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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Groundwater" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Groundwater"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.1.1 Groundwater </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Groundwater-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sanitation_services" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sanitation_services"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2 Sanitation services </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sanitation_services-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Fecal_sludge_management_and_sanitation_workers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fecal_sludge_management_and_sanitation_workers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2.1 Fecal sludge management and sanitation workers </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fecal_sludge_management_and_sanitation_workers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hygiene" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hygiene"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3 Hygiene </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hygiene-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Purposes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Purposes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Purposes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Purposes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Health_aspects_of_lack_of_WASH_services" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Health_aspects_of_lack_of_WASH_services"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Health aspects of lack of WASH services </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Health_aspects_of_lack_of_WASH_services-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Health aspects of lack of WASH services subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Health_aspects_of_lack_of_WASH_services-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Categories_of_health_impacts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Categories_of_health_impacts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Categories of health impacts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Categories_of_health_impacts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-WASH-attributable_burden_of_diseases_and_injuries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#WASH-attributable_burden_of_diseases_and_injuries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 WASH-attributable burden of diseases and injuries </div> </a> <ul id="toc-WASH-attributable_burden_of_diseases_and_injuries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-List_of_diseases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#List_of_diseases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 List of diseases </div> </a> <ul id="toc-List_of_diseases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Diarrhea,_malnutrition_and_stunting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diarrhea,_malnutrition_and_stunting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Diarrhea, malnutrition and stunting </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Diarrhea,_malnutrition_and_stunting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Neglected_tropical_diseases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neglected_tropical_diseases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 Neglected tropical diseases </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neglected_tropical_diseases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Additional_health_risks_for_women" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Additional_health_risks_for_women"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.6 Additional health risks for women </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Additional_health_risks_for_women-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Health_risks_for_sanitation_workers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Health_risks_for_sanitation_workers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.7 Health risks for sanitation workers </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Health_risks_for_sanitation_workers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effects_of_climate_change_on_health_risks" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effects_of_climate_change_on_health_risks"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.8 Effects of climate change on health risks </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effects_of_climate_change_on_health_risks-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effectiveness_of_WASH_interventions_on_health_outcomes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effectiveness_of_WASH_interventions_on_health_outcomes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.9 Effectiveness of WASH interventions on health outcomes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effectiveness_of_WASH_interventions_on_health_outcomes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gender_aspects_of_lack_of_WASH_services" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gender_aspects_of_lack_of_WASH_services"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Gender aspects of lack of WASH services </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Gender_aspects_of_lack_of_WASH_services-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Gender aspects of lack of WASH services subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Gender_aspects_of_lack_of_WASH_services-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Time_required_to_collect_water" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Time_required_to_collect_water"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Time required to collect water </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Time_required_to_collect_water-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Violence_against_women" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Violence_against_women"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Violence against women </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Violence_against_women-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gender_norms_for_occupations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gender_norms_for_occupations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Gender norms for occupations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gender_norms_for_occupations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_non-household_settings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_non-household_settings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 In non-household settings </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-In_non-household_settings-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle In non-household settings subsection </button> <ul id="toc-In_non-household_settings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-In_schools" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_schools"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 In schools </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_schools-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Outcomes_from_improved_WASH_at_schools" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Outcomes_from_improved_WASH_at_schools"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.1 Outcomes from improved WASH at schools </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Outcomes_from_improved_WASH_at_schools-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Methods_to_improve_WASH_in_schools" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Methods_to_improve_WASH_in_schools"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.2 Methods to improve WASH in schools </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Methods_to_improve_WASH_in_schools-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Group_handwashing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Group_handwashing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.3 Group handwashing </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Group_handwashing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_healthcare_facilities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_healthcare_facilities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 In healthcare facilities </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_healthcare_facilities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_prisons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_prisons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 In prisons </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_prisons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Challenges_in_WASH_implementation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Challenges_in_WASH_implementation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Challenges in WASH implementation </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Challenges_in_WASH_implementation-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Challenges in WASH implementation subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Challenges_in_WASH_implementation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Equitable_access_to_drinking_water_supply" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Equitable_access_to_drinking_water_supply"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Equitable access to drinking water supply </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Equitable_access_to_drinking_water_supply-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Urban_low_income_areas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Urban_low_income_areas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Urban low income areas </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Urban_low_income_areas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Polluted_water_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Polluted_water_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Polluted water sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Polluted_water_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Failures_of_WASH_systems_over_time" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Failures_of_WASH_systems_over_time"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 Failures of WASH systems over time </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Failures_of_WASH_systems_over_time-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Working_conditions_of_sanitation_workers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Working_conditions_of_sanitation_workers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.5 Working conditions of sanitation workers </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Working_conditions_of_sanitation_workers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Climate_change_aspects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Climate_change_aspects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Climate change aspects </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Climate_change_aspects-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Climate change aspects subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Climate_change_aspects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Greenhouse_gas_emissions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Greenhouse_gas_emissions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Greenhouse gas emissions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Greenhouse_gas_emissions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Direct_emissions_(Scope_1)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Direct_emissions_(Scope_1)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1.1 Direct emissions (Scope 1) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Direct_emissions_(Scope_1)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Indirect_emissions_associated_with_the_energy_required_(Scope_2)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indirect_emissions_associated_with_the_energy_required_(Scope_2)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1.2 Indirect emissions associated with the energy required (Scope 2) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indirect_emissions_associated_with_the_energy_required_(Scope_2)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Indirect_emissions_related_to_the_activity_but_caused_by_other_organizations_(Scope_3)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indirect_emissions_related_to_the_activity_but_caused_by_other_organizations_(Scope_3)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1.3 Indirect emissions related to the activity but caused by other organizations (Scope 3) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indirect_emissions_related_to_the_activity_but_caused_by_other_organizations_(Scope_3)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reducing_greenhouse_gas_emissions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reducing_greenhouse_gas_emissions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1.4 Reducing greenhouse gas emissions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reducing_greenhouse_gas_emissions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Negative_impacts_of_climate_change" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Negative_impacts_of_climate_change"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Negative impacts of climate change </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Negative_impacts_of_climate_change-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Influence_of_climate_change_on_waterborne_diseases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Influence_of_climate_change_on_waterborne_diseases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2.1 Influence of climate change on waterborne diseases </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Influence_of_climate_change_on_waterborne_diseases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Climate_change_adaptation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Climate_change_adaptation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Climate change adaptation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Climate_change_adaptation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Improving_climate_resilience" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Improving_climate_resilience"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4 Improving climate resilience </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Improving_climate_resilience-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Adaptive_capacity_for_climate_resilience" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Adaptive_capacity_for_climate_resilience"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4.1 Adaptive capacity for climate resilience </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Adaptive_capacity_for_climate_resilience-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Approaches_for_planning_and_implementation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Approaches_for_planning_and_implementation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Approaches for planning and implementation </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Approaches_for_planning_and_implementation-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Approaches for planning and implementation subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Approaches_for_planning_and_implementation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-National_WASH_plans_and_monitoring" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#National_WASH_plans_and_monitoring"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 National WASH plans and monitoring </div> </a> <ul id="toc-National_WASH_plans_and_monitoring-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Women's_empowerment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Women's_empowerment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Women's empowerment </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Women's_empowerment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 History </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Society_and_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Society_and_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Society and culture </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Society_and_culture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Society and culture subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Society_and_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Global_goals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Global_goals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1 Global goals </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Global_goals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Awards" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Awards"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.2 Awards </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Awards-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_Nations_organs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_Nations_organs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.3 United Nations organs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_Nations_organs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Awareness_raising_through_observance_days" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Awareness_raising_through_observance_days"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.4 Awareness raising through observance days </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Awareness_raising_through_observance_days-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-By_country_and_region" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#By_country_and_region"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 By country and region </div> </a> <ul id="toc-By_country_and_region-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">WASH</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 6 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-6" aria-hidden="true" > 6 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%87_%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B5%D8%B1%D9%81_%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D8%B8%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B5%D8%AD%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="المياه والصرف والنظافة الصحية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="المياه والصرف والنظافة الصحية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC_%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B9,_%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%83%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B7%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%A8_%E0%A6%93_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A5%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A4_%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B6" title="সুপেয় পানি সরবরাহ, পয়ঃনিষ্কাশন ও স্বাস্থ্যসম্মত পরিবেশ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="সুপেয় পানি সরবরাহ, পয়ঃনিষ্কাশন ও স্বাস্থ্যসম্মত পরিবেশ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/WatSan" title="WatSan – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="WatSan" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" 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class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the radio station, see <a href="/wiki/WASH_(FM)" title="WASH (FM)">WASH (FM)</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Wash_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Wash (disambiguation)">WASH (disambiguation)</a></div> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Water, sanitation and hygiene services</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:392px;max-width:392px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:268px;max-width:268px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:177px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Providing_clean_water_and_flood-resistant_shelter_in_Sindh_(5950788649).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Providing_clean_water_and_flood-resistant_shelter_in_Sindh_%285950788649%29.jpg/266px-Providing_clean_water_and_flood-resistant_shelter_in_Sindh_%285950788649%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="266" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Providing_clean_water_and_flood-resistant_shelter_in_Sindh_%285950788649%29.jpg/399px-Providing_clean_water_and_flood-resistant_shelter_in_Sindh_%285950788649%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Providing_clean_water_and_flood-resistant_shelter_in_Sindh_%285950788649%29.jpg/532px-Providing_clean_water_and_flood-resistant_shelter_in_Sindh_%285950788649%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5184" data-file-height="3456" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:120px;max-width:120px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:177px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Africa_Watsan_7_(10665637964).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Africa_Watsan_7_%2810665637964%29.jpg/118px-Africa_Watsan_7_%2810665637964%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="118" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Africa_Watsan_7_%2810665637964%29.jpg/177px-Africa_Watsan_7_%2810665637964%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Africa_Watsan_7_%2810665637964%29.jpg/236px-Africa_Watsan_7_%2810665637964%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3320" data-file-height="4992" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:194px;max-width:194px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:127px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Elementary_School_in_Boquete_Panama_12.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Elementary_School_in_Boquete_Panama_12.jpg/192px-Elementary_School_in_Boquete_Panama_12.jpg" decoding="async" width="192" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Elementary_School_in_Boquete_Panama_12.jpg/288px-Elementary_School_in_Boquete_Panama_12.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Elementary_School_in_Boquete_Panama_12.jpg/384px-Elementary_School_in_Boquete_Panama_12.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:194px;max-width:194px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:127px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Handwashing_(5599587863).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Handwashing_%285599587863%29.jpg/192px-Handwashing_%285599587863%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="192" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Handwashing_%285599587863%29.jpg/288px-Handwashing_%285599587863%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Handwashing_%285599587863%29.jpg/384px-Handwashing_%285599587863%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="851" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">WASH consists of water, sanitation, and hygiene, with photos from top left: A woman pumps water from a handpump in her village in <a href="/wiki/Sindh" title="Sindh">Sindh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a>; a girl collects clean water from a communal water supply in <a href="/wiki/Kawempe" title="Kawempe">Kawempe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Uganda" title="Uganda">Uganda</a>; school toilets at an elementary school in <a href="/wiki/Boquete_District" title="Boquete District">Boquete</a>, <a href="/wiki/Panama" title="Panama">Panama</a>; a simple handwashing setup for when there is no running water, shown in <a href="/wiki/Omaruru,_Namibia" title="Omaruru, Namibia">Omaruru</a>, <a href="/wiki/Namibia" title="Namibia">Namibia</a>.</div></div></div></div> WASH (or Watsan, WaSH; stemming from the first letters of "water, sanitation and hygiene") is a sector in <a href="/wiki/Development_cooperation" class="mw-redirect" title="Development cooperation">development cooperation</a> or within <a href="/wiki/Local_government" title="Local government">local governments</a> that provides <a href="/wiki/Water_supply" title="Water supply">water</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sanitation" title="Sanitation">sanitation</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hygiene" title="Hygiene">hygiene</a> services to people. The main purposes of providing access to WASH services includes achieving <a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">public health</a> gains, implementing the <a href="/wiki/Human_right_to_water_and_sanitation" title="Human right to water and sanitation">human right to water and sanitation</a>, reducing the burden of collecting drinking water for women, and improving education and health outcomes at <a href="/wiki/School" title="School">schools</a> and health facilities. Access to WASH services is also an important component of <a href="/wiki/Water_security" title="Water security">water security</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:72-1">[1]</a> Universal, affordable, and sustainable access to WASH is a key issue within <a href="/wiki/International_development" title="International development">international development</a> and is the focus of the first two targets of <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_Development_Goal_6" title="Sustainable Development Goal 6">Sustainable Development Goal 6</a> (SDG 6).<a href="#cite_note-:14-2">[2]</a> Targets 6.1 and 6.2 aim for equitable and accessible water and sanitation for all. In 2017, it was estimated that 2.3 billion people live without basic sanitation facilities, and 844 million people live without access to safe and clean drinking water.<a href="#cite_note-:7-3">[3]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Acronym" title="Acronym">acronym</a> WASH is used widely by <a href="/wiki/Non-governmental_organization" title="Non-governmental organization">non-governmental organizations</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aid_agency" title="Aid agency">aid agencies</a> in <a href="/wiki/Developing_countries" class="mw-redirect" title="Developing countries">developing countries</a>. The WASH-attributable <a href="/wiki/Disease_burden" title="Disease burden">burden of disease</a> and injuries have been studied in depth. Typical diseases and conditions associated with a lack of WASH include <a href="/wiki/Diarrhea" title="Diarrhea">diarrhea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Malnutrition" title="Malnutrition">malnutrition</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Stunted_growth" title="Stunted growth">stunting</a>, in addition to <a href="/wiki/Neglected_tropical_diseases" title="Neglected tropical diseases">neglected tropical diseases</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Lack of WASH poses additional health risks for women, for example, during <a href="/wiki/Pregnancy" title="Pregnancy">pregnancy</a> or in connection with <a href="/wiki/Menstrual_hygiene_management" title="Menstrual hygiene management">menstrual hygiene management</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]. <a href="/wiki/Chronic_obstructive_pulmonary_disease" title="Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease">Chronic</a> diarrhea can have long-term negative effects on children in terms of both physical and cognitive development.<a href="#cite_note-:3-4">[4]</a> Still, collecting precise scientific evidence regarding health outcomes that result from improved access to WASH is difficult due to a range of complicating factors. <a href="/wiki/Scholar" title="Scholar">Scholars</a> suggest a need for longer-term studies of technology efficacy, greater analysis of sanitation interventions, and studies of the combined effects of multiple interventions to better analyze WASH health outcomes.<a href="#cite_note-:9-5">[5]</a> Access to WASH needs to be provided at the household level but also in non-household settings like schools, <a href="/wiki/Health_facility" title="Health facility">healthcare facilities</a>, workplaces (including <a href="/wiki/Prison" title="Prison">prisons</a>), temporary use settings, and for dislocated populations.<a href="#cite_note-:21-6">[6]</a> In schools, group <a href="/wiki/Hand_washing" title="Hand washing">handwashing</a> facilities can improve hygiene. Lack of WASH facilities at schools often prevents female students from attending school, thus reducing their educational achievements.<a href="#cite_note-:4-7">[7]</a> It is difficult to provide safely managed WASH services in urban <a href="/wiki/Slum" title="Slum">slums</a>. <a href="/wiki/Failures_of_water_supply_and_sanitation_systems" title="Failures of water supply and sanitation systems">WASH systems can also fail</a> quite soon after installation (e.g., leaking <a href="/wiki/Water_distribution_system" title="Water distribution system">water distribution systems</a>). Further challenges include <a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">polluted water sources</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Water_security#Climate_change" title="Water security">impacts of climate change on water security</a>. Planning approaches for more reliable and equitable access to WASH include, for example, national WASH plans and monitoring, <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_empowerment" title="Women's empowerment">women's empowerment</a>,<a href="#cite_note-:34-8">[8]</a> and improving the <a href="/wiki/Climate_resilience" title="Climate resilience">climate resilience</a> of WASH services. Adaptive capacity in water management systems can help to absorb some of the impacts of climate-related events and increase climate resilience.<a href="#cite_note-:72-1">[1]</a>: 25  Stakeholders at various scales, i.e., from small urban utilities to national governments, need to have access to reliable information about the regional climate and any expected changes due to <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a>.<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Components">Components</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=WASH&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Components">edit</a>]</div> The concept of WASH groups together <a href="/wiki/Water_supply" title="Water supply">water supply</a> i.e. access to <a href="/wiki/Drinking_water" title="Drinking water">drinking water</a> services, <a href="/wiki/Sanitation" title="Sanitation">sanitation</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hygiene" title="Hygiene">hygiene</a> because the impact of deficiencies in each area overlap strongly. WASH consists of access to drinking water services, sanitation services and hygiene. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Drinking_water_services">Drinking water services</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=WASH&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Drinking water services">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Drinking_water#Global_access" title="Drinking water">Drinking water § Global access</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Water_Lebuje_camp,_Uganda.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Water_Lebuje_camp%2C_Uganda.jpg/220px-Water_Lebuje_camp%2C_Uganda.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="208" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Water_Lebuje_camp%2C_Uganda.jpg/330px-Water_Lebuje_camp%2C_Uganda.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/ba/Water_Lebuje_camp%2C_Uganda.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="378" /></a><figcaption>Women line up at a <a href="/wiki/Borehole" title="Borehole">bore hole</a> to fill their containers with water (Labuje <a href="/wiki/Displaced_persons_camp" class="mw-redirect" title="Displaced persons camp">IDP camp</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kitgum,_Uganda" title="Kitgum, Uganda">Kitgum</a>, Kitgum District, Northern Region of Uganda)</figcaption></figure>As stated by <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">WHO</a> and <a href="/wiki/UNICEF" title="UNICEF">UNICEF</a>, a safe drinking water service is one that is located in an accessible location, available to those who need it when needed, and uncontaminated.<a href="#cite_note-WHO_UNICEF_Progress_2017-9">[9]</a> WHO and UNICEF also uses the terms <a href="/wiki/Improved_water_source" title="Improved water source">improved water source</a> and <a href="/wiki/Unimproved_water_source" class="mw-redirect" title="Unimproved water source">unimproved water source</a> as a water quality monitoring tool. The term improved water source refers to piped water on premises (piped household water connection located inside the user's dwelling plot or yard, and other improved drinking water sources such as public taps or <a href="/wiki/Standpipe_(street)" title="Standpipe (street)">standpipes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tube_well" title="Tube well">tube wells</a> or <a href="/wiki/Borehole" title="Borehole">boreholes</a>, protected dug <a href="/wiki/Well" title="Well">wells</a>, protected <a href="/wiki/Spring_(hydrology)" title="Spring (hydrology)">springs</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Rainwater_harvesting" title="Rainwater harvesting">rainwater collection</a>).<a href="#cite_note-ourworldindata_Hannah_2018-10">[10]</a> Access to drinking water is included in Target 6.1 of <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_Development_Goal_6" title="Sustainable Development Goal 6">Sustainable Development Goal 6</a> (SDG 6), which states: "By 2030, achieve universal and equitable access to safe and affordable <a href="/wiki/Drinking_water" title="Drinking water">drinking water</a> for all."<a href="#cite_note-UN_A/RES/71/313-11">[11]</a> This target has one indicator: Indicator 6.1.1 is the "Proportion of population using safely managed drinking water services."<a href="#cite_note-Ritchie_2018-12">[12]</a> In 2017, 844 million people still lacked even a basic drinking water service.<a href="#cite_note-:7-3">[3]</a>: 3  In 2019, it was reported that 435 million people used <a href="/wiki/Improved_water_source" title="Improved water source">unimproved sources</a> for their drinking water, and 144 million still used surface waters, such as lakes and streams.<a href="#cite_note-:13-13">[13]</a> Drinking water can be sourced from the following <a href="/wiki/Water_resources" title="Water resources">water sources</a>: <a href="/wiki/Surface_water" title="Surface water">surface water</a>, <a href="/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater">groundwater</a>, or rainwater, in each case after collection, treatment, and distribution. <a href="/wiki/Desalination" title="Desalination">Desalinated</a> <a href="/wiki/Seawater" title="Seawater">seawater</a> is another potential source for drinking water. People without access to safe, reliable, domestic water supplies face lower <a href="/wiki/Water_security" title="Water security">water security</a> at specific times throughout the year due to cyclical changes in water quantity or quality.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-:22-15">[15]</a> For example, where access to water on-premises is not available, drinking <a href="/wiki/Water_quality" title="Water quality">water quality</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Portable_water_purification" title="Portable water purification">point of use</a> (PoU) can be much worse compared to the quality at the point of collection (PoC). Correct household practices around hygiene, storage, and treatment are therefore important. There are interactions between weather, water source, and management, and these in turn impact drinking water safety.<a href="#cite_note-Katrina20222-16">[16]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Groundwater">Groundwater</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=WASH&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Groundwater">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater">groundwater</a> and <a href="/wiki/Groundwater_recharge" title="Groundwater recharge">groundwater recharge</a></div> Groundwater provides critical <a href="/wiki/Fresh_water" title="Fresh water">freshwater</a> supply, particularly in dry regions where surface water availability is limited.<a href="#cite_note-:19-17">[17]</a> Globally, more than one-third of the water used originates from underground. In the mid-latitude <a href="/wiki/Aridity" title="Aridity">arid</a> and semi-arid regions lacking sufficient surface water supply from rivers and reservoirs, groundwater is critical for sustaining global ecology and meeting societal needs of drinking water and food production. The demand for <a href="/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater">groundwater</a> is rapidly increasing with population growth, while climate change is imposing additional stress on water resources and raising the probability of severe drought occurrence.<a href="#cite_note-:19-17">[17]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">anthropogenic</a> effects on groundwater resources are mainly due to groundwater pumping and the indirect effects of irrigation and land use changes.<a href="#cite_note-:19-17">[17]</a> Groundwater plays a central role in sustaining water supplies and livelihoods in sub-Saharan <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a>.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> In some cases, groundwater is an additional water source that was not used previously.<a href="#cite_note-:22-15">[15]</a> Reliance on groundwater is increasing in Sub-Saharan Africa as development programs work towards improving water access and strengthening resilience to climate change.<a href="#cite_note-:33-19">[19]</a> In lower-income areas, groundwater supplies are typically installed without water quality treatment infrastructure or services. This practice is underpinned by an assumption that untreated groundwater is typically suitable for drinking due to the relative <a href="/wiki/Microbiology" title="Microbiology">microbiological</a> safety of groundwater compared to surface water; however, chemistry risks are largely disregarded.<a href="#cite_note-:33-19">[19]</a> Chemical contaminants occur widely in groundwater that are used for drinking but are not regularly monitored. Example priority parameters are <a href="/wiki/Fluoride" title="Fluoride">fluoride</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arsenic" title="Arsenic">arsenic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nitrate" title="Nitrate">nitrate</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Salinity" title="Salinity">salinity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:33-19">[19]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sanitation_services">Sanitation services</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=WASH&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Sanitation services">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Sanitation" title="Sanitation">Sanitation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Improved_sanitation" title="Improved sanitation">Improved sanitation</a></div> Sanitation systems are grouped into several types. The ladder of sanitation services includes (from lowest to highest): <a href="/wiki/Open_defecation" title="Open defecation">open defecation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Improved_sanitation" title="Improved sanitation">unimproved</a>, limited, basic, safely managed.<a href="#cite_note-WHO_2017-20">[20]</a> A distinction is made between sanitation facilities that are shared between two or more households (a "limited service") and those that are not shared (a "basic service"). The definition of improved sanitation facilities is facilities designed to hygienically separate excreta from human contact.<a href="#cite_note-WHO_2017-20">[20]</a> With regards to <a href="/wiki/Toilet" title="Toilet">toilets</a>, improved sanitation includes the following kind of toilets: <a href="/wiki/Flush_toilet" title="Flush toilet">flush toilet</a>, connection to a piped <a href="/wiki/Sanitary_sewer" title="Sanitary sewer">sewer</a> system, connection to a <a href="/wiki/Septic_tank" title="Septic tank">septic system</a>, flush or pour-flush to a <a href="/wiki/Pit_toilet" class="mw-redirect" title="Pit toilet">pit latrine</a>, pit latrine with slab, <a href="/wiki/Ventilated_improved_pit_latrine" class="mw-redirect" title="Ventilated improved pit latrine">ventilated improved pit latrine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Composting_toilet" title="Composting toilet">composting toilet</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:02-21">[21]</a> Access to sanitation services is included in Target 6.2 of Sustainable Development Goal 6, which is: "By 2030, achieve access to adequate and equitable <a href="/wiki/Sanitation" title="Sanitation">sanitation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hygiene" title="Hygiene">hygiene</a> for all and end <a href="/wiki/Open_defecation" title="Open defecation">open defecation</a>, paying special attention to the needs of women and girls and those in vulnerable situations."<a href="#cite_note-UN_A/RES/71/3132-22">[22]</a> This target has one indicator: Indicator 6.2.1 is the "proportion of population using (a) safely managed sanitation services and (b) a hand-washing facility with soap and water".<a href="#cite_note-UN_A/RES/71/3132-22">[22]</a> In 2017, 4.5 billion people did not have toilets at home that could safely manage waste, despite improvements in access to sanitation over the past decades.<a href="#cite_note-:74-23">[23]</a> Approximately 600 million people share a toilet or latrine with other households, and 892 million people practice <a href="/wiki/Open_defecation" title="Open defecation">open defecation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:74-23">[23]</a> There are many barriers that make it difficult to achieve sanitation for all. These include social, institutional, technical and environmental challenges.<a href="#cite_note-:10-24">[24]</a> Therefore, the problem of providing access to sanitation services cannot be solved by focusing on technology alone. Instead, it requires an integrated perspective that includes planning, using economic opportunities (e.g. from <a href="/wiki/Reuse_of_human_excreta" title="Reuse of human excreta">reuse of excreta</a>), and <a href="/wiki/Behavior_change_(public_health)" title="Behavior change (public health)">behavior change</a> interventions.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Fecal_sludge_management_and_sanitation_workers">Fecal sludge management and sanitation workers</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=WASH&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Fecal sludge management and sanitation workers">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Fecal_sludge_management" title="Fecal sludge management">Fecal sludge management</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sanitation_worker" title="Sanitation worker">Sanitation worker</a></div> Sanitation services would not be complete without safe <a href="/wiki/Fecal_sludge_management" title="Fecal sludge management">fecal sludge management</a> (FSM), which is the storage, collection, transport, treatment, and safe end use or disposal of fecal sludge.<a href="#cite_note-:73-27">[27]</a> Fecal sludge is defined very broadly as what accumulates in <a href="/wiki/Onsite_sanitation" class="mw-redirect" title="Onsite sanitation">onsite sanitation</a> systems (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Pit_latrine" title="Pit latrine">pit latrines</a>, <a href="/wiki/Septic_tank" title="Septic tank">septic tanks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Container-based_sanitation" title="Container-based sanitation">container-based</a> solutions) and specifically is not transported through a <a href="/wiki/Sanitary_sewer" title="Sanitary sewer">sewer</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:73-27">[27]</a>: 5  <a href="/wiki/Sanitation_workers" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanitation workers">Sanitation workers</a> are the people needed for cleaning, maintaining, operating, or emptying a <a href="/wiki/Sanitation" title="Sanitation">sanitation</a> technology at any step of the <a href="/wiki/Sanitation" title="Sanitation">sanitation</a> chain.<a href="#cite_note-:0a-28">[28]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hygiene">Hygiene</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=WASH&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Hygiene">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Hygiene" title="Hygiene">Hygiene</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hand_washing" title="Hand washing">Hand washing</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pupil_washes_hands_during_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Ghana.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Pupil_washes_hands_during_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Ghana.jpg/220px-Pupil_washes_hands_during_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Ghana.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="329" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Pupil_washes_hands_during_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Ghana.jpg/330px-Pupil_washes_hands_during_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Ghana.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Pupil_washes_hands_during_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Ghana.jpg/440px-Pupil_washes_hands_during_COVID-19_pandemic_in_Ghana.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3696" data-file-height="5529" /></a><figcaption>A school girl using a <a href="/wiki/Veronica_Bucket" class="mw-redirect" title="Veronica Bucket">Veronica Bucket</a> in <a href="/wiki/Ghana" title="Ghana">Ghana</a> for washing her hands.</figcaption></figure> Hygiene is a broad concept. "Hygiene refers to conditions and practices that help to maintain health and prevent the spread of <a href="/wiki/Disease" title="Disease">diseases</a>."<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> Hygiene can comprise many behaviors, including <a href="/wiki/Hand_washing" title="Hand washing">hand washing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Menstrual_hygiene_management" title="Menstrual hygiene management">menstrual hygiene</a> and <a href="/wiki/Food_safety" title="Food safety">food hygiene</a>.<a href="#cite_note-WHO_2017-20">[20]</a>: 18  In the context of WASH, hand washing with soap and water is regarded as a top priority in all settings, and has been chosen as an indicator for national and global monitoring of hygiene access. "Basic hygiene facilities" are those were people have a hand washing facility with soap and water available on their premises.<a href="#cite_note-WHO_2017-20">[20]</a>: 18  Hand washing facilities can consist of a sink with <a href="/wiki/Tap_water" title="Tap water">tap water</a>, buckets with taps, tippy-taps and portable basins.<a href="#cite_note-WHO_2017-20">[20]</a> In the context of SDG 6, hygiene is included in the indicator for Target 6.2: "Proportion of population using [...] (b) a hand-washing facility with soap and water"<a href="#cite_note-UN_A/RES/71/313-11">[11]</a> In 2017, the global situation was reported as follows: Only 1 in 4 people in low-income countries had hand washing facilities with soap and water at home; only 14% of people in Sub-Saharan Africa have hand washing facilities.<a href="#cite_note-:7-3">[3]</a> Worldwide, at least 500 million women and girls lack adequate, safe, and private facilities for <a href="/wiki/Menstrual_Hygiene_Management" class="mw-redirect" title="Menstrual Hygiene Management">managing menstrual hygiene</a>.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> Approximately 40% of the world's population live without basic hand washing facilities with soap and water at home.<a href="#cite_note-UN-Water-31">[31]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Purposes">Purposes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=WASH&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Purposes">edit</a>]</div> The purposes of providing access to WASH services include achieving <a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">public health</a> gains, improving <a href="/wiki/Dignity" title="Dignity">human dignity</a> in the case of <a href="/wiki/Sanitation" title="Sanitation">sanitation</a>, implementing the <a href="/wiki/Human_right_to_water_and_sanitation" title="Human right to water and sanitation">human right to water and sanitation</a>, reducing the burden of collecting drinking water for women, reducing risks of <a href="/wiki/Violence_against_women" title="Violence against women">violence against women</a>, improving education and health outcomes at schools and health facilities, and reducing <a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">water pollution</a>. Access to WASH services is also an important component of achieving water security.<a href="#cite_note-:72-1">[1]</a> Improving access to WASH services can improve health, life expectancy, student learning, <a href="/wiki/Gender_equality" title="Gender equality">gender equality</a>, and other important issues of <a href="/wiki/International_development" title="International development">international development</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:20-32">[32]</a> It can also assist with <a href="/wiki/Poverty_reduction" title="Poverty reduction">poverty reduction</a> and socio-economic development.<a href="#cite_note-:3-4">[4]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Health_aspects_of_lack_of_WASH_services">Health aspects of lack of WASH services</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=WASH&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Health aspects of lack of WASH services">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mortality_rate_attributable_to_unsafe_water,_sanitation,_and_hygiene_(WASH),_OWID.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Mortality_rate_attributable_to_unsafe_water%2C_sanitation%2C_and_hygiene_%28WASH%29%2C_OWID.svg/220px-Mortality_rate_attributable_to_unsafe_water%2C_sanitation%2C_and_hygiene_%28WASH%29%2C_OWID.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Mortality_rate_attributable_to_unsafe_water%2C_sanitation%2C_and_hygiene_%28WASH%29%2C_OWID.svg/330px-Mortality_rate_attributable_to_unsafe_water%2C_sanitation%2C_and_hygiene_%28WASH%29%2C_OWID.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Mortality_rate_attributable_to_unsafe_water%2C_sanitation%2C_and_hygiene_%28WASH%29%2C_OWID.svg/440px-Mortality_rate_attributable_to_unsafe_water%2C_sanitation%2C_and_hygiene_%28WASH%29%2C_OWID.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="850" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Mortality rate attributable to unsafe water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH).<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:F-diagram-01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/F-diagram-01.jpg/220px-F-diagram-01.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="87" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/F-diagram-01.jpg/330px-F-diagram-01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/F-diagram-01.jpg/440px-F-diagram-01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6600" data-file-height="2608" /></a><figcaption>The "F-diagram" (<a href="/wiki/Feces" title="Feces">feces</a>, fingers, flies, fields, fluids, food), showing pathways of <a href="/wiki/Fecal%E2%80%93oral_route" title="Fecal–oral route">fecal–oral disease transmission</a>. The vertical blue lines show barriers: <a href="/wiki/Toilet" title="Toilet">toilets</a>, <a href="/wiki/Water_supply" title="Water supply">safe water</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hygiene" title="Hygiene">hygiene</a> and <a href="/wiki/Handwashing" class="mw-redirect" title="Handwashing">hand washing</a>.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Categories_of_health_impacts">Categories of health impacts</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=WASH&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Categories of health impacts">edit</a>]</div> Health impacts resulting from a lack of safe sanitation systems fall into three categories:<a href="#cite_note-WHOHealth2018-34">[34]</a> <ol><li>Direct impact (infections): The direct impacts include fecal–oral infections (through the <a href="/wiki/Fecal%E2%80%93oral_route" title="Fecal–oral route">fecal–oral route</a>), <a href="/wiki/Helminthiasis" title="Helminthiasis">helminth infections</a> and insect vector diseases (see also <a href="/wiki/Waterborne_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Waterborne diseases">waterborne diseases</a>, which can contaminate <a href="/wiki/Drinking_water" title="Drinking water">drinking water</a>). For example, lack of clean water and proper sanitation can result in feces-contaminated drinking water and cause life-threatening <a href="/wiki/Diarrhea" title="Diarrhea">diarrhea</a> for infants.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sequela" title="Sequela">Sequela</a> (conditions caused by preceding infection): Conditions caused by preceding infection include <a href="/wiki/Stunted_growth" title="Stunted growth">stunting</a> or growth faltering, consequences of stunting (<a href="/wiki/Obstructed_labour" title="Obstructed labour">obstructed labour</a>, <a href="/wiki/Low_birth_weight" title="Low birth weight">low birth weight</a>), impaired <a href="/wiki/Cognition" title="Cognition">cognitive function</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pneumonia" title="Pneumonia">pneumonia</a> (related to repeated <a href="/wiki/Diarrhea" title="Diarrhea">diarrhea</a> in undernourished children), <a href="/wiki/Anemia" title="Anemia">anemia</a> (related to hookworm infections).</li> <li>Broader well-being: <a href="/wiki/Anxiety" title="Anxiety">Anxiety</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sexual_assault" title="Sexual assault">sexual assault</a> (and related consequences), adverse birth outcomes as well as long-term problems such as school absence, poverty, decreased <a href="/wiki/Productivity" title="Productivity">economic productivity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antimicrobial_resistance" title="Antimicrobial resistance">antimicrobial resistance</a>.<a href="#cite_note-WHOHealth2018-34">[34]</a></li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="WASH-attributable_burden_of_diseases_and_injuries">WASH-attributable burden of diseases and injuries</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=WASH&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: WASH-attributable burden of diseases and injuries">edit</a>]</div> The WHO has investigated which proportion of death and disease worldwide can be attributed to insufficient WASH services. In their analysis they focus on the following four health outcomes: <a href="/wiki/Diarrhea" title="Diarrhea">diarrhea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Acute_respiratory_infection" class="mw-redirect" title="Acute respiratory infection">acute respiratory infections</a>, <a href="/wiki/Undernutrition" class="mw-redirect" title="Undernutrition">malnutrition</a>, and soil-transmitted <a href="/wiki/Helminthiasis" title="Helminthiasis">Helminthiasis</a> (STHs).<a href="#cite_note-:32-35">[35]</a> These health outcomes are also included as an indicator for achieving <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_Development_Goal_3" title="Sustainable Development Goal 3">Sustainable Development Goal 3</a> ("Good Health and Well-being"): Indicator 3.9.2 reports on the "mortality rate attributed to unsafe water, sanitation, and lack of hygiene". In 2023, WHO summarized the available data with the following key findings: "In 2019, use of safe WASH services could have prevented the loss of at least 1.4 million lives and 74 million disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) from four health outcomes. This represents 2.5% of all deaths and 2.9% of all DALYs globally."<a href="#cite_note-:32-35">[35]</a> Of the four health outcomes studied, it was <a href="/wiki/Diarrhea" title="Diarrhea">diarrheal disease</a> that had the most striking correlation, namely the highest number of "attributable burden of disease": over 1 million deaths and 55 million DALYs from diarrheal diseases was linked with lack of WASH. Of these deaths, 564,000 deaths were linked to unsafe sanitation in particular. Acute respiratory infections was the second largest cause of WASH-attributable burden of disease in 2019, followed by malnutrition and soil-transmitted helminthiasis. The latter does not lead to such high death numbers (in comparison) but is fully connected to unsafe WASH; its "population-attributable fraction" is estimated to be 100%.<a href="#cite_note-:32-35">[35]</a> The connection between lack of WASH and burden of disease is primarily one of poverty and poor access in developing countries: "the WASH-attributable mortality rates were 42, 30, 4.4 and 3.7 deaths per 100 000 population in low-income, lower-middle income, upper-middle income and high-income countries, respectively."<a href="#cite_note-:32-35">[35]</a> The regions most affected are in the WHO Africa and South-East Asia regions. Here, between 66 and 76% of the diarrheal disease burden could be prevented if access to safe WASH services was provided.<a href="#cite_note-:32-35">[35]</a> Most of the diseases resulting from lack of sanitation have a direct relation to poverty. For example, <a href="/wiki/Open_defecation" title="Open defecation">open defecation</a> – which is the most extreme form of "lack of sanitation" – is a major factor in causing various diseases, most notably diarrhea and <a href="/wiki/Helminthiasis" title="Helminthiasis">intestinal worm infections</a>.<a href="#cite_note-UN2015-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> An earlier report by World Health Organization which analyzed data up to 2016 had found higher values: "The WASH-attributable disease burden amounts to 3.3% of global deaths and 4.6% of global DALYs. Among children under 5 years, WASH-attributable deaths represent 13% of deaths and 12% of DALYs. Worldwide, 1.9 million deaths and 123 million <a href="/wiki/Disability-adjusted_life_year" title="Disability-adjusted life year">DALYs</a> could have been prevented in 2016 with adequate WASH."<a href="#cite_note-:17-38">[38]</a> An even earlier study from 2002 had estimated even higher values, namely that up to 5 million people die each year from preventable <a href="/wiki/Water-borne_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Water-borne diseases">waterborne diseases</a>.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> These changes in the estimates of death and disease can partly be explained by the progress that has been achieved in some countries in improving access to WASH. For example, several large Asian countries (China, India, Indonesia) have managed to increase the "safely managed sanitation services" in their country from the year 2015 to 2020 by more than 10 percentage points.<a href="#cite_note-:32-35">[35]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="List_of_diseases">List of diseases</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=WASH&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: List of diseases">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Waterborne_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Waterborne diseases">Waterborne diseases</a></div> There are at least the following twelve diseases which are more likely to occur when WASH services are inadequate:<a href="#cite_note-:17-38">[38]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 24em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diarrhea" title="Diarrhea">Diarrheal diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Respiratory_tract_infection" title="Respiratory tract infection">Respiratory infections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil-transmitted_helminthiasis" title="Soil-transmitted helminthiasis">Soil-transmitted helminth infections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria">Malaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trachoma" title="Trachoma">Trachoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schistosomiasis" title="Schistosomiasis">Schistosomiasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lymphatic_filariasis" title="Lymphatic filariasis">Lymphatic filariasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Onchocerciasis" title="Onchocerciasis">Onchocerciasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dengue_fever" title="Dengue fever">Dengue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_encephalitis" title="Japanese encephalitis">Japanese encephalitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protein%E2%80%93energy_malnutrition" title="Protein–energy malnutrition">Protein–energy malnutrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drowning" title="Drowning">Drowning</a></li></ul> </div> There are also other diseases where adverse health outcomes are likely to be linked to inadequate WASH but which are not yet quantified. These include for example:<a href="#cite_note-:17-38">[38]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 24em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arsenic_poisoning" title="Arsenic poisoning">Arsenicosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skeletal_fluorosis" title="Skeletal fluorosis">Fluorosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legionnaires%27_disease" title="Legionnaires' disease">Legionellosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leptospirosis" title="Leptospirosis">Leptospirosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hepatitis_A" title="Hepatitis A">Hepatitis A</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hepatitis_E" title="Hepatitis E">Hepatitis E</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyanotoxin" title="Cyanotoxin">Cyanobacterial toxins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead_poisoning" title="Lead poisoning">Lead poisoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scabies" title="Scabies">Scabies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinal_cord_injury" title="Spinal cord injury">Spinal injury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polio" title="Polio">Poliomyelitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infant" title="Infant">Neonatal</a> conditions (see also <a href="/wiki/Infant_mortality" title="Infant mortality">infant mortality</a>) and maternal outcomes (such as <a href="/wiki/Maternal_death" title="Maternal death">maternal deaths</a>)</li> <li>Other diseases, e.g. most <a href="/wiki/Neglected_tropical_diseases" title="Neglected tropical diseases">neglected tropical diseases</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Diarrhea,_malnutrition_and_stunting">Diarrhea, malnutrition and stunting</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=WASH&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Diarrhea, malnutrition and stunting">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Diarrhea" title="Diarrhea">Diarrhea</a> and <a href="/wiki/Undernutrition_in_children" title="Undernutrition in children">Undernutrition in children</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Getting_treatment_for_malnutrition_in_northern_Kenya_(6220164120).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Getting_treatment_for_malnutrition_in_northern_Kenya_%286220164120%29.jpg/220px-Getting_treatment_for_malnutrition_in_northern_Kenya_%286220164120%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Getting_treatment_for_malnutrition_in_northern_Kenya_%286220164120%29.jpg/330px-Getting_treatment_for_malnutrition_in_northern_Kenya_%286220164120%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Getting_treatment_for_malnutrition_in_northern_Kenya_%286220164120%29.jpg/440px-Getting_treatment_for_malnutrition_in_northern_Kenya_%286220164120%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5184" data-file-height="3456" /></a><figcaption>A child receiving malnutrition treatment in Northern Kenya</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Diarrhea" title="Diarrhea">Diarrhea</a> is primarily transmitted through <a href="/wiki/Fecal%E2%80%93oral_route" title="Fecal–oral route">fecal–oral routes</a>. In 2011, infectious diarrhea resulted in about 0.7 million deaths in children under five years old and 250 million lost school days.<a href="#cite_note-UN2015-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> This equates to about 2000 child deaths per day.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> Children suffering from diarrhea are more vulnerable to become underweight (due to <a href="/wiki/Stunted_growth" title="Stunted growth">stunted growth</a>).<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-Duncan2017-43">[43]</a> This makes them more vulnerable to other diseases such as <a href="/wiki/Acute_respiratory_infection" class="mw-redirect" title="Acute respiratory infection">acute respiratory infections</a> and <a href="/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria">malaria</a>. Chronic diarrhea can have a negative effect on child development (both physical and cognitive).<a href="#cite_note-:3-4">[4]</a> Numerous studies have shown that improvements in drinking water and sanitation (WASH) lead to decreased risks of diarrhea.<a href="#cite_note-Wolf2014-44">[44]</a> Such improvements might include for example use of water filters, provision of high-quality <a href="/wiki/Drinking_water" title="Drinking water">piped water</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sanitary_sewer" title="Sanitary sewer">sewer</a> connections.<a href="#cite_note-Wolf2014-44">[44]</a> Diarrhea can be prevented - and the lives of 525,000 children annually be saved (estimate for 2017) - by <a href="/wiki/Improved_sanitation" title="Improved sanitation">improved sanitation</a>, clean <a href="/wiki/Drinking_water" title="Drinking water">drinking water</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hand_washing" title="Hand washing">hand washing</a> with soap.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2013_2-45">[45]</a> In 2008 the same figure was estimated as 1.5 million children.<a href="#cite_note-who.int-46">[46]</a> The combination of direct and indirect deaths from <a href="/wiki/Malnutrition" title="Malnutrition">malnutrition</a> caused by unsafe water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) practices was estimated by the World Health Organization in 2008 to lead to 860,000 deaths per year in children under five years of age.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2008Bartram-47">[47]</a> The multiple interdependencies between malnutrition and infectious diseases make it very difficult to quantify the portion of malnutrition that is caused by infectious diseases which are in turn caused by unsafe WASH practices. Based on expert opinions and a literature survey, researchers at WHO arrived at the conclusion that approximately half of all cases of malnutrition (which often leads to stunting) in children under five is associated with repeated diarrhea or intestinal worm infections as a result of unsafe water, inadequate sanitation or insufficient hygiene.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2008Bartram-47">[47]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Neglected_tropical_diseases">Neglected tropical diseases</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=WASH&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Neglected tropical diseases">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Mass_deworming" title="Mass deworming">Mass deworming</a></div> Water, sanitation and hygiene interventions help to prevent many <a href="/wiki/Neglected_tropical_diseases" title="Neglected tropical diseases">neglected tropical diseases</a> (NTDs), for example <a href="/wiki/Soil-transmitted_helminthiasis" title="Soil-transmitted helminthiasis">soil-transmitted helminthiasis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:0-48">[48]</a> Approximately two billion people are infected with <a href="/wiki/Soil-transmitted_helminths" class="mw-redirect" title="Soil-transmitted helminths">soil-transmitted helminths</a> worldwide.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> This type of intestinal worm infection is transmitted via worm eggs in feces which in turn contaminate soil in areas where sanitation is poor.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> An integrated approach to NTDs and WASH benefits both sectors and the communities they are aiming to serve.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> This is especially true in areas that are endemic with more than one NTD.<a href="#cite_note-:0-48">[48]</a> Since 2015, the <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> (WHO) has a global strategy and action plan to integrate WASH with other <a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">public health</a> interventions in order to accelerate elimination of NTDs.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> The plan aimed to intensify control or eliminate certain NTDs in specific regions by 2020.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> It refers to the NTD roadmap milestones that included for example eradication of <a href="/wiki/Dracunculiasis" title="Dracunculiasis">dracunculiasis</a> by 2015 and of <a href="/wiki/Yaws" title="Yaws">yaws</a> by 2020, elimination of <a href="/wiki/Trachoma" title="Trachoma">trachoma</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lymphatic_filariasis" title="Lymphatic filariasis">lymphatic filariasis</a> as public health problems by 2020, intensified control of <a href="/wiki/Dengue_fever" title="Dengue fever">dengue</a>, <a href="/wiki/Schistosomiasis" title="Schistosomiasis">schistosomiasis</a> and soil-transmitted helminthiases.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> The plan consists of four strategic objectives: improving awareness of benefits of joint WASH and NTD actions; monitoring WASH and NTD actions to track progress; strengthening evidence of how to deliver effective WASH interventions; and planning, delivering and evaluating WASH and NTD programs with involvement of all <a href="/wiki/Stakeholder_engagement" title="Stakeholder engagement">stakeholders</a>.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Additional_health_risks_for_women">Additional health risks for women</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=WASH&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Additional health risks for women">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Menstrual_hygiene_management" title="Menstrual hygiene management">Menstrual hygiene management</a></div> Women tend to face a higher risk of diseases and illness due to limited WASH access.<a href="#cite_note-Yadav_4–17-56">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> Heavily pregnant women face severe hardship walking to and from a water collection site. The consumption of unclean water leading to infection in the fetus accounts for 15% of deaths for women during pregnancy globally.<a href="#cite_note-Yadav_4–17-56">[56]</a> Illnesses and diseases that can come from poor <a href="/wiki/Menstrual_hygiene_management" title="Menstrual hygiene management">menstrual hygiene management</a> become more likely when clean water and toilets are unavailable.<a href="#cite_note-Mahon_99–113-58">[58]</a> In Bangladesh and India, women rely on old cloths to absorb menstrual blood and use water to clean and reuse them. Without access to clean water and hygiene, these women my experience unnecessary health problems in connection with their periods.<a href="#cite_note-Mahon_99–113-58">[58]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Health_risks_for_sanitation_workers">Health risks for sanitation workers</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=WASH&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Health risks for sanitation workers">edit</a>]</div> <div class="excerpt-block"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Sanitation_worker#Occupational_safety_and_health" title="Sanitation worker">Sanitation worker § Occupational safety and health</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sanitation_worker&action=edit#Occupational_safety_and_health">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt"> Occupational safety and health issues for sanitation workers include: diseases related to contact with the excreta; injuries related to the physical effort of extracting and transporting the waste, including <a href="/wiki/Falling_(accident)" title="Falling (accident)">falls from height</a>; injuries related to cuts from non-fecal waste (e.g. glass or needles) disposed of down the toilet.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> There are also the general dangers of working in <a href="/wiki/Confined_space" title="Confined space">confined spaces</a>, including lack of oxygen.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> Many sanitation workers in developing countries work without any form of <a href="/wiki/Personal_protective_equipment" title="Personal protective equipment">personal protective equipment</a> (PPE) and no or minimal formal training.<a href="#cite_note-Sanitation_worker_worldbank2019-62">[62]</a>: 9  Physical and medical conditions directly associated with sanitation work that is carried out unsafely can include: "headaches, dizziness, fever, fatigue, asthma, <a href="/wiki/Gastroenteritis" title="Gastroenteritis">gastroenteritis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cholera" title="Cholera">cholera</a>, <a href="/wiki/Typhoid_fever" title="Typhoid fever">typhoid</a>, hepatitis, polio, cryptosporidiosis, schistosomiasis, eye and skin burn and other skin irritation, musculoskeletal disorders (including back pain), puncture wounds and cuts, blunt force".<a href="#cite_note-Sanitation_worker_worldbank2019-62">[62]</a>: 8 </div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Effects_of_climate_change_on_health_risks">Effects of climate change on health risks</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=WASH&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Effects of climate change on health risks">edit</a>]</div> Global climate change can increase the health risks for some of the infectious diseases mentioned above, see below in the section on <a href="#Negative_impacts_of_climate_change">negative impacts of climate change</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:32-35">[35]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Effectiveness_of_WASH_interventions_on_health_outcomes">Effectiveness of WASH interventions on health outcomes</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=WASH&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Effectiveness of WASH interventions on health outcomes">edit</a>]</div> There is debate in the academic literature about the effectiveness on health outcomes when implementing WASH programs in low- and middle-income countries. Many studies provide poor quality evidence on the causal impact of WASH programs on health outcomes of interest. The nature of WASH interventions is such that high quality trials, such as <a href="/wiki/Randomized_controlled_trial" title="Randomized controlled trial">randomized controlled trials</a> (RCTs), are expensive, difficult and in many cases not ethical. Causal impact from such studies are thus prone to being biased due to residual confounding.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Blind studies of WASH interventions also pose ethical challenges and difficulties associated with implementing new technologies or behavioral changes without participant's knowledge.<a href="#cite_note-Cairn-63">[63]</a> Moreover, scholars suggest a need for longer-term studies of technology efficacy, greater analysis of sanitation interventions, and studies of combined effects from multiple interventions in order to more sufficiently gauge WASH health outcomes.<a href="#cite_note-:9-5">[5]</a> Many scholars have attempted to summarize the evidence of WASH interventions from the limited number of high quality studies. Hygiene interventions, in particular those focusing on the promotion of handwashing, appear to be especially effective in reducing morbidity. A meta-analysis of the literature found that handwashing interventions reduced the relative risk of diarrhea by approximately 40%.<a href="#cite_note-Fewtrell-64">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-Cairn-63">[63]</a> Similarly, handwashing promotion has been found to be associated with a 47% decrease in morbidity. However, a challenge with WASH behavioral intervention studies is an inability to ensure compliance with such interventions, especially when studies rely on self-reporting of disease rates. This prevents researchers from concluding a causal relationship between decreased morbidity and the intervention. For example, researchers may conclude that educating communities about handwashing is effective at reducing disease, but cannot conclude that handwashing reduces disease.<a href="#cite_note-Cairn-63">[63]</a> Point-of-use water supply and point-of-use water quality interventions also show similar effectiveness to handwashing, with those that include provision of safe storage containers demonstrating increased disease reduction in infants.<a href="#cite_note-:9-5">[5]</a> Specific types of water quality improvement projects can have a protective effect on morbidity and mortality. A randomized control trial in India concluded that the provision of chlorine tablets for improving water quality led to a 75% decrease in incidences[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style">spelling?</a>] of cholera among the study population.<a href="#cite_note-Taylor-65">[65]</a> A quasi-randomized study on historical data from the United States also found that the introduction of clean water technologies in major cities was responsible for close to half the reduction in total mortality and over three-quarters of the reduction in infant mortality.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> Distributing chlorine products, or other water disinfectants, for use in the home may reduce instances of diarrhea.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> However, most studies on water quality improvement interventions suffer from residual confounding or poor adherence to the mechanism being studied. For instance, a study conducted in Nepal found that adherence to the use of chlorine tablets or chlorine solution to purify water was as low as 18.5% among program households.<a href="#cite_note-Taylor-65">[65]</a> A study on a <a href="/wiki/Water_well" class="mw-redirect" title="Water well">water well</a> chlorination program in Guinea-Bissau in 2008 reported that families stopped treating water within their households because of the program which consequently increased their risk of <a href="/wiki/Cholera" title="Cholera">cholera</a>. It was concluded that well chlorination without proper promotion and education led to a false sense of security.<a href="#cite_note-Taylor-65">[65]</a> Studies on the effect of sanitation interventions alone on health are rare.<a href="#cite_note-Fewtrell-64">[64]</a> When studies do evaluate sanitation measures, they are mostly included as part of a package of different interventions.<a href="#cite_note-Cairn-63">[63]</a> A pooled analysis of the limited number of studies on sanitation interventions suggest that improving sanitation has a protective effect on health.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-Fewtrell-64">[64]</a> A UNICEF funded sanitation intervention (packaged into a broader WASH intervention) was also found to have a protective effect on under-five diarrhea incidence but not on household diarrhea incidence.<a href="#cite_note-Toonen-69">[69]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Gender_aspects_of_lack_of_WASH_services">Gender aspects of lack of WASH services</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=WASH&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Gender aspects of lack of WASH services">edit</a>]</div> Women and girls are particularly burdened from lack of proper WASH services.<a href="#cite_note-:34-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-:35-70">[70]</a> Inadequate access to water and sanitation affect women and girls in several ways because of social norms in some cultures that position them as principal household water collectors and managers, the inability to urinate easily outside of an unclean stall or where no toilets are nearby, and due to the effects of menstruation beginning during puberty. These effects include low participation in the labor market and community activities, adverse biomedical outcomes, psychosocial stress, and poor educational outcomes.<a href="#cite_note-:35-70">[70]</a> Women and girls often bear higher health and social costs associated with water and sanitation insecurity than men and boys, such as higher exposure to water-related disease, discriminatory taboos, and unrealized economic productivity.<a href="#cite_note-:34-8">[8]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Time_required_to_collect_water">Time required to collect water</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=WASH&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Time required to collect water">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Niger,_Margou_(13),_water_well_with_tree.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Niger%2C_Margou_%2813%29%2C_water_well_with_tree.jpg/300px-Niger%2C_Margou_%2813%29%2C_water_well_with_tree.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="221" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Niger%2C_Margou_%2813%29%2C_water_well_with_tree.jpg/450px-Niger%2C_Margou_%2813%29%2C_water_well_with_tree.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Niger%2C_Margou_%2813%29%2C_water_well_with_tree.jpg/600px-Niger%2C_Margou_%2813%29%2C_water_well_with_tree.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3240" data-file-height="2384" /></a><figcaption>Women and children collecting water from a water well in <a href="/wiki/Niger" title="Niger">Niger</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DRAWING_WATER_TO_QUENCH_THURST.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Woman collecting water in Kenya." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/DRAWING_WATER_TO_QUENCH_THURST.jpg/220px-DRAWING_WATER_TO_QUENCH_THURST.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/DRAWING_WATER_TO_QUENCH_THURST.jpg/330px-DRAWING_WATER_TO_QUENCH_THURST.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/DRAWING_WATER_TO_QUENCH_THURST.jpg/440px-DRAWING_WATER_TO_QUENCH_THURST.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3696" data-file-height="2448" /></a><figcaption>Woman collecting water in Kenya.</figcaption></figure>The lack of accessible, sufficient, clean and affordable <a href="/wiki/Water_supply" title="Water supply">water supply</a> has adverse impacts specifically related to women in <a href="/wiki/Developing_country" title="Developing country">developing nations</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Yadav_4–17-56">[56]</a> It is estimated that 263 million people worldwide spent over 30 minutes per round trip to collect water from an improved source.<a href="#cite_note-:7-3">[3]</a>: 3  In sub-Saharan Africa, women and girls carry water containers for an average of three miles each day, spending 40 billion hours per year on water collection (walking to the water source, waiting in line, walking back).<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a>: 14  The time to collect water can come at the expense of education, income generating activities, cultural and political involvement, and rest and recreation.<a href="#cite_note-Diverting-72">[72]</a>: 2  For example, in low-income areas of <a href="/wiki/Nairobi" title="Nairobi">Nairobi</a>, women carry 44 pound containers of water back to their homes, taking anywhere between an hour and several hours to wait and collect the water.<a href="#cite_note-Crow10-73">[73]</a>: 733  In many places of the world, getting and providing water is considered "women's work," so <a href="/wiki/Gender" title="Gender">gender</a> and water access are intricately linked.<a href="#cite_note-Keefer15-74">[74]</a>: 256  Water gathering and supply to family units remains primarily a woman's task in <a href="/wiki/Less_developed_countries" class="mw-redirect" title="Less developed countries">less developed countries</a> where water gathering is considered a main chore.<a href="#cite_note-Keefer15-74">[74]</a>: 256  This water work is also largely unpaid household work based on patriarchal gender norms and often related to domestic work, such as laundry, cooking and childcare.<a href="#cite_note-Koolwal10-75">[75]</a>: 5  Areas that rely on women to primarily collect water include countries in <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a>, <a href="/wiki/South_Asia" title="South Asia">South Asia</a> and in the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Koolwal10-75">[75]</a>: 4  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Violence_against_women">Violence against women</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=WASH&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Violence against women">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Violence_against_women" title="Violence against women">Violence against women</a></div> Women and girls usually bear the responsibility for collecting water, which is often very time-consuming and arduous, and can also be dangerous for them.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> Women and girls who collect water may also face <a href="/wiki/Assault" title="Assault">physical assault</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sexual_assault" title="Sexual assault">sexual assault</a> along the way (<a href="/wiki/Violence_against_women" title="Violence against women">violence against women</a>).<a href="#cite_note-:23-77">[77]</a> This includes vulnerability to rape when collecting water from distant areas, <a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence" title="Domestic violence">domestic violence</a> over the amount of water collected, and fights over scarce water supply.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> A study in India, for example, found that women felt intense fear of sexual violence when accessing water and sanitation services.<a href="#cite_note-washfunders.org-79">[79]</a> A similar study in Uganda also found that women reported to feel a danger for their security whilst journeying to toilets particularly at night.<a href="#cite_note-washfunders.org-79">[79]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gender_norms_for_occupations">Gender norms for occupations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=WASH&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Gender norms for occupations">edit</a>]</div> Gender norms can negatively affect how men and women access water through such behavior expectations along gender lines—for example, when water collection is a woman's chore, men who collect water may face <a href="/wiki/Discrimination" title="Discrimination">discrimination</a> for performing perceived women's work.<a href="#cite_note-:12-80">[80]</a> Women are likely to be deterred from entering <a href="/wiki/Water_industry" title="Water industry">water utilities</a> in developing countries because "social norms prescribe that it is an area of work that is not suitable for them or that they are incapable of performing well".<a href="#cite_note-:16-81">[81]</a>: 13  Nevertheless, a study by <a href="/wiki/World_Bank" title="World Bank">World Bank</a> in 2019 has found that the proportion of female water professionals has grown in the past few years.<a href="#cite_note-:16-81">[81]</a>: x  In many societies, the task of cleaning toilets falls to women or children, which can increase their exposure to disease.<a href="#cite_note-:12-80">[80]</a>: 19  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_non-household_settings">In non-household settings</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=WASH&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: In non-household settings">edit</a>]</div> Non-household settings for WASH include the following six types: schools, health care facilities, workplaces (including prisons), temporary use settings, mass gatherings, and dislocated populations.<a href="#cite_note-:21-6">[6]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_schools">In schools</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=WASH&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: In schools">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:School_toilets_-_WASH_in_schools_(Bangladesh)_(37720260454).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/School_toilets_-_WASH_in_schools_%28Bangladesh%29_%2837720260454%29.jpg/220px-School_toilets_-_WASH_in_schools_%28Bangladesh%29_%2837720260454%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/School_toilets_-_WASH_in_schools_%28Bangladesh%29_%2837720260454%29.jpg/330px-School_toilets_-_WASH_in_schools_%28Bangladesh%29_%2837720260454%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/School_toilets_-_WASH_in_schools_%28Bangladesh%29_%2837720260454%29.jpg/440px-School_toilets_-_WASH_in_schools_%28Bangladesh%29_%2837720260454%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1936" /></a><figcaption>School toilets at Shaheed Monumia government secondary school, Tejgaon, <a href="/wiki/Dhaka" title="Dhaka">Dhaka</a>, Bangladesh)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:School_toilet_2_-_WASH_in_schools_(Bangladesh)_(38403428742).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/School_toilet_2_-_WASH_in_schools_%28Bangladesh%29_%2838403428742%29.jpg/220px-School_toilet_2_-_WASH_in_schools_%28Bangladesh%29_%2838403428742%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/School_toilet_2_-_WASH_in_schools_%28Bangladesh%29_%2838403428742%29.jpg/330px-School_toilet_2_-_WASH_in_schools_%28Bangladesh%29_%2838403428742%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/School_toilet_2_-_WASH_in_schools_%28Bangladesh%29_%2838403428742%29.jpg/440px-School_toilet_2_-_WASH_in_schools_%28Bangladesh%29_%2838403428742%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1936" /></a><figcaption>School toilet at IPH school and college, <a href="/wiki/Mohakhali" title="Mohakhali">Mohakhali</a>, Dhaka, Bangladesh)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Handwashing_stands_-_WASH_in_schools_-_India_(37547981435).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Handwashing_stands_-_WASH_in_schools_-_India_%2837547981435%29.jpg/220px-Handwashing_stands_-_WASH_in_schools_-_India_%2837547981435%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Handwashing_stands_-_WASH_in_schools_-_India_%2837547981435%29.jpg/330px-Handwashing_stands_-_WASH_in_schools_-_India_%2837547981435%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Handwashing_stands_-_WASH_in_schools_-_India_%2837547981435%29.jpg/440px-Handwashing_stands_-_WASH_in_schools_-_India_%2837547981435%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1936" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Hand_washing" title="Hand washing">Handwashing</a> stands at a school in <a href="/wiki/Mysore" title="Mysore">Mysore</a> district, Karnataka, India</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/School_hygiene" title="School hygiene">School hygiene</a></div>More than half of all primary schools in the <a href="/wiki/Developing_countries" class="mw-redirect" title="Developing countries">developing countries</a> with available data do not have adequate water facilities and nearly two thirds lack adequate sanitation.<a href="#cite_note-:1-82">[82]</a> Even where facilities exist, they are often in poor condition. Children are able to more fully participate in school when there is improved access to water.<a href="#cite_note-Koolwal10-75">[75]</a>: 24  Lack of WASH facilities can prevent students from attending school, particularly female students.<a href="#cite_note-:4-7">[7]</a> Strong cultural taboos around <a href="/wiki/Menstruation" title="Menstruation">menstruation</a>, which are present in many societies, coupled with a lack of <a href="/wiki/Menstrual_hygiene_day" class="mw-redirect" title="Menstrual hygiene day">Menstrual Hygiene Management</a> services in schools, results in girls staying away from school during menstruation.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> Reasons for missing or poorly maintained water and sanitation facilities at schools in developing countries include lacking inter-sectoral collaboration; lacking cooperation between schools, communities and different levels of government; as well as a lack in leadership and accountability.<a href="#cite_note-:2-84">[84]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Outcomes_from_improved_WASH_at_schools">Outcomes from improved WASH at schools</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=WASH&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Outcomes from improved WASH at schools">edit</a>]</div> WASH in schools, sometimes called SWASH or WinS, significantly reduces hygiene-related disease, increases student attendance and contributes to dignity and gender equality.<a href="#cite_note-:1-82">[82]</a> WASH in schools contributes to healthy, safe and secure school environments. It can also lead to children becoming agents of change for improving water, sanitation and hygiene practices in their families and communities.<a href="#cite_note-:1-82">[82]</a> For example, data from over 10,000 schools in <a href="/wiki/Zambia" title="Zambia">Zambia</a> was analyzed in 2017 and confirmed that improved sanitation provision in schools was correlated with high female-to-male enrolment ratios, and reduced repetition and drop-out ratios, especially for girls.<a href="#cite_note-:5-85">[85]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Methods_to_improve_WASH_in_schools">Methods to improve WASH in schools</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=WASH&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Methods to improve WASH in schools">edit</a>]</div> Methods to improve the situation of WASH infrastructure at schools include on a policy level: broadening the focus of the education sector, establishing a systematic quality assurance system, distributing and using funds wisely.<a href="#cite_note-:2-84">[84]</a> Other practical recommendations include: have a clear and systematic mobilization strategy, support the education sector to strengthen intersectoral partnerships, establish a constant monitoring system which is located within the education sector, educate the educators and partner with the school management.<a href="#cite_note-:2-84">[84]</a> The support provided by <a href="/wiki/Aid_agency" title="Aid agency">development agencies</a> to the government at national, state and district levels is helpful to gradually create what is commonly referred to as an enabling environment for WASH in schools.<a href="#cite_note-India-86">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-Pakistan-87">[87]</a> Success also hinges on local-level leadership and a genuine collective commitment of school <a href="/wiki/Stakeholder_engagement" title="Stakeholder engagement">stakeholders</a> towards school development. This applies to students and their representative clubs, headmaster, teachers and parents. Furthermore, other stakeholders have to be engaged in their direct sphere of influence, such as: community members, <a href="/wiki/Community_organization" title="Community organization">community-based organizations</a>, educations official, <a href="/wiki/Local_government" title="Local government">local authorities</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Nepal-88">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bangladesh-89">[89]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Group_handwashing">Group handwashing</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=WASH&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Group handwashing">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:In_Rwanda_build_where_everyone_can_wash_hand_in_prevention_of_covid-19.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/In_Rwanda_build_where_everyone_can_wash_hand_in_prevention_of_covid-19.jpg/220px-In_Rwanda_build_where_everyone_can_wash_hand_in_prevention_of_covid-19.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/In_Rwanda_build_where_everyone_can_wash_hand_in_prevention_of_covid-19.jpg/330px-In_Rwanda_build_where_everyone_can_wash_hand_in_prevention_of_covid-19.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/In_Rwanda_build_where_everyone_can_wash_hand_in_prevention_of_covid-19.jpg/440px-In_Rwanda_build_where_everyone_can_wash_hand_in_prevention_of_covid-19.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6016" data-file-height="4016" /></a><figcaption>A community handwashing facility in <a href="/wiki/Rwanda" title="Rwanda">Rwanda</a> with sinks for people of different heights. During the <a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Rwanda" title="COVID-19 pandemic in Rwanda">COVID-19 pandemic in Rwanda</a> handwashing was part of a system of public health measures encouraged to reduce transmission.</figcaption></figure> Supervised daily group <a href="/wiki/Handwashing" class="mw-redirect" title="Handwashing">handwashing</a> in schools is an effective strategy for building good <a href="/wiki/Hygiene" title="Hygiene">hygiene</a> habits, with the potential to lead to positive health and education outcomes for children.<a href="#cite_note-UNICEF2016-90">[90]</a> This has for example been implemented in the "Essential Health Care Program" by the <a href="/wiki/Department_of_Education_(Philippines)" title="Department of Education (Philippines)">Department of Education in the Philippines</a>.<a href="#cite_note-UNICEF2012-91">[91]</a> <a href="/wiki/Mass_deworming" title="Mass deworming">Mass deworming</a> twice a year, supplemented by washing hands daily with soap and brushing teeth daily with <a href="/wiki/Fluoride" title="Fluoride">fluoride</a>, is at the core of this national program. It has also been successfully implemented in Indonesia.<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-Fit_for_school1-93">[93]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_healthcare_facilities">In healthcare facilities</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=WASH&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: In healthcare facilities">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Unsafe_drinking_water_03.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Unsafe_drinking_water_03.jpg/220px-Unsafe_drinking_water_03.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Unsafe_drinking_water_03.jpg/330px-Unsafe_drinking_water_03.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Unsafe_drinking_water_03.jpg/440px-Unsafe_drinking_water_03.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1365" data-file-height="2048" /></a><figcaption>A woman is filling a jerrycan with unsafe drinking water at the Boromata well in <a href="/wiki/Central_African_Republic" title="Central African Republic">Central African Republic</a>.</figcaption></figure> The provision of adequate water, sanitation and hygiene is an essential part of providing basic health services in <a href="/wiki/Health_facility" title="Health facility">healthcare facilities</a>. WASH in healthcare facilities aids in preventing the spread of infectious diseases as well as protects staff and patients. WASH services in health facilities in <a href="/wiki/Developing_countries" class="mw-redirect" title="Developing countries">developing countries</a> are currently often lacking.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2015-94">[94]</a> According to the <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a>, data from 54 countries in low and middle income settings representing 66,101 health facilities show that 38% of health care facilities lack <a href="/wiki/Improved_water_source" title="Improved water source">improved water sources</a>, 19% lack <a href="/wiki/Improved_sanitation" title="Improved sanitation">improved sanitation</a> while 35% lack access to water and soap for handwashing. The absence of basic WASH amenities compromises the ability to provide routine services and hinders the ability to prevent and control infections. The provision of water in health facilities was the lowest in Africa, where 42% of healthcare facilities lack an improved source of water on-site or nearby. The provision of sanitation is lowest in the Americas with 43% of health care facilities lacking adequate services.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2015-94">[94]</a> In 2019, WHO estimated that: "One in four health care facilities lack basic water services, and one in five have no sanitation service – impacting 2.0 and 1.5 billion people, respectively." Furthermore, it is estimated that "health care facilities in low-income countries are at least three times as likely to have no water service as facilities in higher resource settings". This is thought to contribute to the fact that <a href="/wiki/Postpartum_infections" title="Postpartum infections">maternal sepsis</a> is twice as great in developing countries as it is in <a href="/wiki/World_Bank_high-income_economy" title="World Bank high-income economy">high income countries</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:18-95">[95]</a>: vii  Barriers to providing WASH in health care facilities include: Incomplete standards, inadequate monitoring, disease-specific budgeting, <a href="/wiki/Empowerment" title="Empowerment">disempowered</a> <a href="/wiki/Workforce" title="Workforce">workforce</a>, poor WASH infrastructure.<a href="#cite_note-:18-95">[95]</a>: 14  The improvement of WASH standards within health facilities needs to be guided by national policies and standards as well as an allocated budget to improve and maintain services.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2015-94">[94]</a> A number of solutions exist that can considerably improve the health and safety of both patients and service providers at health facilities:<a href="#cite_note-WHO16-96">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-WaterAid-97">[97]</a> <ul><li>Availability of safe water for drinking but also for use in surgery and deliveries, food preparation, bathing and showering: There is a need for improved water pump systems within health facilities.</li> <li>Improved <a href="/wiki/Handwashing" class="mw-redirect" title="Handwashing">handwashing</a> practices among healthcare staff must be implemented. This requires functional hand washing stations at strategic points of care within the health facilities, i.e. at points of care and at toilets.</li> <li>Waste system management: Proper health care waste management and the safe disposal of excreta and waste water is crucial to preventing the spread of disease.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hygiene" title="Hygiene">Hygiene</a> promotion for patients, visitors and staff.</li> <li>Accessible and clean toilets, separated by gender, in sufficient numbers for staff, patients and visitors.</li></ul> Improving access to hand washing and sanitation facilities in healthcare settings will significantly reduce infection and mortality rates, particularly in <a href="/wiki/Maternal_health" title="Maternal health">maternal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Child_Health" class="mw-redirect" title="Child Health">child health</a>.<a href="#cite_note-UN-Water-31">[31]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_prisons">In prisons</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=WASH&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: In prisons">edit</a>]</div> In developing countries, <a href="/wiki/Prison" title="Prison">prison</a> buildings are very often overcrowded and dilapidated.<a href="#cite_note-:11-98">[98]</a>: 12  A report by <a href="/wiki/International_Committee_of_the_Red_Cross" title="International Committee of the Red Cross">ICRC</a> states that "Measures depriving persons of their freedom must in no way, whatever the circumstances, be made more severe by treatment or material conditions of detention which undermine the dignity and the rights of the individual.".<a href="#cite_note-:11-98">[98]</a>: 12 The water supply systems and sanitary facilities in prisons are often insufficient to meet the needs of the prison population in cases where the number of detainees exceeds a prison's capacity.<a href="#cite_note-:11-98">[98]</a> Overuse of the facilities results in rapid deterioration. The budget allocated by the State for prisons is often insufficient to cover the detainees' needs in terms of food and medical care, let alone upkeep of water and sanitation facilities.<a href="#cite_note-:11-98">[98]</a>: 12  Nevertheless, even with limited funds, it is possible to maintain or renovate decaying infrastructure with the right planning approaches and suitable low-cost water supply and sanitation options. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Challenges_in_WASH_implementation">Challenges in WASH implementation</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=WASH&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Challenges in WASH implementation">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Equitable_access_to_drinking_water_supply">Equitable access to drinking water supply</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=WASH&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Equitable access to drinking water supply">edit</a>]</div> There are inequalities in access to water, sanitation and hygiene services.<a href="#cite_note-:13-13">[13]</a>: 11  Such inequalities are for example related to income level and gender. In 2019 in 24 countries where disaggregated data was available, basic water coverage among the richest wealth quintile was at least twice as high as coverage among the poorest quintile.<a href="#cite_note-:13-13">[13]</a> For example, in Bangladesh, <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_in_Bangladesh" class="mw-redirect" title="Indigenous peoples in Bangladesh">minority ethnic groups</a> have lower levels of access to WASH than the rest of the Bengali population.<a href="#cite_note-:29-99">[99]</a> This is due to "structural racial discrimination" in Bangladesh.<a href="#cite_note-:29-99">[99]</a> Access to WASH services also varies internally within nations depending on socio-economic status, political power, and level of urbanization. In 2004 it was found that urban households are 30% and 135% more likely to have access to improved water sources and sanitation respectively, as compared to rural areas.<a href="#cite_note-:8-100">[100]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Human_right_to_water_and_sanitation" title="Human right to water and sanitation">human rights to water and sanitation</a> prohibit discrimination on the grounds of "race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth, disability or other status". These are all dimensions of inequality in WASH services.<a href="#cite_note-:13-13">[13]</a>: 13  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Urban_low_income_areas">Urban low income areas</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=WASH&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Urban low income areas">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Distributing_jerrycans_to_help_people_store_clean_drinking_water_in_the_Philippines_(11252748734).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Distributing_jerrycans_to_help_people_store_clean_drinking_water_in_the_Philippines_%2811252748734%29.jpg/220px-Distributing_jerrycans_to_help_people_store_clean_drinking_water_in_the_Philippines_%2811252748734%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Distributing_jerrycans_to_help_people_store_clean_drinking_water_in_the_Philippines_%2811252748734%29.jpg/330px-Distributing_jerrycans_to_help_people_store_clean_drinking_water_in_the_Philippines_%2811252748734%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Distributing_jerrycans_to_help_people_store_clean_drinking_water_in_the_Philippines_%2811252748734%29.jpg/440px-Distributing_jerrycans_to_help_people_store_clean_drinking_water_in_the_Philippines_%2811252748734%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5184" data-file-height="3456" /></a><figcaption>Jerrycans are used to store clean drinking water in the <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a></figcaption></figure>There are three main barriers to improvement of urban services in slum areas: Firstly, insufficient supply, especially of networked services. Secondly, there are usually demand constraints that limit people's access to these services (for example due to low willingness to pay).<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> Thirdly, there are institutional constraints that prevent the poor from accessing adequate urban services.<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Polluted_water_sources">Polluted water sources</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=WASH&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Polluted water sources">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Washing_Utensils_And_Vegetables.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Washing_Utensils_And_Vegetables.png/220px-Washing_Utensils_And_Vegetables.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Washing_Utensils_And_Vegetables.png/330px-Washing_Utensils_And_Vegetables.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Washing_Utensils_And_Vegetables.png/440px-Washing_Utensils_And_Vegetables.png 2x" data-file-width="1606" data-file-height="1140" /></a><figcaption>Women at a Village Pond in <a href="/wiki/Matlab_(Bangladesh)" title="Matlab (Bangladesh)">Matlab</a>, Bangladesh: The woman on the right is putting a <a href="/wiki/Cloth_filter" title="Cloth filter">sari filter</a> onto a water-collecting pot (or kalash) to filter water for drinking.</figcaption></figure> Water supply sources include <a href="/wiki/Surface_water" title="Surface water">surface water</a> and <a href="/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater">groundwater</a>. These important water resources are often at risk of being polluted or overused. <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">Water pollution</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_pollution&action=edit">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt"> <a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">Water pollution</a> (or aquatic pollution) is the contamination of <a href="/wiki/Body_of_water" title="Body of water">water bodies</a>, with a negative impact on their uses.<a href="#cite_note-Water_pollution_Von_Sperling-103">[103]</a>: 6  It is usually a result of human activities. Water bodies include <a href="/wiki/Lake" title="Lake">lakes</a>, <a href="/wiki/River" title="River">rivers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ocean" title="Ocean">oceans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aquifer" title="Aquifer">aquifers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reservoir" title="Reservoir">reservoirs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater">groundwater</a>. Water <a href="/wiki/Pollution" title="Pollution">pollution</a> results when <a href="/wiki/Contaminant" class="mw-redirect" title="Contaminant">contaminants</a> mix with these water bodies. Contaminants can come from one of four main sources. These are <a href="/wiki/Sewage" title="Sewage">sewage</a> discharges, industrial activities, agricultural activities, and urban runoff including <a href="/wiki/Stormwater" title="Stormwater">stormwater</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Water_pollution_Eckenfelder-104">[104]</a> Water pollution may affect either <a href="/wiki/Surface_water" title="Surface water">surface water</a> or <a href="/wiki/Groundwater_pollution" title="Groundwater pollution">groundwater</a>. This form of pollution can lead to many problems. One is the <a href="/wiki/Environmental_degradation" title="Environmental degradation">degradation</a> of <a href="/wiki/Aquatic_ecosystems" class="mw-redirect" title="Aquatic ecosystems">aquatic ecosystems</a>. Another is spreading <a href="/wiki/Waterborne_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Waterborne diseases">water-borne diseases</a> when people use polluted water for drinking or <a href="/wiki/Irrigation" title="Irrigation">irrigation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> Water pollution also reduces the <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_service" title="Ecosystem service">ecosystem services</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Drinking_water" title="Drinking water">drinking water</a> provided by the <a href="/wiki/Water_resources" title="Water resources">water resource</a>.</div></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Groundwater_pollution" title="Groundwater pollution">Groundwater pollution</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Groundwater_pollution&action=edit">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt"> <a href="/wiki/Groundwater_pollution" title="Groundwater pollution">Groundwater pollution</a> (also called groundwater contamination) occurs when <a href="/wiki/Pollutant" title="Pollutant">pollutants</a> are released to the ground and make their way into <a href="/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater">groundwater</a>. This type of <a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">water pollution</a> can also occur naturally due to the presence of a minor and unwanted constituent, contaminant, or impurity in the groundwater, in which case it is more likely referred to as <a href="/wiki/Contamination" title="Contamination">contamination</a> rather than <a href="/wiki/Pollution" title="Pollution">pollution</a>. Groundwater pollution can occur from on-site <a href="/wiki/Sanitation" title="Sanitation">sanitation</a> systems, <a href="/wiki/Landfill" title="Landfill">landfill</a> leachate, effluent from <a href="/wiki/Wastewater_treatment_plants" class="mw-redirect" title="Wastewater treatment plants">wastewater treatment plants</a>, leaking sewers, petrol <a href="/wiki/Filling_station" title="Filling station">filling stations</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_fracturing" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydraulic fracturing">hydraulic fracturing</a> (fracking) or from over application of <a href="/wiki/Fertilizer" title="Fertilizer">fertilizers</a> in <a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">agriculture</a>. Pollution (or contamination) can also occur from naturally occurring contaminants, such as <a href="/wiki/Arsenic_contamination_of_groundwater" title="Arsenic contamination of groundwater">arsenic</a> or <a href="/wiki/Fluoride" title="Fluoride">fluoride</a>.<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> Using polluted groundwater causes hazards to <a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">public health</a> through poisoning or the spread of disease (<a href="/wiki/Waterborne_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Waterborne diseases">water-borne diseases</a>).</div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Failures_of_WASH_systems_over_time">Failures of WASH systems over time</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=WASH&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Failures of WASH systems over time">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Failures_of_WASH_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Failures of WASH systems">Failures of WASH systems</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Existing_pit_latrines_of_the_schools_(5324341452).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Existing_pit_latrines_of_the_schools_%285324341452%29.jpg/220px-Existing_pit_latrines_of_the_schools_%285324341452%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Existing_pit_latrines_of_the_schools_%285324341452%29.jpg/330px-Existing_pit_latrines_of_the_schools_%285324341452%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Existing_pit_latrines_of_the_schools_%285324341452%29.jpg/440px-Existing_pit_latrines_of_the_schools_%285324341452%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2576" data-file-height="1932" /></a><figcaption>Poorly maintained pit latrine at a school in <a href="/wiki/Nyanza_Province" title="Nyanza Province">Nyanza Province</a>, Kenya</figcaption></figure> The failures of <a href="/wiki/Water_supply" title="Water supply">water supply</a> system (such as water points, <a href="/wiki/Water_well" class="mw-redirect" title="Water well">wells</a> and <a href="/wiki/Borehole" title="Borehole">boreholes</a>) and sanitation systems have been well documented.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a><a href="#cite_note-:10-24">[24]</a> This has been attributed to financial costs, inadequate technical training for operations and maintenance, poor use of new facilities and taught behaviors, and a lack of community participation and ownership.<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> The poorest populations often cannot afford fees required for operation and maintenance of WASH infrastructure, preventing them from benefitting even when systems do exist.<a href="#cite_note-:8-100">[100]</a> Contamination of water in <a href="/wiki/Water_distribution_system" title="Water distribution system">distribution systems</a> is a challenge and can contribute to the spread of waterborne diseases.<a href="#cite_note-:8-100">[100]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Working_conditions_of_sanitation_workers">Working conditions of sanitation workers</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=WASH&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Working conditions of sanitation workers">edit</a>]</div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Sanitation_worker" title="Sanitation worker">Sanitation worker</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sanitation_worker&action=edit">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Manual_pit_emptying_(8151995298).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Manual_pit_emptying_%288151995298%29.jpg/220px-Manual_pit_emptying_%288151995298%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Manual_pit_emptying_%288151995298%29.jpg/330px-Manual_pit_emptying_%288151995298%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Manual_pit_emptying_%288151995298%29.jpg/440px-Manual_pit_emptying_%288151995298%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2112" data-file-height="2816" /></a><figcaption>Sanitation workers carrying out manual pit emptying (in Durban, South Africa) with <a href="/wiki/Personal_protective_equipment" title="Personal protective equipment">personal protective equipment</a></figcaption></figure> A <a href="/wiki/Sanitation_worker" title="Sanitation worker">sanitation worker</a> (or sanitary worker) is a person responsible for cleaning, maintaining, operating, or emptying the equipment or technology at any step of the <a href="/wiki/Sanitation" title="Sanitation">sanitation</a> chain.<a href="#cite_note-Sanitation_worker_worldbank2019-62">[62]</a>: 2  This is the definition used in the narrower sense within the WASH sector. More broadly speaking, sanitation workers may also be involved in cleaning <a href="/wiki/Street_sweeper" title="Street sweeper">streets</a>, <a href="/wiki/Park" title="Park">parks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Public_space" title="Public space">public spaces</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sewerage" title="Sewerage">sewers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Storm_drain" title="Storm drain">storm</a><a href="/wiki/Storm_drain" title="Storm drain">water drains</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Public_toilets" class="mw-redirect" title="Public toilets">public toilets</a>.<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> Another definition is: "The moment an individual’s waste is outsourced to another, it becomes sanitation work."<a href="#cite_note-Sanitation_worker_:0-110">[110]</a>: 4  Some organizations use the term specifically for <a href="/wiki/Waste_collector" title="Waste collector">municipal solid waste collectors</a>, whereas others exclude the workers involved in management of <a href="/wiki/Municipal_solid_waste" title="Municipal solid waste">solid waste</a> (rubbish, trash) sector from its definition. Sanitation workers are essential in maintaining safe sanitation services in homes, schools, hospitals, and other settings and protecting public health but face many health risks in doing so, including from exposure to a wide range of biological and chemical agents. Additionally, they may be at risk of injury from heavy labor, poor and prolonged postures and positions and <a href="/wiki/Confined_space" title="Confined space">confined spaces</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/Psychosocial_hazard" title="Psychosocial hazard">psychosocial stress</a>. These risks are exacerbated under conditions of poverty, illness, poor nutrition, poor housing, <a href="/wiki/Child_labour" title="Child labour">child labor</a>, migration, drug and alcohol abuse, discrimination, <a href="/wiki/Social_stigma" title="Social stigma">social stigma</a> and societal neglect. In many <a href="/wiki/Developing_country" title="Developing country">developing countries</a>, sanitation workers are "more vulnerable due to unregulated or unenforced environmental and labor protections, and lack of <a href="/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health" title="Occupational safety and health">occupational health and safety</a>".<a href="#cite_note-Sanitation_worker_:6-111">[111]</a></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Climate_change_aspects">Climate change aspects</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=WASH&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Climate change aspects">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_the_water_cycle" title="Effects of climate change on the water cycle">Effects of climate change on the water cycle</a> and <a href="/wiki/Water_security#Climate_change" title="Water security">Water security § Climate change</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Greenhouse_gas_emissions">Greenhouse gas emissions</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=WASH&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Greenhouse gas emissions">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">Greenhouse gas emissions</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carbon_accounting" title="Carbon accounting">carbon accounting</a></div> Water and sanitation services contribute to <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">greenhouse gas emissions</a>. These emissions are grouped into three scopes in the international greenhouse gas protocol: direct emissions, as well as two types of indirect emissions (see below).<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-IWAbook2022-113">[113]</a>: 9  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Direct_emissions_(Scope_1)">Direct emissions (Scope 1)</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=WASH&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Direct emissions (Scope 1)">edit</a>]</div> Scope 1 includes "direct emissions resulting directly from the activity". In the WASH sector, this is <a href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane">methane</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nitrous_oxide" title="Nitrous oxide">nitrous oxide</a> emissions during wastewater and <a href="/wiki/Sewage_sludge_treatment" title="Sewage sludge treatment">sewage sludge treatment</a>. Sanitation services produce about 2–6% of global human-caused <a href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane">methane</a> emissions.<a href="#cite_note-:24-114">[114]</a> Septic tanks, pit latrines, <a href="/wiki/Anaerobic_lagoon" title="Anaerobic lagoon">anaerobic lagoons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anaerobic_digestion" title="Anaerobic digestion">anaerobic digesters</a> are all anaerobic treatment processes that emit methane which may or may not be captured (in the case of septic tanks it is usually not captured). It has been estimated, using data from 2012 and 2013, that "wastewater treatment in centralized facilities contributes alone some 3% of global nitrous oxide emissions and 7% of anthropogenic methane emissions".<a href="#cite_note-IWAbook2022-113">[113]</a>: 11  Data from 2023 from centralized sewage treatment plants in the United States indicate that methane emissions are about twice the estimates provided by IPCC in 2019, i.e. 10.9 ± 7.0 compared to 4.3-6.1 MMT (million metric tons) CO2-eq/yr.<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a><a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> Current methods for estimating sanitation emissions underestimate the significance of methane emissions from <a href="/wiki/Non-sewered_sanitation_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-sewered sanitation system">non-sewered sanitation systems</a> (NSSS).<a href="#cite_note-:111-117">[117]</a> This is despite the fact that such sanitation systems are prevalent in many countries.<a href="#cite_note-:111-117">[117]</a> NSSS play a vital role in the safe management of fecal sludge and account for approximately half of all existing sanitation provisions. The global methane emissions from NSSS in 2020 was estimated to be 377 Mt CO2e/year or 4.7% of global anthropogenic methane emissions. This is comparable to the greenhouse gas emissions from conventional <a href="/wiki/Wastewater_treatment" title="Wastewater treatment">wastewater treatment plants</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:111-117">[117]</a> Therefore, the GHG emissions from the non-sewered sanitation systems are a non-negligible source. India and China contribute extensively to methane emissions of NSSS because of their large populations and NSSS utilization.<a href="#cite_note-:111-117">[117]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Indirect_emissions_associated_with_the_energy_required_(Scope_2)">Indirect emissions associated with the energy required (Scope 2)</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=WASH&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Indirect emissions associated with the energy required (Scope 2)">edit</a>]</div> Scope 2 includes "indirect emissions associated with the energy required by the activity". Companies that deal with water and wastewater services need energy for various processes. They use the <a href="/wiki/Energy_mix" title="Energy mix">energy mix</a> that is available in the country. The higher the proportion of <a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">fossil fuels</a> in the energy mix is, the higher the GHG emissions under Scope 2 will be high too.<a href="#cite_note-IWAbook2022-113">[113]</a>: 12  The processes that need energy include: <a href="/wiki/Water_extraction" title="Water extraction">water abstraction</a> (e.g. groundwater pumping), drinking water storage, water conveyance, <a href="/wiki/Water_purification" title="Water purification">water treatment</a>, <a href="/wiki/Water_distribution_system" title="Water distribution system">water distribution</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wastewater_treatment" title="Wastewater treatment">treatment of wastewater</a>, water end use (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Water_heating" title="Water heating">water heating</a>), <a href="/wiki/Desalination" title="Desalination">desalination</a> and <a href="/wiki/Reclaimed_water" title="Reclaimed water">wastewater reuse</a>.<a href="#cite_note-IWAbook2022-113">[113]</a>: 20–24  For example, electrical energy is needed for pumping of sewage and for mechanical aeration in <a href="/wiki/Activated_sludge" title="Activated sludge">activated sludge treatment plants</a>. When looking at the emissions from the sanitation and wastewater sector most people focus on treatment systems, particularly treatment plants. This is because treatment plants require considerable energy input and are estimated to account for 3% of global electricity consumption.<a href="#cite_note-:30-118">[118]</a> This makes sense for high-income countries, where wastewater treatment is the biggest energy consumer compared to other activities of the water sector.<a href="#cite_note-IWAbook2022-113">[113]</a>: 23  The aeration processes that are used in many <a href="/wiki/Secondary_treatment" title="Secondary treatment">secondary treatment</a> processes are particularly energy intensive (using about 50% of the total energy required for treatment).<a href="#cite_note-IWAbook2022-113">[113]</a>: 24  The amount of energy needed to treat wastewater depends on several factors: wastewater quantity and quality (i.e. how much and how polluted is it), treatment level required which in turn influences the type of treatment process that gets selected.<a href="#cite_note-IWAbook2022-113">[113]</a>: 23  The energy efficiency of the treatment process is another factor.<a href="#cite_note-IWAbook2022-113">[113]</a>: 23  <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Energy and electricity usage by water and wastewater services under Scope 2 of the carbon accounting method (Indirect emissions associated with energy) </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Parameter </th> <th>Value </th> <th>Additional comments </th> <th>Source </th> <th>Year of estimate </th></tr> <tr> <td>Total energy used by water sector worldwide </td> <td>1400 TWh </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="#cite_note-IWAbook2022-113">[113]</a>: 20  </td> <td>2014 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Proportion of total energy used as electricity </td> <td>60% </td> <td>Mostly for pumping up groundwater for irrigation. </td> <td><a href="#cite_note-IWAbook2022-113">[113]</a>: 20  </td> <td>2014 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Proportion of total energy used as thermal energy </td> <td>40% </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="#cite_note-IWAbook2022-113">[113]</a>: 20  </td> <td>2014 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Percentage of global electricity consumption used by the water sector </td> <td>4% </td> <td>The energy for the use of water by end users (e.g. heating up water) is not included. </td> <td><a href="#cite_note-IWAbook2022-113">[113]</a>: 20  </td> <td>2014 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Usage breakdown for electricity consumed for water supply </td> <td>Water extraction: 40% Wastewater treatment: 25% Water distribution: 20% Seawater desalination: 5% </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="#cite_note-IWAbook2022-113">[113]</a>: 20  </td> <td>2014 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Percentage of global electricity consumption used for wastewater treatment plants </td> <td>3% </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="#cite_note-:30-118">[118]</a> </td> <td>2020 </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Indirect_emissions_related_to_the_activity_but_caused_by_other_organizations_(Scope_3)">Indirect emissions related to the activity but caused by other organizations (Scope 3)</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=WASH&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Indirect emissions related to the activity but caused by other organizations (Scope 3)">edit</a>]</div> Scope 3 includes "indirect emissions related to the activity but caused by other organizations". The indirect emissions under Scope 3 are difficult to assess in a standardized way. They include for example emissions from constructing infrastructure, from the manufacture of chemicals that are needed in the treatment process and from the management of the by-product sewage sludge.<a href="#cite_note-IWAbook2022-113">[113]</a>: 12  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Reducing_greenhouse_gas_emissions">Reducing greenhouse gas emissions</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=WASH&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Reducing greenhouse gas emissions">edit</a>]</div> Solutions exist to reduce the greenhouse gas emissions of water and sanitation services.<a href="#cite_note-:110-119">[119]</a> These solutions into three categories which partly overlap: Firstly "reducing water and energy consumption through lean and efficient approaches"; secondly "embracing <a href="/wiki/Circular_economy" title="Circular economy">circular economy</a> to produce energy and valuable products"; and thirdly by "planning to reduce GHG emissions through strategic decisions".<a href="#cite_note-IWAbook2022-113">[113]</a>: 28  The mentioned lean and efficient approaches include for example finding ways to reduce water loss from water networks and to reduce infiltration of rainwater or groundwater into sewers.<a href="#cite_note-IWAbook2022-113">[113]</a>: 29  Also, incentives can to encourage households and industries to <a href="/wiki/Water_demand_management" title="Water demand management">reduce their water consumption</a> and their energy requirements for <a href="/wiki/Water_heating" title="Water heating">water heating</a>.<a href="#cite_note-IWAbook2022-113">[113]</a>: 31  There is another method to reduce the energy requirements for the treatment of raw water to make drinking water out of it: protecting the quality of the source water better.<a href="#cite_note-IWAbook2022-113">[113]</a>: 32  Methods that fall into the category of circular economy include: <a href="/wiki/Reuse_of_human_excreta" title="Reuse of human excreta">Reusing water, nutrients and materials</a>; Low-carbon energy production (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Solar_power" title="Solar power">solar power</a> on roofs of utility buildings, <a href="/wiki/Waste_heat_recovery_unit" title="Waste heat recovery unit">recovery of waste heat</a> from wastewater, producing <a href="/wiki/Hydroelectricity" title="Hydroelectricity">hydro-electricity</a> by installing <a href="/wiki/Microturbine" title="Microturbine">micro-turbines</a>, producing energy from <a href="/wiki/Biosolids" title="Biosolids">biosolids</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sewage_sludge" title="Sewage sludge">sewage sludge</a>.<a href="#cite_note-IWAbook2022-113">[113]</a>: 33–37  Strategic decisions around reducing GHG emissions include: awareness raising and education, governance that supports changing practices, providing economic incentive to conserve water and reduce consumption, and finally choosing low-carbon energy and supplies.<a href="#cite_note-IWAbook2022-113">[113]</a>: 38–39  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Negative_impacts_of_climate_change">Negative impacts of climate change</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=WASH&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Negative impacts of climate change">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change" title="Effects of climate change">Effects of climate change</a> and <a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_human_health" title="Effects of climate change on human health">Effects of climate change on human health</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change" title="Effects of climate change">effects of climate change</a> can have negative impacts on existing sanitation services in several ways, for example by damage and loss of services from <a href="/wiki/Flood" title="Flood">floods</a> and reduced carrying capacity of waters receiving wastewater.<a href="#cite_note-:110-119">[119]</a><a href="#cite_note-:31-120">[120]</a><a href="#cite_note-:32-35">[35]</a>: 23  The weather and climate-related aspects (variability, seasonality and <a href="/wiki/Extreme_weather" title="Extreme weather">extreme weather</a> events) have always had an impact on the delivery of sanitation services.<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a>: 3  But now, extreme weather events, such as floods and <a href="/wiki/Drought" title="Drought">droughts</a>, are generally increasing in frequency and intensity due to climate change in many regions.<a href="#cite_note-:182-122">[122]</a>: 1157  They affect the operation of <a href="/wiki/Water_supply" title="Water supply">water supply</a>, <a href="/wiki/Storm_drain" title="Storm drain">storm drainage</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sewerage" title="Sewerage">sewerage</a> infrastructure, and <a href="/wiki/Wastewater_treatment" title="Wastewater treatment">wastewater treatment plants</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:62-123">[123]</a> Changes in the frequency and intensity of climate extremes could compound current challenges as water availability becomes more uncertain, and health risks increase due to contaminated water sources.<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> The effects of climate change can result in a decrease of water availability, an increase of water necessity, damage to WASH facilities, and increased water contamination from pollutants.<a href="#cite_note-:31-120">[120]</a><a href="#cite_note-:32-35">[35]</a>: 23  Due to these impacts, climate change can "exacerbate many WASH-related risks and diseases".<a href="#cite_note-:32-35">[35]</a>: 23  <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">Climate change</a> poses increased risks to WASH systems, particular in Sub-Saharan Africa where access to <a href="/wiki/Safely_managed_sanitation" class="mw-redirect" title="Safely managed sanitation">safely managed basic sanitation</a> is low.<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> In that region, it is the poorly managed WASH systems, for example in informal settlements, which make people more <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_vulnerability" title="Climate change vulnerability">vulnerable to the effects of climate change</a> than people elsewhere.<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a><a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> In terms of the <a href="/wiki/Water_cycle" title="Water cycle">water cycle</a>, climate change can affect the amounts of soil infiltration, deeper <a href="/wiki/Percolation" title="Percolation">percolation</a>, and hence <a href="/wiki/Groundwater_recharge" title="Groundwater recharge">groundwater recharge</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:19-17">[17]</a> Also, rising temperature increases <a href="/wiki/Evaporation" title="Evaporation">evaporative</a> demand over land, which limits the amount of water to replenish groundwater.<a href="#cite_note-:19-17">[17]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Influence_of_climate_change_on_waterborne_diseases">Influence of climate change on waterborne diseases</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=WASH&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Influence of climate change on waterborne diseases">edit</a>]</div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_infectious_diseases" title="Climate change and infectious diseases">Climate change and infectious diseases</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Climate_change_and_infectious_diseases&action=edit">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aedes_aegypti_CDC9253.tif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Aedes_aegypti_CDC9253.tif/lossy-page1-220px-Aedes_aegypti_CDC9253.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Aedes_aegypti_CDC9253.tif/lossy-page1-330px-Aedes_aegypti_CDC9253.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Aedes_aegypti_CDC9253.tif/lossy-page1-440px-Aedes_aegypti_CDC9253.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3553" data-file-height="2453" /></a><figcaption>Climate change is altering the geographic range and seasonality of some insects that can carry diseases, for example <a href="/wiki/Aedes_aegypti" title="Aedes aegypti">Aedes aegypti</a>, the mosquito that is the <a href="/wiki/Disease_vector" title="Disease vector">vector</a> for <a href="/wiki/Dengue" class="mw-redirect" title="Dengue">dengue</a> transmission.</figcaption></figure> Global <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a> has increased the occurrence of some <a href="/wiki/Infectious_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Infectious diseases">infectious diseases</a>.<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> Infectious diseases whose transmission is impacted by climate change include, for example, <a href="/wiki/Vector-borne_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Vector-borne disease">vector-borne diseases</a> like <a href="/wiki/Dengue_fever" title="Dengue fever">dengue fever</a>, <a href="/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria">malaria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tick-borne_disease" title="Tick-borne disease">tick-borne diseases</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leishmaniasis" title="Leishmaniasis">leishmaniasis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zika_fever" title="Zika fever">zika fever</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chikungunya" title="Chikungunya">chikungunya</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ebola" title="Ebola">Ebola</a>. One mechanism contributing to increased disease transmission is that climate change is altering the geographic range and seasonality of the insects (or <a href="/wiki/Disease_vector" title="Disease vector">disease vectors</a>) that can carry the diseases. Scientists stated a clear observation in 2022: "The occurrence of climate-related <a href="/wiki/Foodborne_illness" title="Foodborne illness">food-borne</a> and <a href="/wiki/Waterborne_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Waterborne diseases">waterborne diseases</a> has increased (very high confidence)."<a href="#cite_note-Climate_change_and_infectious_diseases_:1-129">[129]</a>: 11  Infectious diseases that are sensitive to climate can be grouped into: vector-borne diseases (transmitted via <a href="/wiki/Mosquito" title="Mosquito">mosquitos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tick" title="Tick">ticks</a> etc.), waterborne diseases (transmitted via viruses or bacteria through water), and food-borne diseases.(spread through pathogens via food)<a href="#cite_note-Climate_change_and_infectious_diseases_:16-130">[130]</a>: 1107  Climate change affects the distribution of these diseases due to the expanding geographic range and seasonality of these diseases and their vectors.<a href="#cite_note-Climate_change_and_infectious_diseases_Romanello2021-131">[131]</a><a href="/wiki/Waterborne_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Waterborne diseases">: 9 </a> Like other ways climate change affects <a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_human_health" title="Effects of climate change on human health">human health</a>, climate change exacerbates existing inequalities and challenges in managing infectious disease. Mosquito-borne diseases that are sensitive to climate include <a href="/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria">malaria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lymphatic_filariasis" title="Lymphatic filariasis">lymphatic filariasis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rift_Valley_fever" title="Rift Valley fever">Rift Valley fever</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yellow_fever" title="Yellow fever">yellow fever</a>, dengue fever, <a href="/wiki/Zika_virus" title="Zika virus">Zika virus</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Chikungunya" title="Chikungunya">chikungunya</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Climate_change_and_infectious_diseases_Mosquitoes-Borne_Disease-132">[132]</a><a href="#cite_note-Climate_change_and_infectious_diseases_elephantiasis-133">[133]</a><a href="#cite_note-Climate_change_and_infectious_diseases_Climate_change_&_health-134">[134]</a> Scientists found in 2022 that rising temperatures are increasing the areas where dengue fever, malaria and other mosquito-carried diseases are able to spread.<a href="#cite_note-Climate_change_and_infectious_diseases_:16-130">[130]</a>: 1062  Warmer temperatures are also advancing to higher elevations, allowing mosquitoes to survive in places that were previously in hospitable to them.<a href="#cite_note-Climate_change_and_infectious_diseases_:16-130">[130]</a>: 1045  This risks malaria returning to areas where it was previously eradicated.<a href="#cite_note-Climate_change_and_infectious_diseases_The_Mosquito-135">[135]</a></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Climate_change_adaptation">Climate change adaptation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=WASH&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Climate change adaptation">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation" title="Climate change adaptation">Climate change adaptation</a></div> Adaptation efforts in the WASH sector include for example protection of local water resources (as these resources become source water for drinking water supply) and investigating improvements to the water supply and storage strategy. It might also be necessary to adjust the utility's planning and operation.<a href="#cite_note-IWAbook2022-113">[113]</a>: 41  Climate change adaptation policies need to consider the risks from extreme weather events.<a href="#cite_note-:26-136">[136]</a> The required adaptation measures need to consider measures for droughts and those for floods.<a href="#cite_note-:26-136">[136]</a>: 61  Adaptation measures for droughts include for example: reduce leakages in a pro-active manner, communicate restrictions on water use to consumers. Adaptation measures for floods include for example: Review the siting of the water and wastewater treatment plants in floodplains, minimize the impact of floodwater on operational equipment.<a href="#cite_note-:26-136">[136]</a>: 61  <a href="/wiki/Nature-based_solutions" title="Nature-based solutions">Nature-based solutions</a> (NbS) can play an important role for climate change adaptation approaches of water and sanitation services.<a href="#cite_note-IWAbook2022-113">[113]</a>: 45  This includes <a href="/wiki/Ecological_Restoration" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecological Restoration">ecological restoration</a> (which can improve infiltration and thus reduce flooding), <a href="/wiki/Ecological_engineering" title="Ecological engineering">ecological engineering</a> for wastewater treatment, <a href="/wiki/Green_infrastructure_for_stormwater_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Green infrastructure for stormwater management">green infrastructure for stormwater management</a>, and measures for natural water retention.<a href="#cite_note-IWAbook2022-113">[113]</a>: 45  Most National Adaptation Plans published by the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Framework_Convention_on_Climate_Change" title="United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change">UN Framework Convention for Climate Change</a> include measures to improve sanitation and hygiene.<a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a> Engineers and planners need to adapt design standards for water and sanitation systems to account for the changing climate conditions. Otherwise these infrastructure systems will be more and more vulnerable in future. The same applies for other key infrastructure systems such as transport, energy and communications.<a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a>: 13  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Improving_climate_resilience">Improving climate resilience</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=WASH&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Improving climate resilience">edit</a>]</div> Climate-resilient water services (or climate-resilient WASH) are services that provide access to high quality drinking water during all seasons and even during extreme weather events.<a href="#cite_note-Katrina20222-16">[16]</a> <a href="/wiki/Climate_resilience" title="Climate resilience">Climate resilience</a> in general is the ability to recover from, or to mitigate vulnerability to, climate-related shocks such as floods and droughts.<a href="#cite_note-:25-139">[139]</a> Climate resilient development has become the new paradigm for <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_development" title="Sustainable development">sustainable development</a>. This concept thus influences theory and practice across all sectors globally.<a href="#cite_note-:25-139">[139]</a> This is particularly true in the <a href="/wiki/Water_sector" class="mw-redirect" title="Water sector">water sector</a>, since <a href="/wiki/Water_security" title="Water security">water security</a> is closely connected to climate change. On every continent, governments are now adopting policies for climate resilient economies. International frameworks such as the <a href="/wiki/Paris_Agreement" title="Paris Agreement">Paris Agreement</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_Development_Goals" title="Sustainable Development Goals">Sustainable Development Goals</a> are drivers for such initiatives.<a href="#cite_note-:25-139">[139]</a> Several activities can improve <a href="/wiki/Water_security" title="Water security">water security</a> and increase resilience to <a href="/wiki/Climate_risk" title="Climate risk">climate risks</a>: Carrying out a detailed analysis of climate risk to make <a href="/wiki/Climate_Information_Service" title="Climate Information Service">climate information</a> relevant to specific users; developing metrics for monitoring climate resilience in water systems (this will help to track progress and guide investments for water security); and using new institutional models that improve water security.<a href="#cite_note-:113-140">[140]</a> Climate resilient policies can be useful for allocating water, keeping in mind that less water may be available in future. This requires a good understanding of the current and future hydroclimatic situation. For example, a better understanding of future changes in climate variability leads to a better response to their possible impacts.<a href="#cite_note-:22-15">[15]</a> To build climate resilience into water systems, people need to have access to climate information that is appropriate for their local context.<a href="#cite_note-:113-140">[140]</a>: 59  Climate information products are useful if they cover a wide range of temporal and spatial scales, and provide information on regional water-related climate risks.<a href="#cite_note-:113-140">[140]</a>: 58  For example, government staff need easy access to climate information to achieve better water management.<a href="#cite_note-:22-15">[15]</a> Four important activities to achieve climate resilient WASH services include: First, a risk analysis is performed to look at possible implications of extreme weather events as well as preventive actions.<a href="#cite_note-:27-141">[141]</a>: 4  Such preventive actions can include for example elevating the infrastructure to be above expected flood levels. Secondly, managers assess the scope for reducing <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">greenhouse gas emissions</a> and put in place suitable options, e.g. using more <a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">renewable energy</a> sources. Thirdly, the water utilities ensure that water sources and sanitation services are reliable at all times during the year, also during times of droughts and floods. Finally, the management and service delivery models are strengthened so that they can withstand a crisis.<a href="#cite_note-:27-141">[141]</a>: 5  To put climate resilience into practice and to engage better with politicians, the following guide questions are useful: "resilience of what, to what, for whom, over what time frame, by whom and at what scale?".<a href="#cite_note-:25-139">[139]</a> For example, "resilience of what?" means thinking beyond infrastructure but to also include resilience of water resources, local institutions and water users. Another example is that "resilience for whom?" speaks about reducing vulnerability and preventing negative developments: Some top-down interventions that work around power and politics may undermine <a href="/wiki/Traditional_knowledge" title="Traditional knowledge">indigenous knowledge</a> and compromise community resilience.<a href="#cite_note-:25-139">[139]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Adaptive_capacity_for_climate_resilience">Adaptive capacity for climate resilience</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=WASH&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Adaptive capacity for climate resilience">edit</a>]</div> Adaptive capacity in water management systems can help to absorb some of the impacts of climate-related events and increase climate resilience.<a href="#cite_note-:72-1">[1]</a>: 25  Stakeholders at various scales, i.e. from small urban utilities to national governments, need to have access to reliable information which details regional climate and climate change. For example, context-specific climate tools can help national policy makers and sub-national practitioners to make informed decisions to improve climate resilience.<a href="#cite_note-:72-1">[1]</a> A global research program called REACH (led by the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Oxford" title="University of Oxford">University of Oxford</a> and funded by the <a href="/wiki/Foreign,_Commonwealth_and_Development_Office" title="Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office">UK Government's Foreign, Commonwealth & Development Office</a>) is developing and using such climate tools for Kenya, Ethiopia and Bangladesh during 2015 to 2024.<a href="#cite_note-:72-1">[1]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Approaches_for_planning_and_implementation">Approaches for planning and implementation</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=WASH&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Approaches for planning and implementation">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="National_WASH_plans_and_monitoring">National WASH plans and monitoring</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=WASH&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: National WASH plans and monitoring">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/UN-Water" title="UN-Water">UN-Water</a> carries out the Global Analysis and Assessment of Sanitation and Drinking-Water (GLAAS) initiative. This work examines the "extent to which countries develop and implement national policies and plans for WASH, conduct regular monitoring, regulate and take corrective action as needed, and coordinate these parallel processes with sufficient financial resources and support from strong national institutions."<a href="#cite_note-:15-142">[142]</a> Many countries' WASH plans are not supported by the necessary financial and human resources. This hinders their implementation and intended outcomes for WASH service delivery.<a href="#cite_note-:15-142">[142]</a> As of 2022, it is becoming more common for countries to include "climate change preparedness approaches" in their national WASH plans. <a href="/wiki/Preparedness" title="Preparedness">Preparedness</a> in this context means working on <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">mitigation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation" title="Climate change adaptation">adaptation</a> and resilience of WASH systems.<a href="#cite_note-:28-143">[143]</a>: 11  Still, most national policies on WASH services do not set out how to address climate risks and how to increase the resilience of infrastructure and management.<a href="#cite_note-:28-143">[143]</a>: vii  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Women's_empowerment">Women's empowerment</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=WASH&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Women's empowerment">edit</a>]</div> There has been a growing understanding of the role of gender in development in recent decades (often called <a href="/wiki/Gender_mainstreaming" title="Gender mainstreaming">gender mainstreaming</a>).<a href="#cite_note-:34-8">[8]</a> <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_empowerment" title="Women's empowerment">Women's empowerment</a> plays an important role in reducing gender disparities and related adverse outcomes across all sectors, including the WASH sector.<a href="#cite_note-:34-8">[8]</a> Women's empowerment is particularly crucial in WASH, as prevalent social norms assign the majority of water collection roles to women in many developing countries.<a href="#cite_note-:34-8">[8]</a> Empowerment is largely described in the literature as both a process by which WASH services could be improved as well as the result of improved WASH services.<a href="#cite_note-:36-144">[144]</a> The Empowerment in WASH Index (EWI) was developed in 2019 to guide WASH practitioners in measuring and monitoring gender outcomes, empowerment, and inclusivity in WASH-related interventions.<a href="#cite_note-:34-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a> National indices and tools also exist to capture changes in <a href="/wiki/Gender_disparities" class="mw-redirect" title="Gender disparities">gender disparities</a> at the national level: <a href="/wiki/Gender_Empowerment_Measure" title="Gender Empowerment Measure">Gender Empowerment Measure</a> (GEM), <a href="/wiki/Gender_Inequality_Index" title="Gender Inequality Index">Gender Inequality Index</a> (GII), and <a href="/wiki/Gender_Development_Index" title="Gender Development Index">Gender Development Index</a> (GDI).<a href="#cite_note-:34-8">[8]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Conceptualizing_empowerment.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Conceptualizing_empowerment.png/220px-Conceptualizing_empowerment.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="109" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Conceptualizing_empowerment.png/330px-Conceptualizing_empowerment.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/06/Conceptualizing_empowerment.png 2x" data-file-width="432" data-file-height="215" /></a><figcaption>This figure shows an empowerment framework in the WASH sector. WASH outcomes are both a source and an outcome of empowerment. Such outcomes include improved access to safe drinking water and sanitation, reduction in water-related diseases, healthcare savings, adequate time for engaging in economic activities for income, etc.<a href="#cite_note-:36-144">[144]</a></figcaption></figure> A scoping review of the literature found five key interrelated dimensions of empowerment in the WASH sector:<a href="#cite_note-:36-144">[144]</a> <ol><li>Access to information (knowledge sharing, awareness creation, and information dissemination),</li> <li>Participation (community engagement, partnerships, and involvement in the design and governance of WASH projects),</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capacity_building" title="Capacity building">Capacity building</a> (leveraging of human capital, organizational resources, and social capital to solve collective problem)</li> <li>Leadership and accountability, and</li> <li>Decision-making and inclusiveness.</li></ol> A qualitative study in <a href="/wiki/Asutifi_North_District" class="mw-redirect" title="Asutifi North District">Asutifi North District</a> in <a href="/wiki/Ghana" title="Ghana">Ghana</a> conceptualized empowerment in terms of four major themes: availability of resources, WASH information, social and cultural structures, and <a href="/wiki/Agency_(philosophy)" title="Agency (philosophy)">agency</a> (the ability to define and act on individual or shared goals, and to put them into effect).<a href="#cite_note-:34-8">[8]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Dublin_Statement" title="Dublin Statement">Dublin Statement on Water and Sustainable Development</a> in 1992 included "Women Play a central part in the provision management and safeguarding of water" as one of four principles.<a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a> In 1996, the <a href="/wiki/World_Bank_Group" title="World Bank Group">World Bank Group</a> published a Toolkit on Gender in Water and Sanitation.<a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a> Gender-sensitive approaches to water and <a href="/wiki/Sanitation" title="Sanitation">sanitation</a> have proven to be cost effective.<a href="#cite_note-GENDERPERSPECTIVE-148">[148]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=WASH&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_water_supply_and_sanitation" title="History of water supply and sanitation">History of water supply and sanitation</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/History_of_water_supply_and_sanitation" title="History of water supply and sanitation">history of water supply and sanitation</a> is the topic of a separate article. The abbreviation WASH was used from the year 1988 onwards as an acronym for the Water and Sanitation for Health Project of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Agency_for_International_Development" title="United States Agency for International Development">United States Agency for International Development</a>.<a href="#cite_note-149">[149]</a> At that time, the letter "H" stood for health, not hygiene. Similarly, in Zambia the term WASHE was used in a report in 1987 and stood for Water Sanitation Health Education.<a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a> An even older USAID WASH project report dates back to as early as 1981.<a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a> From about 2001 onwards, international organizations active in the area of water supply and sanitation advocacy, such as the <a href="/wiki/Water_Supply_and_Sanitation_Collaborative_Council" title="Water Supply and Sanitation Collaborative Council">Water Supply and Sanitation Collaborative Council</a> and the International Water and Sanitation Centre (IRC) in the Netherlands began to use WASH as an umbrella term for water, sanitation and hygiene.<a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a> WASH has since then been broadly adopted as a handy acronym for water, sanitation and hygiene in the <a href="/wiki/International_development" title="International development">international development</a> context.<a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a> The term WatSan was also used for a while, especially in the emergency response sector such as with <a href="/wiki/International_Federation_of_Red_Cross_and_Red_Crescent_Societies" title="International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies">IFRC</a> and <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_High_Commissioner_for_Refugees" title="United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees">UNHCR</a>,<a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a> but has not proven as popular as WASH. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Society_and_culture">Society and culture</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=WASH&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: Society and culture">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Global_goals">Global goals</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=WASH&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: Global goals">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_Development_Goal_6" title="Sustainable Development Goal 6">Sustainable Development Goal 6</a> and <a href="/wiki/Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation" title="Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation">Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Share_of_population_using_safely_managed_sanitation_facilities,_OWID.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Share_of_population_using_safely_managed_sanitation_facilities%2C_OWID.svg/300px-Share_of_population_using_safely_managed_sanitation_facilities%2C_OWID.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="212" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Share_of_population_using_safely_managed_sanitation_facilities%2C_OWID.svg/450px-Share_of_population_using_safely_managed_sanitation_facilities%2C_OWID.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Share_of_population_using_safely_managed_sanitation_facilities%2C_OWID.svg/600px-Share_of_population_using_safely_managed_sanitation_facilities%2C_OWID.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="850" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>World map for Indicator 6.2.1a in 2015: Share of population using safely managed sanitation facilities<a href="#cite_note-Ritchie_2018-12">[12]</a></figcaption></figure> Since 1990, the <a href="/wiki/Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation" title="Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation">Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation</a> (JMP) of WHO and UNICEF has regularly produced estimates of global WASH progress.<a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a><a href="#cite_note-:6-156">[156]</a> The JMP was already responsible for monitoring the UN's <a href="/wiki/Millennium_Development_Goals" title="Millennium Development Goals">Millennium Development Goal</a> (MDG) Target 7.C, which aimed to "halve, by 2015, the proportion of the population without sustainable access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation".<a href="#cite_note-157">[157]</a> This has been replaced in 2015 by the <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_Development_Goal_6" title="Sustainable Development Goal 6">Sustainable Development Goal 6</a> (SDG 6), which is to "ensure <a href="/wiki/Water_resources" title="Water resources">availability</a> and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all" by 2030.<a href="#cite_note-:14-2">[2]</a> To establish a reference point from which progress toward achieving the SDGs could be monitored, the JMP produced "Progress on Drinking Water, Sanitation and Hygiene: 2017 Update and SDG Baselines".<a href="#cite_note-:7-3">[3]</a> Expanding WASH coverage and monitoring in non-household settings such as schools, healthcare facilities, and work places, is included in <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_Development_Goal_6" title="Sustainable Development Goal 6">Sustainable Development Goal 6</a>.<a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a> <a href="/wiki/WaterAid" title="WaterAid">WaterAid</a> International is a <a href="/wiki/Non-governmental_organization" title="Non-governmental organization">non-governmental organization</a> (NGO) that works on improving the availability of safe drinking water in some the world's poorest countries.<a href="#cite_note-159">[159]</a> <a href="/wiki/Sanitation_and_Water_for_All" title="Sanitation and Water for All">Sanitation and Water for All</a> is a partnership that brings together national governments, donors, UN agencies, NGOs and other development partners. They work to improve sustainable access to sanitation and water supply.<a href="#cite_note-160">[160]</a> In 2014, 77 countries had already met the MDG sanitation target, 29 were on track and, 79 were not on-track.<a href="#cite_note-WHO_UNICEF_Progress_2017-9">[9]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Awards">Awards</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=WASH&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: Awards">edit</a>]</div> Important awards for individuals or organizations working on WASH include for example the <a href="/wiki/Stockholm_Water_Prize" title="Stockholm Water Prize">Stockholm Water Prize</a> since 1991 and the <a href="/wiki/Sarphati_Sanitation_Awards" title="Sarphati Sanitation Awards">Sarphati Sanitation Awards</a> since 2013, for sanitation entrepreneurship. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_Nations_organs">United Nations organs</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=WASH&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: United Nations organs">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/UNICEF" title="UNICEF">UNICEF</a> - UNICEF's declared strategy is "to achieve universal and equitable access to safe and affordable drinking water for all".<a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a> <a href="/wiki/UNICEF" title="UNICEF">UNICEF</a> includes WASH initiatives in their work with schools in over 30 countries.<a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UN-Water" title="UN-Water">UN-Water</a> - an interagency mechanism which "coordinates the efforts of UN entities and international organizations working on water and sanitation issues".<a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a></li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:GHWWSD.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/GHWWSD.JPG/220px-GHWWSD.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="292" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/GHWWSD.JPG/330px-GHWWSD.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/GHWWSD.JPG/440px-GHWWSD.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2144" data-file-height="2848" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Global_Handwashing_Day" title="Global Handwashing Day">Global Handwashing Day</a> celebrations in Indonesia</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Awareness_raising_through_observance_days">Awareness raising through observance days</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=WASH&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: Awareness raising through observance days">edit</a>]</div> The United Nation's <a href="/wiki/International_Year_of_Sanitation" title="International Year of Sanitation">International Year of Sanitation</a> in 2008 helped to increase attention for funding of sanitation in WASH programs of many <a href="/wiki/Official_development_assistance" title="Official development assistance">donors</a>. For example, the <a href="/wiki/Bill_and_Melinda_Gates_Foundation" class="mw-redirect" title="Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation">Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation</a> has increased their funding for sanitation projects since 2009, with a strong focus on <a href="/wiki/Reuse_of_excreta" class="mw-redirect" title="Reuse of excreta">reuse of excreta</a>.<a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a> Awareness raising for the importance of WASH takes place through several <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> international <a href="/wiki/International_observance" class="mw-redirect" title="International observance">observance days</a>, namely <a href="/wiki/World_Water_Day" title="World Water Day">World Water Day</a>, <a href="/wiki/Menstrual_Hygiene_Day" title="Menstrual Hygiene Day">Menstrual Hygiene Day</a>, <a href="/wiki/World_Toilet_Day" title="World Toilet Day">World Toilet Day</a> and <a href="/wiki/Global_Handwashing_Day" title="Global Handwashing Day">Global Handwashing Day</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="By_country_and_region">By country and region</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=WASH&action=edit&section=55" title="Edit section: By country and region">edit</a>]</div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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mw-collapsible expand navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output 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supply and sanitation by country"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Water_supply_and_sanitation_by_country" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Water supply and sanitation by country</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By region</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_the_European_Union" title="Water supply and sanitation in the European Union">European Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Latin_America" title="Water supply and sanitation in Latin America">Latin America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Sub-Saharan_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Water supply and sanitation in Sub-Saharan Africa">Sub-Saharan Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_responsibilities_in_the_water_supply_and_sanitation_sector_in_Latin_America_and_the_Caribbean" title="List of responsibilities in the water supply and sanitation sector in Latin America and the Caribbean">Responsibilities in Latin America and the Caribbean</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="7" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Bonn,_Kl%C3%A4ranlage_Salierweg.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Bonn%2C_Kl%C3%A4ranlage_Salierweg.JPG/190px-Bonn%2C_Kl%C3%A4ranlage_Salierweg.JPG" decoding="async" width="190" height="107" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Bonn%2C_Kl%C3%A4ranlage_Salierweg.JPG/285px-Bonn%2C_Kl%C3%A4ranlage_Salierweg.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Bonn%2C_Kl%C3%A4ranlage_Salierweg.JPG/380px-Bonn%2C_Kl%C3%A4ranlage_Salierweg.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4032" data-file-height="2268" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Algeria" title="Water supply and sanitation in Algeria">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Angola" title="Water supply and sanitation in Angola">Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Botswana&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Water supply and sanitation in Botswana (page does not exist)">Botswana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Benin" title="Water supply and sanitation in Benin">Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Burkina_Faso" title="Water supply and sanitation in Burkina Faso">Burkina Faso</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Burundi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Water supply and sanitation in Burundi (page does not exist)">Burundi</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Cameroon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Water supply and sanitation in Cameroon (page does not exist)">Cameroon</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Water supply and sanitation in Democratic Republic of the Congo (page does not exist)">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Egypt" title="Water supply and sanitation in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Eswatini&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Water supply and sanitation in Eswatini (page does not exist)">Eswatini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Ethiopia" title="Water supply and sanitation in Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Ghana" title="Water supply and sanitation in Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Ivory_Coast&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Water supply and sanitation in Ivory Coast (page does not exist)">Ivory Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Kenya" title="Water supply and sanitation in Kenya">Kenya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Lesotho" title="Water supply and sanitation in Lesotho">Lesotho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Liberia" class="mw-redirect" title="Water supply and sanitation in Liberia">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Libya" class="mw-redirect" title="Water supply and sanitation in Libya">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Malawi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Water supply and sanitation in Malawi (page does not exist)">Malawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Mali" title="Water supply and sanitation in Mali">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Morocco" title="Water supply and sanitation in Morocco">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Mozambique" title="Water supply and sanitation in Mozambique">Mozambique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Namibia" title="Water supply and sanitation in Namibia">Namibia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Nigeria" title="Water supply and sanitation in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Rwanda" title="Water supply and sanitation in Rwanda">Rwanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Senegal" title="Water supply and sanitation in Senegal">Senegal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Sierra_Leone" class="mw-redirect" title="Water supply and sanitation in Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_South_Africa" title="Water supply and sanitation in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_South_Sudan" class="mw-redirect" title="Water supply and sanitation in South Sudan">South Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Sudan" class="mw-redirect" title="Water supply and sanitation in Sudan">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Tanzania" title="Water supply and sanitation in Tanzania">Tanzania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Tunisia" title="Water supply and sanitation in Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Uganda" title="Water supply and sanitation in Uganda">Uganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Zambia" title="Water supply and sanitation in Zambia">Zambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Zimbabwe" title="Water supply and sanitation in Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Water supply and sanitation in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Azerbaijan" title="Water supply and sanitation in Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Bangladesh" title="Water supply and sanitation in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Cambodia" class="mw-redirect" title="Water supply and sanitation in Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_China" title="Water supply and sanitation in China">China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Hong_Kong" title="Water supply and sanitation in Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Macau" title="Water supply and sanitation in Macau">Macau</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Georgia" title="Water supply and sanitation in Georgia">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_India" title="Water supply and sanitation in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Indonesia" title="Water supply and sanitation in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Israel" title="Water supply and sanitation in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Iran" title="Water supply and sanitation in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="Water supply and sanitation in Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Japan" title="Water supply and sanitation in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Jordan" title="Water supply and sanitation in Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Kazakhstan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Water supply and sanitation in Kazakhstan (page does not exist)">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Kuwait" class="mw-redirect" title="Water supply and sanitation in Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Kyrgyzstan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Water supply and sanitation in Kyrgyzstan (page does not exist)">Kyrgyzstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Laos" title="Water supply and sanitation in Laos">Laos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Lebanon" title="Water supply and sanitation in Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Malaysia" title="Water supply and sanitation in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Oman" class="mw-redirect" title="Water supply and sanitation in Oman">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Pakistan" title="Water supply and sanitation in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_the_State_of_Palestine" title="Water supply and sanitation in the State of Palestine">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_the_Philippines" title="Water supply and sanitation in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Russia" title="Water supply and sanitation in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Water supply and sanitation in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Singapore" title="Water supply and sanitation in Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_South_Korea&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Water supply and sanitation in South Korea (page does not exist)">South Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Sri_Lanka&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Water supply and sanitation in Sri Lanka (page does not exist)">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Syria" title="Water supply and sanitation in Syria">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Taiwan" title="Water supply and sanitation in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Thailand" class="mw-redirect" title="Water supply and sanitation in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_United_Arab_Emirates&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Water supply and sanitation in United Arab Emirates (page does not exist)">United Arab Emirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Vietnam" title="Water supply and sanitation in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Yemen" title="Water supply and sanitation in Yemen">Yemen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Australasia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Australia" title="Water supply and sanitation in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_East_Timor&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Water supply and sanitation in East Timor (page does not exist)">East Timor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_New_Zealand" title="Water supply and sanitation in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Papua_New_Guinea&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Water supply and sanitation in Papua New Guinea (page does not exist)">Papua New Guinea</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Albania&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Water supply and sanitation in Albania (page does not exist)">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Armenia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Water supply and sanitation in Armenia (page does not exist)">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Austria&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Water supply and sanitation in Austria (page does not exist)">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Belgium" title="Water supply and sanitation in Belgium">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" class="mw-redirect" title="Water supply and sanitation in Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Bulgaria&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Water supply and sanitation in Bulgaria (page does not exist)">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Croatia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Water supply and sanitation in Croatia (page does not exist)">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_the_Czech_Republic&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Water supply and sanitation in the Czech Republic (page does not exist)">Czech Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Denmark" title="Water supply and sanitation in Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Estonia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Water supply and sanitation in Estonia (page does not exist)">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Finland&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Water supply and sanitation in Finland (page does not exist)">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_France" title="Water supply and sanitation in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Germany" title="Water supply and sanitation in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Greece" title="Water supply and sanitation in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Hungary&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Water supply and sanitation in Hungary (page does not exist)">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Iceland&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Water supply and sanitation in Iceland (page does not exist)">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Italy" title="Water supply and sanitation in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Latvia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Water supply and sanitation in Latvia (page does not exist)">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Lithuania&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Water supply and sanitation in Lithuania (page does not exist)">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_the_Netherlands" title="Water supply and sanitation in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_North_Macedonia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Water supply and sanitation in North Macedonia (page does not exist)">North Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Norway&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Water supply and sanitation in Norway (page does not exist)">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Serbia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Water supply and sanitation in Serbia (page does not exist)">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Poland&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Water supply and sanitation in Poland (page does not exist)">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Portugal" title="Water supply and sanitation in Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="Water supply and sanitation in the Republic of Ireland">Republic of Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Romania&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Water supply and sanitation in Romania (page does not exist)">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Russia" title="Water supply and sanitation in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Slovakia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Water supply and sanitation in Slovakia (page does not exist)">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Slovenia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Water supply and sanitation in Slovenia (page does not exist)">Slovenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Spain" title="Water supply and sanitation in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Sweden&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Water supply and sanitation in Sweden (page does not exist)">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Switzerland&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Water supply and sanitation in Switzerland (page does not exist)">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Turkey" title="Water supply and sanitation in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Ukraine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Water supply and sanitation in Ukraine (page does not exist)">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Water supply and sanitation in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_England_and_Wales" title="Water supply and sanitation in England and Wales">England and Wales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Northern_Ireland" class="mw-redirect" title="Water supply and sanitation in Northern Ireland">Northern Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Scotland" title="Water supply and sanitation in Scotland">Scotland</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">North America</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Belize" class="mw-redirect" title="Water supply and sanitation in Belize">Belize</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Canada" title="Water supply and sanitation in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Costa_Rica" title="Water supply and sanitation in Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Cuba" title="Water supply and sanitation in Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_the_Dominican_Republic" title="Water supply and sanitation in the Dominican Republic">Dominican Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_El_Salvador" title="Water supply and sanitation in El Salvador">El Salvador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Guatemala" title="Water supply and sanitation in Guatemala">Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Haiti" title="Water supply and sanitation in Haiti">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Honduras" title="Water supply and sanitation in Honduras">Honduras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Jamaica" title="Water supply and sanitation in Jamaica">Jamaica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Mexico" title="Water supply and sanitation in Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Nicaragua" title="Water supply and sanitation in Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Panama" title="Water supply and sanitation in Panama">Panama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_the_United_States" title="Water supply and sanitation in the United States">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">South America</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Argentina" title="Water supply and sanitation in Argentina">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Bolivia" title="Water supply and sanitation in Bolivia">Bolivia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Brazil" title="Water supply and sanitation in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Chile" title="Water supply and sanitation in Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Colombia" title="Water supply and sanitation in Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Ecuador" title="Water supply and sanitation in Ecuador">Ecuador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Guyana" title="Water supply and sanitation in Guyana">Guyana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Paraguay" title="Water supply and sanitation in Paraguay">Paraguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Peru" title="Water supply and sanitation in Peru">Peru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Trinidad_and_Tobago" class="mw-redirect" title="Water supply and sanitation in Trinidad and Tobago">Trinidad and Tobago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Uruguay" title="Water supply and sanitation in Uruguay">Uruguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Venezuela" title="Water supply and sanitation in Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=WASH&action=edit&section=56" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Water_and_sanitation_program" class="mw-redirect" title="Water and sanitation program">Global Water Security & Sanitation Partnership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_right_to_water_and_sanitation" title="Human right to water and sanitation">Human right to water and sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_issues_in_developing_countries" title="Water issues in developing countries">Water issues in developing countries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_Supply_and_Sanitation_Collaborative_Council" title="Water Supply and Sanitation Collaborative Council">Water Supply and Sanitation Collaborative Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa" title="Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa">Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_Water_Supply_Network" title="Rural Water Supply Network">Rural Water Supply Network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_Sanitation_Alliance" title="Sustainable Sanitation Alliance">Sustainable Sanitation Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Toilet_Organization" title="World Toilet Organization">World Toilet Organization (WTO)</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=WASH&action=edit&section=57" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-:72-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:72_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:72_1-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:72_1-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:72_1-3">d</a> <a 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a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://reachwater.org.uk/resource/reach-global-strategy-2020-2024/">"REACH Global Strategy 2020-2024"</a>. 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title="Occupational safety and health">Occupational safety and health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmaceutical_policy" title="Pharmaceutical policy">Pharmaceutical policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollution" title="Pollution">Pollution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_pollution" title="Air pollution">Air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">Water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_pollution" class="mw-redirect" title="Soil pollution">Soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_contamination" title="Radioactive contamination">Radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Light_pollution" title="Light pollution">Light</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prisoners%27_rights" title="Prisoners' rights">Prisoners' rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health_intervention" title="Public health intervention">Public health intervention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health_laboratory" title="Public health laboratory">Public health laboratory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_food" title="Right to food">Right to food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_health" title="Right to health">Right to health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_housing" title="Right to housing">Right to housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_rest_and_leisure" title="Right to rest and leisure">Right to rest and leisure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_sit" title="Right to sit">Right to sit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Security_of_person" title="Security of person">Security of person</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_and_reproductive_health" title="Sexual and reproductive health">Sexual and reproductive health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_psychology" title="Social psychology">Social psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_health_and_illness" title="Sociology of health and illness">Sociology of health and illness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unisex_changing_rooms" title="Unisex changing rooms">Unisex changing rooms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unisex_public_toilets" class="mw-redirect" title="Unisex public toilets">Unisex public toilets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workers%27_right_to_access_the_toilet" title="Workers' right to access the toilet">Workers' right to access the toilet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Preventive_healthcare" title="Preventive healthcare">Preventive healthcare</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavior_change_(public_health)" title="Behavior change (public health)">Behavior change</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioural_change_theories" title="Behavioural change theories">Theories</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_planning" title="Family planning">Family planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_promotion" title="Health promotion">Health promotion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_nutrition" title="Human nutrition">Human nutrition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Healthy_diet" title="Healthy diet">Healthy diet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preventive_nutrition" title="Preventive nutrition">Preventive nutrition</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hygiene" title="Hygiene">Hygiene</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Food_safety" title="Food safety">Food safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hand_washing" title="Hand washing">Hand washing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infection_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Infection control">Infection control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oral_hygiene" title="Oral hygiene">Oral hygiene</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health" title="Occupational safety and health">Occupational safety and health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_factors_and_ergonomics" class="mw-redirect" title="Human factors and ergonomics">Human factors and ergonomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_hygiene" title="Occupational hygiene">Hygiene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_policy" title="Drug policy">Controlled Drugs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Injury_prevention" title="Injury prevention">Injury prevention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_medicine" title="Occupational medicine">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_health_nursing" title="Occupational health nursing">Nursing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patient_safety" title="Patient safety">Patient safety</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patient_safety_organization" title="Patient safety organization">Organization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacovigilance" title="Pharmacovigilance">Pharmacovigilance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safe_sex" title="Safe sex">Safe sex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitation" title="Sanitation">Sanitation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emergency_sanitation" title="Emergency sanitation">Emergency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fecal%E2%80%93oral_route" title="Fecal–oral route">Fecal–oral transmission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_defecation" title="Open defecation">Open defecation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitary_sewer" title="Sanitary sewer">Sanitary sewer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waterborne_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Waterborne diseases">Waterborne diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitation_worker" title="Sanitation worker">Worker</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_hygiene" title="School hygiene">School hygiene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoking_cessation" title="Smoking cessation">Smoking cessation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaccination" title="Vaccination">Vaccination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vector_control" title="Vector control">Vector control</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Population_health" title="Population health">Population health</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biostatistics" title="Biostatistics">Biostatistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_mortality" title="Child mortality">Child mortality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_health" title="Community health">Community health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology">Epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_health" title="Global health">Global health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_impact_assessment" title="Health impact assessment">Health impact assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_system" title="Health system">Health system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infant_mortality" title="Infant mortality">Infant mortality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_open-source_health_software" title="List of open-source health software">Open-source healthcare software</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multimorbidity" title="Multimorbidity">Multimorbidity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health_informatics" title="Public health informatics">Public health informatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinants_of_health" title="Social determinants of health">Social determinants of health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_determinants_of_health" title="Commercial determinants of health">Commercial determinants of health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_equity" title="Health equity">Health equity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_and_health" title="Race and health">Race and health</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_medicine" title="Social medicine">Social medicine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Biological and epidemiological statistics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Case%E2%80%93control_study" title="Case–control study">Case–control study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Randomized_controlled_trial" title="Randomized controlled trial">Randomized controlled trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relative_risk" title="Relative risk">Relative risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_hypothesis_testing" class="mw-redirect" title="Statistical hypothesis testing">Statistical hypothesis testing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Analysis_of_variance" title="Analysis of variance">Analysis of variance (ANOVA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regression_analysis" title="Regression analysis">Regression analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ROC_curve" class="mw-redirect" title="ROC curve">ROC curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Student%27s_t-test" title="Student's t-test">Student's t-test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Z-test" title="Z-test">Z-test</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_statistical_packages" class="mw-redirect" title="List of statistical packages">Statistical software</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Infectious and epidemic disease prevention</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asymptomatic_carrier" title="Asymptomatic carrier">Asymptomatic carrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemic" title="Epidemic">Epidemics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_epidemics_and_pandemics" title="List of epidemics and pandemics">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Notifiable_disease" title="Notifiable disease">Notifiable diseases</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_notifiable_diseases" title="List of notifiable diseases">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health_surveillance" title="Public health surveillance">Public health surveillance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disease_surveillance" title="Disease surveillance">Disease surveillance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quarantine" title="Quarantine">Quarantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexually_transmitted_infection" title="Sexually transmitted infection">Sexually transmitted infection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_distancing" title="Social distancing">Social distancing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_disease" title="Tropical disease">Tropical disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaccine_trial" title="Vaccine trial">Vaccine trial</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">WASH</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Food hygiene and safety management</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Food <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Food_additive" title="Food additive">Additive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_chemistry" title="Food chemistry">Chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_engineering" title="Food engineering">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_microbiology" title="Food microbiology">Microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_processing" title="Food processing">Processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_safety" title="Food safety">Safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Food_safety_scandals" title="Category:Food safety scandals">Safety scandals</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Good_agricultural_practice" title="Good agricultural practice">Good agricultural practice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Good_manufacturing_practice" title="Good manufacturing practice">Good manufacturing practice</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/HACCP" class="mw-redirect" title="HACCP">HACCP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_22000" title="ISO 22000">ISO 22000</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Health behavioral sciences</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diffusion_of_innovations" title="Diffusion of innovations">Diffusion of innovations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_belief_model" title="Health belief model">Health belief model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_communication" title="Health communication">Health communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_psychology" title="Health psychology">Health psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positive_deviance" title="Positive deviance">Positive deviance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PRECEDE%E2%80%93PROCEED_model" title="PRECEDE–PROCEED model">PRECEDE–PROCEED model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_cognitive_theory" title="Social cognitive theory">Social cognitive theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_norms_approach" title="Social norms approach">Social norms approach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_planned_behavior" title="Theory of planned behavior">Theory of planned behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transtheoretical_model" title="Transtheoretical model">Transtheoretical model</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations, education and history</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Caribbean <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caribbean_Public_Health_Agency" title="Caribbean Public Health Agency">Caribbean Public Health Agency</a></li></ul></li> <li>China <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Center_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention">Center for Disease Control and Prevention</a></li></ul></li> <li>Europe <ul><li><a href="/wiki/European_Centre_for_Disease_Prevention_and_Control" title="European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control">Centre for Disease Prevention and Control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Parliament_Committee_on_the_Environment,_Public_Health_and_Food_Safety" title="European Parliament Committee on the Environment, Public Health and Food Safety">Committee on the Environment, Public Health and Food Safety</a></li></ul></li> <li>India <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Health_and_Family_Welfare" title="Ministry of Health and Family Welfare">Ministry of Health and Family Welfare</a></li></ul></li> <li>Canada <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Health_Canada" title="Health Canada">Health Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_Health_Agency_of_Canada" title="Public Health Agency of Canada">Public Health Agency</a></li></ul></li> <li>U.S. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Centers for Disease Control and Prevention">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_departments_in_the_United_States" title="Health departments in the United States">Health departments in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_on_Education_for_Public_Health" title="Council on Education for Public Health">Council on Education for Public Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Public_Health_Service" title="United States Public Health Service">Public Health Service</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Toilet_Organization" title="World Toilet Organization">World Toilet Organization</a></li> <li>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_national_public_health_agencies" title="List of national public health agencies">Full list</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Education</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Health_education" title="Health education">Health education</a></li> <li>Higher education <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Science_in_Public_Health" title="Bachelor of Science in Public Health">Bachelor of Science in Public Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Public_Health" title="Doctor of Public Health">Doctor of Public Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professional_degrees_of_public_health" title="Professional degrees of public health">Professional degrees of public health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Schools_of_public_health" title="Category:Schools of public health">Schools of public health</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sara_Josephine_Baker" title="Sara Josephine Baker">Sara Josephine Baker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Jay_Crumbine" title="Samuel Jay Crumbine">Samuel Jay Crumbine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Rogers_Darnall" title="Carl Rogers Darnall">Carl Rogers Darnall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Lister" title="Joseph Lister">Joseph Lister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Sanger" title="Margaret Sanger">Margaret Sanger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Snow_(physician)" class="mw-redirect" title="John Snow (physician)">John Snow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Mallon" title="Mary Mallon">Typhoid Mary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radium_Girls" title="Radium Girls">Radium Girls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germ_theory_of_disease" title="Germ theory of disease">Germ theory of disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_hygiene_movement" title="Social hygiene movement">Social hygiene movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" 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