. Further successes followed: in 541 Lazica defected to the Persian side, and in 542 a major Byzantine offensive in <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Armenia" title="Sasanian Armenia">Armenia</a> was defeated at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Anglon" title="Battle of Anglon">Anglon</a>. Also in 541, <a href="/wiki/Khosrow_I" title="Khosrow I">Khosrow I</a> entered Lazica at the invitation of its king, captured the main Byzantine stronghold at <a href="/wiki/Petra,_Lazica" title="Petra, Lazica">Petra</a>, and established another protectorate over the country,<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> commencing the <a href="/wiki/Lazic_War" title="Lazic War">Lazic War</a>. A five-year truce agreed to in 545 was interrupted in 547 when Lazica again switched sides and eventually expelled its Persian garrison with Byzantine help; the war resumed but remained confined to Lazica, which was retained by the Byzantines when peace was concluded in 562. </p><p>In 565, Justinian I died and was succeeded by <a href="/wiki/Justin_II" title="Justin II">Justin II</a> (565–578), who resolved to stop subsidies to Arab chieftains to restrain them from raiding Byzantine territory in Syria. A year earlier, the Sassanid governor of Armenia, <a href="/wiki/Chihor-Vishnasp" title="Chihor-Vishnasp">Chihor-Vishnasp</a> of the Suren family, built a fire temple at <a href="/wiki/Dvin_(ancient_city)" title="Dvin (ancient city)">Dvin</a> near modern <a href="/wiki/Yerevan" title="Yerevan">Yerevan</a>, and he put to death an influential member of the <a href="/wiki/Mamikonian" title="Mamikonian">Mamikonian</a> family, touching off a revolt which led to the massacre of the Persian governor and his guard in 571, while rebellion also broke out in <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Iberia_(antiquity)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Iberia (antiquity)">Iberia</a>. Justin II took advantage of the Armenian revolt to stop his yearly payments to Khosrow I for the defense of the Caucasus passes. </p><p>The Armenians were welcomed as allies, and an army was sent into Sassanid territory which <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Nisibis_(573)" title="Siege of Nisibis (573)">besieged</a> Nisibis in 573. However, dissension among the Byzantine generals not only led to an abandonment of the siege, but they in turn were besieged in the city of <a href="/wiki/Dara_(Mesopotamia)" title="Dara (Mesopotamia)">Dara</a>, which was taken by the Persians. Capitalizing on this success, the Persians then ravaged Syria, causing Justin II to agree to make annual payments in exchange for a five-year truce on the Mesopotamian front, although the war continued elsewhere. In 576 Khosrow I led his last campaign, an offensive into Anatolia which sacked <a href="/wiki/Sivas" title="Sivas">Sebasteia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Malatya" title="Malatya">Melitene</a>, but ended in disaster: defeated outside Melitene, the Persians suffered heavy losses as they fled across the Euphrates under Byzantine attack. Taking advantage of Persian disarray, the Byzantines raided deep into Khosrow's territory, even mounting amphibious attacks across the <a href="/wiki/Caspian_Sea" title="Caspian Sea">Caspian Sea</a>. Khosrow sued for peace, but he decided to continue the war after a victory by his general <a href="/wiki/Tamkhosrow" title="Tamkhosrow">Tamkhosrow</a> in Armenia in 577, and fighting resumed in Mesopotamia. The Armenian revolt came to an end with a general amnesty, which brought Armenia back into the Sassanid Empire.<sup id="cite_ref-Frye_75-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Frye-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Around 570, "Ma 'd-Karib", half-brother of the King of Yemen, requested Khosrow I's intervention. Khosrow I sent a fleet and a small army under a commander called <a href="/wiki/Vahriz" class="mw-redirect" title="Vahriz">Vahriz</a> to the area near present <a href="/wiki/Aden" title="Aden">Aden</a>, and they marched against the capital San'a'l, which was occupied. Saif, son of Mard-Karib, who had accompanied the expedition, became King sometime between 575 and 577. Thus, the Sassanids were able to establish a base in <a href="/wiki/South_Arabia" title="South Arabia">South Arabia</a> to control the sea trade with the east. Later, the south Arabian kingdom renounced Sassanid overlordship, and another Persian expedition was sent in 598 that successfully annexed southern Arabia as a Sassanid province, which lasted until the time of troubles after Khosrow II.<sup id="cite_ref-Frye_75-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Frye-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Khosrow I's reign witnessed the rise of the dihqans (literally, village lords), the petty landholding nobility who were the backbone of later Sassanid provincial administration and the tax collection system.<sup id="cite_ref-Chamber_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chamber-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Khosrow I built infrastructure, embellishing his capital and founding new towns with the construction of new buildings. He rebuilt the canals and restocked the farms destroyed in the wars. He built strong fortifications at the passes and placed subject tribes in carefully chosen towns on the frontiers to act as guardians against invaders. He was tolerant of all religions, though he decreed that <a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a> should be the official <a href="/wiki/State_religion" title="State religion">state religion</a>, and was not unduly disturbed when one of his sons became a Christian. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%22Khusrau_Parviz_before_his_Father_Hurmuzd_(%3F)%22,_Folio_from_a_Shahnama_(Book_of_Kings)_MET_DP215844.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/%22Khusrau_Parviz_before_his_Father_Hurmuzd_%28%3F%29%22%2C_Folio_from_a_Shahnama_%28Book_of_Kings%29_MET_DP215844.jpg/220px-%22Khusrau_Parviz_before_his_Father_Hurmuzd_%28%3F%29%22%2C_Folio_from_a_Shahnama_%28Book_of_Kings%29_MET_DP215844.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="228" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/%22Khusrau_Parviz_before_his_Father_Hurmuzd_%28%3F%29%22%2C_Folio_from_a_Shahnama_%28Book_of_Kings%29_MET_DP215844.jpg/330px-%22Khusrau_Parviz_before_his_Father_Hurmuzd_%28%3F%29%22%2C_Folio_from_a_Shahnama_%28Book_of_Kings%29_MET_DP215844.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/%22Khusrau_Parviz_before_his_Father_Hurmuzd_%28%3F%29%22%2C_Folio_from_a_Shahnama_%28Book_of_Kings%29_MET_DP215844.jpg/440px-%22Khusrau_Parviz_before_his_Father_Hurmuzd_%28%3F%29%22%2C_Folio_from_a_Shahnama_%28Book_of_Kings%29_MET_DP215844.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3618" data-file-height="3747" /></a><figcaption>15th-century <a href="/wiki/Shahnameh" title="Shahnameh">Shahnameh</a> illustration of Hormizd IV seated on his throne.</figcaption></figure> <p>After Khosrow I, <a href="/wiki/Hormizd_IV" title="Hormizd IV">Hormizd IV</a> (579–590) took the throne. The war with the Byzantines continued to rage intensely but inconclusively until the general <a href="/wiki/Bahram_Chobin" title="Bahram Chobin">Bahram Chobin</a>, dismissed and humiliated by Hormizd, rose in revolt in 589. The following year, Hormizd was overthrown by a palace coup and his son <a href="/wiki/Khosrow_II" title="Khosrow II">Khosrow II</a> (590–628) placed on the throne. However, this change of ruler failed to placate Bahram, who defeated Khosrow, forcing him to flee to Byzantine territory, and seized the throne for himself as Bahram VI. Khosrow asked the Byzantine Emperor <a href="/wiki/Maurice_(emperor)" title="Maurice (emperor)">Maurice</a> (582–602) for assistance against Bahram, offering to cede the western Caucasus to the Byzantines. To cement the alliance, Khosrow also married Maurice's daughter Miriam. Under the command of Khosrow and the Byzantine generals <a href="/wiki/Narses_(magister_militum_per_Orientem)" title="Narses (magister militum per Orientem)">Narses</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Mystacon" title="John Mystacon">John Mystacon</a>, the new combined Byzantine-Persian army raised a rebellion against Bahram, defeating him at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Blarathon" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Blarathon">Battle of Blarathon</a> in 591. When Khosrow was subsequently restored to power he kept his promise, handing over control of western <a href="/wiki/Armenia" title="Armenia">Armenia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Iberia" title="Principality of Iberia">Caucasian Iberia</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:KhosrauIIDinarHistoryofIran.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/KhosrauIIDinarHistoryofIran.jpg/220px-KhosrauIIDinarHistoryofIran.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="107" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/KhosrauIIDinarHistoryofIran.jpg/330px-KhosrauIIDinarHistoryofIran.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/KhosrauIIDinarHistoryofIran.jpg/440px-KhosrauIIDinarHistoryofIran.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="389" /></a><figcaption>Coin of <a href="/wiki/Khosrow_II" title="Khosrow II">Khosrow II</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The new peace arrangement allowed the two empires to focus on military matters elsewhere: Khosrow focused on the Sassanid Empire's eastern frontier while Maurice restored Byzantine control of the <a href="/wiki/Balkans" title="Balkans">Balkans</a>. Circa 600, the <a href="/wiki/Hephthalites" title="Hephthalites">Hephthalites</a> had been raiding the Sassanid Empire as far as <a href="/wiki/Spahan_(satrapy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Spahan (satrapy)">Spahan</a> in central Iran. The Hephthalites issued numerous coins imitating the coinage of Khosrow II. In <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 606/607</span>, Khosrow recalled <a href="/wiki/Smbat_IV_Bagratuni" title="Smbat IV Bagratuni">Smbat IV Bagratuni</a> from <a href="/wiki/Persian_Armenia" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian Armenia">Persian Armenia</a> and sent him to Iran to repel the Hephthalites. Smbat, with the aid of a Persian prince named Datoyean, repelled the Hephthalites from Persia, and plundered their domains in <a href="/wiki/Greater_Khorasan" title="Greater Khorasan">eastern Khorasan</a>, where Smbat is said to have killed their king in single combat.<sup id="cite_ref-PLRE_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PLRE-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After Maurice was overthrown and killed by <a href="/wiki/Phocas" title="Phocas">Phocas</a> (602–610) in 602, however, Khosrow II used the murder of his benefactor as a pretext to begin a new invasion, which benefited from continuing civil war in the Byzantine Empire and met little effective resistance. Khosrow's generals systematically subdued the heavily fortified frontier cities of Byzantine Mesopotamia and Armenia, laying the foundations for unprecedented expansion. The Persians overran <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a> and captured Antioch in 611. </p><p>In 613, outside Antioch, the Persian generals <a href="/wiki/Shahrbaraz" title="Shahrbaraz">Shahrbaraz</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shahin_Vahmanzadegan" title="Shahin Vahmanzadegan">Shahin</a> decisively defeated a major counter-attack led in person by the Byzantine emperor <a href="/wiki/Heraclius" title="Heraclius">Heraclius</a>. Thereafter, the Persian advance continued unchecked. <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a> fell in 614, <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a> in 619, and the rest of <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> by 621. The Sassanid dream of restoring the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid" class="mw-redirect" title="Achaemenid">Achaemenid</a> boundaries was almost complete, while the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> was on the verge of collapse. This remarkable peak of expansion was paralleled by a blossoming of <a href="/wiki/Iranian_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian art">Persian art</a>, <a href="/wiki/Music_of_Iran" title="Music of Iran">music</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Iranian_architecture" title="Iranian architecture">architecture</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Decline_and_fall_(622–651)"><span id="Decline_and_fall_.28622.E2.80.93651.29"></span>Decline and fall (622–651)</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Sasanian_War_of_602%E2%80%93628" title="Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628">Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_civil_war_of_628%E2%80%93632" title="Sasanian civil war of 628–632">Sasanian civil war of 628–632</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Sasanian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Fall of the Sasanian Empire">Fall of the Sasanian Empire</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Persia" title="Muslim conquest of Persia">Muslim conquest of Persia</a></div> <p>While successful at its first stage (from 602 to 622), the campaign of <a href="/wiki/Khosrau_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Khosrau II">Khosrau II</a> had actually exhausted the Persian army and treasuries. In an effort to rebuild the national treasuries, Khosrau overtaxed the population. Thus, while his empire was on the verge of total defeat, <a href="/wiki/Heraclius" title="Heraclius">Heraclius</a> (610–641) drew on all his diminished and devastated empire's remaining resources, reorganised his armies, and mounted a remarkable, risky counter-offensive. Between 622 and 627, he campaigned against the Persians in Anatolia and the Caucasus, winning a string of victories against Persian forces under <a href="/wiki/Shahrbaraz" title="Shahrbaraz">Shahrbaraz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shahin_Vahmanzadegan" title="Shahin Vahmanzadegan">Shahin</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Shahraplakan" title="Shahraplakan">Shahraplakan</a> (whose competition to claim the glory of personally defeating the Byzantine emperor contributed to their failure), sacking the great Zoroastrian temple at <a href="/wiki/Takht-e_Soleym%C4%81n" title="Takht-e Soleymān">Ganzak</a>, and securing <a href="/wiki/Third_Perso-Turkic_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Third Perso-Turkic War">assistance</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Khazars" title="Khazars">Khazars</a> and <a href="/wiki/Western_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Western Turkic Khaganate">Western Turkic Khaganate</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Siege_of_Constantinople_fresco,_Moldovi%C8%9Ba_monastery,_Vatra_Moldovi%C8%9Bei,_2017.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Siege_of_Constantinople_fresco%2C_Moldovi%C8%9Ba_monastery%2C_Vatra_Moldovi%C8%9Bei%2C_2017.jpg/300px-Siege_of_Constantinople_fresco%2C_Moldovi%C8%9Ba_monastery%2C_Vatra_Moldovi%C8%9Bei%2C_2017.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Siege_of_Constantinople_fresco%2C_Moldovi%C8%9Ba_monastery%2C_Vatra_Moldovi%C8%9Bei%2C_2017.jpg/450px-Siege_of_Constantinople_fresco%2C_Moldovi%C8%9Ba_monastery%2C_Vatra_Moldovi%C8%9Bei%2C_2017.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Siege_of_Constantinople_fresco%2C_Moldovi%C8%9Ba_monastery%2C_Vatra_Moldovi%C8%9Bei%2C_2017.jpg/600px-Siege_of_Constantinople_fresco%2C_Moldovi%C8%9Ba_monastery%2C_Vatra_Moldovi%C8%9Bei%2C_2017.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5729" data-file-height="3192" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Constantinople_(626)" title="Siege of Constantinople (626)">Siege of Constantinople in 626</a> by the combined Sassanid, Avar, and Slavic forces depicted on the <a href="/wiki/Murals" class="mw-redirect" title="Murals">murals</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Moldovi%C8%9Ba_Monastery" title="Moldovița Monastery">Moldovița Monastery</a>, <a href="/wiki/Romania" title="Romania">Romania</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In response, Khosrau, in coordination with <a href="/wiki/Pannonian_Avars" title="Pannonian Avars">Avar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Slavic_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavic peoples">Slavic</a> forces, <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Constantinople_(626)" title="Siege of Constantinople (626)">launched a siege</a> on the Byzantine capital of <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a> in 626. The Sassanids, led by Shahrbaraz, attacked the city on the eastern side of the <a href="/wiki/Bosphorus" class="mw-redirect" title="Bosphorus">Bosphorus</a>, while his Avar and Slavic allies invaded from the western side. Attempts to ferry the Persian forces across the Bosphorus to aid their allies (the Slavic forces being by far the most capable in siege warfare) were blocked by the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_navy" title="Byzantine navy">Byzantine fleet</a>, and the siege ended in failure. In 627–628, Heraclius mounted a winter invasion of Mesopotamia, and, despite the departure of his Khazar allies, defeated a Persian army commanded by <a href="/wiki/Rhahzadh" title="Rhahzadh">Rhahzadh</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nineveh_(627)" title="Battle of Nineveh (627)">Battle of Nineveh</a>. He then marched down the Tigris, devastating the country and sacking Khosrau's palace at <a href="/wiki/Dastagird" title="Dastagird">Dastagerd</a>. He was prevented from attacking Ctesiphon by the destruction of the bridges on the <a href="/wiki/Nahrawan_Canal" title="Nahrawan Canal">Nahrawan Canal</a> and conducted further raids before withdrawing up the <a href="/wiki/Diyala_River" title="Diyala River">Diyala</a> into north-western Iran.<sup id="cite_ref-HBS_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HBS-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BorandukhtCoinHistoryofIran.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/BorandukhtCoinHistoryofIran.jpg/180px-BorandukhtCoinHistoryofIran.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/BorandukhtCoinHistoryofIran.jpg/270px-BorandukhtCoinHistoryofIran.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/BorandukhtCoinHistoryofIran.jpg/360px-BorandukhtCoinHistoryofIran.jpg 2x" data-file-width="391" data-file-height="386" /></a><figcaption>Queen <a href="/wiki/Boran" title="Boran">Boran</a>, daughter of <a href="/wiki/Khosrau_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Khosrau II">Khosrau II</a>, the first woman and one of the last rulers on the throne of the Sasanian Empire, she reigned from 17 June 629 to 16 June 630</figcaption></figure> <p>The impact of Heraclius's victories, the devastation of the richest territories of the Sassanid Empire, and the humiliating destruction of high-profile targets such as Ganzak and Dastagerd fatally undermined Khosrau's prestige and his support among the Persian aristocracy. In early 628, he was overthrown and murdered by his son <a href="/wiki/Kavadh_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Kavadh II">Kavadh II</a> (628), who immediately brought an end to the war, agreeing to withdraw from all occupied territories. In 629, Heraclius restored the <a href="/wiki/True_Cross" title="True Cross">True Cross</a> to <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a> in a majestic ceremony.<sup id="cite_ref-HBS_80-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HBS-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kavadh died within months, and chaos and <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_civil_war_of_628-632" class="mw-redirect" title="Sasanian civil war of 628-632">civil war</a> followed. Over a period of four years and five successive kings, the Sassanid Empire weakened considerably. The power of the central authority passed into the hands of the generals. It would take several years for a strong king to emerge from a series of coups, and the Sassanids never had time to recover fully.<sup id="cite_ref-Chamber_78-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chamber-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SassanidEmpirebeforeArabConquest.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/SassanidEmpirebeforeArabConquest.png/350px-SassanidEmpirebeforeArabConquest.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/SassanidEmpirebeforeArabConquest.png/525px-SassanidEmpirebeforeArabConquest.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/SassanidEmpirebeforeArabConquest.png/700px-SassanidEmpirebeforeArabConquest.png 2x" data-file-width="1296" data-file-height="581" /></a><figcaption>Extent of the Sasanian Empire in 632 with modern borders superimposed</figcaption></figure> <p>In early 632, a grandson of Khosrau I, who had lived in hiding in <a href="/wiki/Estakhr" class="mw-redirect" title="Estakhr">Estakhr</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yazdegerd_III" title="Yazdegerd III">Yazdegerd III</a>, acceded to the throne. The same year, the first raiders from the <a href="/wiki/Arab" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab">Arab</a> tribes, newly united by <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>, arrived in Persian territory. According to Howard-Johnston, years of warfare had exhausted both the Byzantines and the Persians. The Sassanids were further weakened by economic decline, heavy taxation, religious unrest, rigid social stratification, the increasing power of the provincial landholders, and a rapid turnover of rulers, facilitating the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_conquest_of_Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic conquest of Persia">Islamic conquest of Persia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-HJ291_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HJ291-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Sassanids never mounted a truly effective resistance to the pressure applied by the initial Arab armies. Yazdegerd was a boy at the mercy of his advisers and incapable of uniting a vast country crumbling into small feudal kingdoms, despite the fact that the Byzantines, under similar pressure from the newly expansive Arabs, were no longer a threat. Caliph <a href="/wiki/Abu_Bakr" title="Abu Bakr">Abu Bakr</a>'s commander <a href="/wiki/Khalid_ibn_Walid" class="mw-redirect" title="Khalid ibn Walid">Khalid ibn Walid</a>, once one of <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a>'s chosen companions-in-arms and leader of the Arab army, moved to capture <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a> in a series of lightning battles. Redeployed to the Syrian front against the Byzantines in June 634, Khalid's successor in Iraq failed him, and the Muslims were defeated in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Bridge" title="Battle of the Bridge">Battle of the Bridge</a> in 634. However, the Arab threat did not stop there and reemerged shortly via the disciplined armies of Khalid ibn Walid. </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Umayyad_Caliphate._temp._Mu%27awiya_I_ibn_Abi_Sufyan._AH_41-60_AD_661-680.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Umayyad_Caliphate._temp._Mu%27awiya_I_ibn_Abi_Sufyan._AH_41-60_AD_661-680.jpg/300px-Umayyad_Caliphate._temp._Mu%27awiya_I_ibn_Abi_Sufyan._AH_41-60_AD_661-680.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Umayyad_Caliphate._temp._Mu%27awiya_I_ibn_Abi_Sufyan._AH_41-60_AD_661-680.jpg/450px-Umayyad_Caliphate._temp._Mu%27awiya_I_ibn_Abi_Sufyan._AH_41-60_AD_661-680.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Umayyad_Caliphate._temp._Mu%27awiya_I_ibn_Abi_Sufyan._AH_41-60_AD_661-680.jpg/600px-Umayyad_Caliphate._temp._Mu%27awiya_I_ibn_Abi_Sufyan._AH_41-60_AD_661-680.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="392" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a> coin imitating <a href="/wiki/Khosrau_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Khosrau II">Khosrau II</a>. Coin of the time of <a href="/wiki/Mu%27awiya_I_ibn_Abi_Sufyan" class="mw-redirect" title="Mu'awiya I ibn Abi Sufyan">Mu'awiya I ibn Abi Sufyan</a>. BCRA (<a href="/wiki/Basra" title="Basra">Basra</a>) mint; "<a href="/wiki/Ubayd_Allah_ibn_Ziyad" title="Ubayd Allah ibn Ziyad">Ubayd Allah ibn Ziyad</a>, governor". Dated AH 56 = 675/6 AD. Sasanian style bust imitating <a href="/wiki/Khosrau_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Khosrau II">Khosrau II</a> right; bismillah and three pellets in margin; c/m: winged creature right / Fire altar with ribbons and attendants; star and crescent flanking flames; date to left, mint name to right.</figcaption></figure> <p>In 637, a Muslim army under the Caliph <a href="/wiki/Umar" title="Umar">Umar ibn al-Khattāb</a> defeated a larger Persian force led by General <a href="/wiki/Rostam_Farrokhzad" title="Rostam Farrokhzad">Rostam Farrokhzad</a> at the plains of <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_al-Q%C4%81disiyyah" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of al-Qādisiyyah">al-Qādisiyyah</a>, and then advanced on Ctesiphon, which fell after a prolonged siege. Yazdegerd fled eastward from Ctesiphon, leaving behind him most of the empire's vast treasury. The <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Ctesiphon_(637)" title="Siege of Ctesiphon (637)">Arabs captured Ctesiphon</a> shortly afterward. Thus the Muslims were able to seize a powerful financial resource, leaving the Sassanid government strapped for funds. A number of Sassanid governors attempted to combine their forces to throw back the invaders, but the effort was crippled by the lack of a strong central authority, and the governors were defeated at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nihaw%C4%81nd" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Nihawānd">Battle of Nihawānd</a>. The empire, with its military command structure non-existent, its non-noble troop levies decimated, its financial resources effectively destroyed, and the <a href="/wiki/Sassanid_army#Azadan_nobility" class="mw-redirect" title="Sassanid army">Asawaran (Azatan)</a> knightly caste destroyed piecemeal, was now utterly helpless in the face of the Arab invaders. </p><p>Upon hearing of the defeat in Nihawānd, Yazdegerd along with <a href="/wiki/Farrukhzad" title="Farrukhzad">Farrukhzad</a> and some of the Persian nobles fled further inland to the eastern province of <a href="/wiki/Khorasan_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Khorasan Province">Khorasan</a>. Yazdegerd was assassinated by a miller in <a href="/wiki/Merv" title="Merv">Merv</a> in late 651. His sons, <a href="/wiki/Peroz_III" title="Peroz III">Peroz</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bahram_VII" title="Bahram VII">Bahram</a>, fled to <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang China</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some of the nobles settled in <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a>, where they contributed greatly to spreading the Persian culture and language in those regions and to the establishment of the first native Iranian Islamic dynasty, the <a href="/wiki/Samanid_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Samanid dynasty">Samanid dynasty</a>, which sought to revive Sassanid traditions. </p><p>The abrupt fall of the Sassanid Empire was completed in a period of just five years, and most of its territory was absorbed into the Islamic <a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">caliphate</a>; however, many Iranian cities resisted and fought against the invaders several times. Islamic caliphates repeatedly suppressed revolts in cities such as <a href="/wiki/Rey,_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="Rey, Iran">Rey</a>, <a href="/wiki/Isfahan_(city)" class="mw-redirect" title="Isfahan (city)">Isfahan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hamadan" title="Hamadan">Hamadan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The local population was initially under little pressure to convert to Islam, remaining as <a href="/wiki/Dhimmi" title="Dhimmi">dhimmi</a> subjects of the Muslim state and paying a <a href="/wiki/Jizya" title="Jizya">jizya</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, the old Sassanid "land tax" (known in Arabic as <i>Kharaj</i>) was also adopted. Caliph Umar is said to have occasionally set up a commission to survey the taxes, to judge if they were more than the land could bear.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Descendants">Descendants</h3></div> <p>It is believed that the following dynasties and noble families have ancestors among the Sassanian rulers: </p> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Dabuyid_dynasty" title="Dabuyid dynasty">Dabuyid dynasty</a> (642–760) descendant of <a href="/wiki/Jamasp" title="Jamasp">Jamasp</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Paduspanids" class="mw-redirect" title="Paduspanids">Paduspanids</a> (665–1598) of <a href="/wiki/Mazandaran_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Mazandaran Province">Mazandaran</a>, descendant of <a href="/wiki/Jamasp" title="Jamasp">Jamasp</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Shahs_of_Shirwan" class="mw-redirect" title="Shahs of Shirwan">shahs of Shirwan</a> (1100–1382) from <a href="/wiki/Hormizd_IV" title="Hormizd IV">Hormizd IV</a>'s line.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Banu_Munajjim" class="mw-redirect" title="Banu Munajjim">Banu Munajjim</a> (9th–10th century) from Mihr Gushnasp, a Sasanian prince.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Ahmad_ibn_Sahl" title="Ahmad ibn Sahl">Kamkarian family</a> (9th–10th century) a <i><a href="/wiki/Dehqan" title="Dehqan">dehqan</a></i> family descended from <a href="/wiki/Yazdegerd_III" title="Yazdegerd III">Yazdegerd III</a>.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Mikalids" title="Mikalids">Mikalids</a> (9th–11th century) a family descended from the Sogdian ruler <a href="/wiki/Divashtich" title="Divashtich">Divashtich</a>, who was in turn a descendant of <a href="/wiki/Bahram_V" title="Bahram V">Bahram V</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Government">Government</h2></div> <p>The Sassanids established an empire roughly within the frontiers achieved by the Parthian Arsacids, with the capital at Ctesiphon in the <a href="/wiki/Asoristan" title="Asoristan">Asoristan</a> province. In administering this empire, Sassanid rulers took the title of <i>shahanshah</i> (King of Kings), becoming the central overlords and also assumed guardianship of the <a href="/wiki/Atar" title="Atar">sacred fire</a>, the symbol of the national religion. This symbol is explicit on Sassanid coins where the reigning monarch, with his crown and regalia of office, appears on the obverse, backed by the sacred fire, the symbol of the national religion, on the coin's reverse.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sassanid queens had the title of <a href="/wiki/Banbishnan_banbishn" class="mw-redirect" title="Banbishnan banbishn">Banbishnan banbishn</a> (Queen of Queens). </p><p>On a smaller scale, the territory might also be ruled by a number of petty rulers from a noble family, known as <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shahrdar&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Shahrdar (page does not exist)">shahrdar</a></i>, overseen directly by the <i>shahanshah</i>. The districts of the provinces were ruled by a <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shahrab_(office)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Shahrab (office) (page does not exist)">shahrab</a></i> and a <i><a href="/wiki/Mobad" title="Mobad">mowbed</a></i> (chief priest). The mowbed's job was to deal with estates and other things relating to legal matters. <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaryaee2008125_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaryaee2008125-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sasanian rule was characterized by considerable centralization, ambitious urban planning, agricultural development, and technological improvements.<sup id="cite_ref-Chamber_78-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chamber-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Below the king, a powerful bureaucracy carried out much of the affairs of government; the head of the bureaucracy was the <i><a href="/wiki/Wuzurg_framadar" title="Wuzurg framadar">wuzurg framadar</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Vizier" title="Vizier">vizier</a> or <a href="/wiki/Prime_minister" title="Prime minister">prime minister</a>). Within this bureaucracy the Zoroastrian priesthood was immensely powerful. The head of the Magi priestly class, the <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mowbedan_mowbed&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mowbedan mowbed (page does not exist)">mowbedan mowbed</a></i>, along with the commander-in-chief, the <i><a href="/wiki/Spahbed" title="Spahbed">spahbed</a></i>, the head of traders and merchants syndicate <i>Ho Tokhshan Bod</i> and minister of agriculture (<i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wastaryoshan-salar&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wastaryoshan-salar (page does not exist)">wastaryoshan-salar</a></i>), who was also head of farmers, were, below the emperor, the most powerful men of the Sassanid state.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Sassanian rulers always considered the advice of their ministers. A Muslim historian, <a href="/wiki/Masudi" class="mw-redirect" title="Masudi">Masudi</a>, praised the "excellent administration of the Sasanian kings, their well-ordered policy, their care for their subjects, and the prosperity of their domains". In normal times, the monarchical office was hereditary, but might be transferred by the king to a younger son; in two instances the supreme power was held by queens. When no direct heir was available, the nobles and prelates chose a ruler, but their choice was restricted to members of the royal family.<sup id="cite_ref-Durant_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Durant-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Sasanian nobility was a mixture of old Parthian clans, Persian aristocratic families, and noble families from subjected territories. Many new noble families had risen after the dissolution of the Parthian dynasty, while several of the once-dominant <a href="/wiki/Seven_Parthian_clans" class="mw-redirect" title="Seven Parthian clans">Seven Parthian clans</a> remained of high importance. At the court of Ardashir I, the old Arsacid families of the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Karen" title="House of Karen">House of Karen</a> and the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Suren" title="House of Suren">House of Suren</a>, along with several other families, the Varazes and Andigans, held positions of great honor. Alongside these Iranian and non-Iranian noble families, the kings of <a href="/wiki/Merv" title="Merv">Merv</a>, <a href="/wiki/Abarshahr" title="Abarshahr">Abarshahr</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kirman_(Sasanian_province)" title="Kirman (Sasanian province)">Kirman</a>, Sakastan, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Iberia_(antiquity)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Iberia (antiquity)">Iberia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Adiabene" title="Adiabene">Adiabene</a>, who are mentioned as holding positions of honor amongst the nobles, appeared at the court of the <i>shahanshah</i>. Indeed, the extensive domains of the Surens, Karens and Varazes, had become part of the original Sassanid state as semi-independent states. Thus, the noble families that attended at the court of the Sassanid empire continued to be ruling lines in their own right, although subordinate to the <i>shahanshah</i>. </p><p>In general, <i><a href="/wiki/Wuzurgan" title="Wuzurgan">Wuzurgan</a></i> from Iranian families held the most powerful positions in the imperial administration, including governorships of border provinces (<i><a href="/wiki/Marzban" title="Marzban">marzban</a></i>). Most of these positions were patrimonial, and many were passed down through a single family for generations. The <i>marzbans</i> of greatest seniority were permitted a silver throne, while <i>marzbans</i> of the most strategic border provinces, such as the <a href="/wiki/Caucasus_(geographic_region)" class="mw-redirect" title="Caucasus (geographic region)">Caucasus</a> province, were allowed a golden throne.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In military campaigns, the regional <i>marzbans</i> could be regarded as field marshals, while lesser <i><a href="/wiki/Spahbed" title="Spahbed">spahbeds</a></i> could command a field army.<sup id="cite_ref-Nicolle,_p._14_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nicolle,_p._14-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Culturally, the Sassanids implemented a system of social stratification. This system was supported by Zoroastrianism, which was established as the state religion. Other religions appear to have been largely tolerated, although this claim has been debated.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sassanid emperors consciously sought to resuscitate <a href="/wiki/Persian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian Empire">Persian</a> traditions and to obliterate Greek cultural influence.<sup id="cite_ref-Chamber_78-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chamber-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sasanian_military">Sasanian military</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Military_of_the_Sasanian_Empire" title="Military of the Sasanian Empire">Military of the Sasanian Empire</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C_%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%BD-%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0_%D0%B2_%D0%94%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C_%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%BD-%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0_%D0%B2_%D0%94%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5.jpg/220px-%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C_%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%BD-%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0_%D0%B2_%D0%94%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C_%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%BD-%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0_%D0%B2_%D0%94%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5.jpg/330px-%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C_%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%BD-%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0_%D0%B2_%D0%94%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C_%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%BD-%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0_%D0%B2_%D0%94%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5.jpg/440px-%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C_%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%BD-%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0_%D0%B2_%D0%94%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1080" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Walls_of_Derbent" class="mw-redirect" title="Walls of Derbent">Walls of Derbent</a>, part of the <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_defense_lines" title="Sasanian defense lines">Sasanian defense lines</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The active army of the Sassanid Empire originated from <a href="/wiki/Ardashir_I" title="Ardashir I">Ardashir I</a>, the first <i>shahanshah</i> of the empire. Ardashir restored the Achaemenid military organizations, retained the <a href="/wiki/Cataphract" title="Cataphract">Parthian cavalry</a> model, and employed new types of armour and <a href="/wiki/Siege_warfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege warfare">siege warfare</a> techniques. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Role_of_priests">Role of priests</h4></div> <p>The relationship between priests and warriors was important, because the concept of Ērānshahr had been revived by the priests. Disagreements between the priests and the warriors led to fragmentation within the empire, which led to its downfall.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaryaee200845–51_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaryaee200845–51-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Infantry">Infantry</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sassanid_army_helmet_by_Nickmard_Khoey.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Sassanid_army_helmet_by_Nickmard_Khoey.jpg/220px-Sassanid_army_helmet_by_Nickmard_Khoey.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="237" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Sassanid_army_helmet_by_Nickmard_Khoey.jpg/330px-Sassanid_army_helmet_by_Nickmard_Khoey.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Sassanid_army_helmet_by_Nickmard_Khoey.jpg/440px-Sassanid_army_helmet_by_Nickmard_Khoey.jpg 2x" data-file-width="908" data-file-height="978" /></a><figcaption>Sasanian army helmet</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Paygan" title="Paygan">Paygan</a> formed the bulk of the Sassanid infantry, and were often recruited from the peasant population. Each unit was headed by an officer called a "<a href="/wiki/Paygan-salar" title="Paygan-salar">Paygan-salar</a>", which meant "commander of the infantry" and their main task was to guard the baggage train, serve as pages to the <a href="/wiki/Asvaran" class="mw-redirect" title="Asvaran">Asvaran</a> (a higher rank), storm fortification walls, undertake entrenchment projects, and excavate mines.<sup id="cite_ref-source_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-source-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Those serving in the infantry were fitted with shields and lances. To make the size of their army larger, the Sassanids added soldiers provided by the <a href="/wiki/Media_(region)" title="Media (region)">Medes</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Dailamites" class="mw-redirect" title="Dailamites">Dailamites</a> to their own. The Medes provided the Sassanid army with high-quality javelin throwers, slingers and heavy infantry. Iranian infantry are described by <a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" title="Ammianus Marcellinus">Ammianus Marcellinus</a> as "armed like gladiators" and "obey orders like so many horse-boys".<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Dailamite people also served as infantry and were Iranian people who lived mainly within Gilan, Iranian Azerbaijan and Mazandaran. They are reported as having fought with weapons such as daggers, swords and javelins and reputed to have been recognized by Romans for their skills and hardiness in close-quarter combat. One account of Dailamites recounted their participation in an invasion of Yemen where 800 of them were led by the Dailamite officer <a href="/wiki/Vahriz" class="mw-redirect" title="Vahriz">Vahriz</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-source_97-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-source-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Vahriz would eventually defeat the Arab forces in Yemen and its capital <a href="/wiki/Sana%27a" class="mw-redirect" title="Sana'a">Sana'a</a> making it a Sasanian vassal until the invasion of Persia by Arabs.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Navy">Navy</h4></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_navy" title="Sasanian navy">Sasanian navy</a> was an important constituent of the Sasanian military from the time that Ardashir I conquered the Arab side of the <a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a>. Because controlling the Persian Gulf was an economic necessity, the Sasanian navy worked to keep it safe from piracy, prevent Roman encroachment, and keep the Arab tribes from getting hostile. However, it is believed by many historians that the naval force could not have been a strong one, as the men serving in the navy were those who were confined in prisons.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The leader of the navy bore the title of <i><a href="/wiki/Navbed" title="Navbed">nāvbed</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaryaee200847_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaryaee200847-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cavalry">Cavalry</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Knight-Iran.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Knight-Iran.JPG/220px-Knight-Iran.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="324" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Knight-Iran.JPG/330px-Knight-Iran.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Knight-Iran.JPG/440px-Knight-Iran.JPG 2x" data-file-width="522" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>A Sassanid king posing as an armored cavalryman, <a href="/wiki/Taq-e_Bostan" title="Taq-e Bostan">Taq-e Bostan</a>, Iran</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tabriz_Sasanian_Plate_3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Tabriz_Sasanian_Plate_3.jpg/220px-Tabriz_Sasanian_Plate_3.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Tabriz_Sasanian_Plate_3.jpg/330px-Tabriz_Sasanian_Plate_3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Tabriz_Sasanian_Plate_3.jpg/440px-Tabriz_Sasanian_Plate_3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1186" data-file-height="1162" /></a><figcaption>Sassanian silver plate showing lance combat between two nobles</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Aswaran" title="Aswaran">aswaran</a></div> <p>The cavalry used during the Sassanid Empire were two types of heavy cavalry units: <a href="/wiki/Clibanarii" title="Clibanarii">Clibanarii</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cataphract" title="Cataphract">Cataphracts</a>. The first cavalry force, composed of elite noblemen trained since youth for military service, was supported by light cavalry, infantry and archers.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mercenaries and tribal people of the empire, including the Turks, Kushans, Sarmatians, Khazars, Georgians, and Armenians were included in these first cavalry units. The second cavalry involved the use of the <a href="/wiki/Persian_war_elephants" title="Persian war elephants">war elephants</a>. In fact, it was their specialty to deploy elephants as cavalry support. </p><p>Unlike the Parthians, the Sassanids developed advanced <a href="/wiki/Siege_engines" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege engines">siege engines</a>. The development of siege weapons was a useful weapon during conflicts with Rome, in which success hinged upon the ability to seize cities and other fortified points; conversely, the Sassanids also developed a number of techniques for defending their own cities from attack. The Sassanid army was much like the preceding Parthian army, although some of the Sassanid's heavy cavalry were equipped with lances, while Parthian armies were heavily equipped with bows.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Roman historian <a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" title="Ammianus Marcellinus">Ammianus Marcellinus</a>'s description of Shapur II's clibanarii cavalry manifestly shows how heavily equipped it was, and how only a portion were spear equipped: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p><i>All the companies were clad in iron, and all parts of their bodies were covered with thick plates, so fitted that the stiff-joints conformed with those of their limbs; and the forms of human faces were so skillfully fitted to their heads, that since their entire body was covered with metal, arrows that fell upon them could lodge only where they could see a little through tiny openings opposite the pupil of the eye, or where through the tip of their nose they were able to get a little breath. Of these, some who were armed with pikes, stood so motionless that you would have thought them held fast by clamps of bronze.</i></p></blockquote> <p>Horsemen in the Sassanid cavalry lacked a stirrup. Instead, they used a war saddle which had a cantle at the back and two guard clamps which curved across the top of the rider's thighs. This allowed the horsemen to stay in the saddle at all times during the battle, especially during violent encounters.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Byzantine emperor Maurikios also emphasizes <a href="/wiki/Strategikon_of_Maurice" title="Strategikon of Maurice">in his <i>Strategikon</i></a> that many of the Sassanid heavy cavalry did not carry spears, relying on their bows as their primary weapons. Conversely the Taq-i Bustan reliefs and Al-Tabari's famed list of equipment required for dihqan knights included the lance. </p><p>The amount of money involved in maintaining a warrior of the <a href="/wiki/Sassanid_army#Azadan_nobility" class="mw-redirect" title="Sassanid army">Asawaran (Azatan)</a> knightly caste required a small estate, and the Asawaran (Azatan) knightly caste received that from the throne, and in return, were the throne's most notable defenders in time of war. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Relations_with_neighboring_regimes">Relations with neighboring regimes</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Roman_relations_with_the_Parthians_and_Sassanids" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman relations with the Parthians and Sassanids">Roman relations with the Parthians and Sassanids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman-Persian_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman-Persian Wars">Roman-Persian Wars</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Byzantine-Sassanid_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine-Sassanid Wars">Byzantine-Sassanid Wars</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Frequent_warfare_with_the_Romans_and_to_a_lesser_extent_others">Frequent warfare with the Romans and to a lesser extent others</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cameo_Shapur_Valerianus_Bab360_CdM_Paris.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Cameo_Shapur_Valerianus_Bab360_CdM_Paris.jpg/220px-Cameo_Shapur_Valerianus_Bab360_CdM_Paris.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Cameo_Shapur_Valerianus_Bab360_CdM_Paris.jpg/330px-Cameo_Shapur_Valerianus_Bab360_CdM_Paris.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Cameo_Shapur_Valerianus_Bab360_CdM_Paris.jpg/440px-Cameo_Shapur_Valerianus_Bab360_CdM_Paris.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2350" data-file-height="1575" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Cameo_with_Valerian_and_Shapur_I" title="Cameo with Valerian and Shapur I">fine cameo</a> showing an equestrian combat of Shapur I and Roman emperor <a href="/wiki/Valerian_(emperor)" title="Valerian (emperor)">Valerian</a> in which the Roman emperor is seized following the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Edessa" title="Battle of Edessa">Battle of Edessa</a>, according to Shapur's own statement, "with our own hand", in 260</figcaption></figure> <p>The Sassanids, like the Parthians, were in constant hostilities with the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>. The Sassanids, who succeeded the Parthians, were recognized as one of the leading world powers alongside its neighboring rival the Byzantine Empire, or Eastern Roman Empire, for a period of more than 400 years.<sup id="cite_ref-EIr-Sasanian_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EIr-Sasanian-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Norman_A._Stillman_pp_22_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Norman_A._Stillman_pp_22-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Byzantine_Studies_2006,_pp_29_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Byzantine_Studies_2006,_pp_29-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following the division of the Roman Empire in 395, the Byzantine Empire, with its capital at <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a>, continued as Persia's principal western enemy, and main enemy in general. Hostilities between the two empires became more frequent.<sup id="cite_ref-Chamber_78-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chamber-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Sassanids, similar to the Roman Empire, were in a constant state of conflict with neighboring kingdoms and nomadic hordes. Although the threat of nomadic incursions could never be fully resolved, the Sassanids generally dealt much more successfully with these matters than did the Romans, due to their policy of making coordinated campaigns against threatening nomads.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The last of the many and frequent wars with the Byzantines, the climactic <a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Sasanian_War_of_602%E2%80%93628" title="Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628">Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628</a>, which included the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Constantinople_(626)" title="Siege of Constantinople (626)">siege of the Byzantine capital Constantinople</a>, ended with both rivalling sides having drastically exhausted their human and material resources. Furthermore, <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Sasanian_Empire#Social_problems" class="mw-redirect" title="Fall of the Sasanian Empire">social conflict within the Empire</a> had considerably weakened it further.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Consequently, they were vulnerable to the sudden emergence of the Islamic <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun Caliphate</a>, whose forces invaded both empires only a few years after the war. The <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_army" title="Rashidun army">Muslim forces</a> swiftly <a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">conquered</a> the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_conquest_of_Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic conquest of Persia">entire Sasanian Empire</a> and in the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Arab_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine–Arab Wars">Byzantine–Arab Wars</a> deprived the Byzantine Empire of its <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim conquest of Syria">territories in the Levant</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arab_conquest_of_Armenia" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab conquest of Armenia">the Caucasus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim conquest of Egypt">Egypt</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_conquest_of_North_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Umayyad conquest of North Africa">North Africa</a>. Over the following centuries, half the Byzantine Empire and the entire Sasanian Empire came under Muslim rule. </p><p>In general, over the span of the centuries, in the west, Sassanid territory abutted that of the large and stable Roman state, but to the east, its nearest neighbors were the <a href="/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushan Empire</a> and nomadic tribes such as the <a href="/wiki/Hephthalite" class="mw-redirect" title="Hephthalite">White Huns</a>. The construction of fortifications such as <a href="/wiki/Tus_citadel" class="mw-redirect" title="Tus citadel">Tus citadel</a> or the city of <a href="/wiki/Nishapur" title="Nishapur">Nishapur</a>, which later became a center of learning and trade, also assisted in defending the eastern provinces from attack. </p><p>In south and central Arabia, <a href="/wiki/Bedouin" title="Bedouin">Bedouin Arab</a> tribes occasionally raided the Sassanid empire. The <a href="/wiki/Lakhmids" class="mw-redirect" title="Lakhmids">Kingdom of Al-Hirah</a>, a Sassanid vassal kingdom, was established to form a buffer zone between the empire's heartland and the Bedouin tribes. The dissolution of the Kingdom of Al-Hirah by Khosrau II in 602 contributed greatly to decisive Sassanid defeats suffered against Bedouin Arabs later in the century. These defeats resulted in a sudden takeover of the Sassanid empire by Bedouin tribes under the Islamic banner. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Falak_-ol_-_Aflak_Castle_1._Khoramabad-_Lorestan.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Falak_-ol_-_Aflak_Castle_1._Khoramabad-_Lorestan.jpg/220px-Falak_-ol_-_Aflak_Castle_1._Khoramabad-_Lorestan.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Falak_-ol_-_Aflak_Castle_1._Khoramabad-_Lorestan.jpg/330px-Falak_-ol_-_Aflak_Castle_1._Khoramabad-_Lorestan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Falak_-ol_-_Aflak_Castle_1._Khoramabad-_Lorestan.jpg/440px-Falak_-ol_-_Aflak_Castle_1._Khoramabad-_Lorestan.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5760" data-file-height="3840" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Falak-ol-Aflak" title="Falak-ol-Aflak">Falak-ol-Aflak</a> in <a href="/wiki/Khorramabad" title="Khorramabad">Khorramabad</a>, built in 240–270 AD during the time of <a href="/wiki/Shapur_I" title="Shapur I">Shapur I</a>, the second Sassanid ruler</figcaption></figure> <p>In the north, <a href="/wiki/Khazar" class="mw-redirect" title="Khazar">Khazars</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Western_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Western Turkic Khaganate">Western Turkic Khaganate</a> frequently assaulted the northern provinces of the empire. They plundered <a href="/wiki/Media_(region)" title="Media (region)">Media</a> in 634. Shortly thereafter, the Persian army defeated them and drove them out. The Sassanids built numerous fortifications in the Caucasus region to halt these attacks, such as the imposing fortifications built in <a href="/wiki/Derbent" title="Derbent">Derbent</a> (<a href="/wiki/Dagestan" title="Dagestan">Dagestan</a>, <a href="/wiki/North_Caucasus" title="North Caucasus">North Caucasus</a>, now a part of <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a>) that to a large extent, have remained intact up to this day. </p><p>On the eastern side of the Caspian Sea, the Sassanians erected the <a href="/wiki/Great_Wall_of_Gorgan" title="Great Wall of Gorgan">Great Wall of Gorgan</a>, a 200 km-long defensive structure probably aimed to protect the empire from northern peoples, such as the <a href="/wiki/Hephthalite_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Hephthalite Empire">White Huns</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="War_with_Axum">War with Axum</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Abyssinian%E2%80%93Persian_wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Abyssinian–Persian wars">Abyssinian–Persian wars</a></div> <p>In 522, before Khosrau's reign, a group of monophysite <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Axum" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Axum">Axumites</a> led an attack on the dominant <a href="/wiki/Himyarite_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Himyarite Kingdom">Himyarites</a> of southern Arabia. The local Arab leader was able to resist the attack but appealed to the Sassanians for aid, while the Axumites subsequently turned towards the Byzantines for help. The Axumites sent another force across the <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea" title="Red Sea">Red Sea</a> and this time successfully killed the Arab leader and replaced him with an Axumite man to be king of the region.<sup id="cite_ref-FryeAncient_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FryeAncient-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 531, Emperor Justinian suggested that the Axumites of <a href="/wiki/Yemen" title="Yemen">Yemen</a> should cut out the Persians from Indian trade by maritime trade with the Indians. The Ethiopians never met this request because an Axumite general named <a href="/wiki/Abraha" title="Abraha">Abraha</a> took control of the Yemenite throne and created an independent nation.<sup id="cite_ref-FryeAncient_108-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FryeAncient-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After Abraha's death one of his sons, Ma'd-Karib, went into exile while his half-brother took the throne. After being denied by Justinian, Ma'd-Karib sought help from Khosrau, who sent a small fleet and army under commander <a href="/wiki/Vahriz" class="mw-redirect" title="Vahriz">Vahriz</a> to depose the new king of Yemen. After capturing the capital city San'a'l, Ma'd-Karib's son, Saif, was put on the throne.<sup id="cite_ref-FryeAncient_108-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FryeAncient-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Justinian was ultimately responsible for Sassanian maritime presence in Yemen. By not providing the Yemenite Arabs support, Khosrau was able to help Ma'd-Karib and subsequently established Yemen as a principality of the Sassanian Empire.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Relations_with_China">Relations with China</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Iran-China_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Iran-China relations">Iran-China relations</a></div> <p>Like their predecessors the Parthians, the Sassanid Empire carried out active foreign relations with China, and ambassadors from Persia frequently traveled to China. Chinese documents report on sixteen Sassanid embassies to China from 455 to 555.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Commercially, land and sea trade with China was important to both the Sassanid and Chinese Empires. Large numbers of Sassanid coins have been found in southern China, confirming maritime trade. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Zhigongtu_(Persia).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Zhigongtu_%28Persia%29.jpg/170px-Zhigongtu_%28Persia%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Zhigongtu_%28Persia%29.jpg/255px-Zhigongtu_%28Persia%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Zhigongtu_%28Persia%29.jpg/340px-Zhigongtu_%28Persia%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="702" data-file-height="1052" /></a><figcaption>Persian ambassador at the Chinese court of <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Yuan_of_Liang" title="Emperor Yuan of Liang">Emperor Yuan of Liang</a> in his capital <a href="/wiki/Jingzhou" title="Jingzhou">Jingzhou</a> in 526–539 CE, with explanatory text. <i><a href="/wiki/Portraits_of_Periodical_Offering_of_Liang" class="mw-redirect" title="Portraits of Periodical Offering of Liang">Portraits of Periodical Offering of Liang</a></i>, 11th century Song copy.</figcaption></figure> <p>On different occasions, Sassanid kings sent their most talented Persian musicians and dancers to the Chinese imperial court at <a href="/wiki/Luoyang" title="Luoyang">Luoyang</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(265%E2%80%93420)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jin dynasty (265–420)">Jin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Northern_Wei" title="Northern Wei">Northern Wei</a> dynasties, and to <a href="/wiki/Chang%27an" title="Chang'an">Chang'an</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Sui_dynasty" title="Sui dynasty">Sui</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang</a> dynasties. Both empires benefited from trade along the <a href="/wiki/Silk_Road" title="Silk Road">Silk Road</a> and shared a common interest in preserving and protecting that trade. They cooperated in guarding the trade routes through central Asia, and both built outposts in border areas to keep caravans safe from nomadic tribes and bandits. </p><p>Politically, there is evidence of several Sassanid and Chinese efforts in forging alliances against the common enemy, the <a href="/wiki/Hephthalites" title="Hephthalites">Hephthalites</a>. Upon the rise of the nomadic <a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6kt%C3%BCrks" title="Göktürks">Göktürks</a> in Inner Asia, there is also what looks like a collaboration between China and the Sassanids to defuse Turkic advances. Documents from Mt. Mogh talk about the presence of a Chinese general in the service of the king of <a href="/wiki/Sogdiana" class="mw-redirect" title="Sogdiana">Sogdiana</a> at the time of the Arab invasions. </p><p>Following the invasion of Iran by Muslim Arabs, <a href="/wiki/Peroz_III" title="Peroz III">Peroz III</a>, son of Yazdegerd III, escaped along with a few Persian nobles and took refuge in the Chinese imperial court. Both Peroz and his son <a href="/wiki/Narsieh" title="Narsieh">Narsieh</a> (Chinese <i>neh-shie</i>) were given high titles at the Chinese court. On at least two occasions, the last possibly in 670, Chinese troops were sent with Peroz in order to restore him to the Sassanid throne. Narsieh later attained the position of a commander of the Chinese imperial guards, and his descendants lived in China as respected princes, Sassanian refugees fleeing from the Arab conquest to <a href="/wiki/Iranians_in_China" title="Iranians in China">settle in China</a>. The emperor of China at this time was <a href="/wiki/Gaozong_of_Tang" class="mw-redirect" title="Gaozong of Tang">Gaozong of Tang</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Relations_with_India">Relations with India</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Indo-Sasanians" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Sasanians">Indo-Sasanians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hind_(Sasanian_province)" title="Hind (Sasanian province)">Hind (Sasanian province)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Coin_of_Peroz_II_Kushanshah,_minted_in_Tukharistan,_possibly_at_Balkh.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Coin_of_Peroz_II_Kushanshah%2C_minted_in_Tukharistan%2C_possibly_at_Balkh.jpg/220px-Coin_of_Peroz_II_Kushanshah%2C_minted_in_Tukharistan%2C_possibly_at_Balkh.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="111" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Coin_of_Peroz_II_Kushanshah%2C_minted_in_Tukharistan%2C_possibly_at_Balkh.jpg/330px-Coin_of_Peroz_II_Kushanshah%2C_minted_in_Tukharistan%2C_possibly_at_Balkh.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Coin_of_Peroz_II_Kushanshah%2C_minted_in_Tukharistan%2C_possibly_at_Balkh.jpg/440px-Coin_of_Peroz_II_Kushanshah%2C_minted_in_Tukharistan%2C_possibly_at_Balkh.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="404" /></a><figcaption>Coin of the <i><a href="/wiki/Kushanshah" title="Kushanshah">Kushanshah</a></i> <a href="/wiki/Peroz_II_Kushanshah" title="Peroz II Kushanshah">Peroz II Kushanshah</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 303–330</span>)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Foreigner_on_ceiling_of_Cave_1at_Ajanta_Caves_photograph_and_drawing.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Foreigner_on_ceiling_of_Cave_1at_Ajanta_Caves_photograph_and_drawing.jpg/220px-Foreigner_on_ceiling_of_Cave_1at_Ajanta_Caves_photograph_and_drawing.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="400" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Foreigner_on_ceiling_of_Cave_1at_Ajanta_Caves_photograph_and_drawing.jpg/330px-Foreigner_on_ceiling_of_Cave_1at_Ajanta_Caves_photograph_and_drawing.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Foreigner_on_ceiling_of_Cave_1at_Ajanta_Caves_photograph_and_drawing.jpg/440px-Foreigner_on_ceiling_of_Cave_1at_Ajanta_Caves_photograph_and_drawing.jpg 2x" data-file-width="638" data-file-height="1161" /></a><figcaption>Foreign dignitary drinking wine, on ceiling of Cave 1, at <a href="/wiki/Ajanta_Caves" title="Ajanta Caves">Ajanta Caves</a>, possibly depicting the Sasanian embassy to Indian king <a href="/wiki/Pulakesin_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Pulakesin II">Pulakesin II</a> (610–642), photograph and drawing.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Following the conquest of Iran and neighboring regions, <a href="/wiki/Shapur_I" title="Shapur I">Shapur I</a> extended his authority northwest of the <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a>. The previously autonomous <a href="/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushans</a> were obliged to accept his suzerainty.<sup id="cite_ref-Frye298_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Frye298-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These were the western Kushans which controlled Afghanistan<sup id="cite_ref-Frye298_112-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Frye298-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while the eastern Kushans were active in India. Although the Kushan empire declined at the end of the 3rd century, to be replaced by the Indian <a href="/wiki/Gupta_Empire" title="Gupta Empire">Gupta Empire</a> in the 4th century, it is clear that the Sassanids remained relevant in India's northwest throughout this period.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Persia and northwestern India, the latter that made up formerly part of the Kushans, engaged in cultural as well as political exchange during this period, as certain Sassanid practices spread into the Kushan territories. In particular, the Kushans were influenced by the Sassanid conception of kingship, which spread through the trade of Sassanid silverware and textiles depicting emperors hunting or dispensing justice. </p><p>This cultural interchange did not, however, spread Sassanid religious practices or attitudes to the Kushans. Lower-level cultural interchanges also took place between India and Persia during this period. For example, Persians imported the early form of <a href="/wiki/Chess" title="Chess">chess</a>, the <i><a href="/wiki/Chaturanga" title="Chaturanga">chaturanga</a></i> (Middle Persian: <i><a href="/wiki/Chatrang" class="mw-redirect" title="Chatrang">chatrang</a></i>) from India. In exchange, Persians introduced <a href="/wiki/Backgammon" title="Backgammon">backgammon</a> (<i>Nēw-Ardašēr</i>) to India. </p><p>During Khosrau I's reign, many books were brought from India and translated into <a href="/wiki/Middle_Persian" title="Middle Persian">Middle Persian</a>. Some of these later found their way into the literature of the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic world">Islamic world</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arabic_literature" title="Arabic literature">Arabic literature</a>. A notable example of this was the translation of the Indian <i><a href="/wiki/Panchatantra" title="Panchatantra">Panchatantra</a></i> by one of Khosrau's ministers, <a href="/wiki/Borzuya" title="Borzuya">Borzuya</a>. This translation, known as the <i>Kalīlag ud Dimnag</i>, later made its way into the Arabic literature and Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The details of Burzoe's legendary journey to India and his daring acquisition of the Panchatantra are written in full detail in <a href="/wiki/Ferdowsi" title="Ferdowsi">Ferdowsi</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Shahnameh" title="Shahnameh">Shahnameh</a>, which says: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>In Indian books, Borzuya read that on a mountain in that land there grows a plant which when sprinkled over the dead revives them. Borzuya asked <a href="/wiki/Khosrau_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Khosrau I">Khosrau I</a> for permission to travel to India to obtain the plant. After a fruitless search, he was led to an ascetic who revealed the secret of the plant to him: The "plant" was word, the "mountain" learning, and the "dead" the ignorant. He told Borzuya of a book, the remedy of ignorance, called the <a href="/wiki/Panchatantra" title="Panchatantra">Kalila</a>, which was kept in a treasure chamber. The king of India gave Borzuya permission to read the Kalila, provided that he did not make a copy of it. Borzuya accepted the condition but each day memorized a chapter of the book. When he returned to his room he would record what he had memorized that day, thus creating a copy of the book, which he sent to Iran. In Iran, <a href="/wiki/Bozorgmehr" title="Bozorgmehr">Bozorgmehr</a> translated the book into <a href="/wiki/Middle_Persian" title="Middle Persian">Pahlavi</a> and, at Borzuya's request, named the first chapter after him.<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Society">Society</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Urbanism_and_nomadism">Urbanism and nomadism</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:001125-TaqKasra-Iraq-IMG_7914-2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/001125-TaqKasra-Iraq-IMG_7914-2.jpg/220px-001125-TaqKasra-Iraq-IMG_7914-2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/001125-TaqKasra-Iraq-IMG_7914-2.jpg/330px-001125-TaqKasra-Iraq-IMG_7914-2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/001125-TaqKasra-Iraq-IMG_7914-2.jpg/440px-001125-TaqKasra-Iraq-IMG_7914-2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4500" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Taq_Kisra" class="mw-redirect" title="Taq Kisra">Taq-i Kisra</a>, the facade of the Sasanian palace in the capital <a href="/wiki/Ctesiphon" title="Ctesiphon">Ctesiphon</a>. The city developed into a rich commercial metropolis. It may have been <a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_cities_throughout_history" title="List of largest cities throughout history">the most populous city of the world</a> in 570–622.</figcaption></figure> <p>In contrast to Parthian society, the Sassanids renewed emphasis on a <a href="/wiki/Charismatic_authority" title="Charismatic authority">charismatic</a> and centralized government. In Sassanid theory, the ideal society could maintain stability and justice, and the necessary instrument for this was a strong monarch.<sup id="cite_ref-Daniel,_p._57_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Daniel,_p._57-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, the Sasanians aimed to be an <a href="/wiki/Urbanism" title="Urbanism">urban</a> empire, at which they were quite successful. During the late Sasanian period, Mesopotamia had the largest population density in the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">medieval world</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaryaee200839–40_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaryaee200839–40-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This can be credited to, among other things, the Sasanians founding and re-founding a number of cities, which is talked about in the surviving Middle Persian text <a href="/wiki/%C5%A0ahrest%C4%81n%C4%ABh%C4%81_%C4%AB_%C4%92r%C4%81n%C5%A1ahr" title="Šahrestānīhā ī Ērānšahr">Šahrestānīhā ī Ērānšahr</a> (the provincial capitals of Iran).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaryaee200839–40_116-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaryaee200839–40-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ardashir I himself built and re-built many cities, which he named after himself, such as <a href="/wiki/Veh-Ardashir" title="Veh-Ardashir">Veh-Ardashir</a> in <a href="/wiki/Asoristan" title="Asoristan">Asoristan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Firuzabad,_Fars" title="Firuzabad, Fars">Ardashir-Khwarrah</a> in <a href="/wiki/Pars_(Sasanian_province)" title="Pars (Sasanian province)">Pars</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vahman-Ardashir" title="Vahman-Ardashir">Vahman-Ardashir</a> in <a href="/wiki/Meshan" title="Meshan">Meshan</a>. During the Sasanian period, many cities with the name "Iran-khwarrah" were established. This was because Sasanians wanted to revive <a href="/wiki/Avestan" title="Avestan">Avesta</a> ideology.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaryaee200839–40_116-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaryaee200839–40-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many of these cities, both new and old, were populated not only by native ethnic groups, such as the Iranians or Syriacs, but also by the <a href="/wiki/Deportation" title="Deportation">deported</a> Roman prisoners of war, such as <a href="/wiki/Goths" title="Goths">Goths</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slavs" title="Slavs">Slavs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Latin_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin people">Latins</a>, and others.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaryaee200839–40_116-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaryaee200839–40-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many of these prisoners were experienced workers, who were used to build things such as cities, bridges, and dams. This allowed the Sasanians to become familiar with Roman technology. The impact these foreigners made on the economy was significant, as many of them were Christians, and the spread of the religion accelerated throughout the empire.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaryaee200839–40_116-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaryaee200839–40-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Unlike the amount of information about the settled people of the Sasanian Empire, there is little about the nomadic/unsettled ones. It is known that they were called "Kurds" by the Sasanians, and that they regularly served the Sasanian military, particularly the <a href="/wiki/Dailamite" class="mw-redirect" title="Dailamite">Dailamite</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gilaki_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Gilaki people">Gilani</a> nomads. This way of handling the nomads continued into the Islamic period, where the service of the Dailamites and Gilanis continued unabated.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaryaee200840–41_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaryaee200840–41-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Shahanshah">Shahanshah</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sasanid_Plate,_Azerbaijan_Museum,_Tabriz,_Iran.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Sasanid_Plate%2C_Azerbaijan_Museum%2C_Tabriz%2C_Iran.jpg/200px-Sasanid_Plate%2C_Azerbaijan_Museum%2C_Tabriz%2C_Iran.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="199" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Sasanid_Plate%2C_Azerbaijan_Museum%2C_Tabriz%2C_Iran.jpg/300px-Sasanid_Plate%2C_Azerbaijan_Museum%2C_Tabriz%2C_Iran.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Sasanid_Plate%2C_Azerbaijan_Museum%2C_Tabriz%2C_Iran.jpg/400px-Sasanid_Plate%2C_Azerbaijan_Museum%2C_Tabriz%2C_Iran.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2416" data-file-height="2400" /></a><figcaption>Plate of a Sasanian king, located in the <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan_Museum" title="Azerbaijan Museum">Azerbaijan Museum</a> in <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The head of the Sasanian Empire was the <i><a href="/wiki/Shahanshah" class="mw-redirect" title="Shahanshah">shahanshah</a></i> (king of kings), also simply known as the <i>shah</i> (king). His health and welfare was of high importance—accordingly, the phrase "May you be immortal" was used to reply to him. The Sasanian coins which appeared from the 6th-century and afterwards depict a moon and sun, which, in the words of the Iranian historian <a href="/wiki/Touraj_Daryaee" title="Touraj Daryaee">Touraj Daryaee</a>, "suggest that the king was at the center of the world and the sun and moon revolved around him." In effect he was the "king of the four corners of the world", which was an old Mesopotamian idea.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaryaee200841_118-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaryaee200841-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The king saw all other rulers, such as the Romans, Turks, and Chinese, as being beneath him. The king wore colorful clothes, makeup, a heavy crown, while his beard was decorated with gold. The early Sasanian kings considered themselves of divine descent; they called themselves "bay" (divine).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaryaee200842_119-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaryaee200842-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When the king went out in public, he was hidden behind a curtain,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaryaee200841_118-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaryaee200841-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and had some of his men in front of him, whose duty was to keep the masses away from him and to clear the way.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorony200592_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorony200592-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When one came to the king, one was expected to prostrate oneself before him, also known as <i><a href="/wiki/Proskynesis" title="Proskynesis">proskynesis</a></i>. The king's guards were known as the <i><a href="/wiki/Pushtigban_Body_Guards" class="mw-redirect" title="Pushtigban Body Guards">pushtigban</a></i>. On other occasions, the king was protected by a discrete group of palace guards, known as the <i><a href="/wiki/Darigan" title="Darigan">darigan</a></i>. Both of these groups were enlisted from royal families of the Sasanian Empire,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorony200592_120-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorony200592-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and were under the command of the <i><a href="/wiki/Hazarbed" title="Hazarbed">hazarbed</a></i>, who was in charge of the king's safety, controlled the entrance of the kings palace, presented visitors to the king, and was allowed military commands or used as a negotiator. The <i>hazarbed</i> was also allowed in some cases to serve as the royal executioner.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorony200592_120-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorony200592-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During <a href="/wiki/Nowruz" title="Nowruz">Nowruz</a> (Iranian new year) and <a href="/wiki/Mihragan" class="mw-redirect" title="Mihragan">Mihragan</a> (<a href="/wiki/Mithra" title="Mithra">Mihr's day</a>), the king would hold a speech.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaryaee200842_119-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaryaee200842-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Class_division">Class division</h3></div> <p>Sassanid society was immensely complex, with separate systems of social organization governing numerous different groups within the empire.<sup id="cite_ref-Nicolle,_p._11_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nicolle,_p._11-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historians believe society comprised four<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaryaee200843–47_123-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaryaee200843–47-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaki1992652–658_124-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaki1992652–658-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Social_class" title="Social class">social classes</a>: </p> <ol><li><i>Asronan</i> (priests)</li> <li><i>Arteshtaran</i> (warriors)</li> <li><i>Wastaryoshan</i> (commoners)</li> <li><i>Hutukhshan</i> (artisans)</li></ol> <p>At the center of the Sasanian <a href="/wiki/Caste" title="Caste">caste</a> system the <i>shahanshah</i> ruled over all the nobles.<sup id="cite_ref-Zarinkoob,_p._201_125-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zarinkoob,_p._201-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The royal princes, petty rulers, great landlords and priests, together constituted a privileged stratum, and were identified as <i><a href="/wiki/Wuzurgan" title="Wuzurgan">wuzurgan</a></i>, or grandees. This social system appears to have been fairly rigid.<sup id="cite_ref-Chamber_78-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chamber-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Sasanian caste system outlived the empire, continuing in the early Islamic period.<sup id="cite_ref-Zarinkoob,_p._201_125-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zarinkoob,_p._201-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Slavery">Slavery</h3></div> <p>In general, mass slavery was never practiced by the Iranians, and in many cases the situation and lives of semi-slaves (prisoners of war) were, in fact, better than those of the commoner.<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Persia, the term "slave" was also used for debtors who had to use some of their time to serve in a <a href="/wiki/Fire_temple" title="Fire temple">fire-temple</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaryaee200858–59_127-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaryaee200858–59-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some of the laws governing the ownership and treatment of slaves can be found in the legal compilation called the <a href="/wiki/Matigan-i_Hazar_Datistan" title="Matigan-i Hazar Datistan">Matigan-i Hazar Datistan</a>, a collection of rulings by Sasanian judges.<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Principles that can be inferred from the laws include: </p> <ul><li>Sources of slaves were both foreign (e.g., non-<a href="/wiki/Zoroastrians" class="mw-redirect" title="Zoroastrians">Zoroastrians</a> captives from warfare or raiding or slaves imported from outside the Empire by traders) or domestic (e.g., hereditary slaves, children sold into slavery by their fathers, or criminals enslaved as punishment). Some cases suggest that a criminal's family might also be condemned to servitude. At the time of the manuscript's composition, Iranian slavery was hereditary on the mother's side (so that a child of a free man and a slave woman would be a slave), although the author reports that in earlier Persian history it may have been the opposite, being inherited from the father's side.</li> <li>Slave-owners had the right to the slaves' income.</li> <li>While slaves were formally <a href="/wiki/Personal_property" title="Personal property">chattel</a> (property) and were liable to the same legal treatment as nonhuman property (for example, they could be sold at will, rented, owned jointly, inherited, given as security for a loan, etc.), Sasanian courts did not treat them completely as objects; for example, slaves were allowed to testify in court in cases concerning them, rather than only permitted to be represented by their owners.</li> <li>Slaves were often given to the Zoroastrian <a href="/wiki/Fire_temple" title="Fire temple">fire temples</a> as a pious offering, in which case they and their descendants would become temple-slaves.</li> <li>Excessive cruelty towards slaves could result in the owners' being brought to court; a court case involving a slave whose owner tried to drown him in the <a href="/wiki/Tigris_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Tigris River">Tigris River</a> is recorded, though without stating the outcome of the case.</li> <li>If a non-Zoroastrian slave, such as a <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christian</a> slave, converted to <a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a>, he or she could pay his or her price and attain freedom; i.e., as long as the owner was compensated, <a href="/wiki/Manumission" title="Manumission">manumission</a> was required.</li> <li>Owners could also voluntarily manumit their slaves, in which case the former slave became a subject of the Sasanian King of Kings and could not lawfully be re-enslaved later. Manumissions were recorded, which suggests that a freedman who was challenged would be able to document their free status.</li> <li>Uniquely in comparison to Western slave systems, Sasanian slavery recognized partial manumission (relevant in the case of a jointly owned slave, only some of whose owners were willing to manumit). In case of a slave who was, e.g., one-half manumitted, the slave would serve in alternating years.</li></ul> <p>To free a slave (irrespective of his or her faith) was considered a good deed.<sup id="cite_ref-auto6_129-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto6-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Slaves had some rights including keeping gifts from the owner and at least three days of rest in the month.<sup id="cite_ref-auto6_129-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto6-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The most common slaves in the Sasanian Empire were the household servants, who worked in private estates and at the fire-temples. Usage of a woman slave in a home was common, and her master had outright control over her and could even produce children with her if he wanted to. Slaves also received wages and were able to have their own families whether they were female or male.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaryaee200858–59_127-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaryaee200858–59-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Harming a slave was considered a crime, and not even the king himself was allowed to do it.<sup id="cite_ref-D._Irani,_Morris_Silver_1995,_p.87_130-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-D._Irani,_Morris_Silver_1995,_p.87-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The master of a slave was allowed to free the person when he wanted to, which, no matter what faith the slave believed in, was considered a good deed.<sup id="cite_ref-D._Irani,_Morris_Silver_1995,_p.87_130-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-D._Irani,_Morris_Silver_1995,_p.87-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A slave could also be freed if his/her master died.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaryaee200858–59_127-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaryaee200858–59-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Culture">Culture</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Education">Education</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Academy_of_Gondishapur" title="Academy of Gondishapur">Academy of Gondishapur</a></div> <p>There was a major school, called the Grand School, in the capital. In the beginning, only 50 students were allowed to study at the Grand School. In less than 100 years, enrollment at the Grand School was over 30,000 students.<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Society_2">Society</h3></div> <p>On a lower level, Sasanian society was divided into Azatan (freemen). The Azatan formed a large low-aristocracy of low-level administrators, mostly living on small estates. The Azatan provided the cavalry backbone of the <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_army" class="mw-redirect" title="Sasanian army">Sasanian army</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Nicolle,_p._11_121-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nicolle,_p._11-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arts,_science,_and_literature"><span id="Arts.2C_science.2C_and_literature"></span>Arts, science, and literature</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_music" title="Sasanian music">Sasanian music</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_art" title="Sasanian art">Sasanian art</a>, <a href="/wiki/Academy_of_Gundishapur" class="mw-redirect" title="Academy of Gundishapur">Academy of Gundishapur</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pahlavi_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Pahlavi literature">Pahlavi literature</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_architecture" title="Sasanian architecture">Sasanian architecture</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Coupe_de_Chosro%C3%A8s.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Coupe_de_Chosro%C3%A8s.JPG/220px-Coupe_de_Chosro%C3%A8s.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="213" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Coupe_de_Chosro%C3%A8s.JPG/330px-Coupe_de_Chosro%C3%A8s.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Coupe_de_Chosro%C3%A8s.JPG/440px-Coupe_de_Chosro%C3%A8s.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1532" data-file-height="1485" /></a><figcaption>A bowl with <a href="/wiki/Khosrau_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Khosrau I">Khosrau I</a>'s image at the center</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Head_horse_Kerman_Louvre_MAO132.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Head_horse_Kerman_Louvre_MAO132.jpg/220px-Head_horse_Kerman_Louvre_MAO132.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Head_horse_Kerman_Louvre_MAO132.jpg/330px-Head_horse_Kerman_Louvre_MAO132.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Head_horse_Kerman_Louvre_MAO132.jpg/440px-Head_horse_Kerman_Louvre_MAO132.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1660" data-file-height="1650" /></a><figcaption>Horse head, gilded silver, 4th century, Sasanian art</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sassanid_silver_plate_by_Nickmard_Khoey.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Sassanid_silver_plate_by_Nickmard_Khoey.jpg/220px-Sassanid_silver_plate_by_Nickmard_Khoey.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="223" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Sassanid_silver_plate_by_Nickmard_Khoey.jpg/330px-Sassanid_silver_plate_by_Nickmard_Khoey.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Sassanid_silver_plate_by_Nickmard_Khoey.jpg/440px-Sassanid_silver_plate_by_Nickmard_Khoey.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1012" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption>A Sasanian silver plate featuring a <a href="/wiki/Simurgh" title="Simurgh">simurgh</a>. The mythical bird was used as the royal emblem in the Sasanian period.<sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DescriptionSilver_plate_showing_a_king_hunting_lions.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/DescriptionSilver_plate_showing_a_king_hunting_lions.jpg/220px-DescriptionSilver_plate_showing_a_king_hunting_lions.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/DescriptionSilver_plate_showing_a_king_hunting_lions.jpg/330px-DescriptionSilver_plate_showing_a_king_hunting_lions.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/DescriptionSilver_plate_showing_a_king_hunting_lions.jpg/440px-DescriptionSilver_plate_showing_a_king_hunting_lions.jpg 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="749" /></a><figcaption>A Sasanian silver plate depicting a royal lion hunt</figcaption></figure> <p>The Sasanian kings were patrons of letters and philosophy. Khosrau I had the works of <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, translated into Pahlavi, taught at Gundishapur, and read them himself. During his reign, many historical annals were compiled, of which the sole survivor is the <a href="/wiki/Karnamak-i_Artaxshir-i_Papakan" class="mw-redirect" title="Karnamak-i Artaxshir-i Papakan">Karnamak-i Artaxshir-i Papakan</a> (Deeds of Ardashir), a mixture of history and romance that served as the basis of the Iranian national epic, the <a href="/wiki/Shahnameh" title="Shahnameh">Shahnameh</a>. When Justinian I closed the schools of <a href="/wiki/Athens" title="Athens">Athens</a>, seven of their professors went to Persia and found refuge at Khosrau's court. In his treaty of 533 with Justinian, the Sasanian king stipulated that the Greek sages should be allowed to return and be free from persecution.<sup id="cite_ref-Durant_92-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Durant-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (June 2022)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Under Khosrau I, the <a href="/wiki/Academy_of_Gundishapur" class="mw-redirect" title="Academy of Gundishapur">Academy of Gundishapur</a>, which had been founded in the 5th century, became "the greatest intellectual center of the time", drawing students and teachers from every quarter of the known world. <a href="/wiki/Nestorian_Christian" class="mw-redirect" title="Nestorian Christian">Nestorian Christians</a> were received there, and brought <a href="/wiki/Syriac_language" title="Syriac language">Syriac</a> translations of Greek works in medicine and philosophy. The medical lore of India, Persia, Syria and Greece mingled there to produce a flourishing school of therapy.<sup id="cite_ref-Durant_92-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Durant-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (June 2022)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Artistically, the Sasanian period witnessed some of the highest achievements of <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Iran" title="Culture of Iran">Iranian civilization</a>. Much of what later became known as Muslim culture, including architecture and writing, was originally drawn from Persian culture. At its peak, the Sasanian Empire stretched from western Anatolia to northwest India (today Pakistan), but its influence was felt far beyond these political boundaries. Sasanian motifs found their way into the art of <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a> and China, the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>, and even <a href="/wiki/Merovingian" class="mw-redirect" title="Merovingian">Merovingian</a> France. <a href="/wiki/Islamic_art" title="Islamic art">Islamic art</a> however, was the true heir to Sasanian art, whose concepts it was to assimilate while at the same time instilling fresh life and renewed vigor into it.<sup id="cite_ref-Iransaga:_The_art_of_Sassanians_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Iransaga:_The_art_of_Sassanians-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to <a href="/wiki/Will_Durant" title="Will Durant">Will Durant</a>: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Sasanian art exported its forms and motifs eastward into India, Turkestan and China, westward into Syria, Asia Minor, Constantinople, the Balkans, Egypt and Spain. Probably its influence helped to change the emphasis in Greek art from classic representation to Byzantine ornament, and in Latin Christian art from wooden ceilings to brick or stone vaults and domes and buttressed walls.<sup id="cite_ref-Durant_92-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Durant-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Sasanian carvings at <a href="/wiki/Taq-e_Bostan" title="Taq-e Bostan">Taq-e Bostan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Naqsh-e_Rustam" class="mw-redirect" title="Naqsh-e Rustam">Naqsh-e Rustam</a> were colored; so were many features of the palaces; but only traces of such painting remain. The literature, however, makes it clear that the art of painting flourished in Sasanian times. Painting, <a href="/wiki/Sculpture" title="Sculpture">sculpture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pottery" title="Pottery">pottery</a>, and other forms of decoration shared their designs with Sasanian textile art. Silks, embroideries, <a href="/wiki/Brocade" title="Brocade">brocades</a>, <a href="/wiki/Damask" title="Damask">damasks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tapestries" class="mw-redirect" title="Tapestries">tapestries</a>, chair covers, canopies, tents and rugs were woven with patience and masterly skill, and were dyed in warm tints of yellow, blue and green. Great colorful carpets had been an appendage of wealth in the East since <a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyrian</a> days. The two dozen Sasanian textiles that have survived are among the most highly valued fabrics in existence. Even in their own day, Sasanian textiles were admired and imitated from Egypt to the Far East; and during the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, they were favored for clothing the relics of Christian saints. </p><p>Studies on Sasanian remains show over 100 types of crowns being worn by Sasanian kings. The various Sasanian crowns demonstrate the cultural, economic, social and historical situation in each period. The crowns also show the character traits of each king in this era. Different symbols and signs on the crowns—the moon, stars, eagle and palm, each illustrate the wearer's religious faith and beliefs.<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Sasanian dynasty, like the Achaemenid, originated in the province of <a href="/wiki/Pars_(Sasanian_province)" title="Pars (Sasanian province)">Pars</a>. The Sasanians saw themselves as successors of the Achaemenids, after the <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenistic">Hellenistic</a> and Parthian interlude, and believed that it was their destiny to restore the greatness of Persia. </p><p>In reviving the glories of the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_dynasty" title="Achaemenid dynasty">Achaemenid</a> past, the Sasanians were no mere imitators. The art of this period reveals an astonishing virility, in certain respects anticipating key features of Islamic art. Sasanian art combined elements of traditional Persian art with Hellenistic elements and influences. The conquest of <a href="/wiki/Persian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian Empire">Persia</a> by <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a> had inaugurated the spread of <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_art" title="Hellenistic art">Hellenistic art</a> into Western Asia. Though the East accepted the outward form of this art, it never really assimilated its spirit. Already in the <a href="/wiki/Parthia" title="Parthia">Parthian</a> period, Hellenistic art was being interpreted freely by the peoples of the Near East. Throughout the Sasanian period, there was reaction against it. Sasanian art revived forms and traditions native to Persia, and in the Islamic period, these reached the shores of the Mediterranean.<sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Fergusson: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>With the accession of the [Sasanians], Persia regained much of that power and stability to which she had been so long a stranger ... The improvement in the fine arts at home indicates returning prosperity, and a degree of security unknown since the fall of the Achaemenidae.<sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Surviving palaces illustrate the splendor in which the Sasanian monarchs lived. Examples include palaces at <a href="/wiki/Firuzabad,_Fars" title="Firuzabad, Fars">Firuzabad</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bishapur" title="Bishapur">Bishapur</a> in <a href="/wiki/Fars_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Fars Province">Fars</a>, and the capital city of <a href="/wiki/Ctesiphon" title="Ctesiphon">Ctesiphon</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Asoristan" title="Asoristan">Asoristan</a> province (present-day <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>). In addition to local traditions, Parthian architecture influenced Sasanian architectural characteristics. All are characterized by the barrel-vaulted <a href="/wiki/Iwan" title="Iwan">iwans</a> introduced in the Parthian period. During the Sasanian period, these reached massive proportions, particularly at Ctesiphon. There, the arch of the great vaulted hall, attributed to the reign of Shapur I (241–272), has a span of more than 80 feet (24 m) and reaches a height of 118 feet (36 m). This magnificent structure fascinated architects in the centuries that followed and has been considered one of the most important examples of <a href="/wiki/Persian_architecture" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian architecture">Persian architecture</a>. Many of the palaces contain an inner audience hall consisting, as at Firuzabad, of a chamber surmounted by a dome. The Persians solved the problem of constructing a circular dome on a square building by employing <a href="/wiki/Squinch" title="Squinch">squinches</a>, or arches built across each corner of the square, thereby converting it into an octagon on which it is simple to place the dome. The dome chamber in the palace of Firuzabad is the earliest surviving example of the use of the squinch, suggesting that this architectural technique was probably invented in Persia.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The unique characteristic of Sasanian architecture was its distinctive use of space. The Sasanian architect conceived his building in terms of masses and surfaces; hence the use of massive walls of brick decorated with molded or carved stucco. Stucco wall decorations appear at Bishapur, but better examples are preserved from <a href="/wiki/Chal_Tarkhan" class="mw-redirect" title="Chal Tarkhan">Chal Tarkhan</a> near <a href="/wiki/Rey,_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="Rey, Iran">Rey</a> (late Sasanian or early Islamic in date), and from Ctesiphon and <a href="/wiki/Kish_(Sumer)" title="Kish (Sumer)">Kish</a> in Mesopotamia. The panels show animal figures set in roundels, human busts, and geometric and floral motifs.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Economy">Economy</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_economy" title="Sasanian economy">Sasanian economy</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Shushtar_Historical_Hydraulic_System_Darafsh_(6).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Shushtar_Historical_Hydraulic_System_Darafsh_%286%29.jpg/220px-Shushtar_Historical_Hydraulic_System_Darafsh_%286%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Shushtar_Historical_Hydraulic_System_Darafsh_%286%29.jpg/330px-Shushtar_Historical_Hydraulic_System_Darafsh_%286%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Shushtar_Historical_Hydraulic_System_Darafsh_%286%29.jpg/440px-Shushtar_Historical_Hydraulic_System_Darafsh_%286%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4928" data-file-height="3264" /></a><figcaption>The remains of the <a href="/wiki/Shushtar_Historical_Hydraulic_System" title="Shushtar Historical Hydraulic System">Shushtar Historical Hydraulic System</a>, a UNESCO World Heritage Site.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Textile0001.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Textile0001.jpg/220px-Textile0001.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Textile0001.jpg/330px-Textile0001.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Textile0001.jpg/440px-Textile0001.jpg 2x" data-file-width="452" data-file-height="297" /></a><figcaption>Sasanian silk twill textile of a <a href="/wiki/Simurgh" title="Simurgh">simurgh</a> in a beaded surround, 6th–7th century. Used in the reliquary of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Saint_Len&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Saint Len (page does not exist)">Saint Len</a>, Paris</figcaption></figure> <p>Due to the majority of the inhabitants being of peasant stock, the Sasanian economy relied on farming and agriculture, Khuzestan and Iraq being the most important provinces for it. The <a href="/wiki/Nahrawan_Canal" title="Nahrawan Canal">Nahravan Canal</a> is one of the greatest examples of Sasanian irrigation systems, and many of these things can still be found in Iran. The mountains of the Sasanian state were used for lumbering by the nomads of the region, and the centralized nature of the Sasanian state allowed it to impose taxes on the nomads and inhabitants of the mountains. During the reign of Khosrau I, further land was brought under centralized administration.<sup id="cite_ref-Tafazzoli_&_Khromov,_p._48_137-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tafazzoli_&_Khromov,_p._48-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Two trade routes were used during the Sasanian period: one in the north, the famous <a href="/wiki/Silk_Route" class="mw-redirect" title="Silk Route">Silk Route</a>, and one less prominent route on the southern Sasanian coast. The factories of <a href="/wiki/Susa" title="Susa">Susa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gundeshapur" title="Gundeshapur">Gundeshapur</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Shushtar" title="Shushtar">Shushtar</a> were famously known for their production of silk, and rivaled the Chinese factories. The Sasanians showed great toleration to the inhabitants of the countryside, which allowed the latter to stockpile in case of famine.<sup id="cite_ref-Tafazzoli_&_Khromov,_p._48_137-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tafazzoli_&_Khromov,_p._48-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Industry_and_trade">Industry and trade</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Indo-Sassanid.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Indo-Sassanid.jpg/220px-Indo-Sassanid.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Indo-Sassanid.jpg/330px-Indo-Sassanid.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Indo-Sassanid.jpg/440px-Indo-Sassanid.jpg 2x" data-file-width="762" data-file-height="545" /></a><figcaption>Sasanian sea <a href="/wiki/Trade_route" title="Trade route">trade routes</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Persian industry under the Sasanians developed from domestic to urban forms. Guilds were numerous. <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_roads" title="Sasanian roads">Good roads</a> and bridges, well patrolled, enabled state post and merchant caravans to link Ctesiphon with all provinces; and harbors were built in the Persian Gulf to quicken trade with India.<sup id="cite_ref-Durant_92-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Durant-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sasanian merchants ranged far and wide and gradually ousted Romans from the lucrative Indian Ocean trade routes.<sup id="cite_ref-Nicolle,_p._6_138-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nicolle,_p._6-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Recent archeological discovery has shown the interesting fact that Sasanians used special labels (commercial labels) on goods as a way of promoting their brands and distinguish between different qualities.<sup id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Khosrau I further extended the already vast trade network. The Sasanian state now tended toward monopolistic control of trade, with luxury goods assuming a far greater role in the trade than heretofore, and the great activity in building of ports, caravanserais, bridges and the like, was linked to trade and urbanization. The Persians dominated international trade, both in the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a>, Central Asia and South Russia, in the time of Khosrau, although competition with the Byzantines was at times intense. Sassanian settlements in <a href="/wiki/Oman" title="Oman">Oman</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yemen" title="Yemen">Yemen</a> testify to the importance of trade with India, but the silk trade with China was mainly in the hands of Sasanian vassals and the Iranian people, the <a href="/wiki/Iranian_peoples" title="Iranian peoples">Sogdians</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-140" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 571 direct control over incense produced in Yemen, fell to the Sasanian Empire.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESauer201712_141-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESauer201712-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The main exports of the Sasanians were silk; woolen and golden textiles; carpets and rugs; hides; and leather and pearls from the <a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a>. There were also goods in transit from China (paper, silk) and India (spices), which Sasanian customs imposed taxes upon, and which were re-exported from the Empire to Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-142" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It was also a time of increased metallurgical production, so Iran earned a reputation as the "armory of Asia". Most of the Sasanian mining centers were at the fringes of the Empire – in Armenia, the Caucasus and above all, <a href="/wiki/Transoxania" class="mw-redirect" title="Transoxania">Transoxania</a>. The extraordinary mineral wealth of the <a href="/wiki/Pamir_Mountains" title="Pamir Mountains">Pamir Mountains</a> led to a legend among the <a href="/wiki/T%C4%81jik_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Tājik people">Tajiks</a>: when God was creating the world, he tripped over the Pamirs, dropping his jar of minerals, which spread across the region.<sup id="cite_ref-Nicolle,_p._6_138-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nicolle,_p._6-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Religion">Religion</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sassanian_seal_standing_noble_holding_a_flower,_ca._3rd%E2%80%93early_4th_century_AD.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Sassanian_seal_standing_noble_holding_a_flower%2C_ca._3rd%E2%80%93early_4th_century_AD.jpg/170px-Sassanian_seal_standing_noble_holding_a_flower%2C_ca._3rd%E2%80%93early_4th_century_AD.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="263" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Sassanian_seal_standing_noble_holding_a_flower%2C_ca._3rd%E2%80%93early_4th_century_AD.jpg/255px-Sassanian_seal_standing_noble_holding_a_flower%2C_ca._3rd%E2%80%93early_4th_century_AD.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Sassanian_seal_standing_noble_holding_a_flower%2C_ca._3rd%E2%80%93early_4th_century_AD.jpg/340px-Sassanian_seal_standing_noble_holding_a_flower%2C_ca._3rd%E2%80%93early_4th_century_AD.jpg 2x" data-file-width="583" data-file-height="902" /></a><figcaption>Seal of a Sassanian nobleman holding a flower, c. 3rd–early 4th century AD.<sup id="cite_ref-143" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Under <a href="/wiki/Arsacid_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Arsacid Empire">Parthian rule</a>, Zoroastrianism had fragmented into regional variations which also saw the rise of local cult-deities, some from Iranian religious tradition but others drawn from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greek</a> tradition too. Greek paganism and religious ideas had spread and mixed with Zoroastrianism when <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a> had conquered the <a href="/wiki/Persian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian Empire">Persian Empire</a> from <a href="/wiki/Darius_III" title="Darius III">Darius III</a>—a process of Greco-Persian religious and cultural synthesisation which had continued into the Parthian era. However, under the Sassanids, an orthodox Zoroastrianism was revived and the religion would undergo numerous and important developments. </p><p>Sassanid Zoroastrianism developed clear distinctions from the practices laid out in the <a href="/wiki/Avesta" title="Avesta">Avesta</a>, the holy books of Zoroastrianism. Sassanid religious policies contributed to the flourishing of numerous religious reform movements, most importantly those founded by the religious leaders <a href="/wiki/Mani_(prophet)" title="Mani (prophet)">Mani</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mazdak" title="Mazdak">Mazdak</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The relationship between the Sassanid kings and the religions practiced in their empire became complex and varied. For instance, while <a href="/wiki/Shapur_I" title="Shapur I">Shapur I</a> tolerated and encouraged a variety of religions and seems to have been a <a href="/wiki/Zurvanism" title="Zurvanism">Zurvanite</a> himself, religious minorities at times were suppressed under later kings, such as <a href="/wiki/Bahram_II" title="Bahram II">Bahram II</a>. Shapur II, on the other hand, tolerated religious groups except Christians, whom he only persecuted in the wake of Constantine's conversion.<sup id="cite_ref-Ehsan_Yarshater_1983_pp._879_144-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ehsan_Yarshater_1983_pp._879-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Manfred_Hutter_1993_pp._5_145-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Manfred_Hutter_1993_pp._5-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Tansar_and_his_justification_for_Ardashir_I's_rebellion"><span id="Tansar_and_his_justification_for_Ardashir_I.27s_rebellion"></span>Tansar and his justification for Ardashir I's rebellion</h4></div> <p>From the very beginning of Sassanid rule in 224, an orthodox <a href="/wiki/Pars_(Sasanian_province)" title="Pars (Sasanian province)">Pars</a>-oriented Zoroastrian tradition would play an important part in influencing and lending legitimization to the state until its collapse in the mid-7th century. After <a href="/wiki/Ardashir_I" title="Ardashir I">Ardashir I</a> had deposed the last <a href="/wiki/Arsacid_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Arsacid Empire">Parthian</a> King, <a href="/wiki/Artabanus_IV_of_Parthia" title="Artabanus IV of Parthia">Artabanus IV</a>, he sought the aid of <a href="/wiki/Tansar" title="Tansar">Tansar</a>, a <i><a href="/wiki/Herbad" title="Herbad">herbad</a></i> (high priest) of the Iranian Zoroastrians to aid him in acquiring legitimization for the new dynasty. This Tansar did by writing to the nominal and vassal kings in different regions of <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a> to accept Ardashir I as their new King, most notably in the <i><a href="/wiki/Letter_of_Tansar" title="Letter of Tansar">Letter of Tansar</a></i>, which was addressed to <a href="/w/index.php?title=Gushnasp&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gushnasp (page does not exist)">Gushnasp</a>, the vassal king of <a href="/wiki/Tabarestan" class="mw-redirect" title="Tabarestan">Tabarestan</a>. Gushnasp had accused Ardashir I of having forsaken tradition by usurping the throne, and that while his actions "may have been good for the World" they were "bad for the faith". Tansar refuted these charges in his letter to Gushnasp by proclaiming that not all of the old ways had been good, and that Ardashir was more virtuous than his predecessors. The <i>Letter of Tansar</i> included some attacks on the religious practices and orientation of the Parthians, who did not follow an orthodox Zoroastrian tradition but rather a heterodox one, and so attempted to justify Ardashir's rebellion against them by arguing that Zoroastrianism had 'decayed' after Alexander's invasion, a decay which had continued under the Parthians and so needed to be 'restored'.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoyce1984_146-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoyce1984-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Tansar" title="Tansar">Tansar</a> would later help to oversee the formation of a single 'Zoroastrian church' under the control of the Persian <a href="/wiki/Magi" title="Magi">magi</a>, alongside the establishment of a single set of <a href="/wiki/Avesta" title="Avesta">Avestan</a> texts, which he himself approved and authorised. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Influence_of_Kartir">Influence of Kartir</h4></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Kartir" title="Kartir">Kartir</a>, a very powerful and influential Persian cleric, served under several Sassanid Kings and actively campaigned for the establishment of a <a href="/wiki/Pars_(Sasanian_province)" title="Pars (Sasanian province)">Pars</a>-centred Zoroastrian orthodoxy across the Sassanid Empire. His power and influence grew so much that he became the only 'commoner' to later be allowed to have his own rock inscriptions carved in the royal fashion (at <a href="/wiki/Sar_Mashhad" title="Sar Mashhad">Sar Mashhad</a>, <a href="/wiki/Naqsh-e_Rostam" title="Naqsh-e Rostam">Naqsh-e Rostam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ka%27ba-ye_Zartosht" title="Ka'ba-ye Zartosht">Ka'ba-ye Zartosht</a> and <a href="/wiki/Naqsh-e_Rajab" title="Naqsh-e Rajab">Naqsh-e Rajab</a>). Under <a href="/wiki/Shapur_I" title="Shapur I">Shapur I</a>, Kartir was made the 'absolute authority' over the 'order of priests' at the Sassanid court and throughout the empire's regions too, with the implication that all regional Zoroastrian clergies would now for the first time be subordinated to the Persian Zoroastrian clerics of <a href="/wiki/Pars_(Sasanian_province)" title="Pars (Sasanian province)">Pars</a>. To some extent Kartir was an <a href="/wiki/Iconoclasm" title="Iconoclasm">iconoclast</a> and took it upon himself to help establish numerous Bahram fires throughout Iran in the place of the 'bagins / ayazans' (monuments and temples containing images and idols of cult-deities) that had proliferated during the Parthian era. In expressing his doctrinal orthodoxy, Kartir also encouraged an obscure Zoroastrian concept known as <i>khvedodah</i> among the common-folk (marriage within the family; between siblings, cousins). At various stages during his long career at court, Kartir also oversaw the periodic persecution of the non-Zoroastrians in Iran, and secured the execution of the prophet <a href="/wiki/Mani_(prophet)" title="Mani (prophet)">Mani</a> during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Bahram_I" title="Bahram I">Bahram I</a>. During the reign of <a href="/wiki/Hormizd_I" title="Hormizd I">Hormizd I</a> (the predecessor and brother of Bahram I) Kartir was awarded the new Zoroastrian title of <i>mobad</i>—a clerical title that was to be considered higher than that of the eastern-Iranian (Parthian) title of <i>herbad</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoyce1984_146-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoyce1984-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Zoroastrian_calendar_reforms_under_the_Sasanians">Zoroastrian calendar reforms under the Sasanians</h4></div> <p>The Persians had long known of the Egyptian calendar, with its 365 days divided into 12 months. However, the traditional Zoroastrian calendar had 12 months of 30 days each. During the reign of <a href="/wiki/Ardashir_I" title="Ardashir I">Ardashir I</a>, an effort was made to introduce a more accurate Zoroastrian calendar for the year, so 5 extra days were added to it. These 5 extra days were named the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Gatha_days&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gatha days (page does not exist)">Gatha days</a> and had a practical as well as religious use. However, they were still kept apart from the 'religious year', so as not to disturb the long-held observances of the older Zoroastrian calendar. </p><p>Some difficulties arose with the introduction of the first calendar reform, particularly the pushing forward of important Zoroastrian festivals such as Hamaspat-maedaya and <a href="/wiki/Nowruz" title="Nowruz">Nowruz</a> on the calendar year by year. This confusion apparently caused much distress among ordinary people, and while the Sassanids tried to enforce the observance of these great celebrations on the new official dates, much of the populace continued to observe them on the older, traditional dates, and so parallel celebrations for Nowruz and other Zoroastrian celebrations would often occur within days of each other, in defiance of the new official calendar dates, causing much confusion and friction between the laity and the ruling class. A compromise on this by the Sassanids was later introduced, by linking the parallel celebrations as a 6-day celebration/feast. This was done for all except Nowruz. </p><p>A further problem occurred as Nowruz had shifted in position during this period from the <a href="/wiki/Spring_equinox_(Northern_Hemisphere)" class="mw-redirect" title="Spring equinox (Northern Hemisphere)">spring equinox</a> to <a href="/wiki/Autumn" title="Autumn">autumn</a>, although this inconsistency with the original spring-equinox date for Nowruz had possibly occurred during the Parthian period too. </p><p>Further calendar reforms occurred during the later Sassanid era. Ever since the reforms under <a href="/wiki/Ardashir_I" title="Ardashir I">Ardashir I</a> there had been no intercalation. Thus with a quarter-day being lost each year, the Zoroastrian holy year had slowly slipped backwards, with Nowruz eventually ending up in July. A great council was therefore convened and it was decided that Nowruz be moved back to the original position it had during the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid</a> period—back to <a href="/wiki/Spring_(season)" title="Spring (season)">spring</a>. This change probably took place during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Kavad_I" title="Kavad I">Kavad I</a> in the early 6th century. Much emphasis seems to have been placed during this period on the importance of spring and on its connection with the resurrection and <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Frashegerd&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Frashegerd (page does not exist)">Frashegerd</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoyce1984_146-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoyce1984-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Three_Great_Fires">Three Great Fires</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Takhte_Soleyman.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Takhte_Soleyman.jpg/220px-Takhte_Soleyman.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Takhte_Soleyman.jpg/330px-Takhte_Soleyman.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Takhte_Soleyman.jpg/440px-Takhte_Soleyman.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="900" /></a><figcaption>Ruins of <a href="/wiki/Takht-e_Soleym%C4%81n" title="Takht-e Soleymān">Adur Gushnasp</a>, one of three main Zoroastrian temples in the Sassanian Empire</figcaption></figure> <p>Reflecting the regional rivalry and bias the Sassanids are believed to have held against their <a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian</a> predecessors, it was probably during the Sassanid era that the two great fires in <a href="/wiki/Pars_(Sasanian_province)" title="Pars (Sasanian province)">Pars</a> and <a href="/wiki/Media_(region)" title="Media (region)">Media</a>—the <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Adur_Farnbag&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Adur Farnbag (page does not exist)">Adur Farnbag</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Adur_Gushnasp" title="Adur Gushnasp">Adur Gushnasp</a></i> respectively—were promoted to rival, and even eclipse, the sacred fire in <a href="/wiki/Parthia" title="Parthia">Parthia</a>, the <i><a href="/wiki/Adur_Burzen-Mehr" class="mw-redirect" title="Adur Burzen-Mehr">Adur Burzen-Mehr</a></i>. The Adur Burzen-Mehr, linked (in legend) with <a href="/wiki/Zoroaster" title="Zoroaster">Zoroaster</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vishtaspa" title="Vishtaspa">Vishtaspa</a> (the first Zoroastrian King), was too holy for the Persian magi to end veneration of it completely. </p><p>It was therefore during the Sassanid era that the three <i>Great Fires</i> of the Zoroastrian world were given specific associations. The <i>Adur Farnbag</i> in Pars became associated with the <a href="/wiki/Magi" title="Magi">magi</a>, <i>Adur Gushnasp</i> in Media with warriors, and <i>Adur Burzen-Mehr</i> in Parthia with the lowest estate, farmers and herdsmen. </p><p>The <i>Adur Gushnasp</i> eventually became, by custom, a place of pilgrimage by foot for newly enthroned Kings after their coronation. It is likely that, during the Sassanid era, these three <i>Great Fires</i> became central places for pilgrimage among Zoroastrians.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoyce1984_146-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoyce1984-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Iconoclasm_and_the_elevation_of_Persian_over_other_Iranian_languages">Iconoclasm and the elevation of Persian over other Iranian languages</h4></div> <p>The early Sassanids ruled against the use of cult images in worship, and so statues and idols were removed from many temples and, where possible, sacred fires were installed instead. This policy extended even to the <a href="/wiki/Aniran" class="mw-redirect" title="Aniran">'non-Iran'</a> regions of the empire during some periods. Hormizd I allegedly destroyed statues erected for the dead in <a href="/wiki/Armenia" title="Armenia">Armenia</a>. However, only cult-statues were removed. The Sassanids continued to use images to represent the deities of Zoroastrianism, including that of <a href="/wiki/Ahura_Mazda" title="Ahura Mazda">Ahura Mazda</a>, in the tradition that was established during the <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid</a> era. </p><p>In the early Sassanid period royal inscriptions often consisted of <a href="/wiki/Parthian_language" title="Parthian language">Parthian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Middle_Persian" title="Middle Persian">Middle Persian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a>. However, the last time Parthian was used for a royal inscription came during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Narseh" title="Narseh">Narseh</a>, son of <a href="/wiki/Shapur_I" title="Shapur I">Shapur I</a>. It is likely therefore that soon after this, the Sassanids made the decision to impose Persian as the sole official language within Iran, and forbade the use of written Parthian. This had important consequences for Zoroastrianism, given that all secondary literature, including the <a href="/wiki/Zend" title="Zend">Zand</a>, was then recorded only in <a href="/wiki/Middle_Persian" title="Middle Persian">Middle Persian</a>, having a profound impact in orienting Zoroastrianism towards the influence of the <a href="/wiki/Pars_(Sasanian_province)" title="Pars (Sasanian province)">Pars</a> region, the homeland of the Sassanids.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoyce1984_146-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoyce1984-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Developments_in_Zoroastrian_literature_and_liturgy_by_the_Sasanians">Developments in Zoroastrian literature and liturgy by the Sasanians</h4></div> <p>Some scholars of Zoroastrianism such as <a href="/wiki/Mary_Boyce" title="Mary Boyce">Mary Boyce</a> have speculated that it is possible that the <i><a href="/wiki/Yasna" title="Yasna">yasna</a></i> service was lengthened during the Sassanid era "to increase its impressiveness".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoyce1984123–125_147-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoyce1984123–125-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This appears to have been done by joining the <a href="/wiki/Gathas" class="mw-redirect" title="Gathas">Gathic</a> <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Staota_Yesnya&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Staota Yesnya (page does not exist)">Staota Yesnya</a></i> with the <i><a href="/wiki/Haoma" title="Haoma">haoma</a></i> ceremony. Furthermore, it is believed that another longer service developed, known as the <i><a href="/wiki/Visperad" title="Visperad">Visperad</a></i>, which derived from the extended yasna. This was developed for the celebration of the seven holy days of obligation (the <i><a href="/wiki/Gahambars" title="Gahambars">Gahambars</a></i> plus <i><a href="/wiki/Nowruz" title="Nowruz">Nowruz</a></i>) and was dedicated to <a href="/wiki/Ahura_Mazda" title="Ahura Mazda">Ahura Mazda</a>. </p><p>While the very earliest Zoroastrians eschewed writing as a form of demonic practice, the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Persian" title="Middle Persian">Middle Persian</a> <a href="/wiki/Avesta#The_Zend" title="Avesta">Zand</a>, along with much secondary Zoroastrian literature, was recorded in writing during the Sassanid era for the first time. Many of these Zoroastrian texts were original works from the Sassanid period. Perhaps the most important of these works was the <i><a href="/wiki/Bundahishn" title="Bundahishn">Bundahishn</a></i>—the mythical Zoroastrian story of Creation. Other older works, some from remote antiquity, were possibly translated from different Iranian languages into Middle Persian during this period. For example, two works, the <i><a href="/wiki/Drakht-i_Asurig" title="Drakht-i Asurig">Drakht-i Asurig</a></i> (Assyrian Tree) and <i><a href="/wiki/Yadegar-e_Zariran" class="mw-redirect" title="Yadegar-e Zariran">Ayadgar-i Zareran</a></i> (Exploits of Zarter) were probably translated from <a href="/wiki/Parthian_language" title="Parthian language">Parthian</a> originals. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bodleian_J2_fol_175_Y_28_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Bodleian_J2_fol_175_Y_28_1.jpg/220px-Bodleian_J2_fol_175_Y_28_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Bodleian_J2_fol_175_Y_28_1.jpg/330px-Bodleian_J2_fol_175_Y_28_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Bodleian_J2_fol_175_Y_28_1.jpg/440px-Bodleian_J2_fol_175_Y_28_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="930" data-file-height="503" /></a><figcaption>The Sasanians developed an accurate, phonetic alphabet to write down the sacred <a href="/wiki/Avesta" title="Avesta">Avesta</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Of great importance for Zoroastrianism was the creation of the <a href="/wiki/Avestan_alphabet" title="Avestan alphabet">Avestan alphabet</a> by the Sassanids, which enabled the accurate rendering of the <a href="/wiki/Avesta" title="Avesta">Avesta</a> in written form (including in its original language/phonology) for the first time. The alphabet was based on the <a href="/wiki/Pahlavi_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Pahlavi alphabet">Pahlavi</a> one, but rather than the inadequacy of that script for recording spoken Middle Persian, the Avestan alphabet had 46 letters, and was well suited to recording <a href="/wiki/Avestan_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Avestan language">Avestan</a> in written form in the way the language actually sounded and was uttered. The Persian <a href="/wiki/Magi" title="Magi">magi</a> were therefore finally able to record all surviving ancient Avestan texts in written form. As a result of this development, the Sasanian Avesta was then compiled into 21 nasks (divisions) to correspond with the 21 words of the <i><a href="/wiki/Ahuna_Vairya" title="Ahuna Vairya">Ahunavar</a></i> invocation. </p><p>An important literary text, the <i><a href="/wiki/Khwaday-Namag" title="Khwaday-Namag">Khwaday-Namag</a></i> (Book of Kings), was composed during the Sasanian era. This text is the basis of the later <i><a href="/wiki/Shahnameh" title="Shahnameh">Shahnameh</a></i> of <a href="/wiki/Ferdowsi" title="Ferdowsi">Ferdowsi</a>. Another important Zoroastrian text from the Sasanian period includes the <i><a href="/wiki/Menog-i_Khrad" title="Menog-i Khrad">Dadestan-e Menog-e Khrad</a></i> (Judgments of the Spirit of Wisdom).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoyce1984_146-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoyce1984-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Christianity">Christianity</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_East" title="Church of the East">Church of the East</a> and <a href="/wiki/Maphrianate_of_the_East" class="mw-redirect" title="Maphrianate of the East">Maphrianate of the East</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Christianisation_of_Armenia" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianisation of Armenia">Christianisation of Armenia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Armenian_Apostolic_Church" title="Armenian Apostolic Church">Armenian Apostolic Church</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sasanian-era_gem,_depicting_the_sacrifice_of_Isaac,_Pahlavi_inscription.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Sasanian-era_gem%2C_depicting_the_sacrifice_of_Isaac%2C_Pahlavi_inscription.jpg/220px-Sasanian-era_gem%2C_depicting_the_sacrifice_of_Isaac%2C_Pahlavi_inscription.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Sasanian-era_gem%2C_depicting_the_sacrifice_of_Isaac%2C_Pahlavi_inscription.jpg/330px-Sasanian-era_gem%2C_depicting_the_sacrifice_of_Isaac%2C_Pahlavi_inscription.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Sasanian-era_gem%2C_depicting_the_sacrifice_of_Isaac%2C_Pahlavi_inscription.jpg/440px-Sasanian-era_gem%2C_depicting_the_sacrifice_of_Isaac%2C_Pahlavi_inscription.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1235" /></a><figcaption>Sasanian-era cornelian gem, depicting <a href="/wiki/Abraham" title="Abraham">Abraham</a> advancing towards <a href="/wiki/Isaac" title="Isaac">Isaac</a> with a knife in his hands. A ram is depicted to the right of Abraham. <a href="/wiki/Middle_Persian" title="Middle Persian">Middle Persian</a> (Pahlavi) inscription <i>ZNH mwdly l'styny</i>. Created 4th–5th century AD</figcaption></figure> <p>Christians in the Sasanian Empire belonged mainly to the <a href="/wiki/Nestorian_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Nestorian Church">Nestorian Church</a> (Church of the East) and the <a href="/wiki/Syriac_Orthodox_Church" title="Syriac Orthodox Church">Jacobite Church</a> (Syriac Orthodox Church). Although these churches originally maintained ties with Christian churches in the Roman Empire, they were quite different from them: the <a href="/wiki/Liturgical_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Liturgical language">liturgical language</a> of the Nestorian and Jacobite Churches was <a href="/wiki/Syriac_language" title="Syriac language">Syriac</a> rather than Greek. Another reason for a separation between Eastern and Western Christianity was strong pressure from the Sasanian authorities to sever connections with Rome, since the Sasanian Empire was often at war with the Roman Empire. </p><p>Christianity was recognized by Yazdegerd I in 409 as an allowable faith within the Sasanian Empire.<sup id="cite_ref-148" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The major break with mainstream Christianity came in 431, due to the pronouncements of the <a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Ephesus" class="mw-redirect" title="First Council of Ephesus">First Council of Ephesus</a>. The Council condemned <a href="/wiki/Nestorius" title="Nestorius">Nestorius</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Patriarch_of_Constantinople" class="mw-redirect" title="Patriarch of Constantinople">patriarch of Constantinople</a>, for teaching a view of <a href="/wiki/Christology" title="Christology">Christology</a> in accordance with which he was reluctant to call <a href="/wiki/Mary,_mother_of_Jesus" title="Mary, mother of Jesus">Mary, mother of Jesus</a>, "<a href="/wiki/Theotokos" title="Theotokos">Theotokos</a>," or Mother of God. While the teaching of the Council of Ephesus was accepted within the Roman Empire, the Sasanian church disagreed with the condemnation of Nestorius' teachings. When Nestorius was deposed as patriarch, a number of his followers fled to the Sasanian Empire. Persian emperors used this opportunity to strengthen Nestorius' position within the Sasanian church (which made up the vast majority of the Christians in the predominantly Zoroastrian Persian Empire) by eliminating the most important pro-Roman clergymen in Persia and making sure that their places were taken by Nestorians. This was to assure that these Christians would be loyal to the Persian Empire, and not to the Roman.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2014)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Most of the Christians in the Sasanian empire lived on the western edge of the empire, predominantly in Mesopotamia, but there were also important extant communities in the more northern territories, namely <a href="/wiki/Caucasian_Albania" title="Caucasian Albania">Caucasian Albania</a>, Lazica, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Iberia_(antiquity)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Iberia (antiquity)">Iberia</a>, and the Persian part of Armenia. Other important communities were to be found on the island of <a href="/wiki/Tylos" title="Tylos">Tylos</a> (present day <a href="/wiki/Bahrain" title="Bahrain">Bahrain</a>), the southern coast of the Persian Gulf, and the area of the <a href="/wiki/Arabian" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabian">Arabian</a> kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Lakhmids" class="mw-redirect" title="Lakhmids">Lakhm</a>. Some of these areas were the earliest to be Christianized; the kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Armenia" title="Armenia">Armenia</a> became the first independent Christian state in the world in 301. While a number of Assyrian territories had almost become fully Christianized even earlier during the 3rd century, they never became independent nations.<sup id="cite_ref-iranologie_73-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-iranologie-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_religions">Other religions</h3></div> <p>Some of the recent excavations have discovered the <a href="/wiki/Buddhist" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhist">Buddhist</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hindu" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu">Hindu</a> and Jewish religious sites in the empire.<sup id="cite_ref-149" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a> were competitors of Zoroastrianism in <a href="/wiki/Bactria" title="Bactria">Bactria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Margiana" title="Margiana">Margiana</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-150" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in the far easternmost territories. A very large Jewish community flourished under Sasanian rule, with thriving centers at <a href="/wiki/Isfahan_(city)" class="mw-redirect" title="Isfahan (city)">Isfahan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Babylon" title="Babylon">Babylon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Khorasan_province" title="Khorasan province">Khorasan</a>, and with its own semiautonomous <i>Exilarchate</i> leadership based in Mesopotamia. Jewish communities suffered only occasional persecution. They enjoyed a relative freedom of religion, and were granted privileges denied to other religious minorities.<sup id="cite_ref-151" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Shapur I (Shabur Malka in Aramaic) was a particular friend to the Jews. His friendship with <a href="/wiki/Samuel_of_Nehardea" title="Samuel of Nehardea">Shmuel</a> produced many advantages for the Jewish community.<sup id="cite_ref-152" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Language">Language</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Official_languages">Official languages</h3></div> <p>During the early Sasanian period, <a href="/wiki/Middle_Persian" title="Middle Persian">Middle Persian</a> along with <a href="/wiki/Koine_Greek" title="Koine Greek">Koine Greek</a> and <a href="/wiki/Parthian_language" title="Parthian language">Parthian</a> appeared in the inscriptions of the early Sasanian kings. However, by the time Narseh (r. 293–302) was ruling, Greek was no longer in use, perhaps due to the disappearance of Greek or the efforts of the anti-Hellenic Zoroastrian clergy to remove it once and for all. This was probably also because Greek was commonplace among the Romans/Byzantines, the rivals of the Sasanians.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaryaee200899–100_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaryaee200899–100-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Parthian soon disappeared as an administrative language too, but was continued to be spoken and written in the eastern part of the Sasanian Empire, the homeland of the Parthians.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaryaee2008116–117_153-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaryaee2008116–117-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, many of the Parthian aristocrats who had entered into Sasanian service after the fall of the <a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian Empire</a> still spoke Parthian, such as the seven Parthian clans, who possessed much power within the empire. Sometimes one of the members of the clans would even protest against Sasanian rule.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The Sasanian Empire appears to have stopped using the Parthian language in their official inscriptions during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Narseh" title="Narseh">Narseh</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPourshariati2008321_154-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPourshariati2008321-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Aramaic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Aramaic language">Aramaic</a>, like in the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a>, was widely used in the Sasanian Empire (from Antioch to Mesopotamia), although Imperial Aramaic began to be replaced by Middle Persian as the administrative language.<sup id="cite_ref-155" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-155"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Regional_languages">Regional languages</h3></div> <p>Although Middle Persian was the native language of the Sasanians (who, however, were not originally from <a href="/wiki/Pars_(Sasanian_province)" title="Pars (Sasanian province)">Pars</a>), it was only a minority spoken-language in the vast Sasanian Empire; it only formed the majority of Pars, while it was widespread around <a href="/wiki/Media_(region)" title="Media (region)">Media</a> and its surrounding regions. However, there were several different Persian dialects during that time. Besides Persian, the unattested predecessor of <a href="/wiki/Old_Azeri" title="Old Azeri">Adhari</a> along with one of its dialects, Tati, was spoken in <a href="/wiki/Adurbadagan" title="Adurbadagan">Adurbadagan</a> (<a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan_(Iran)" title="Azerbaijan (Iran)">Azerbaijan</a>). Unwritten <a href="/wiki/Daylami_language" title="Daylami language">Pre-Daylamite</a> and probably <a href="/wiki/Caspian_languages" title="Caspian languages">Proto-Caspian</a>, which later became <a href="/wiki/Gilaki_language" title="Gilaki language">Gilaki</a> in <a href="/wiki/Gilan_province" title="Gilan province">Gilan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mazanderani_language" title="Mazanderani language">Mazandarani</a> (also known as Tabari) in <a href="/wiki/Tabaristan" title="Tabaristan">Tabaristan</a>, were spoken about in the same regions. Furthermore, some other languages and dialects were spoken in the two regions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaryaee2008101_156-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaryaee2008101-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the Sasanian territories in the Caucasus, numerous languages were spoken including <a href="/wiki/Old_Georgian" title="Old Georgian">Old Georgian</a>, various <a href="/wiki/Kartvelian_languages" title="Kartvelian languages">Kartvelian languages</a> (notably in Lazica), Middle Persian,<sup id="cite_ref-VAS_157-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-VAS-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Classical_Armenian" title="Classical Armenian">Old Armenian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Caucasian_Albanian_language" title="Caucasian Albanian language">Caucasian Albanian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scythian_languages" title="Scythian languages">Scythian</a>, Koine Greek, and others. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Khuzistan_(Sasanian_province)" title="Khuzistan (Sasanian province)">Khuzestan</a>, several languages were spoken; Persian in the north and east, while <a href="/wiki/Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Eastern Middle Aramaic</a> was spoken in the rest of the place.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrunner1983773_158-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrunner1983773-158"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>155<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, late <a href="/wiki/Elamite_language" title="Elamite language">Neo-Elamite</a> may also have been spoken in the province<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaryaee2008101_156-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaryaee2008101-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but there are no references explicitly naming the language. In <a href="/wiki/Meshan" title="Meshan">Meshan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a> divided the <a href="/wiki/Semitic_languages" title="Semitic languages">Semitic</a> population of the province into "Chaldeans" (Aramaic-speakers) and "Mesenian Arabs". Nomadic Arabs along with <a href="/wiki/Nabataeans" title="Nabataeans">Nabataean</a> and <a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Palmyrene dialect">Palmyrene</a> merchants are believed to have added to the population as well. Iranians had also begun to settle in the province, along with the <a href="/wiki/Zutt" class="mw-redirect" title="Zutt">Zutt</a>, who had been deported from <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>. Other Indian groups such as the <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_Malays" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic Malays">Malays</a> may also have been deported to Meshan, either as captives or recruited sailors.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrunner1983755_159-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrunner1983755-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Asoristan" title="Asoristan">Asoristan</a>, the majority of the people were Aramaic-speaking Nestorian Christians, notably including <a href="/wiki/Syriac_language" title="Syriac language">Middle Syriac</a>, while the Persians, Jews and Arabs formed a minority in the province. </p><p>Due to invasions from the <a href="/wiki/Scythians" title="Scythians">Scythians</a> and their sub-group, the <a href="/wiki/Alans" title="Alans">Alans</a>, into Atropatene, Armenia, and other places in the Caucasus, the places gained a larger, although small, Iranian population.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrunner1983763_160-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrunner1983763-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Parthian was spoken in <a href="/wiki/Greater_Khorasan" title="Greater Khorasan">Khorasan</a> along with other Iranian dialects and languages, while the <a href="/wiki/Sogdian_language" title="Sogdian language">Sogdian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bactrian_language" title="Bactrian language">Bactrian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Khwarezmian_language" title="Khwarezmian language">Khwarazmian</a> languages were spoken further east in places which were not always controlled by the Sasanians. To the further south in <a href="/wiki/Sakastan" class="mw-redirect" title="Sakastan">Sakastan</a>, which saw an influx of <a href="/wiki/Scythians" title="Scythians">Scythians</a> during the Parthian period, much later the place of <a href="/wiki/Sistani_dialect" title="Sistani dialect">Sistanian Persian</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrunner1983772–773_161-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrunner1983772–773-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>158<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaryaee2008101_156-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaryaee2008101-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> an unknown <a href="/wiki/Southwestern_Iranian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Southwestern Iranian languages">Middle Southwestern Iranian language</a> was spoken if it was not likely Middle Persian as well. <a href="/wiki/Kerman_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Kerman Province">Kirman</a> was populated by an Iranian group which closely resembled the Persians while, farther to the east in <a href="/wiki/Paratan_(satrapy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Paratan (satrapy)">Paratan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turan_(satrapy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Turan (satrapy)">Turan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Makran" title="Makran">Makran</a>, non-Iranian languages<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrunner1983772–773_161-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrunner1983772–773-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>158<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and an unknown <a href="/wiki/Northwestern_Iranian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Northwestern Iranian languages">Middle Northwestern Iranian language</a> were spoken. In major cities such as <a href="/wiki/Gundeshapur" title="Gundeshapur">Gundeshapur</a> and Ctesiphon, <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a>, Greek and Syriac were spoken by Roman/Byzantine prisoners of war. Furthermore, <a href="/wiki/Slavic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavic language">Slavic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Germanic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic language">Germanic</a> were also spoken in the Sasanian Empire, once again due to the capture of Roman soldiers<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaryaee2008102_162-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaryaee2008102-162"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but this must have been negligible. Semitic languages including <a href="/wiki/Himyaritic_language" title="Himyaritic language">Himyaritic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sabaean_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Sabaean language">Sabaean</a> were spoken in <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Yemen" title="Sasanian Yemen">Yemen</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy_and_importance">Legacy and importance</h2></div> <p>The influence of the Sasanian Empire continued long after it fell. The empire had achieved a <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Iran" title="Culture of Iran">Persian renaissance</a> that would become a driving force behind the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">civilization</a> of the newly established religion of <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-163" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-163"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In modern <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a> and the regions of the <a href="/wiki/Greater_Iran" title="Greater Iran">Iranosphere</a>, the Sasanian period is regarded as one of the high points of <a href="/wiki/History_of_Iran" title="History of Iran">Iranian civilization</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-164" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-164"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>161<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_Europe">In Europe</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Derbent_summer.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Derbent_summer.jpg/220px-Derbent_summer.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Derbent_summer.jpg/330px-Derbent_summer.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Derbent_summer.jpg/440px-Derbent_summer.jpg 2x" data-file-width="574" data-file-height="400" /></a><figcaption>A Sasanian fortress in <a href="/wiki/Derbent" title="Derbent">Derbent</a>, Russia (the <a href="/wiki/Gates_of_Alexander" title="Gates of Alexander">Caspian Gates</a>)</figcaption></figure> <p>Sasanian culture and military structure had a significant influence on <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_ancient_Rome" title="Culture of ancient Rome">Roman civilization</a>. The structure and character of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_army" title="Roman army">Roman army</a> was affected by the methods of Persian warfare. In a modified form, the Roman Imperial autocracy imitated the royal ceremonies of the Sasanian court at Ctesiphon, and those in turn had an influence on the ceremonial traditions of the <a href="/wiki/Court" title="Court">courts</a> of medieval and modern Europe. The origin of the formalities of European diplomacy is attributed to the diplomatic relations between the Persian governments and the Roman Empire.<sup id="cite_ref-165" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-165"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>162<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_Jewish_history">In Jewish history</h3></div> <p>Important developments in <a href="/wiki/Jewish_history" title="Jewish history">Jewish history</a> are associated with the Sassanian Empire. The Babylonian <a href="/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud">Talmud</a> was composed between the third and sixth centuries in Sasanian Persia<sup id="cite_ref-166" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-166"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>163<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and major Jewish academies of learning were established in <a href="/wiki/Sura_(city)" title="Sura (city)">Sura</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pumbedita" title="Pumbedita">Pumbedita</a> that became cornerstones of <a href="/wiki/Talmudic_academies_in_Babylonia" title="Talmudic academies in Babylonia">Jewish scholarship</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-167" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-167"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>164<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Several individuals of the Imperial family such as Ifra Hormizd the Queen mother of Shapur II and Queen <a href="/wiki/Shushandukht" title="Shushandukht">Shushandukht</a>, the Jewish wife of Yazdegerd I, significantly contributed to the close relations between the Jews of the empire and the government in Ctesiphon.<sup id="cite_ref-168" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-168"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>165<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_India">In India</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism_in_India" title="Zoroastrianism in India">Zoroastrianism in India</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Persians_(Parsees)_in_Bombay_1873.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Persians_%28Parsees%29_in_Bombay_1873.jpg/220px-Persians_%28Parsees%29_in_Bombay_1873.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="308" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Persians_%28Parsees%29_in_Bombay_1873.jpg/330px-Persians_%28Parsees%29_in_Bombay_1873.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Persians_%28Parsees%29_in_Bombay_1873.jpg/440px-Persians_%28Parsees%29_in_Bombay_1873.jpg 2x" data-file-width="520" data-file-height="728" /></a><figcaption>"Parsees of <a href="/wiki/Bombay" class="mw-redirect" title="Bombay">Bombay</a>" a wood engraving, c. 1873</figcaption></figure> <p>The collapse of the Sasanian Empire led to Islam slowly replacing Zoroastrianism as the primary religion of Iran. A large number of Zoroastrians chose to emigrate to escape Islamic persecution. According to the <i><a href="/wiki/Qissa-i_Sanjan" title="Qissa-i Sanjan">Qissa-i Sanjan</a></i>, one group of those refugees landed in what is now <a href="/wiki/Gujarat" title="Gujarat">Gujarat</a>, India, where they were allowed greater freedom to observe their customs and preserve their faith. The descendants of those Zoroastrians would play a small but significant role in the development of India. Today there are over 70,000 Zoroastrians in India.<sup id="cite_ref-169" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-169"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>166<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Zoroastrians still use a variant of the religious calendar instituted under the Sasanians. That calendar still marks the number of years since the accession of Yazdegerd III.<sup id="cite_ref-170" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-170"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>d<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Chronology">Chronology</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sassanid-empire-timeline.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Sassanid-empire-timeline.png/220px-Sassanid-empire-timeline.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="598" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Sassanid-empire-timeline.png/330px-Sassanid-empire-timeline.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/95/Sassanid-empire-timeline.png 2x" data-file-width="362" data-file-height="984" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/List_of_monarchs_of_the_Sasanian_Empire" title="List of monarchs of the Sasanian Empire">List of monarchs of the Sasanian Empire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Sasanian_Empire" title="Timeline of the Sasanian Empire">Timeline of the Sasanian Empire</a></div> <ul><li>224–241: Reign of <a href="/wiki/Ardashir_I" title="Ardashir I">Ardashir I</a>: <ul><li>224: Overthrow of the <a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian Empire</a></li> <li>229–232: War with Rome</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a> is revived as official religion</li> <li>The collection of texts known as the Zend <a href="/wiki/Avesta" title="Avesta">Avesta</a> is assembled</li></ul></li> <li>241–271: Reign of <a href="/wiki/Shapur_I" title="Shapur I">Shapur I</a> "the Great": <ul><li>241–244: War with Rome</li> <li>252–261: War with Rome. Decisive victory of Persian at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Edessa" title="Battle of Edessa">Edessa</a> and Capture of Roman emperor <a href="/wiki/Valerian_(emperor)" title="Valerian (emperor)">Valerian</a></li> <li>215–271: <a href="/wiki/Mani_(prophet)" title="Mani (prophet)">Mani</a>, founder of <a href="/wiki/Manichaeism" title="Manichaeism">Manichaeism</a></li></ul></li> <li>271–301: A period of dynastic struggles.</li> <li>283: War with Rome.</li> <li>293: Revolt of <a href="/wiki/Narseh" title="Narseh">Narseh</a>.</li> <li>296–298: War with Rome – Persia cedes five provinces east of the Tigris to Rome.</li> <li>309–379: Reign of <a href="/wiki/Shapur_II" title="Shapur II">Shapur II</a> "the Great": <ul><li>325: Shapur II defeats many Arab tribes and makes the <a href="/wiki/Lakhmid_kingdom" title="Lakhmid kingdom">Lakhmid kingdom</a> his <a href="/wiki/Vassal_state" title="Vassal state">vassal</a>.</li> <li>337–350: First war with Rome with relatively little success</li> <li>359–363: Second war with Rome. Rome cedes Northern and Eastern Mesopotamia, <a href="/wiki/Georgia_(country)" title="Georgia (country)">Georgia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(antiquity)" title="Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)">Armenia</a> including fifteen fortresses as well as Nisibis to Persia.<sup id="cite_ref-171" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-171"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>167<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-172" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-172"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>168<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li> <li>387: Armenia partitioned into Roman and Persian zones</li> <li>399–420: Reign of <a href="/wiki/Yazdegerd_I" title="Yazdegerd I">Yazdegerd I</a> "the Sinner": <ul><li>410: <a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_East" title="Church of the East">Church of the East</a> formalised at the <a href="/wiki/Synod_of_Isaac" class="mw-redirect" title="Synod of Isaac">synod of Isaac</a> under the patronage of Yazdegerd. Christians are permitted to publicly worship and to build churches</li> <li>416–420: Persecution of Christians as Yazdegerd revokes his earlier order</li></ul></li> <li>420–438: Reign of <a href="/wiki/Bahram_V" title="Bahram V">Bahram V</a>: <ul><li>421–422: War with Rome</li> <li>424: Council of Dad-Ishu declares the Eastern Church independent of Constantinople</li> <li>428: Persian zone of Armenia annexed to Sasanian Empire</li></ul></li> <li>438–457: Reign of <a href="/wiki/Yazdegerd_II" title="Yazdegerd II">Yazdegerd II</a>: <ul><li>440: War with the Byzantine Empire; the Romans give some payments to the Sasanians<sup id="cite_ref-173" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-173"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>169<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>449–451: Armenian revolt. <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Avarayr" title="Battle of Avarayr">Battle of Avarayr</a> fought in 451 against the Christian <a href="/wiki/Armenians" title="Armenians">Armenian</a> rebels led by <a href="/wiki/Vardan_Mamikonian" title="Vardan Mamikonian">Vardan Mamikonian</a>.</li></ul></li> <li>482–483: Armenian and Iberian revolt</li> <li>483: Edict of Toleration granted to Christians</li> <li>484: <a href="/wiki/Peroz_I" title="Peroz I">Peroz I</a> defeated and killed by Hephthalites. The <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Nvarsak" title="Treaty of Nvarsak">Treaty of Nvarsak</a> grants the <a href="/wiki/Armenians" title="Armenians">Armenians</a> the right to profess Christianity freely.</li> <li>491: Armenian revolt. Armenian Church repudiates the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Chalcedon" title="Council of Chalcedon">Council of Chalcedon</a>; <a href="/wiki/Nestorian_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Nestorian Christianity">Nestorian Christianity</a> becomes dominant Christian sect in Sasanian Empire</li> <li>502–506: War with the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>. In the end the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> pays 1,000 pounds of gold to the Sasanian Empire<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShahbazi2005_67-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShahbazi2005-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Sasanians capture <a href="/wiki/Erzurum" title="Erzurum">Theodosiopolis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Silvan,_Diyarbak%C4%B1r" title="Silvan, Diyarbakır">Martyropolis</a>.<br /><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> received <a href="/wiki/Amida_(Mesopotamia)" title="Amida (Mesopotamia)">Amida</a> for 1,000 pounds of gold.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShahbazi2005_67-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShahbazi2005-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>526–532: War with the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>. Treaty of <a href="/wiki/Perpetual_Peace_(532)" title="Perpetual Peace (532)">Eternal Peace</a>: The Sasanian Empire keeps <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Iberia_(antiquity)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Iberia (antiquity)">Iberia</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> receives Lazica and Persarmenia;<sup id="cite_ref-:1_174-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-174"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>170<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> pays tribute 11,000 lbs gold/year.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_174-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-174"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>170<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>531–579: Reign of <a href="/wiki/Khosrow_I" title="Khosrow I">Khosrow I</a>, "with the immortal soul" (Anushirvan).</li> <li>541–562: War with the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>.</li> <li>572–591: War with the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>.</li> <li>580: The Sasanians under <a href="/wiki/Hormizd_IV" title="Hormizd IV">Hormizd IV</a> abolish the monarchy of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Iberia" title="Kingdom of Iberia">Kingdom of Iberia</a>. Direct control through <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Iberia" title="Sasanian Iberia">Sasanian-appointed governors</a> starts.</li> <li>590: <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_civil_war_of_589%E2%80%93591" title="Sasanian civil war of 589–591">Rebellion of Bahram Chobin</a> and other Sasanian nobles, <a href="/wiki/Khosrow_II" title="Khosrow II">Khosrow II</a> overthrows <a href="/wiki/Hormizd_IV" title="Hormizd IV">Hormizd IV</a> but loses the throne to <a href="/wiki/Bahram_Chobin" title="Bahram Chobin">Bahram Chobin</a>.</li> <li>591: <a href="/wiki/Khosrow_II" title="Khosrow II">Khosrow II</a> regains the throne with help from the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> and cedes Persian Armenia and the western half of Iberia to the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>.</li> <li>593: Attempted usurpation of <a href="/wiki/Hormizd_V" class="mw-redirect" title="Hormizd V">Hormizd V</a></li> <li>595–602: Rebellion of <a href="/wiki/Vistahm" title="Vistahm">Vistahm</a></li> <li>603–628: War with the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>. Persia occupies Byzantine Mesopotamia, Anatolia, Syria, Palestine, Egypt and the Transcaucasus, before being driven to withdraw to pre-war frontiers by Byzantine counter-offensive</li> <li>610: Arabs defeat a Sasanian army at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Dhi_Qar" title="Battle of Dhi Qar">Dhu-Qar</a></li> <li>626: Unsuccessful siege of <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a> by Avars, Persians, and Slavs.</li> <li>627: Byzantine Emperor <a href="/wiki/Heraclius" title="Heraclius">Heraclius</a> invades Sasanian Mesopotamia. Decisive defeat of Persian forces at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nineveh_(627)" title="Battle of Nineveh (627)">battle of Nineveh</a></li> <li>628: <a href="/wiki/Kavad_II" title="Kavad II">Kavad II</a> overthrows <a href="/wiki/Khosrow_II" title="Khosrow II">Khosrow II</a> and becomes Shahanshah.</li> <li>628: A devastating plague kills half of the population in Western Persia, including <a href="/wiki/Kavad_II" title="Kavad II">Kavad II</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShahbazi2005_67-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShahbazi2005-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>628–632: <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_civil_war_of_628%E2%80%93632" title="Sasanian civil war of 628–632">Civil war</a></li> <li>632–644: Reign of <a href="/wiki/Yazdegerd_III" title="Yazdegerd III">Yazdegerd III</a></li> <li>636: Decisive Sasanian defeat at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_al-Q%C4%81disiyyah" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of al-Qādisiyyah">Battle of al-Qādisiyyah</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Persia" title="Muslim conquest of Persia">Muslim conquest of Persia</a></li> <li>641: The <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Muslims</a> defeat a massive <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_army" class="mw-redirect" title="Sasanian army">Sasanian army</a> with heavy casualties during the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nihaw%C4%81nd" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Nihawānd">Battle of Nihawānd</a></li> <li>644: The <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Muslims</a> conquer <a href="/wiki/Greater_Khorasan" title="Greater Khorasan">Khorasan</a>; Yazdegerd III becomes a hunted fugitive</li> <li>651: <a href="/wiki/Yazdegerd_III" title="Yazdegerd III">Yazdegerd III</a> flees eastward from one district to another, until at last he is killed by a local miller for his purse at <a href="/wiki/Merv" title="Merv">Merv</a> (present-day <a href="/wiki/Turkmenistan" title="Turkmenistan">Turkmenistan</a>), ending the dynasty. Yazdegerd is given a burial by the Assyrian bishop Mar Gregory.<sup id="cite_ref-175" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-175"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>171<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His son, <a href="/wiki/Peroz_III" title="Peroz III">Peroz III</a>, and many others go into exile in China.<sup id="cite_ref-176" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-176"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>172<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Flag_of_Iran.svg/32px-Flag_of_Iran.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="18" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Flag_of_Iran.svg/48px-Flag_of_Iran.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Flag_of_Iran.svg/64px-Flag_of_Iran.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="630" data-file-height="360" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Iran" title="Portal:Iran">Iran portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Sasanian_revolts_and_civil_wars" title="List of Sasanian revolts and civil wars">List of Sasanian revolts and civil wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Zoroastrian_states_and_dynasties" title="List of Zoroastrian states and dynasties">List of Zoroastrian states and dynasties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_of_the_Sasanian_Empire" title="Military of the Sasanian Empire">Military of the Sasanian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romans_in_Persia" title="Romans in Persia">Romans in Persia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_art" title="Sasanian art">Sasanian art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_family_tree" title="Sasanian family tree">Sasanian family tree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_music" title="Sasanian music">Sasanian music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Sasanian_Empire" title="Women in the Sasanian Empire">Women in the Sasanian Empire</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-native-name-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-native-name_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Book_Pahlavi" class="mw-redirect" title="Book Pahlavi">Book Pahlavi</a> spelling: <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Eranshahr.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Eranshahr.svg/60px-Eranshahr.svg.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="24" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Eranshahr.svg/90px-Eranshahr.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Eranshahr.svg/120px-Eranshahr.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="300" /></a></span> (<span title="Middle Persian-language romanization"><i lang="pal-Latn">ʾylʾnštr'</i></span>); <a href="/wiki/Inscriptional_Pahlavi" title="Inscriptional Pahlavi">Inscriptional Pahlavi</a> spelling: <span title="Middle Persian-language text"><span lang="pal" dir="rtl">𐭠𐭩𐭥𐭠𐭭𐭱𐭲𐭥𐭩</span></span> (<span title="Middle Persian-language romanization"><i lang="pal-Latn">ʾyrʾnštry</i></span>), <span title="Middle Persian-language text"><span lang="pal" dir="rtl">𐭠𐭩𐭫𐭠𐭭𐭱𐭲𐭥𐭩</span></span> (<span title="Middle Persian-language romanization"><i lang="pal-Latn">ʾylʾnštry</i></span>); <a href="/wiki/Modern_Persian" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern Persian">Modern Persian</a>: <span title="Persian-language text"><span lang="fa" dir="rtl">ایران‌شهر</span></span> whence the <a href="/wiki/New_Persian" title="New Persian">New Persian</a> terms <i>Iranshahr</i> and <i>Iran</i><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Middle Persian: <span title="Middle Persian-language romanization"><i lang="pal-Latn">an... ērānšahr xwadāy hēm</i></span>, Parthian: <span title="Parthian-language romanization"><i lang="xpr-Latn">az... aryānšahr xwadāy ahēm</i></span>, Greek: <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">egō... tou Arianōn ethnous despotēs eimi</i></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See also: <a href="/wiki/Rava_(amora)" title="Rava (amora)">Raba</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See also: <a href="/wiki/Zoroastrian_calendar" title="Zoroastrian calendar">Zoroastrian calendar</a></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ctesiphon">"Ctesiphon – Encyclopaedia Iranica"</a>. Iranicaonline.org<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 December</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ctesiphon+%E2%80%93+Encyclopaedia+Iranica&rft.pub=Iranicaonline.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iranicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Fctesiphon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASasanian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaryaee200899–100-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaryaee200899–100_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaryaee200899–100_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDaryaee2008">Daryaee 2008</a>, pp. 99–100.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sP_hVmik-QYC&pg=PA179"><i>First Encyclopaedia of Islam: 1913–1936</i></a>. 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(2005), <i>A Concise Pahlavi Dictionary</i>, London & New York: Routledge Curzon, p. 120, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-713559-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-713559-4"><bdi>978-0-19-713559-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Concise+Pahlavi+Dictionary&rft.place=London+%26+New+York&rft.pages=120&rft.pub=Routledge+Curzon&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-19-713559-4&rft.au=MacKenzie%2C+D.+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASasanian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-wiesehofer-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-wiesehofer_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">(<a href="#CITEREFWiesehöfer1996">Wiesehöfer 1996</a>)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20011121030510/http://www.cultureofiran.com/b_history.php">"A Brief History"</a>. <i>Culture of Iran</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 September</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Culture+of+Iran&rft.atitle=A+Brief+History&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cultureofiran.com%2Fb_history.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASasanian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-EIr-Sasanian-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-EIr-Sasanian_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EIr-Sasanian_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">(<a href="#CITEREFShahbazi2005">Shahbazi 2005</a>)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Norman_A._Stillman_pp_22-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Norman_A._Stillman_pp_22_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Norman_A._Stillman_pp_22_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Norman A. Stillman <i>The Jews of Arab Lands</i> p. 22 Jewish Publication Society, 1979 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0827611552" title="Special:BookSources/0827611552">0827611552</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Byzantine_Studies_2006,_pp_29-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Byzantine_Studies_2006,_pp_29_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Byzantine_Studies_2006,_pp_29_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">International Congress of Byzantine Studies <i>Proceedings of the 21st International Congress of Byzantine Studies, London, 21–26 August 2006, Volumes 1–3</i> p. 29. 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Hermes Pub. p. 257. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8280340061" title="Special:BookSources/978-8280340061"><bdi>978-8280340061</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Buddhist+Manuscripts&rft.pages=257&rft.edition=Vol.3&rft.pub=Hermes+Pub.&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-8280340061&rft.aulast=Braarvig&rft.aufirst=Jens&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKTDYAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASasanian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeelis2010" class="citation book cs1">Neelis, Jason (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GB-JV2eOr2UC&pg=PA159"><i>Early Buddhist Transmission and Trade Networks: Mobility and Exchange Within and Beyond the Northwestern Borderlands of South Asia</i></a>. 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Institute for Research in Humanities Kyoto University. p. 129.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Across+the+Hindukush+of+the+First+Millennium&rft.pages=129&rft.pub=Institute+for+Research+in+Humanities+Kyoto+University&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Kuwayama&rft.aufirst=S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcore.ac.uk%2Fdownload%2Fpdf%2F39251127.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASasanian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Buddhist Caves at Aurangabad: Transformations in Art and Religion, Pia Brancaccio, Brill, 2010 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=m_4pXm7dD78C&pg=PA82">p. 82</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Frye298-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Frye298_112-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Frye298_112-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Richard N. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 December</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Borz%C5%ABya+%E2%80%93+Encyclopaedia+Iranica&rft.pub=Iranicaonline.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iranicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Fborzuya-also-burzoe-a-physician-of-the-time-of-kosrow-i-&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASasanian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Daniel,_p._57-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Daniel,_p._57_115-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Daniel, p. 57</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaryaee200839–40-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaryaee200839–40_116-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaryaee200839–40_116-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaryaee200839–40_116-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaryaee200839–40_116-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaryaee200839–40_116-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDaryaee2008">Daryaee 2008</a>, pp. 39–40.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaryaee200840–41-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaryaee200840–41_117-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDaryaee2008">Daryaee 2008</a>, pp. 40–41.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaryaee200841-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaryaee200841_118-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaryaee200841_118-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDaryaee2008">Daryaee 2008</a>, p. 41.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaryaee200842-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaryaee200842_119-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaryaee200842_119-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDaryaee2008">Daryaee 2008</a>, p. 42.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorony200592-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorony200592_120-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorony200592_120-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorony200592_120-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMorony2005">Morony 2005</a>, p. 92.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nicolle,_p._11-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Nicolle,_p._11_121-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nicolle,_p._11_121-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Nicolle, p. 11</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">These four are the three common Indo-European <a href="/wiki/Trifunctional_hypothesis" title="Trifunctional hypothesis">social tripartition</a> common among ancient Iranian, Indian and Romans with one extra Iranian element (from Yashna xix/17). cf. Frye, p. 54.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaryaee200843–47-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaryaee200843–47_123-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDaryaee2008">Daryaee 2008</a>, pp. 43–47.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaki1992652–658-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShaki1992652–658_124-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShaki1992">Shaki 1992</a>, pp. 652–658.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Zarinkoob,_p._201-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Zarinkoob,_p._201_125-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zarinkoob,_p._201_125-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Zarinkoob, p. 201</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Farazmand, Ali (1998) "Persian/Iranian Administrative Tradition", in Jay M. Shafritz (Editor), <i>International Encyclopedia of Public Policy and Administration</i>. Boulder, CO: <a href="/wiki/Westview_Press" title="Westview Press">Westview Press</a>, pp. 1640–1645 – Excerpt: "Persians never practiced mass slavery, and in many cases the situations and lives of semi-slaves (prisoners of war) were in fact better than the common citizens of Persia." (p. 1642)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaryaee200858–59-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaryaee200858–59_127-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaryaee200858–59_127-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaryaee200858–59_127-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDaryaee2008">Daryaee 2008</a>, pp. 58–59.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">K. D. Irani, Morris Silver, <i>Social Justice in the Ancient World </i>, 224 pp., <a href="/wiki/Greenwood_Publishing_Group" title="Greenwood Publishing Group">Greenwood Publishing Group</a>, 1995, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-29144-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-29144-9">978-0-313-29144-9</a> (see p. 87)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto6-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto6_129-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto6_129-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">K. D. Irani, Morris Silver, <i>Social Justice in the Ancient World</i>, 224 pp., Greenwood Publishing Group, 1995, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-29144-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-29144-9">978-0-313-29144-9</a> (see p. 87)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-D._Irani,_Morris_Silver_1995,_p.87-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-D._Irani,_Morris_Silver_1995,_p.87_130-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-D._Irani,_Morris_Silver_1995,_p.87_130-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">K. D. Irani, Morris Silver, <i>Social Justice in the Ancient World</i>, 224 pp., Greenwood Publishing Group, 1995, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0313291449" title="Special:BookSources/978-0313291449">978-0313291449</a> (see p. 87)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLoweYasuhara2016" class="citation book cs1">Lowe, Roy; Yasuhara, Yoshihito (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9DolDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA100"><i>The Origins of Higher Learning: Knowledge networks and the early development of universities</i></a>. Taylor & Francis. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1317543275" title="Special:BookSources/978-1317543275"><bdi>978-1317543275</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Origins+of+Higher+Learning%3A+Knowledge+networks+and+the+early+development+of+universities&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1317543275&rft.aulast=Lowe&rft.aufirst=Roy&rft.au=Yasuhara%2C+Yoshihito&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9DolDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA100&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASasanian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZhivkov2015" class="citation book cs1">Zhivkov, Boris (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7Du2CAAAQBAJ&pg=PA78"><i>Khazaria in the Ninth and Tenth Centuries</i></a>. Brill. p. 78. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9004294486" title="Special:BookSources/978-9004294486"><bdi>978-9004294486</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Khazaria+in+the+Ninth+and+Tenth+Centuries&rft.pages=78&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-9004294486&rft.aulast=Zhivkov&rft.aufirst=Boris&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7Du2CAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA78&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASasanian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJona_Lendering2006" class="citation web cs1">Jona Lendering (31 March 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161110011645/http://www.livius.org/sao-sd/sassanids/sassanid-crowns.html">"Sasanian crowns"</a>. Livius.org. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.livius.org/sao-sd/sassanids/sassanid-crowns.html">the original</a> on 10 November 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 June</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Sasanian+crowns&rft.pub=Livius.org&rft.date=2006-03-31&rft.au=Jona+Lendering&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.livius.org%2Fsao-sd%2Fsassanids%2Fsassanid-crowns.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASasanian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chn.ir/en/news/?section=2&id=4471">Iranian cultural heritage news agency (CHN)</a> <sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged May 2016">dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Parviz Marzban, p. 36</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fergusson, <i>History of Architecture</i>, vol. I, 3rd ed., pp. 381–383.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tafazzoli_&_Khromov,_p._48-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Tafazzoli_&_Khromov,_p._48_137-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tafazzoli_&_Khromov,_p._48_137-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Tafazzoli & Khromov, p. 48</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nicolle,_p._6-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Nicolle,_p._6_138-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nicolle,_p._6_138-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Nicolle, p. 6</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070929120428/http://www.payvand.com/news/04/aug/1199.html">"Sassanids Used Commercial Labels: Iranian Archeologists"</a>. Payvand. 21 August 2009. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.payvand.com/news/04/aug/1199.html">the original</a> on 29 September 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 September</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Sassanids+Used+Commercial+Labels%3A+Iranian+Archeologists&rft.pub=Payvand&rft.date=2009-08-21&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.payvand.com%2Fnews%2F04%2Faug%2F1199.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASasanian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Frye, p. 325</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESauer201712-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESauer201712_141-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSauer2017">Sauer 2017</a>, p. 12.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sarfaraz, p. 353</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/322513">"Seal"</a>. <i>www.metmuseum.org</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.metmuseum.org&rft.atitle=Seal&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.metmuseum.org%2Fart%2Fcollection%2Fsearch%2F322513&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASasanian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ehsan_Yarshater_1983_pp._879-144"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ehsan_Yarshater_1983_pp._879_144-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ehsan Yarshater. <i>The Cambridge History of Iran: The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods</i>, (Cambridge University Press, 1983), pp. 879–880.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Manfred_Hutter_1993_pp._5-145"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Manfred_Hutter_1993_pp._5_145-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Manfred Hutter. <i>Numen, Vol. 40, No. 1</i>, "Manichaeism in the Early Sasanian Empire", (Brill, 1993), pp. 5–9</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoyce1984-146"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoyce1984_146-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoyce1984_146-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoyce1984_146-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoyce1984_146-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoyce1984_146-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoyce1984_146-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBoyce1984">Boyce 1984</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoyce1984123–125-147"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoyce1984123–125_147-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBoyce1984">Boyce 1984</a>, pp. 123–125.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Alexander A. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 December</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Shapur+II&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+Iranica&rft.date=2009&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iranicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Fshapur-ii&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASasanian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/byzantine-iranian-relations">"Byzantine–Iranian Relations"</a>. <i>Encyclopaedia Iranica</i>. 1990<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Gorgias Press LLC. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59333-315-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59333-315-7"><bdi>978-1-59333-315-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Iraq+After+The+Muslim+Conquest&rft.pub=Gorgias+Press+LLC&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-59333-315-7&rft.aulast=Morony&rft.aufirst=Michael+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuhjSiRAwGuEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASasanian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged April 2023">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMosig-Walburg2023" class="citation book cs1">Mosig-Walburg, Karin (2023). <i>Das frühe Sasanidenreich und Rom: eine Forschungskritik</i> (1. 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(2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/empires-and-exchanges-in-eurasian-late-antiquity/4E63CF99C760BDCF906093F021984D34">"Sasanian Iran and its northeastern frontier"</a>. In Mass, Michael; Di Cosmo, Nicola (eds.). <i>Empires and Exchanges in Eurasian Late Antiquity</i>. 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London and New York: I.B. Tauris. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84511-645-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84511-645-3"><bdi>978-1-84511-645-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Decline+and+Fall+of+the+Sasanian+Empire%3A+The+Sasanian-Parthian+Confederacy+and+the+Arab+Conquest+of+Iran&rft.place=London+and+New+York&rft.pub=I.B.+Tauris&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-84511-645-3&rft.aulast=Pourshariati&rft.aufirst=Parvaneh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3DEBAwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASasanian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPourshariati2017" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Pourshariati, Parvaneh (2017). 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London and New York: Edinburgh University Press. pp. 1–336. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1474401029" title="Special:BookSources/978-1474401029"><bdi>978-1474401029</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sasanian+Persia%3A+Between+Rome+and+the+Steppes+of+Eurasia&rft.place=London+and+New+York&rft.pages=1-336&rft.pub=Edinburgh+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1474401029&rft.aulast=Sauer&rft.aufirst=Eberhard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdjRWDwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dfalse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASasanian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchindel2013a" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Schindel, Nikolaus (2013a). "Kawād I i. Reign". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/kawad-i-reign"><i>Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. XVI, Fasc. 2</i></a>. pp. 136–141.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Kaw%C4%81d+I+i.+Reign&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+Iranica%2C+Vol.+XVI%2C+Fasc.+2&rft.pages=136-141&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Schindel&rft.aufirst=Nikolaus&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iranicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Fkawad-i-reign&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASasanian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchindel2013b" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Schindel, Nikolaus (2013b). "Kawād I ii. Coinage". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/kawad-i"><i>Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. XVI, Fasc. 2</i></a>. pp. 141–143.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Kaw%C4%81d+I+ii.+Coinage&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+Iranica%2C+Vol.+XVI%2C+Fasc.+2&rft.pages=141-143&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Schindel&rft.aufirst=Nikolaus&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iranicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Fkawad-i&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASasanian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchindel2013c" class="citation book cs1">Schindel, Nikolaus (2013c). "Sasanian Coinage". In Potts, Daniel T. (ed.). <i>The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Iran</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0199733309" title="Special:BookSources/978-0199733309"><bdi>978-0199733309</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Sasanian+Coinage&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Ancient+Iran&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0199733309&rft.aulast=Schindel&rft.aufirst=Nikolaus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASasanian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShahbazi2005" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Shahbazi, A. Shapur (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/sasanian-dynasty">"Sasanian dynasty"</a>. <i>Encyclopaedia Iranica, Online Edition</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Sasanian+dynasty&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+Iranica%2C+Online+Edition&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Shahbazi&rft.aufirst=A.+Shapur&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iranicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Fsasanian-dynasty&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASasanian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpeck1984" class="citation cs2">Speck, Paul (1984), "Ikonoklasmus und die Anfänge der Makedonischen Renaissance", <i>Varia 1 (Poikila Byzantina 4)</i>, Rudolf Halbelt, pp. 175–210</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ikonoklasmus+und+die+Anf%C3%A4nge+der+Makedonischen+Renaissance&rft.btitle=Varia+1+%28Poikila+Byzantina+4%29&rft.pages=175-210&rft.pub=Rudolf+Halbelt&rft.date=1984&rft.aulast=Speck&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASasanian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Stokvis A.M.H.J., Manuel d'Histoire, de Généalogie et de Chronologie de tous les Etats du Globe depuis les temps les plus reculés jusqu'à nos jours, Leiden, 1888–1893 (ré-édition en 1966 par B.M.Israel)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTurchinAdamsHall2004" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Turchin" title="Peter Turchin">Turchin, Peter</a>; Adams, Jonathan M.; Hall, Thomas D. (November 2004), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080527235437/http://www.eeb.uconn.edu/people/turchin/PDF/Latitude.pdf"><i>East-West Orientation of Historical Empires</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eeb.uconn.edu/people/turchin/PDF/Latitude.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 27 May 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-05-02</span></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=East-West+Orientation+of+Historical+Empires&rft.date=2004-11&rft.aulast=Turchin&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft.au=Adams%2C+Jonathan+M.&rft.au=Hall%2C+Thomas+D.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.eeb.uconn.edu%2Fpeople%2Fturchin%2FPDF%2FLatitude.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASasanian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWiesehöfer1996" class="citation cs2">Wiesehöfer, Josef (1996), <i>Ancient Persia</i>, New York: I.B. Taurus</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Persia&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=I.B.+Taurus&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Wieseh%C3%B6fer&rft.aufirst=Josef&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASasanian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Wiesehöfer, Josef: <i>The Late Sasanian Near East</i>. In: Chase Robinson (ed.), <i>The New Cambridge History of Islam</i> vol. 1. Cambridge 2010, pp. 98–152.</li> <li>Yarshater, Ehsan: <i>The Cambridge History of Iran</i> vol. 3 p. 1 Cambridge 1983, pp. 568–592.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZarinkoob1999" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Zarinkoob" class="mw-redirect" title="Zarinkoob">Zarinkoob</a>, Abdolhossein (1999), <i>Ruzgaran:Tarikh-i Iran Az Aghz ta Saqut Saltnat Pahlvi</i></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ruzgaran%3ATarikh-i+Iran+Az+Aghz+ta+Saqut+Saltnat+Pahlvi&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Zarinkoob&rft.aufirst=Abdolhossein&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASasanian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeyer1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Meyer, Eduard (1911). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Persia"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Persia">"Persia § <i>History</i>" </a></span>. In <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm" title="Hugh Chisholm">Chisholm, Hugh</a> (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. Vol. 21 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 202–249.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Persia+%C2%A7+History&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=202-249&rft.edition=11th&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1911&rft.aulast=Meyer&rft.aufirst=Eduard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASasanian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChristensen1939" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-long-vol">Christensen, A (1939), "Sassanid Persia", in Cook, S. A. (ed.), <i>The Cambridge Ancient History</i>, vol. XII: The Imperial Crisis and Recovery (A.D. 193–324), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-04494-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-04494-4"><bdi>0-521-04494-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Sassanid+Persia&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Ancient+History&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1939&rft.isbn=0-521-04494-4&rft.aulast=Christensen&rft.aufirst=A&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASasanian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Michael H. Dodgeon, Samuel N. C. Lieu. <i>The Roman Eastern frontier and the Persian Wars (AD 226–363). Part 1</i>. Routledge. London, 1994 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-10317-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-10317-7">0-415-10317-7</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoward-Johnston2006" class="citation cs2">Howard-Johnston, J.D. (2006), <i>East Rome, Sasanian Persia and the End of Antiquity: Historiographical and Historical Studies</i>, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-860-78992-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-860-78992-6"><bdi>0-860-78992-6</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=East+Rome%2C+Sasanian+Persia+and+the+End+of+Antiquity%3A+Historiographical+and+Historical+Studies&rft.pub=Ashgate+Publishing%2C+Ltd.&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-860-78992-6&rft.aulast=Howard-Johnston&rft.aufirst=J.D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASasanian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Labourt, J. <i>Le Christianisme dans l'empire Perse, sous la Dynastie Sassanide (224–632).</i> Paris: Librairie Victor Lecoffre, 1904.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOranskij1977" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Oranskij, I. M. (1977), <i>Les langues Iraniennes (translated by Joyce Blau)</i> (in French), Paris: Klincksieck, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-252-01991-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-252-01991-7"><bdi>978-2-252-01991-7</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Les+langues+Iraniennes+%28translated+by+Joyce+Blau%29&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=Klincksieck&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=978-2-252-01991-7&rft.aulast=Oranskij&rft.aufirst=I.+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASasanian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdward_Thomas1868" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Edward_Thomas_(antiquarian)" title="Edward Thomas (antiquarian)">Edward Thomas</a> (1868), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RV8-AAAAcAAJ"><i>Early Sassanian inscriptions, seals and coins</i></a>, London: Trübner, p. 137<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 July</span> 2011</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+Sassanian+inscriptions%2C+seals+and+coins&rft.place=London&rft.pages=137&rft.pub=Tr%C3%BCbner&rft.date=1868&rft.au=Edward+Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRV8-AAAAcAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASasanian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span> (Original from the Bavarian State Library)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdward_Thomas1868" class="citation cs2">Edward Thomas (1868), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iQ0YAAAAYAAJ"><i>Early Sassanian inscriptions, seals and coins</i></a>, London: Trübner, p. 137<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 July</span> 2011</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+Sassanian+inscriptions%2C+seals+and+coins&rft.place=London&rft.pages=137&rft.pub=Tr%C3%BCbner&rft.date=1868&rft.au=Edward+Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DiQ0YAAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASasanian+Empire" class="Z3988"></span> (Original from the New York Public Library)</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox 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href="http://www.iranchamber.com/history/ctesiphon/ctesiphon.php">Ctesiphon; The capital of the Parthian and the Sassanid empires, on Iran Chamber Society</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranchamber.com/history/islamic_conquest/islamic_conquest.php">Islamic Conquest of Persia</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranian.com/History/2000/August/China/">Pirooz in China, By Frank Wong</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/history/inourtime/inourtime_20071213.shtml">The Sassanian Empire</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090101013011/http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/history/inourtime/inourtime_20071213.shtml">Archived</a> 1 January 2009 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> BBC – <a href="/wiki/BBC_Radio_4" title="BBC Radio 4">Radio 4</a> <i><a href="/wiki/In_Our_Time_(BBC_Radio_4)" 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/23px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/30px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /></a></span></span> <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Sasanian Empire</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_monarchs_of_the_Sasanian_Empire" title="List of monarchs of the Sasanian Empire">List of monarchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Sasanian_Empire" title="Timeline of the Sasanian Empire">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dynasty</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Sasan" class="mw-redirect" title="House of Sasan">House of Sasan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_family_tree" title="Sasanian family tree">Family tree</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Great_Houses_of_Iran" title="Seven Great Houses of Iran">Seven Great Houses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Kayus" class="mw-redirect" title="House of Kayus">Kayus</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Senmurv.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Senmurv.svg/100px-Senmurv.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Senmurv.svg/150px-Senmurv.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Senmurv.svg/200px-Senmurv.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="644" data-file-height="645" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_architecture" title="Sasanian architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_art" title="Sasanian art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_coinage" title="Sasanian coinage">Coinage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_crowns" title="Sasanian crowns">Crowns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_dress" title="Sasanian dress">Dressing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Academy_of_Gondishapur" title="Academy of Gondishapur">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_glass" title="Sasanian glass">Glassware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Sasanian_inscriptions" title="List of Sasanian inscriptions">Inscriptions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Persian_literature" title="Middle Persian literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_music" title="Sasanian music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punishment_in_Sasanian_culture" title="Punishment in Sasanian culture">Punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Sasanian_Empire" title="Women in the Sasanian Empire">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Military and wars</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_of_the_Sasanian_Empire" title="Military of the Sasanian Empire">Military of the Sasanian Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_navy" title="Sasanian navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_defense_lines" title="Sasanian defense lines">Defense lines</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Persian_Wars" title="Roman–Persian Wars">Roman–Persian Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shapur_II%27s_Arab_campaign" title="Shapur II's Arab campaign">Arab tribes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hephthalite%E2%80%93Sasanian_Wars" title="Hephthalite–Sasanian Wars">Hephthalite–Sasanian Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6kt%C3%BCrk%E2%80%93Persian_wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Göktürk–Persian wars">Göktürk–Persian wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aksumite%E2%80%93Persian_wars" title="Aksumite–Persian wars">Aksumite–Persian wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Sasanian_revolts_and_civil_wars" title="List of Sasanian revolts and civil wars">Revolts and civil wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Persia" title="Muslim conquest of Persia">Muslim conquest of Persia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Descendants</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dabuyid_dynasty" title="Dabuyid dynasty">Dabuyids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bavand_dynasty" title="Bavand dynasty">Bavands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baduspanids" title="Baduspanids">Baduspanids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banu_al-Munajjim" title="Banu al-Munajjim">Banu al-Munajjim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikalids" title="Mikalids">Mikalids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qarinvand_dynasty" title="Qarinvand dynasty">Qarinvand</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_roads" title="Sasanian roads">Roads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_economy" title="Sasanian economy">Economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Iranian_relations" title="Roman–Iranian relations">Roman–Iranian relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kushano-Sasanian_Kingdom" title="Kushano-Sasanian Kingdom">Kushano-Sasanian Kingdom</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Iran_(word)" title="Iran (word)">ērān</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Aneran" title="Aneran">anērān</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Sasanian_Empire" title="Category:Sasanian Empire">Category</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Links_to_related_articles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#e8e8ff;"><div id="Links_to_related_articles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Links to related articles</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-size:114%"><div style="padding:0px"> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Timeline_of_Mesopotamia" style="display:table;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Timeline_of_Mesopotamia" title="Template:Timeline of Mesopotamia"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Timeline_of_Mesopotamia" title="Template talk:Timeline of Mesopotamia"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Timeline_of_Mesopotamia" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Timeline of Mesopotamia"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Timeline_of_Mesopotamia" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Timeline of <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;border-width:0;"><div style="padding:0"> <table style="width:100%"> <tbody><tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;"> </th> <td colspan="3" style="background:white"><b>Northwestern Mesopotamia</b> </td> <td colspan="3" style="background:white"><b>Northern Mesopotamia</b> </td> <td colspan="3" style="background:white"><b>Southern Mesopotamia</b> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">c. 3500–2350 BCE </th> <td colspan="6" style="background:white">Late Chalcolithic 4-5 / Early Jezirah 1-3 </td> <td colspan="3" style="background:#FFD380"><a href="/wiki/Uruk_period" title="Uruk period">Uruk period</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jemdet_Nasr_period" title="Jemdet Nasr period">Jemdet Nasr period</a> / <a href="/wiki/Early_Dynastic_Period_(Mesopotamia)" title="Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)">Early Dynastic period</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">c. 2350–2200 BCE </th> <td colspan="9" style="background:#FFB080"><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian Empire</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">c. 2200–2100 BCE </th> <td colspan="9" style="background:#F8F3C6"><i><a href="/wiki/Gutian_people" title="Gutian people">Gutians</a></i> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">c. 2100–2000 BCE </th> <td colspan="9" style="background:#FFA380"><a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="Third Dynasty of Ur">Third Dynasty of Ur</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">c. 2000–1800 BCE </th> <td colspan="3" style="background:#FFD0BD"><a href="/wiki/Mari,_Syria" title="Mari, Syria">Mari</a> <i>and other <a href="/wiki/Amorite" class="mw-redirect" title="Amorite">Amorite</a> city-states</i> </td> <td colspan="3" style="background:#FFFF80"><a href="/wiki/Old_Assyrian_period" title="Old Assyrian period">Old Assyrian period</a> </td> <td colspan="3" style="background:palegoldenrod"><a href="/wiki/Isin" title="Isin">Isin</a>/<a href="/wiki/Larsa" title="Larsa">Larsa</a> <i>and other <a href="/wiki/Amorite" class="mw-redirect" title="Amorite">Amorite</a> city-states</i> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">c. 1800–1600 BCE </th> <td colspan="2" style="background:#F7C1F7"><a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Old Hittite Kingdom</a> </td> <td colspan="7" style="background:#B2CAF6"><a href="/wiki/First_Babylonian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="First Babylonian Empire">Old Babylonian Empire</a> (<i>Southern Akkadians</i>) </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">c. 1600–1400 BCE </th> <td colspan="6" style="background:#E6C29F"><a href="/wiki/Mitanni" title="Mitanni">Mitanni</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Hurrians" title="Hurrians">Hurrians</a></i>) </td> <td colspan="3" rowspan="3" style="background:#88D0CC"><a href="/wiki/Kardunia%C5%A1" title="Karduniaš">Karduniaš</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Kassites" title="Kassites">Kassites</a></i>) </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">c. 1400–1200 BCE </th> <td colspan="2" style="background:#FFB4DA"><a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Middle Hittite Kingdom</a> </td> <td style="background:#FFEB80"> </td> <td colspan="3" rowspan="2" style="background:#FFEB80"><a href="/wiki/Assyria#Middle_Assyrian_Empire_—_Assyrian_resurgence" title="Assyria">Middle Assyria</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">c. 1200–1150 BCE </th> <td colspan="2" style="background:#FF8080"><i><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_Collapse" class="mw-redirect" title="Bronze Age Collapse">Bronze Age Collapse</a></i> (<i>"<a href="/wiki/Sea_Peoples" title="Sea Peoples">Sea Peoples</a>"</i>) </td> <td style="background:moccasin"><i><a href="/wiki/Arameans" title="Arameans">Arameans</a></i> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">c. 1150–911 BCE </th> <td rowspan="2" style="background:#C590C5"><a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicia</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" style="background:#FF8CB9"><a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Neo-Hittite</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">city-states</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" style="background:peachpuff"><a href="/wiki/Aram-Damascus" title="Aram-Damascus">Aram-</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Aram-Damascus" title="Aram-Damascus">Damascus</a> </td> <td colspan="3" style="background:moccasin"><i><a href="/wiki/Arameans" title="Arameans">Arameans</a></i> </td> <td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="background:#A0B4F0"><a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Middle Babylonia</a> </td> <td rowspan="3" style="background:lightblue"><i><a href="/wiki/Chaldea" title="Chaldea">Chal-</a></i><br /><i><a href="/wiki/Chaldea" title="Chaldea">de-</a></i><br /><i><a href="/wiki/Chaldea" title="Chaldea">ans</a></i> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">911–729 BCE </th> <td colspan="3" rowspan="2" style="background:#F6DB88"><a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian Empire</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">729–609 BCE </th> <td colspan="3" style="background:#F6DB88"> </td> <td colspan="2" style="background:#F6DB88"> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">626–539 BCE </th> <td colspan="9" style="background:#8EC8FF"><a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian Empire</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Chaldea" title="Chaldea">Chaldeans</a></i>) </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">539–331 BCE </th> <td colspan="9" style="background:mediumspringgreen"><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">336–301 BCE </th> <td colspan="9" style="background:#BEFD80"><a href="/wiki/Macedonian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Macedonian Empire">Macedonian Empire</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greeks" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greeks">Ancient Greeks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonians" title="Ancient Macedonians">Macedonians</a></i>) </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="1" style="background:#e6e7e8;">311–129 BCE </th> <td colspan="9" style="background:#99E699"><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="1" style="background:#e6e7e8;">129–63 BCE </th> <td colspan="3" style="background:#99E699"><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a> </td> <td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="background:#80C0C0"><a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian Empire</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="1" style="background:#e6e7e8;">63 BCE–224 CE </th> <td colspan="3" rowspan="4" style="background:#D29595"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome</a> - <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia_(Roman_province)" title="Mesopotamia (Roman province)">Syria</a></i>) </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="1" style="background:#e6e7e8;">224–mid 7C </th> <td colspan="6" rowspan="3" style="background:#90D9D5"><a href="/wiki/Sassanid_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Sassanid Empire">Sassanid Empire</a> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ancient_Mesopotamia" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ancient_Mesopotamia_topics" title="Template:Ancient Mesopotamia topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ancient_Mesopotamia_topics" title="Template talk:Ancient Mesopotamia topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient_Mesopotamia_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient Mesopotamia topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ancient_Mesopotamia" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Ancient Mesopotamia</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Mesopotamia" title="Geography of Mesopotamia">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Upper_Mesopotamia" title="Upper Mesopotamia">Upper Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_Mesopotamia" title="Lower Mesopotamia">Lower Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_Marshes" title="Mesopotamian Marshes">Mesopotamian Marshes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Desert" title="Syrian Desert">Syrian Desert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taurus_Mountains" title="Taurus Mountains">Taurus Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tigris%E2%80%93Euphrates_river_system" title="Tigris–Euphrates river system">Tigris–Euphrates river system</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tigris" title="Tigris">Tigris</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zagros_Mountains" title="Zagros Mountains">Zagros Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamrin_Mountains" title="Hamrin Mountains">Hamrin Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinjar_Mountains" title="Sinjar Mountains">Sinjar Mountains</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ancient</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fertile_Crescent" title="Fertile Crescent">Fertile Crescent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adiabene" title="Adiabene">Adiabene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akkad_(city)" title="Akkad (city)">Akkad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armani_(kingdom)" title="Armani (kingdom)">Armani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaldea" title="Chaldea">Chaldea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elam" title="Elam">Elam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gutian_people" title="Gutian people">Gutium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamazi" title="Hamazi">Hamazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Hittites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kassites" title="Kassites">Kassites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medes" title="Medes">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitanni" title="Mitanni">Mitanni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simurrum" title="Simurrum">Simurrum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subartu" title="Subartu">Subartu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suhum" title="Suhum">Suhum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer">Sumer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turukkaeans" title="Turukkaeans">Tukri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urartu" title="Urartu">Urartu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_of_the_ancient_Near_East" title="List of cities of the ancient Near East">Cities</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="7" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ishtar_Gate.gif" class="mw-file-description" title="Ishtar Gate in the city of Babylon"><img alt="Ishtar Gate in the city of Babylon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Ishtar_Gate.gif/110px-Ishtar_Gate.gif" decoding="async" width="110" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Ishtar_Gate.gif/165px-Ishtar_Gate.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Ishtar_Gate.gif/220px-Ishtar_Gate.gif 2x" data-file-width="275" data-file-height="300" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">(Pre)history</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Prehistory_of_Mesopotamia" title="Prehistory of Mesopotamia">Prehistory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acheulean" title="Acheulean">Acheulean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mousterian" title="Mousterian">Mousterian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trialetian" class="mw-redirect" title="Trialetian">Trialetian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zarzian_culture" title="Zarzian culture">Zarzian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natufian_culture" title="Natufian culture">Natufian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nemrik_9" title="Nemrik 9">Nemrik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khiamian" class="mw-redirect" title="Khiamian">Khiamian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Pottery_Neolithic_A" title="Pre-Pottery Neolithic A">Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Pottery_Neolithic_B" title="Pre-Pottery Neolithic B">Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hassuna_culture" title="Hassuna culture">Hassuna</a>/<a href="/wiki/Samarra_culture" title="Samarra culture">Samarra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halaf_culture" title="Halaf culture">Halaf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubaid_period" title="Ubaid period">Ubaid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uruk_period" title="Uruk period">Uruk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jemdet_Nasr_period" title="Jemdet Nasr period">Jemdet Nasr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kish_civilization" title="Kish civilization">Kish civilization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mesopotamia" title="History of Mesopotamia">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Dynastic_Period_(Mesopotamia)" title="Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)">Early Dynastic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gutian_rule_in_Mesopotamia" title="Gutian rule in Mesopotamia">Gutians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simurrum" title="Simurrum">Simurrum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="Third Dynasty of Ur">Ur III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isin-Larsa_period" title="Isin-Larsa period">Isin-Larsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Babylonian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="First Babylonian Empire">Old Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kassite_dynasty" title="Kassite dynasty">Kassite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Babylonian_period" title="Middle Babylonian period">Middle Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Babylon" title="Fall of Babylon">Fall of Babylon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Assyria" title="Achaemenid Assyria">Achaemenid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia_(Roman_province)" title="Mesopotamia (Roman province)">Roman</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Sasanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Persia" title="Muslim conquest of Persia">Muslim conquest</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Assyriology" title="Assyriology">Languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_language" title="Akkadian language">Akkadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amorite_language" title="Amorite language">Amorite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Aramaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eblaite_language" title="Eblaite language">Eblaite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elamite_language" title="Elamite language">Elamite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gutian_language" title="Gutian language">Gutian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittite_language" title="Hittite language">Hittite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hurrian_language" title="Hurrian language">Hurrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kassite_language" title="Kassite language">Kassite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luwian_language" title="Luwian language">Luwian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Median_language" title="Median language">Median</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Persian" title="Middle Persian">Middle Persian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Persian" title="Old Persian">Old Persian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian_language" title="Parthian language">Parthian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Armenian_language" title="Proto-Armenian language">Proto-Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sutean_language" title="Sutean language">Sutean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumerian_language" title="Sumerian language">Sumerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urartian_language" title="Urartian language">Urartian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Culture/society</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Mesopotamia" title="Architecture of Mesopotamia">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Mesopotamia" title="Art of Mesopotamia">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akitu" title="Akitu">Akitu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuneiform" title="Cuneiform">Cuneiform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_astronomy" title="Babylonian astronomy">Babylonian astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_mathematics" title="Babylonian mathematics">Babylonian mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_literature" title="Akkadian literature">Akkadian literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Sumer" title="Economy of Sumer">Economy of Sumer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warfare_in_Sumer" title="Warfare in Sumer">Warfare in Sumer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Military history of the Neo-Assyrian Empire">Military history of the Neo-Assyrian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sumerian_cuisine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sumerian cuisine (page does not exist)">Sumerian cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumerian_literature" title="Sumerian literature">Sumerian literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Mesopotamia" title="Music of Mesopotamia">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indus-Mesopotamia_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus-Mesopotamia relations">Indus-Mesopotamia relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egypt-Mesopotamia_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Egypt-Mesopotamia relations">Egypt-Mesopotamia relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_royal_titulary" title="Akkadian royal titulary">Royal titles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Mesopotamian_dynasties" title="List of Mesopotamian dynasties">List of rulers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Archaeology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeological_looting_in_Iraq" title="Archaeological looting in Iraq">Looting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Destruction_of_cultural_heritage_by_ISIL" class="mw-redirect" title="Destruction of cultural heritage by ISIL">Destruction by ISIL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tell_(archaeology)" title="Tell (archaeology)">Tell</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Religion</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Mesopotamian_religion" title="Ancient Mesopotamian religion">Ancient Mesopotamian religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumerian_religion" title="Sumerian religion">Sumerian religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Mesopotamian_deities" title="List of Mesopotamian deities">Deities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_myths" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesopotamian myths">Mesopotamian myths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_divination" title="Mesopotamian divination">Divination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_prayer" title="Mesopotamian prayer">Prayers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ziggurat" title="Ziggurat">Ziggurat (Temple)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assyriology" title="Assyriology">Assyriology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Assyriologists" title="List of Assyriologists">Assyriologists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittitology" title="Hittitology">Hittitology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Sumerian_Dictionary" title="Pennsylvania Sumerian Dictionary">Pennsylvania Sumerian Dictionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Assyrian_Dictionary" title="Chicago Assyrian Dictionary">Chicago Assyrian Dictionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Hittite_Dictionary" title="Chicago Hittite Dictionary">Chicago Hittite Dictionary</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Provinces_of_the_Sasanian_Empire" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Sasanian_Provinces" title="Template:Sasanian Provinces"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Sasanian_Provinces" title="Template talk:Sasanian Provinces"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Sasanian_Provinces" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Sasanian Provinces"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Provinces_of_the_Sasanian_Empire" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Provinces of the <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Sasanian Empire</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abarshahr" title="Abarshahr">Abarshahr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adurbadagan" title="Adurbadagan">Adurbadagan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caucasian_Albania_(Sasanian_province)" title="Caucasian Albania (Sasanian province)">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arbayistan" title="Arbayistan">Arbayistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Armenia" title="Sasanian Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asoristan" title="Asoristan">Asoristan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balasagan" title="Balasagan">Balasagan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beth_Garmai" title="Beth Garmai">Beth Garmai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dahae" title="Dahae">Dihistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Egypt" title="Sasanian Egypt">Egypt</a>*</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eran-Khwarrah-Yazdegerd" title="Eran-Khwarrah-Yazdegerd">Eran-Khwarrah-Yazdegerd</a>*</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garamig_ud_Nodardashiragan" title="Garamig ud Nodardashiragan">Garamig ud Nodardashiragan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garmekan" title="Garmekan">Garmekan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyrcania" title="Hyrcania">Gurgan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harev_(province)" title="Harev (province)">Harev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hind_(Sasanian_province)" title="Hind (Sasanian province)">Hind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Iberia" title="Sasanian Iberia">Iberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kadagistan" title="Kadagistan">Kadagistan</a>*</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khuzistan_(Sasanian_province)" title="Khuzistan (Sasanian province)">Khuzistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kirman_(Sasanian_province)" title="Kirman (Sasanian province)">Kirman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kushanshahr" title="Kushanshahr">Kushanshahr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Khwarazm" title="Sasanian Khwarazm">Khwarazm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lazica" title="Lazica">Lazica</a>*</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machelones" title="Machelones">Machelonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Makran" title="Makran">Makuran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margiana" title="Margiana">Marw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mazun_(Sasanian_province)" title="Mazun (Sasanian province)">Mazun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_(region)" title="Media (region)">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meshan" title="Meshan">Meshan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adiabene#As_a_province_of_Sassanid_Persia" title="Adiabene">Nodardashiragan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradan" title="Paradan">Paradan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Padishkhwargar" title="Padishkhwargar">Padishkhwargar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pars_(Sasanian_province)" title="Pars (Sasanian province)">Pars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthia" title="Parthia">Parthia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sakastan_(Sasanian_province)" title="Sakastan (Sasanian province)">Sakastan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sogdia" title="Sogdia">Sogdia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spahan_(province)" title="Spahan (province)">Spahan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suristan" title="Suristan">Suristan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turan_(Sasanian_province)" title="Turan (Sasanian province)">Turan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Yemen" title="Sasanian Yemen">Yemen</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Sasanian_Empire_621_A.D.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Extent of the Sasanian Empire"><img alt="Extent of the Sasanian Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Sasanian_Empire_621_A.D.jpg/50px-Sasanian_Empire_621_A.D.jpg" decoding="async" width="50" height="37" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Sasanian_Empire_621_A.D.jpg/75px-Sasanian_Empire_621_A.D.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Sasanian_Empire_621_A.D.jpg/100px-Sasanian_Empire_621_A.D.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1490" data-file-height="1106" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div><span style="font-size:85%;">* indicates short living provinces</span></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Iran_topics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Iran_topics" title="Template:Iran topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Iran_topics" title="Template talk:Iran topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Iran_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Iran topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Iran_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="History" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iran" title="History of Iran">History</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div id="Prehistory"><a href="/wiki/Prehistory_of_Iran" title="Prehistory of Iran">Prehistory</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ancient</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em">3400–539 BC</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kura%E2%80%93Araxes_culture" title="Kura–Araxes culture">Kura-Araxes <span class="nowrap">culture (3400–2000 BC)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Elamite" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Elamite">Proto-Elamite <span class="nowrap">civilization (3100–2700 BC)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elam" title="Elam">Elamite <span class="nowrap">dynasties (2700–540 BC)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian <span class="nowrap">Empire (c.2334 BC–c.2154 BC)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lullubi" title="Lullubi">Lullubi <span class="nowrap">(c.2300–675 BC)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kassites" title="Kassites">Kassites <span class="nowrap">(c.1595–c.1155 BC)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mannaeans" class="mw-redirect" title="Mannaeans">Kingdom of <span class="nowrap">Mannai (10th–7th century BC)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian <span class="nowrap">Empire (911–609 BC)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urartu" title="Urartu">Urartu <span class="nowrap">(860 BC–590 BC)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Median_kingdom" title="Median kingdom">Median <span class="nowrap">Empire (678–549 BC)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scythians" title="Scythians">Scythian <span class="nowrap">Kingdom (652–625 BC)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian <span class="nowrap">Empire (626–539 BC)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em">550 BC–AD 224</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid <span class="nowrap">Empire (550–330 BC)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atropatene" title="Atropatene">Atropatene <span class="nowrap">(c.323 BC–AD 226)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(antiquity)" title="Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)">Kingdom of <span class="nowrap">Armenia (321 BC–AD 428)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Cappadocia" title="Kingdom of Cappadocia">Kingdom of <span class="nowrap">Cappadocia (320s BC–AD 17)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid <span class="nowrap">Empire (312–63 BC)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frataraka" title="Frataraka">Frataraka <span class="nowrap">(c.295–220 BC)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Pontus" title="Kingdom of Pontus">Kingdom of <span class="nowrap">Pontus (281 BC–AD 62)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian <span class="nowrap">Empire (247 BC–AD 224)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Persis" title="Kings of Persis">Kings of <span class="nowrap">Persis (after 132 BC–AD 224)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em">AD 224–651</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Sasanian <span class="nowrap">Empire (AD 224–651)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Medieval and<br />early modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;font-weight:normal;font-size:85%;">632–1090</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun <span class="nowrap">Caliphate (632–661)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad <span class="nowrap">Caliphate (661–750)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid <span class="nowrap">Caliphate (750–1258)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samanid_Empire" title="Samanid Empire">Samanid <span class="nowrap">dynasty (819–999)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tahirid_dynasty" title="Tahirid dynasty">Tahirid <span class="nowrap">dynasty (821–873)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alid_dynasties_of_northern_Iran" title="Alid dynasties of northern Iran">Alavid <span class="nowrap">dynasty (864–928)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saffarid_dynasty" title="Saffarid dynasty">Saffarid <span class="nowrap">dynasty (861–1003)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ziyarid_dynasty" title="Ziyarid dynasty">Ziyarid <span class="nowrap">dynasty (931–1090)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buyid_dynasty" title="Buyid dynasty">Buyid <span class="nowrap">dynasty (934–1062)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;font-weight:normal;font-size:85%;">977–1432</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ghaznavids" title="Ghaznavids">Ghaznavid <span class="nowrap">Empire (977–1186)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghurid_dynasty" title="Ghurid dynasty">Ghurid <span class="nowrap">dynasty (1011–1215)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seljuk_Empire" title="Seljuk Empire">Seljuk <span class="nowrap">Empire (1037–1194)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anushtegin_dynasty" title="Anushtegin dynasty">Anushtegin <span class="nowrap">dynasty (1077–1231)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eldiguzids" title="Eldiguzids">Eldiguzids <span class="nowrap">(1135/36-1225)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kart_dynasty" title="Kart dynasty">Kart <span class="nowrap">dynasty (1244–1381)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilkhanate" title="Ilkhanate"><span class="nowrap">Ilkhanate (1256–1335)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muzaffarids_(Iran)" title="Muzaffarids (Iran)">Muzaffarid <span class="nowrap">dynasty (1314–1393)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jalayirid_Sultanate" title="Jalayirid Sultanate">Jalayirid Sultanate <span class="nowrap">dynasty (1335–1432)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chobanids" title="Chobanids">Chobanid <span class="nowrap">dynasty (1338–1357)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;font-weight:normal;font-size:85%;">1370–1925</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timurid_Empire" title="Timurid Empire">Timurid <span class="nowrap">Empire (1370–1507)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qara_Qoyunlu" title="Qara Qoyunlu">Qara Qoyunlu <span class="nowrap">Turcomans (1374–1468)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aq_Qoyunlu" title="Aq Qoyunlu">Aq Qoyunlu <span class="nowrap">Turcomans (1378–1508)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safavid_Iran" title="Safavid Iran">Safavid <span class="nowrap">Empire (1501–1736)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afsharid_Iran" title="Afsharid Iran">Afsharid <span class="nowrap">Empire (1736–1796)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zand_dynasty" title="Zand dynasty">Zand <span class="nowrap">Dynasty (1751–1794)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qajar_Iran" title="Qajar Iran">Qajar <span class="nowrap">Empire (1789–1925)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khanates_of_the_Caucasus" title="Khanates of the Caucasus">Khanates of the <span class="nowrap">Caucasus (18th–20th centuries)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Constitutional_Revolution" title="Persian Constitutional Revolution">Persian Constitutional Revolution (1905–1911)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1908_bombardment_of_the_Majlis" title="1908 bombardment of the Majlis">1908 bombardment of the Majlis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_separatism_in_Iran" title="Kurdish separatism in Iran">Kurdish separatism in Iran (1918–)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1921_Persian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1921 Persian coup d'état">1921 Persian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_separatism_in_Khuzestan" title="Arab separatism in Khuzestan">Arab separatism in Khuzestan (1922–2020)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;font-weight:normal;font-size:85%;">1925–1979</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pahlavi_dynasty" title="Pahlavi dynasty">Pahlavi <span class="nowrap">dynasty (1925–1979)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shatt_al-Arab_dispute" title="Shatt al-Arab dispute">Shatt al-Arab dispute (1936–1975)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran_crisis_of_1946" title="Iran crisis of 1946">Iran crisis of 1946</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurgency_in_Balochistan" title="Insurgency in Balochistan">Insurgency in Balochistan (1948–)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1949_Iranian_Constituent_Assembly_election" title="1949 Iranian Constituent Assembly election">1949 Iranian Constituent Assembly election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1953_Iranian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1953 Iranian coup d'état">1953 coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_revolution" title="Iranian revolution">Iranian <span class="nowrap">revolution (1979)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;font-weight:normal;font-size:85%;"><span style="font-size:120%"><a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Islamic Republic</a></span><br />1979–present</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Islamic_Republic_of_Iran" title="History of the Islamic Republic of Iran"><span class="nowrap">History (1979–)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interim_Government_of_Iran" title="Interim Government of Iran">Interim Government (1979)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_1979_Iranian_Islamic_Republic_referendum" class="mw-redirect" title="March 1979 Iranian Islamic Republic referendum">March 1979 Iranian Islamic Republic referendum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1979_Khuzestan_insurgency" title="1979 Khuzestan insurgency">1979 Khuzestan insurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran_hostage_crisis" title="Iran hostage crisis">Iran hostage crisis (1979–1981)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/December_1979_Iranian_constitutional_referendum" class="mw-redirect" title="December 1979 Iranian constitutional referendum">December 1979 Iranian constitutional referendum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_Embassy_siege" title="Iranian Embassy siege">Iranian Embassy <span class="nowrap">siege (1980)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nojeh_coup_plot" title="Nojeh coup plot">Nojeh coup plot (1980)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_War" title="Iran–Iraq War">Iran–Iraq <span class="nowrap">War (1980–88)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interim_Government_of_Iran_(1981)" title="Interim Government of Iran (1981)">Interim Government of Iran (1981)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1987_Mecca_incident" title="1987 Mecca incident">1987 Mecca incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran_Air_Flight_655" title="Iran Air Flight 655">Iran Air Flight 655 <span class="nowrap">shootdown (1988)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/KDPI_insurgency_(1989%E2%80%931996)" title="KDPI insurgency (1989–1996)">KDPI insurgency (1989–1996)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93PJAK_conflict" title="Iran–PJAK conflict">PJAK conflict (2004–)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2009_Iranian_presidential_election_protests" title="2009 Iranian presidential election protests">2009 Iranian presidential election protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_civil_war" title="Syrian civil war">Syrian civil war (2011–)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_military_intervention_against_the_Islamic_State" class="mw-redirect" title="International military intervention against the Islamic State">International military intervention against the Islamic State (2014–)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joint_Comprehensive_Plan_of_Action" title="Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action">Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (2015)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_withdrawal_from_the_Joint_Comprehensive_Plan_of_Action" title="United States withdrawal from the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action">United States withdrawal (2018)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2017%E2%80%932018_Iranian_protests" title="2017–2018 Iranian protests">2017–2018 Iranian protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2018%E2%80%932019_Iranian_general_strikes_and_protests" title="2018–2019 Iranian general strikes and protests">2018–2019 Iranian general strikes and protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Iran" title="COVID-19 pandemic in Iran">COVID-19 pandemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2019_Sistan_and_Baluchestan_protests" title="2019 Sistan and Baluchestan protests">2019 Sistan and Baluchestan protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2019%E2%80%932020_Iranian_protests" title="2019–2020 Iranian protests">2019–2020 Iranian protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021_Sistan_and_Baluchestan_protests" title="2021 Sistan and Baluchestan protests">2021 Sistan and Baluchestan protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021%E2%80%932022_Iranian_protests" title="2021–2022 Iranian protests">2021–2022 Iranian protests</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Persians" title="List of ancient Persians">Ancient Persians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Iran" title="Greater Iran">Greater Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persianization" title="Persianization">Persianization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persianate_society" title="Persianate society">Persianate society</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Turco-Persian_tradition" title="Turco-Persian tradition">Turco-Persian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Persian_culture" title="Indo-Persian culture">Indo-Persian</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_peoples" title="Iranian peoples">Iranic peoples</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_languages" title="Iranian languages">languages</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiroft_culture" title="Jiroft culture">Jiroft culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aryan" title="Aryan">Aryans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azerbaijanis" title="Azerbaijanis">Azerbaijanis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peoples_of_the_Caucasus" class="mw-redirect" title="Peoples of the Caucasus">Peoples of the Caucasus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persians" title="Persians">Persians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_monarchs_of_Persia" title="List of monarchs of Persia">Monarchs of Persia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_heads_of_state_of_Iran" title="List of heads of state of Iran">Heads of state of Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_democracy_in_classical_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="History of democracy in classical Iran">History of democracy in classical Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Iran" title="Military history of Iran">Military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_electricity_in_Iran" title="History of electricity in Iran">Electric history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_Iran" title="List of years in Iran">Years in Iran</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Geography" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Iran" title="Geography of Iran">Geography</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Borders_of_Iran" title="Borders of Iran">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_Iran_by_province" title="List of cities in Iran by province">Cities</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_cities_of_Iran" title="List of largest cities of Iran">largest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_twin_towns_and_sister_cities_in_Iran" title="List of twin towns and sister cities in Iran">twin towns and sister cities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_earthquakes_in_Iran" title="List of earthquakes in Iran">Earthquakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_Iran" title="Environmental issues in Iran">Environmental issues</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Iran" title="Climate change in Iran">Climate change</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan_(Iran)" title="Azerbaijan (Iran)">Iranian Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sistan_and_Baluchestan_province" title="Sistan and Baluchestan province">Iranian Balochistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caspian_Hyrcanian_mixed_forests" class="mw-redirect" title="Caspian Hyrcanian mixed forests">Caspian Hyrcanian mixed forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_Kurdistan" title="Iranian Kurdistan">Iranian Kurdistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_plateau" title="Iranian plateau">Iranian plateau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_Urmia" title="Lake Urmia">Lake Urmia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_Iran" title="List of islands of Iran">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountains_in_Iran" title="List of mountains in Iran">Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provinces_of_Iran" title="Provinces of Iran">Provinces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_of_Iran" title="Wildlife of Iran">Wildlife</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Politics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Iran" title="Politics of Iran">Politics</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Censorship_in_Iran" title="Censorship in Iran">Censorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Iran" title="Constitution of Iran">Constitution</a> (<a href="/wiki/Persian_Constitutional_Revolution" title="Persian Constitutional Revolution">Persian Constitutional Revolution</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Iran" title="Corruption in Iran">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Iran" title="Elections in Iran">Elections</a> (<a href="/wiki/2009_Iranian_presidential_election" title="2009 Iranian presidential election">2009 presidential</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Iran" title="Foreign relations of Iran">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_Islamic_Republic_of_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran">Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Iran" title="Human rights in Iran">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Childrens%27_Rights_in_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="Childrens' Rights in Iran">Children's rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in Iran">LGBT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_rights_in_Iran" title="Women's rights in Iran">Women's rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_judicial_system_of_Iran" title="History of the judicial system of Iran">Judicial system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_Republic_of_Iran_Armed_Forces" title="Islamic Republic of Iran Armed Forces">Military</a> (<a href="/wiki/Islamic_Republic_of_Iran_Army" title="Islamic Republic of Iran Army">Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_Republic_of_Iran_Air_Force" title="Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force">Air Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_Republic_of_Iran_Navy" title="Islamic Republic of Iran Navy">Navy</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Intelligence_(Iran)" title="Ministry of Intelligence (Iran)">Ministry of Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyberwarfare_and_Iran" title="Cyberwarfare and Iran">Cyberwarfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_program_of_Iran" title="Nuclear program of Iran">Nuclear program</a> (<a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_1747" title="United Nations Security Council Resolution 1747">UN Security Council Resolution 1747</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_Iran" title="List of political parties in Iran">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principlists" class="mw-redirect" title="Principlists">Principlists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda_in_Iran" title="Propaganda in Iran">Propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_Reformists" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian Reformists">Reformists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_and_terrorism_in_Iran" title="Assassination and terrorism in Iran">Terrorism</a> (<a href="/wiki/Iran_and_state-sponsored_terrorism" title="Iran and state-sponsored terrorism">state-sponsorship allegations</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_Revolution" title="White Revolution">White Revolution (1963)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_rights_movement_in_Iran" title="Women's rights movement in Iran">Women's rights movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Councils</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assembly_of_Experts" title="Assembly of Experts">Assembly (or Council) of Experts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expediency_Discernment_Council" title="Expediency Discernment Council">Expediency Discernment Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guardian_Council" title="Guardian Council">Guardian Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_Consultative_Assembly" title="Islamic Consultative Assembly">Islamic Consultative Assembly (parliament)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Local_councils_of_Iran" title="Local councils of Iran">Local councils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_National_Security_Council" title="Supreme National Security Council">Supreme National Security Council</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Iranian_officials" title="List of Iranian officials">Officials</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_ambassadors_from_Iran" title="List of current ambassadors from Iran">Ambassadors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_Iran" title="President of Iran">President</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_Iran_governors-general" title="List of current Iran governors-general">Provincial governors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Leader_of_Iran" title="Supreme Leader of Iran">Supreme Leader</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Economy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Iran" title="Economy of Iran">Economy</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bonyad" title="Bonyad">Bonyad (charitable trust)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_capital_flight_from_Iran" title="Human capital flight from Iran">Brain drain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_companies_of_Iran" title="List of companies of Iran">Companies</a> (<a href="/wiki/Automotive_industry_in_Iran" title="Automotive industry in Iran">Automotive industry</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_labour_in_Iran" title="Child labour in Iran">Child labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Iran" title="Corruption in Iran">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_Cooperation_Organization" title="Economic Cooperation Organization">Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Iran" title="Economic history of Iran">Economic history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_Economic_Reform_Plan" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian Economic Reform Plan">Economic Reform Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_Iran" title="Energy in Iran">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_Iran" title="Environmental issues in Iran">Environmental issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_direct_investment_in_Iran" title="Foreign direct investment in Iran">Foreign direct investment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intellectual_property_in_Iran" title="Intellectual property in Iran">Intellectual property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_oil_bourse" title="Iranian oil bourse">International oil bourse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_rankings_of_Iran" title="International rankings of Iran">International rankings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran_and_the_World_Trade_Organization" title="Iran and the World Trade Organization">Iran and the World Trade Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_Iran" title="Taxation in Iran">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_economic_laws_in_Iran" title="List of economic laws in Iran">Main economic laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_Middle_East" title="Economy of the Middle East">Economy of the Middle East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milad_Tower" title="Milad Tower">Milad Tower and complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_equipment_manufactured_in_Iran" title="List of military equipment manufactured in Iran">Military equipment manufactured</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_program_of_Iran" title="Nuclear program of Iran">Nuclear program</a> (<a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_1747" title="United Nations Security Council Resolution 1747">UN Security Council Resolution 1747</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privatization_in_Iran" title="Privatization in Iran">Privatization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_rial" title="Iranian rial">Rial (currency)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_Space_Agency" title="Iranian Space Agency">Space Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Execution_of_Imam_Khomeini%27s_Order" title="Execution of Imam Khomeini's Order">Setad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Audit_Court_of_Iran" title="Supreme Audit Court of Iran">Supreme Audit Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tehran_Stock_Exchange" title="Tehran Stock Exchange">Tehran Stock Exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venture_capital_in_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="Venture capital in Iran">Venture capital</a> (<a href="/wiki/Communications_in_Iran#Technology_start-ups" title="Communications in Iran">Technology start-ups</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economic_sector" title="Economic sector">Sectors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Iran" title="Agriculture in Iran">Agriculture</a> (<a href="/wiki/Fruit_production_in_Iran" title="Fruit production in Iran">fruit</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banking_and_insurance_in_Iran" title="Banking and insurance in Iran">Banking and insurance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Bank_of_Iran" title="Central Bank of Iran">Central Bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shetab_Banking_System" title="Shetab Banking System">Shetab Banking System</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction_industry_of_Iran" title="Construction industry of Iran">Construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defense_industry_of_Iran" title="Defense industry of Iran">Defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_Iran" title="Healthcare in Iran">Health care</a> (<a href="/wiki/Pharmaceuticals_in_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharmaceuticals in Iran">Pharmaceuticals</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industry_of_Iran" title="Industry of Iran">Industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining_in_Iran" title="Mining in Iran">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_industry_in_Iran" title="Petroleum industry in Iran">Petroleum</a> (<a href="/wiki/Anglo-Persian_Oil_Company" title="Anglo-Persian Oil Company">Anglo-Persian Oil Company</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communications_in_Iran" title="Communications in Iran">Telecommunications and IT</a> (<a href="/wiki/Telecommunication_Company_of_Iran" title="Telecommunication Company of Iran">TCI</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Iran" title="Transport in Iran">Transport</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_airlines_of_Iran" title="List of airlines of Iran">airlines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tehran_Metro" title="Tehran Metro">metro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_Republic_of_Iran_Railways" title="Islamic Republic of Iran Railways">railways</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IRISL_Group" title="IRISL Group">shipping</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Iran" title="Tourism in Iran">Tourism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em;line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/State-owned_enterprise" title="State-owned enterprise">State-owned<br />companies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Defense_Industries_Organization" title="Defense Industries Organization">Defense Industries Organization (DIO)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IDRO_Group" title="IDRO Group">Industrial Development and Renovation Organization (IDRO)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran_Aviation_Industries_Organization" title="Iran Aviation Industries Organization">Iran Aviation Industries Organization (IAIO)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran_Electronics_Industries" title="Iran Electronics Industries">Iran Electronics Industries (IEI)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Iranian_Oil_Company" title="National Iranian Oil Company">National Iranian Oil Company (NIOC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Development_Fund_of_Iran" title="National Development Fund of Iran">National Development Fund</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Places</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asaluyeh" title="Asaluyeh">Asaluyeh industrial corridor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chabahar_Free_Trade-Industrial_Zone" title="Chabahar Free Trade-Industrial Zone">Chabahar Free Trade-Industrial Zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kish_Island" title="Kish Island">Kish Island Free Trade Zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Iranian_research_centers" title="List of Iranian research centers">Research centers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Society" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_Iran" title="Category:Society of Iran">Society</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Iran" title="Demographics of Iran">Demographics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Iran" title="Languages of Iran">Languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian (Farsi)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_language" title="Armenian language">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azerbaijani_language" title="Azerbaijani language">Azerbaijani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Kurdish languages">Kurdish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_language" title="Georgian language">Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_Neo-Aramaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Assyrian Neo-Aramaic">Neo-Aramaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_languages" title="Iranian languages">Iranian languages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Peoples</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Iran" title="Demographics of Iran">Iranian citizens</a> (<a href="/wiki/Iranian_diaspora" title="Iranian diaspora">abroad</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_minorities_in_Iran" title="Ethnic minorities in Iran">Ethnic minorities</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_Armenians" title="Iranian Armenians">Armenians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrians_in_Iran" title="Assyrians in Iran">Assyrians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_Azerbaijanis" title="Iranian Azerbaijanis">Azerbaijanis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circassians_in_Iran" title="Circassians in Iran">Circassians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_Georgians" title="Iranian Georgians">Georgians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurds_in_Iran" title="Kurds in Iran">Kurds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Iran" title="History of the Jews in Iran">Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_Turkmens" title="Iranian Turkmens">Turkmen</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Iran" title="Religion in Iran">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Iran" title="Islam in Iran">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith_in_Iran" title="Baháʼí Faith in Iran">Baháʼí Faith</a> (<a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%ADs" title="Persecution of Baháʼís">persecution</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Iran" title="Christianity in Iran">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism_in_Iran" title="Zoroastrianism in Iran">Zoroastrians</a> (<a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Zoroastrians" title="Persecution of Zoroastrians">persecution</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_Iran" title="Freedom of religion in Iran">Freedom of religion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Iran" title="Corruption in Iran">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Iran" title="Crime in Iran">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Iran" title="Education in Iran">Education</a> (<a href="/wiki/Higher_education_in_Iran" title="Higher education in Iran">higher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intellectual_movements_in_Iran" title="Intellectual movements in Iran">Intellectual movements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pre-modern_Iranian_scientists_and_scholars" title="List of pre-modern Iranian scientists and scholars">scientists and scholars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_universities_in_Iran" title="List of universities in Iran">universities</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_rankings_of_Iran" title="International rankings of Iran">International rankings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_nationality_law" title="Iranian nationality law">Nationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Iran" title="Water supply and sanitation in Iran">Water supply and sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Iran" title="Women in Iran">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Iran" title="Culture of Iran">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_architecture" title="Iranian architecture">Architecture</a> (<a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_architecture" title="Achaemenid architecture">Achaemenid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architects_of_Iran" title="Architects of Iran">architects</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_art" title="Persian art">Art</a> (<a href="/wiki/Iranian_modern_and_contemporary_art" title="Iranian modern and contemporary art">modern / contemporary</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_astronomy" title="Persian astronomy">Astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blogging_in_Iran" title="Blogging in Iran">Blogs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_calendars" title="Iranian calendars">Calendars</a> (<a href="/wiki/Nowruz" title="Nowruz">Persian New Year (<i>Nowruz</i>)</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fashion_in_Iran" title="Fashion in Iran">Fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Persian_antiquities_dispute" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Chicago Persian antiquities dispute">Chicago Persian antiquities dispute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_Iran" title="Cinema of Iran">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_cuisine" title="Iranian cuisine">Cuisine</a> (<a href="/wiki/Persian_wine" title="Persian wine">wine</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_folklore" title="Iranian folklore">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intellectual_movements_in_Iran" title="Intellectual movements in Iran">Intellectual movements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Iranians" title="List of Iranians">Iranians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_studies" title="Iranian studies">Iranian studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Iran" title="Islam in Iran">Islam</a> (<a href="/wiki/Islamization_of_Iran" title="Islamization of Iran">Islamization</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_literature" title="Persian literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media_in_Iran" title="Mass media in Iran">Media</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_Iranian_news_agencies" title="List of Iranian news agencies">news agencies</a> (<a href="/wiki/Iranian_Students_News_Agency" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian Students News Agency">student</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_newspapers_in_Iran" title="List of newspapers in Iran">newspapers</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_mythology" title="Persian mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_National_Jewels" title="Iranian National Jewels">National Jewels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_symbols_of_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="List of national symbols of Iran">National symbols</a> (<a href="/wiki/Imperial_Anthem_of_Iran" title="Imperial Anthem of Iran">Imperial Anthem</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opium_in_Iran" title="Opium in Iran">Opium consumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_gardens" title="Persian gardens">Persian gardens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_name" title="Persian name">Persian name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_Iran" title="Public holidays in Iran">Public holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scouting_in_Iran" title="Scouting in Iran">Scouting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_Iran" title="Sport in Iran">Sport</a> (<a href="/wiki/Football_in_Iran" title="Football in Iran">football</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Iran" title="Music of Iran">Music</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_folk_music" title="Iranian folk music">Folk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_jazz" title="Iranian jazz">Jazz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_pop_music" title="Iranian pop music">Pop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_hip_hop" title="Iranian hip hop">Rap and hip-hop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_rock" title="Iranian rock">Rock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_traditional_music" title="Persian traditional music">Traditional</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ey_Iran" title="Ey Iran">Ey Iran</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Iran" title="Science and technology in Iran">Science and technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Iranian_sentiment" title="Anti-Iranian sentiment">Anti-Iranian sentiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tehrangeles" title="Tehrangeles">Tehrangeles</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Iran" title="Category:Iran">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Iran" title="Portal:Iran">Portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Empires" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Empires" title="Template:Empires"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Empires" title="Template talk:Empires"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Empires" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Empires"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Empires" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Empire" title="Empire">Empires</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_history" title="Ancient history">Ancient</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Colonies_in_antiquity" title="Colonies in antiquity">colonies</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Kingdom of Armenia (disambiguation)">Armenian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urartu" title="Urartu">Urartu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satrapy_of_Armenia" title="Satrapy of Armenia">Orontid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(antiquity)" title="Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)">Ancient</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyrian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Assyrian_Empire" title="Middle Assyrian Empire">Middle Assyrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Babylonian_Empire" title="Old Babylonian Empire">Old Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kassites" title="Kassites">Kassite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Jin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%CA%BFmt" title="Dʿmt">Dʿmt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Egyptian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Old Kingdom of Egypt">Old Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Middle Kingdom of Egypt">Middle Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="New Kingdom of Egypt">New Kingdom</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goguryeo" title="Goguryeo">Goguryeo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harsha" title="Harsha">Harsha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)#Empire" title="Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">Macedonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom" title="Ptolemaic Kingdom">Ptolemaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Bactrian_Kingdom" title="Greco-Bactrian Kingdom">Bactrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Greek_Kingdom" title="Indo-Greek Kingdom">Indo-Greek</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Hittite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Huns" title="History of the Huns">Hunnic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hephthalites" title="Hephthalites">White</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiongnu" title="Xiongnu">Xiongnu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Persian Empire (disambiguation)">Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Median_kingdom" title="Median kingdom">Median</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Sasanian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kush" title="Kingdom of Kush">Kush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magadhan_Empire" title="Magadhan Empire">Magadha</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haryanka_dynasty" title="Haryanka dynasty">Haryanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaishunaga_dynasty" title="Shaishunaga dynasty">Shaishunaga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanda_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanda Empire">Nanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurya_Empire" title="Maurya Empire">Maurya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shunga_Empire" title="Shunga Empire">Shunga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gupta_Empire" title="Gupta Empire">Gupta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenician</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Carthage" title="Ancient Carthage">Carthaginian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Eastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satavahana_dynasty" title="Satavahana dynasty">Satavahana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="Third Dynasty of Ur">Neo-Sumerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xianbei" title="Xianbei">Xianbei</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rouran_Khaganate" title="Rouran Khaganate">Rouran</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Post-classical_history" title="Post-classical history">Post-classical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angevin_Empire" title="Angevin Empire">Angevin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon" title="Crown of Aragon">Aragonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Kingdom of Armenia (disambiguation)">Armenian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bagratid_Armenia" title="Bagratid Armenia">Bagratid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Vaspurakan" title="Kingdom of Vaspurakan">Vaspurakan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Artsakh" title="Kingdom of Artsakh">Artsakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_Kingdom_of_Cilicia" title="Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia">Cilician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zakarid_Armenia" title="Zakarid Armenia">Zakarid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayyubid_dynasty" title="Ayyubid dynasty">Ayyubid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_Empire" title="Aztec Empire">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Benin" title="Kingdom of Benin">Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanem%E2%80%93Bornu_Empire#Shift_of_the_Sayfuwa_court_from_Kanem_to_Bornu" title="Kanem–Bornu Empire">Bornu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruneian_Sultanate_(1368%E2%80%931888)" title="Bruneian Sultanate (1368–1888)">Bruneian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Bulgarian Empire (disambiguation)">Bulgarian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire" title="Second Bulgarian Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Burmese Empire (disambiguation)">Burmese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pagan_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Pagan Kingdom">First</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calakmul" title="Calakmul">Calakmul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Caliphate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate" title="Fatimid Caliphate">Fatimid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalukya_dynasty" title="Chalukya dynasty">Chalukya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Chalukya_Empire" title="Western Chalukya Empire">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Chalukyas" title="Eastern Chalukyas">Eastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sui_dynasty" title="Sui dynasty">Sui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liao_dynasty" title="Liao dynasty">Liao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115%E2%80%931234)" title="Jin dynasty (1115–1234)">Jīn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chola_Empire" title="Chola Empire">Chola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Ethiopian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aksum" title="Kingdom of Aksum">Aksum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zagwe_dynasty" title="Zagwe dynasty">Zagwe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Solomonic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Genoese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Georgia" title="Kingdom of Georgia">Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garabito_Empire" title="Garabito Empire">Huetar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inca_Empire" title="Inca Empire">Inca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tripartite_Struggle" title="Tripartite Struggle">Kannauj</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pala_Empire" title="Pala Empire">Pala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gurjara-Pratihara_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty">Gurjara-Pratihara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rashtrakuta_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Rashtrakuta Empire">Rashtrakuta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Persian Empire (disambiguation)">Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tahirid_dynasty" title="Tahirid dynasty">Tahirid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saffarid_dynasty" title="Saffarid dynasty">Saffarid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samanid_Empire" title="Samanid Empire">Samanid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buyid_dynasty" title="Buyid dynasty">Buyid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Japan" title="History of Japan">Japanese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yamato_period" title="Yamato period">Yamato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamakura_shogunate" title="Kamakura shogunate">Kamakura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashikaga_shogunate" title="Ashikaga shogunate">Muromachi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tokugawa_shogunate" title="Tokugawa shogunate">Edo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanem%E2%80%93Bornu_Empire" title="Kanem–Bornu Empire">Kanem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khmer_Empire" title="Khmer Empire">Khmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_Empire" title="Latin Empire">Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lithuania" title="History of Lithuania">Lithuanian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania" title="Grand Duchy of Lithuania">Grand Duchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Commonwealth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Majapahit" title="Majapahit">Majapahit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mali_Empire" title="Mali Empire">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Horde" title="Golden Horde">Golden Horde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chagatai_Khanate" title="Chagatai Khanate">Chagatai Khanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilkhanate" title="Ilkhanate">Ilkhanate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Morocco" title="History of Morocco">Moroccan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Idrisid_dynasty" title="Idrisid dynasty">Idrisid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Almoravid_dynasty" title="Almoravid dynasty">Almoravid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Almohad_Caliphate" title="Almohad Caliphate">Almohad</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norgesveldet" class="mw-redirect" title="Norgesveldet">Norwegian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Sea_Empire" title="North Sea Empire">North Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oyo_Empire" title="Oyo Empire">Oyo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland" title="History of Poland">Polish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Poland" title="Kingdom of Poland">Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Commonwealth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenization_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Hellenization in the Byzantine Empire">Hellenic</a> <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Nicaea" title="Empire of Nicaea">Nicaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Thessalonica" title="Empire of Thessalonica">Thessalonica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Trebizond" title="Empire of Trebizond">Trebizond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Despotate_of_Epirus" title="Despotate of Epirus">Epirus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Despotate_of_the_Morea" title="Despotate of the Morea">Morea</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romano-Germanic_culture" title="Romano-Germanic culture">Romano-Germanic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Empire" title="Carolingian Empire">Carolingian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia" title="History of Russia">Russian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Ruthenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Novgorod_Republic" title="Novgorod Republic">Novgorod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir-Suzdal" title="Vladimir-Suzdal">Vladimir-Suzdal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Moscow" title="Principality of Moscow">Muscovy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Perm" title="Great Perm">Permian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_Empire" title="Serbian Empire">Serbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singhasari" title="Singhasari">Singhasari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Songhai_Empire" title="Songhai Empire">Songhai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Srivijaya" title="Srivijaya">Srivijaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Empire" title="Tibetan Empire">Tibetan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tikal" title="Tikal">Tikal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiwanaku_Empire" title="Tiwanaku Empire">Tiwanaku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toltec_Empire" title="Toltec Empire">Toltec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turco-Persian_tradition" title="Turco-Persian tradition">Turco-Persian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ghaznavids" title="Ghaznavids">Ghaznavid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seljuk_Empire" title="Seljuk Empire">Great Seljuk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khwarazmian_Empire" title="Khwarazmian Empire">Khwarezmian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timurid_Empire" title="Timurid Empire">Timurid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6kt%C3%BCrks" title="Göktürks">Turkic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Turkic_Khaganate" title="First Turkic Khaganate">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Western Turkic Khaganate">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Eastern Turkic Khaganate">Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Second Turkic Khaganate">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%BCrgesh" title="Türgesh">Türgesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uyghur_Khaganate" title="Uyghur Khaganate">Uighur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrgyz_Khaganate" title="Kyrgyz Khaganate">Kyrgyz</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ukraine" title="History of Ukraine">Ukrainian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Ruthenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Kiev" title="Principality of Kiev">Kyivan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venetian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i_Vi%E1%BB%87t" title="Đại Việt">Vietnamese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90inh_dynasty" title="Đinh dynasty">Dinh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_L%C3%AA_dynasty" title="Early Lê dynasty">Early Le</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%BD_dynasty" title="Lý dynasty">Ly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tr%E1%BA%A7n_dynasty" title="Trần dynasty">Tran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%E1%BB%93_dynasty" title="Hồ dynasty">Ho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Later_Tr%E1%BA%A7n_dynasty" title="Later Trần dynasty">Later Tran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AA_dynasty" title="Lê dynasty">Later Le</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vijayanagara_Empire" title="Vijayanagara Empire">Vijayanagara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghana_Empire" title="Ghana Empire">Wagadou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wari_Empire" title="Wari Empire">Wari</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_era" title="Modern era">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Durrani_Empire" title="Durrani Empire">Afghan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashanti_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashanti Empire">Ashanti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire">Austrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austro-Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Brazil" title="Empire of Brazil">Brazilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Burmese Empire (disambiguation)">Burmese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Toungoo_Empire" title="First Toungoo Empire">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konbaung_dynasty" title="Konbaung dynasty">Third</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_African_Empire" title="Central African Empire">Central African</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_China_(1915%E2%80%931916)" title="Empire of China (1915–1916)">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchukuo" title="Manchukuo">Manchukuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_imperialism" title="Chinese imperialism">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Ethiopian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Haiti" title="History of Haiti">Haitian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Empire_of_Haiti" title="First Empire of Haiti">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Empire_of_Haiti" title="Second Empire of Haiti">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_France" title="History of France">French</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_French_Empire" title="First French Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_French_Empire" title="Second French Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Germany" title="History of Germany">German</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Persian_culture" title="Indo-Persian culture">Indo-Persian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikh_Empire" title="Sikh Empire">Sikh</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_peoples" title="Iranian peoples">Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Safavid_Iran" title="Safavid Iran">Safavid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afsharid_Iran" title="Afsharid Iran">Afsharid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zand_dynasty" title="Zand dynasty">Zand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qajar_Iran" title="Qajar Iran">Qajar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pahlavi_dynasty" title="Pahlavi dynasty">Pahlavi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Empire" title="Korean Empire">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maratha_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Maratha Empire">Maratha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mexico" title="History of Mexico">Mexican</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Mexican_Empire" title="First Mexican Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Mexican_Empire" title="Second Mexican Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Yuan" title="Northern Yuan">Mongol</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oirat_Confederation" title="Oirat Confederation">Oirat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khoshut_Khanate" title="Khoshut Khanate">Khoshut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzungar_Khanate" title="Dzungar Khanate">Dzungar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalmyk_Khanate" title="Kalmyk Khanate">Kalmyk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bogd_Khanate_of_Mongolia" title="Bogd Khanate of Mongolia">Bogd</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Morocco" title="History of Morocco">Moroccan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saadi_Sultanate" title="Saadi Sultanate">Saadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alawi_Sultanate" title="Alawi Sultanate">'Alawi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia" title="History of Russia">Russian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tsardom_of_Russia" title="Tsardom of Russia">Tsarist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Imperial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_imperialism#Contemporary_Russian_imperialism" title="Russian imperialism">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sokoto_Caliphate" title="Sokoto Caliphate">Sokoto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Somalia" title="History of Somalia">Somali</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isaaq_Sultanate" title="Isaaq Sultanate">Isaaq</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tu%CA%BBi_Tonga_Empire" title="Tuʻi Tonga Empire">Tongan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cossack_Hetmanate" title="Cossack Hetmanate">Ukrainian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i_Vi%E1%BB%87t" title="Đại Việt">Vietnamese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/M%E1%BA%A1c_dynasty" title="Mạc dynasty">Mạc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revival_L%C3%AA_dynasty" title="Revival Lê dynasty">Revival Lê</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%A2y_S%C6%A1n_dynasty" title="Tây Sơn dynasty">Tay Sơn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nguy%E1%BB%85n_dynasty" title="Nguyễn dynasty">Dainam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Vietnam" title="Empire of Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Colonial" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Colonial_empire" title="Colonial empire">Colonial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_imperialism" title="American imperialism">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_colonial_empire" title="Belgian colonial empire">Belgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_overseas_possessions" title="English overseas possessions">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Scottish colonization of the Americas">Scottish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_overseas_colonies" title="Danish overseas colonies">Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_colonial_empire" title="Dutch colonial empire">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_colonial_empire" title="German colonial empire">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Empire" title="Italian Empire">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_colonial_empire" title="Japanese colonial empire">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omani_Empire" title="Omani Empire">Omani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curonian_colonisation" title="Curonian colonisation">Couronian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_overseas_colonies" title="Swedish overseas colonies">Swedish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_empires" title="List of empires">Empires</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_empires" title="List of largest empires">largest</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_great_powers" title="List of ancient great powers">Ancient great powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_medieval_great_powers" title="List of medieval great powers">Medieval great powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_modern_great_powers" title="List of modern great powers">Modern great powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_colonialism" title="History of colonialism">European colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_empires" class="mw-redirect" title="African empires">African empires</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>"Empire" as a description of foreign policy <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_imperialism" title="American imperialism">American Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_empire" title="Soviet empire">Soviet empire</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q83891#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q83891#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q83891#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4072922-9">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Sasanian Empire"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/no2023022830">United States</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="říše Sásánovců"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ge369476&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987012449467105171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Artists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ngv.vic.gov.au/explore/collection/artist/16259/">Victoria</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/sasaniler">İslâm Ansiklopedisi</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" 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href="/wiki/Category:Ancient_Armenia" title="Category:Ancient Armenia">Ancient Armenia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:6th_century_in_Armenia" title="Category:6th century in Armenia">6th century in Armenia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:7th_century_in_Armenia" title="Category:7th century in Armenia">7th century in Armenia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ancient_history_of_Azerbaijan" title="Category:Ancient history of Azerbaijan">Ancient history of Azerbaijan</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:224_establishments" title="Category:224 establishments">224 establishments</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:651_disestablishments" title="Category:651 disestablishments">651 disestablishments</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Countries_in_ancient_Africa" title="Category:Countries in ancient Africa">Countries in ancient Africa</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Former_empires" title="Category:Former empires">Former empires</a></li><li><a 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