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margin: 0 0 0.5em 0.5em; text-align:left; border: 1px solid #FF009B; width:175px;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="font-size: 95%; text-align:center; color:White; background-color:#FF009B"><b>We're so glad you came</b><br /><a href="/wiki/Sexuality" title="Sexuality"><font size="4" color="White"><b>Sexuality</b></font></a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#FFEDED;" align="center"><a href="/wiki/Category:Sexuality" title="Category:Sexuality"><img alt="Icon sex.svg" src="/w/images/thumb/2/27/Icon_sex.svg/100px-Icon_sex.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" srcset="/w/images/thumb/2/27/Icon_sex.svg/150px-Icon_sex.svg.png 1.5x, /w/images/thumb/2/27/Icon_sex.svg/200px-Icon_sex.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200" /></a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="font-size: 95%; color:White; background-color:#FF009B; text-align:center;"><b>Reach around the subject</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="font-size: 95%; background-color:#FFEDED;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Childbirth" title="Childbirth">Childbirth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sodomite" title="Sodomite">Sodomite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Informed_consent" title="Informed consent">Informed consent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beforeplay.org" title="Beforeplay.org">Beforeplay.org</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sodomy" title="Sodomy">Sodomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incubus_and_succubus_myths" title="Incubus and succubus myths">Incubus and succubus myths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" title="Sigmund Freud">Sigmund Freud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anal_sex" title="Anal sex">Anal sex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersectionality" title="Intersectionality">Intersectionality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homosexualidad" title="Homosexualidad">Homosexualidad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gay_sex" title="Gay sex">Gay sex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nudity" title="Nudity">Nudity</a></li></ul> <div class="center"><div class="floatnone"><a href="/wiki/File:Male_bisexuality_symbol-colour.svg" class="image"><img alt="Male bisexuality symbol-colour.svg" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Male_bisexuality_symbol-colour.svg/80px-Male_bisexuality_symbol-colour.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="64" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Male_bisexuality_symbol-colour.svg/120px-Male_bisexuality_symbol-colour.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Male_bisexuality_symbol-colour.svg/160px-Male_bisexuality_symbol-colour.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="16" /></a></div></div> <div class="vte plainlinks" style="font-size:smaller; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Template:Sex" title="Template:Sex">v</a> - <a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Sex" title="Template talk:Sex">t</a> - <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://rationalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Sex&action=edit">e</a></div> </td></tr></tbody></table><div role="note" class="hatnote">This article covers genetically homogeneous breeding amongst plants and animals. For a focus on humans, see <a href="/wiki/Incest" title="Incest">incest</a>.</div> <p><b>Inbreeding</b> is the mating of two organisms (often animals) that are closely related to each other, and often refers to the continued practice of this, producing inbred animals. It can be used to create offspring with specific desirable characteristics, as in the case of pedigree dogs, cats, or racehorses, but it also occurs naturally in relatively small and isolated populations of animals (including humans, of course). Inbreeding may occur if few people have a disproportionate number of children in a community, as is common in <a href="/wiki/Polygamy" title="Polygamy">polygamous</a> societies and those isolated from the wider population. In the case of humans, inbreeding is most commonly associated with <a href="/wiki/Incest" title="Incest">incest</a>. </p> <div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none" /><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Benefits_and_motivations"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Benefits and motivations</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="#Encouragement_of_desirable_traits"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Encouragement of desirable traits</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Applications_in_genetic_research"><span class="tocnumber">1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Applications in genetic research</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-4"><a href="#Drawbacks"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Drawbacks</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Loss_of_diversity_in_the_genome"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Loss of diversity in the genome</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Recessive_traits_and_genetic_abnormalities"><span class="tocnumber">2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Recessive traits and genetic abnormalities</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-7"><a href="#Royalty_and_inbreeding"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Royalty and inbreeding</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-8"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-9"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-10"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li> </ul> </div> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Benefits_and_motivations">Benefits and motivations</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Inbreeding&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Benefits and motivations">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:302px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Cheesy_valentines.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/w/images/thumb/c/c3/Cheesy_valentines.jpg/300px-Cheesy_valentines.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="248" class="thumbimage" srcset="/w/images/thumb/c/c3/Cheesy_valentines.jpg/450px-Cheesy_valentines.jpg 1.5x, /w/images/thumb/c/c3/Cheesy_valentines.jpg/600px-Cheesy_valentines.jpg 2x" data-file-width="727" data-file-height="600" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Cheesy_valentines.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Happy mother's day! Ew. And spelling error, yuck.</div></div></div> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Encouragement_of_desirable_traits">Encouragement of desirable traits</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Inbreeding&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Encouragement of desirable traits">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p>Inbreeding can be used as a method of <a href="/wiki/Artificial_selection" title="Artificial selection">artificial selection</a> to selectively breed plants and animals with desirable traits. An example of this would be the breeding of pedigree dogs. Inbreeding may lead to a highly specialised genome, such as in the case of the <a href="/wiki/Cheetah" title="Cheetah">cheetah</a> — a species of cat that is heavily inbred, claimed to have been caused by a <a href="/wiki/Population_bottleneck" title="Population bottleneck">catastrophic drop in population that occurred thousands of years ago</a>. The species is highly specialized, yet possesses a relatively weak immune system.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></sup> </p><p>Ironically, incest is vital to the development of extreme traits in prized domesticated <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/angiosperms" class="extiw" title="wp:angiosperms" rel="nofollow"><span style="color:#477979 !important;" title="Wikipedia: angiosperms">angiosperms</span></a><sup><img alt="" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Wikipedia%27s_W.svg/12px-Wikipedia%27s_W.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Wikipedia%27s_W.svg/18px-Wikipedia%27s_W.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Wikipedia%27s_W.svg/24px-Wikipedia%27s_W.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></sup> and animals — offspring in this process are referred to as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hybrid_(biology)" class="extiw" title="wp:Hybrid (biology)" rel="nofollow"><span style="color:#477979 !important;" title="Wikipedia: Hybrid (biology)">hybrids</span></a><sup><img alt="" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Wikipedia%27s_W.svg/12px-Wikipedia%27s_W.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Wikipedia%27s_W.svg/18px-Wikipedia%27s_W.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Wikipedia%27s_W.svg/24px-Wikipedia%27s_W.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></sup> from a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" class="extiw" title="wp:Taxonomy (biology)" rel="nofollow"><span style="color:#477979 !important;" title="Wikipedia: Taxonomy (biology)">taxonomic viewpoint</span></a>.<sup><img alt="" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Wikipedia%27s_W.svg/12px-Wikipedia%27s_W.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Wikipedia%27s_W.svg/18px-Wikipedia%27s_W.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Wikipedia%27s_W.svg/24px-Wikipedia%27s_W.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></sup> Because a few generations of interbreeding can lead to a variety of genetic problems, "out breeding" is performed to remix the genes a bit — farmers may also just buy new seeds outright instead of using their own from the harvest. While farmers do inbreed plants, flower plants have a mechanism to prevent <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/self-fertilization" class="extiw" title="wp:self-fertilization" rel="nofollow"><span style="color:#477979 !important;" title="Wikipedia: self-fertilization">self-fertilization</span></a><sup><img alt="" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Wikipedia%27s_W.svg/12px-Wikipedia%27s_W.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Wikipedia%27s_W.svg/18px-Wikipedia%27s_W.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Wikipedia%27s_W.svg/24px-Wikipedia%27s_W.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></sup> in a process called <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-incompatibility_in_plants" class="extiw" title="wp:Self-incompatibility in plants" rel="nofollow"><span style="color:#477979 !important;" title="Wikipedia: Self-incompatibility in plants">self-incompatibility</span></a>.<sup><img alt="" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Wikipedia%27s_W.svg/12px-Wikipedia%27s_W.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Wikipedia%27s_W.svg/18px-Wikipedia%27s_W.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Wikipedia%27s_W.svg/24px-Wikipedia%27s_W.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></sup> In this process, the plant will literally poison pollen it detects as its own with a poison called <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ribonuclease" class="extiw" title="wp:Ribonuclease" rel="nofollow"><span style="color:#477979 !important;" title="Wikipedia: Ribonuclease">S-RNase</span></a><sup><img alt="" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Wikipedia%27s_W.svg/12px-Wikipedia%27s_W.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Wikipedia%27s_W.svg/18px-Wikipedia%27s_W.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Wikipedia%27s_W.svg/24px-Wikipedia%27s_W.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></sup>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a></sup> </p><p>Hybrid breeding has yielded an increase in nutritional value among plants;<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a></sup> part of this is can be accounted for by the fact that plants are much easier to interbreed than animals due to plants having a higher fertility rate. </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Applications_in_genetic_research">Applications in genetic research</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Inbreeding&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Applications in genetic research">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p>Inbred strains of species are important in genetic research. Inbreeding creates a less varied genome, reducing the chances that a genetic variation among test subjects could skew their results. </p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Drawbacks">Drawbacks</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Inbreeding&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Drawbacks">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Loss_of_diversity_in_the_genome">Loss of diversity in the genome</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Inbreeding&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Loss of diversity in the genome">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p>A loss of diversity may leave a group less adaptable to changing circumstances - creating a genetic monoculture. In the case of plants, this increases the risk that crops would be eliminated by a pest or disease for which the entire group lacks resistance. An example of this is found in the Irish potato famine, in which two factors led to mass starvation: an artificially imposed over-reliance on a single crop (potatoes), and a lack of variety in that crop.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a></sup> </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Recessive_traits_and_genetic_abnormalities">Recessive traits and genetic abnormalities</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Inbreeding&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Recessive traits and genetic abnormalities">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p>Recessive traits are traits coded for by recessive alleles. Recessive alleles are variants of genes that are "switched off" or overridden by the presence of a dominant allele of the same gene: Therefore, a recessive trait will only be expressed if an individual carries only recessive alleles for that trait's gene(s). Close relatives are much more likely than strangers to carry the same alleles, increasing the chances that their offspring could inherit recessive alleles from both parents. Recessive traits may be cosmetic, such as in the cases of blue eyes and red hair,<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a></sup> or more serious, carrying mutations leading to genetic abnormalities or diseases such as hemophilia or cystic fibrosis <sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a></sup>. </p><p>In animal breeding, the bulldog is commonly cited as an example of inbreeding taken to a point that the animal could not have otherwise reached by <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a>. Bulldogs have been bred for their characteristic floppy face, but in some dogs this has reached point at which dogs may struggle to breathe. The UK Kennel Club, an organization for dog breeders, issued guidelines to limit the breeding of that specific characteristic.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a></sup> </p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Royalty_and_inbreeding">Royalty and inbreeding</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Inbreeding&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Royalty and inbreeding">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:302px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Carlos_segundo80.png" class="image"><img alt="" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Carlos_segundo80.png/300px-Carlos_segundo80.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="231" class="thumbimage" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Carlos_segundo80.png/450px-Carlos_segundo80.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Carlos_segundo80.png/600px-Carlos_segundo80.png 2x" data-file-width="783" data-file-height="604" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Carlos_segundo80.png" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>When you're descended from <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joanna_of_Castile" class="extiw" title="wp:Joanna of Castile" rel="nofollow"><span style="color:#477979 !important;" title="Wikipedia: Joanna of Castile">"Joanna the Mad"</span></a><sup><img alt="" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Wikipedia%27s_W.svg/12px-Wikipedia%27s_W.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Wikipedia%27s_W.svg/18px-Wikipedia%27s_W.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Wikipedia%27s_W.svg/24px-Wikipedia%27s_W.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></sup> in <i>fourteen</i> different ways, you're not off to a good start in life.</div></div></div> <p>The royal families at various times went in for inbreeding for dynastic and other purposes; a child born to two Royals would have an arguably stronger claim to the throne, and this also reduces the number of cousins and second cousins in an ever expanding family that would fight amongst themselves over every last scrap of the empire. Notable examples are the Pharaohs of Ancient Egypt (brother-sister marriage — though secondary wives were also involved, giving some mixture to the gene pool) and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_II_of_Spain" class="extiw" title="wp:Charles II of Spain" rel="nofollow"><span style="color:#477979 !important;" title="Wikipedia: Charles II of Spain">Charles II of Spain</span></a>.<sup><img alt="" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Wikipedia%27s_W.svg/12px-Wikipedia%27s_W.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Wikipedia%27s_W.svg/18px-Wikipedia%27s_W.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Wikipedia%27s_W.svg/24px-Wikipedia%27s_W.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></sup> </p><p>The ruling classes of some societies have tried to breed with those of a similar high status. In Europe, it was common for the royalty of various nations to be related by blood, the House of Windsor being an example of this.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a></sup> But with the number of Royal families being limited to <i>at most</i> the number major empires in existence, it's not long before every significant King and Queen are cousins with each other. Queen Victoria, for instance, was the grandmother of George V, Kaiser Wilhem, and of Tzar Nicholas II's wife. Victoria's husband was also her first cousin as well. </p><p>This inbreeding is comparable to <a href="/wiki/Eugenics" title="Eugenics">eugenics</a>, in that certain bloodlines are deliberately kept "pure". In practice, it often resulted in the opposite of eugenics, producing such benighted creatures as Charles II of Spain, whose jaw was so deformed that he couldn't chew his own food and could barely speak.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a></sup> The House of Habsburg, an Austrian dynasty that held thrones across Europe, notoriously engaged in reckless amounts of inbreeding to ensure that the family's assets stayed under their descendants' control.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a></sup> This eventually backfired on them, as the catastrophically disabled Charles II was sterile and died without an heir, sparking the War of the Spanish Succession.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a></sup> Also known to <a href="/wiki/Snark" class="mw-redirect" title="Snark">snarky people</a> as the "War of the Inbred Idiot", the War of the Spanish Succession lasted 12 years and resulted in the end of the Habsburg monarchy there as well as the crumbling of Habsburg holdings in Central Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a></sup> Spain entered its Bourbon period after that.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a></sup> Who can blame them? </p><p>One general result of this inbreeding in the European royal families was the concentration of the disease hemophilia in the males.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a></sup> So much so that hemophilia was known as the Royal disease until after World War II. </p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Inbreeding&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Incest" title="Incest">Incest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bestiality" title="Bestiality">Bestiality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">Genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_reproduction" class="mw-redirect" title="Sexual reproduction">Sexual reproduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_selection" title="Artificial selection">Artificial selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One-drop_rule" title="One-drop rule">One-drop rule</a></li></ul> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Inbreeding&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0112365/usercomments?filter=prolific">Angels and insects</a> at IMDB</li> <li>See the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia" title="Wikipedia">Wikipedia</a> article on <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_II_of_Spain" class="extiw" title="wp:Charles II of Spain" rel="nofollow">Charles II of Spain</a>.</li></ul> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Inbreeding&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: References">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <div class="references-small" style="-moz-column-count:2; -webkit-column-count:2; column-count:2; font-size:90%;"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-1">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nytimes.com/1992/11/10/science/cheetahs-appear-vigorous-despite-inbreeding.html?pagewanted=1">Cheetahs Appear Vigorous Despite Inbreeding</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-2">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.nsf.gov/news/news_summ.jsp?cntn_id=105840">https://www.nsf.gov/news/news_summ.jsp?cntn_id=105840</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-3">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r2708880">/* Errors processing stylesheet [[:Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css]] (rev 2708880): • Invalid or unsupported value for property ⧼code⧽background⧼/code⧽ at line 44 character 14. • Invalid or unsupported value for property ⧼code⧽background⧼/code⧽ at line 50 character 14. • Invalid or unsupported value for property ⧼code⧽background⧼/code⧽ at line 55 character 14. • Invalid or unsupported value for property ⧼code⧽background⧼/code⧽ at line 64 character 14. • Invalid or unsupported value for property ⧼code⧽color⧼/code⧽ at line 96 character 9. • Invalid or unsupported value for property ⧼code⧽color⧼/code⧽ at line 100 character 9. • Invalid media query at line 138 character 8. */ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFB.C3.A4nziger2000" class="citation journal cs1">Bänziger (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=HlluklozxuQC&oi=fnd&pg=PA6&dq=B%C3%A4nziger,+M.+(2000).+Breeding+for+drought+and+nitrogen+stress+tolerance+in+maize:+from+theory+to+practice.+&ots=EFYvA-K68C&sig=cTWng_6xt1H8W4io_tD9XVvduJc#v=onepage&q=B%C3%A4nziger%2C%20M.%20(2000).%20Breeding%20for%20drought%20and%20nitrogen%20stress%20tolerance%20in%20maize%3A%20from%20theory%20to%20practice.&f=false">"Breeding for drought and nitrogen stress tolerance in maize: from theory to practice"</a>. <i>From Theory to Practice</i>: <span class="nowrap">7–</span>9<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved 7-11-2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=From+Theory+to+Practice&rft.atitle=Breeding+for+drought+and+nitrogen+stress+tolerance+in+maize%3A+from+theory+to+practice&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E7-%3C%2Fspan%3E9&rft.date=2000&rft.au=B%C3%A4nziger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fhl%3Den%26lr%3D%26id%3DHlluklozxuQC%26oi%3Dfnd%26pg%3DPA6%26dq%3DB%25C3%25A4nziger%2C%2BM.%2B%282000%29.%2BBreeding%2Bfor%2Bdrought%2Band%2Bnitrogen%2Bstress%2Btolerance%2Bin%2Bmaize%3A%2Bfrom%2Btheory%2Bto%2Bpractice.%2B%26ots%3DEFYvA-K68C%26sig%3DcTWng_6xt1H8W4io_tD9XVvduJc%23v%3Donepage%26q%3DB%25C3%25A4nziger%252C%2520M.%2520%282000%29.%2520Breeding%2520for%2520drought%2520and%2520nitrogen%2520stress%2520tolerance%2520in%2520maize%253A%2520from%2520theory%2520to%2520practice.%26f%3Dfalse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Frationalwiki.org%3AInbreeding" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Check date values in: <code class="cs1-code">|accessdate=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#bad_date" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-4">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/_0_0/agriculture_02">Irish Monoculture and the Irish Potato Famine: cases of missing genetic variation</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-5">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://genetics.thetech.org/ask/ask44">Hair Color</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-6">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/condition/cystic-fibrosis">Cystic Fibrosis at Genetics Home Reference</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-7">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/article5512620.ece">Healthier new bulldog will lose its Churchillian jowl</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-8">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.royal.gov.uk/pdf/Windsor%20family%20tree.pdf">Windsor family tree (PDF)</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-9">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://io9.gizmodo.com/a-family-in-spain-displayed-three-generations-of-the-h-1679771704">A Family in Spain Displayed Three Generations of the "Habsburg Jaw"</a>. <i>io9</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-10">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://allthatsinteresting.com/habsburg-jaw">The Habsburg Jaw And The Cost Of Royal Inbreeding</a>. <i>All That's Interesting.</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-11">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://allthatsinteresting.com/charles-ii-of-spain">This Inbred Spanish King Was “So Ugly” He Scared His Own Wife</a>. <i>All That's Interesting.</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-12">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">See the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia" title="Wikipedia">Wikipedia</a> article on <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_of_the_Spanish_Succession" class="extiw" title="wp:War of the Spanish Succession" rel="nofollow">War of the Spanish Succession</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-13">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newtravelservices.net/en/42-51-content/sicily/sicilian-history/spanish-bourbon-period">Spanish Bourbon Period</a>. <i>New Travel Services.</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-14">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.englishmonarchs.co.uk/haemophilia.html">Haemophilia in the Descendants of Queen Victoria</a></span> </li> </ol></div></div>    </div></div><div class="printfooter">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" 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