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class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vice_Presidency_(1968–1979)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Vice Presidency (1968–1979) </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Vice_Presidency_(1968–1979)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Vice Presidency (1968–1979) subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Vice_Presidency_(1968–1979)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Political_program" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_program"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Political program </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Political_program-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Economic_Reforms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economic_Reforms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.1 Economic Reforms </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economic_Reforms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Socio-Economic_Reforms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Socio-Economic_Reforms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.2 Socio-Economic Reforms </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Socio-Economic_Reforms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ethnicity_and_religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ethnicity_and_religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.3 Ethnicity and religion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ethnicity_and_religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Paramilitary_and_police_organizations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Paramilitary_and_police_organizations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.4 Paramilitary and police organizations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Paramilitary_and_police_organizations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Foreign_relations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Foreign_relations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Foreign relations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Foreign_relations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Foreign_affairs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Foreign_affairs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.1 Foreign affairs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Foreign_affairs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Peace_treaty_with_Iran" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Peace_treaty_with_Iran"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.2 Peace treaty with Iran </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Peace_treaty_with_Iran-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Succession" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Succession"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Succession </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Succession-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Presidency_(1979–2003)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Presidency_(1979–2003)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Presidency (1979–2003) </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Presidency_(1979–2003)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Presidency (1979–2003) subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Presidency_(1979–2003)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Domestic_policies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Domestic_policies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Domestic policies </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Domestic_policies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Religion_and_sectarianism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion_and_sectarianism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.1 Religion and sectarianism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religion_and_sectarianism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ethnic_rights_and_autonomy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ethnic_rights_and_autonomy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.2 Ethnic rights and autonomy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ethnic_rights_and_autonomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1979_Ba'ath_Party_Purge" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1979_Ba'ath_Party_Purge"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 1979 Ba'ath Party Purge </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1979_Ba'ath_Party_Purge-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Iran–Iraq_War:_1980–1988" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Iran–Iraq_War:_1980–1988"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Iran–Iraq War: 1980–1988 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Iran–Iraq_War:_1980–1988-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Anfal_campaign:_1986–1989" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anfal_campaign:_1986–1989"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Anfal campaign: 1986–1989 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anfal_campaign:_1986–1989-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tensions_with_Kuwait:_1988–1990" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tensions_with_Kuwait:_1988–1990"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5 Tensions with Kuwait: 1988–1990 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tensions_with_Kuwait:_1988–1990-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gulf_War:_1990–1991" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gulf_War:_1990–1991"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.6 Gulf War: 1990–1991 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gulf_War:_1990–1991-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Uprisings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Uprisings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.7 Uprisings </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Uprisings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Later_years:_1990s_to_2003" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Later_years:_1990s_to_2003"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.8 Later years: 1990s to 2003 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Later_years:_1990s_to_2003-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Foreign_Affairs_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Foreign_Affairs_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.9 Foreign Affairs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Foreign_Affairs_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Arab–Israeli_conflict" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arab–Israeli_conflict"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.9.1 Arab–Israeli conflict </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arab–Israeli_conflict-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-2003_invasion_of_Iraq_and_Iraq_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#2003_invasion_of_Iraq_and_Iraq_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 2003 invasion of Iraq and Iraq War </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-2003_invasion_of_Iraq_and_Iraq_War-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle 2003 invasion of Iraq and Iraq War subsection </button> <ul id="toc-2003_invasion_of_Iraq_and_Iraq_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Invasion_and_overthrow" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Invasion_and_overthrow"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Invasion and overthrow </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Invasion_and_overthrow-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Capture_and_interrogation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Capture_and_interrogation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Capture and interrogation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Capture_and_interrogation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trial" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trial"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Trial </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trial-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Execution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Execution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Execution </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Execution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Personal_life_and_family" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Personal_life_and_family"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Personal life and family </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Personal_life_and_family-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philanthropy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philanthropy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Philanthropy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philanthropy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Honors_and_awards" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Honors_and_awards"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Honors and awards </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Honors_and_awards-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Political_and_cultural_image" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_and_cultural_image"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Political and cultural image </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Political_and_cultural_image-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reception_and_legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reception_and_legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Reception and legacy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reception_and_legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Saddam Hussein</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 130 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-130" aria-hidden="true" > 130 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saddam_Hoesein" title="Saddam Hoesein – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Saddam Hoesein" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%88%B3%E1%8B%B3%E1%88%9D_%E1%88%81%E1%88%B4%E1%8A%95" title="ሳዳም ሁሴን – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ሳዳም ሁሴን" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B5%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%85_%D8%AD%D8%B3%D9%8A%D9%86" title="صدام حسين – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="صدام حسين" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Saddam Hussein" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arc mw-list-item"><a href="https://arc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DC%A8%DC%95%DC%90%DC%A1_%DC%9A%DC%98%DC%A3%DC%9D%DC%A2" title="ܨܕܐܡ ܚܘܣܝܢ – Aramaic" lang="arc" hreflang="arc" data-title="ܨܕܐܡ ܚܘܣܝܢ" data-language-autonym="ܐܪܡܝܐ" data-language-local-name="Aramaic" class="interlanguage-link-target">ܐܪܡܝܐ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sadam_Husein" title="Sadam Husein – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Sadam Husein" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C9%99ddam_H%C3%BCseyn" title="Səddam Hüseyn – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Səddam Hüseyn" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B5%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%85_%D8%AD%D8%B3%DB%8C%D9%86" title="صدام حسین – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="صدام حسین" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AE_%E0%A6%B9%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%A8" title="সাদ্দাম হুসাইন – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="সাদ্দাম হুসাইন" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Saddam Hussein" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D3%99%D0%B4%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BC_%D0%A5%D3%A9%D1%81%D3%99%D0%B9%D0%B5%D0%BD" title="Сәддам Хөсәйен – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Сәддам Хөсәйен" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BC_%D0%A5%D1%83%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BD" title="Садам Хусейн – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Садам Хусейн" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BC_%D0%A5%D1%83%D1%81%D1%8D%D0%B9%D0%BD" title="Садам Хусэйн – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Садам Хусэйн" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Saddam Hussein" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BC_%D0%A5%D1%8E%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%B8%D0%BD" title="Саддам Хюсеин – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Саддам Хюсеин" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sadam_Husein" title="Sadam Husein – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Sadam Husein" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saddam_Husain" title="Saddam Husain – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Saddam Husain" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Saddam Hussein" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sadd%C3%A1m_Husajn" title="Saddám Husajn – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Saddám Husajn" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Saddam Hussein" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Saddam Hussein" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B5%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%85_%D8%AD%D8%B3%D9%8A%D9%86" title="صدام حسين – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="صدام حسين" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">الدارجة</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Saddam Hussein" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dty mw-list-item"><a href="https://dty.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE_%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A8" title="सद्दाम हुसेन – Doteli" lang="dty" hreflang="dty" data-title="सद्दाम हुसेन" data-language-autonym="डोटेली" data-language-local-name="Doteli" class="interlanguage-link-target">डोटेली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%9Eadd%C4%81m_%E1%B8%A8usayn" title="Şaddām Ḩusayn – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Şaddām Ḩusayn" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CE%B1%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%AC%CE%BC_%CE%A7%CE%BF%CF%85%CF%83%CE%B5%CE%90%CE%BD" title="Σαντάμ Χουσεΐν – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Σαντάμ Χουσεΐν" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sadam_Huse%C3%ADn" title="Sadam Huseín – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Sadam Huseín" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Saddam Hussein" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Saddam Hussein" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B5%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%85_%D8%AD%D8%B3%DB%8C%D9%86" title="صدام حسین – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="صدام حسین" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Saddam Hussein" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Saddam Hussein" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Saddam Hussein" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saddam_Hoessein" title="Saddam Hoessein – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Saddam Hoessein" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Saddam Hussein" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saddam_Husayn" title="Saddam Husayn – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Saddam Husayn" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ki mw-list-item"><a href="https://ki.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein – Kikuyu" lang="ki" hreflang="ki" data-title="Saddam Hussein" data-language-autonym="Gĩkũyũ" data-language-local-name="Kikuyu" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gĩkũyũ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%82%AC%EB%8B%B4_%ED%9B%84%EC%84%B8%EC%9D%B8" title="사담 후세인 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="사담 후세인" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Saddam Hussein" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8D%D5%A1%D5%A4%D5%A4%D5%A1%D5%B4_%D5%80%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%BD%D5%A5%D5%B5%D5%B6" title="Սադդամ Հուսեյն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Սադդամ Հուսեյն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE_%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A8" title="सद्दाम हुसैन – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="सद्दाम हुसैन" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Saddam Hussein" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Saddam Hussein" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Saddam Hussein" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Saddam Hussein" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Saddam Hussein" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A1%D7%93%D7%90%D7%9D_%D7%97%D7%95%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%99%D7%9F" title="סדאם חוסיין – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="סדאם חוסיין" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Saddam Hussein" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%A6%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A6%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%AE%E0%B3%8D_%E0%B2%B9%E0%B3%81%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%87%E0%B2%A8%E0%B3%8D" title="ಸದ್ದಾಮ್ ಹುಸೇನ್ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಸದ್ದಾಮ್ ಹುಸೇನ್" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%93%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B_%E1%83%B0%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A1%E1%83%94%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98" title="სადამ ჰუსეინი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="სადამ ჰუსეინი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ks mw-list-item"><a href="https://ks.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B5%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%85_%D8%AD%D8%B3%DB%8C%D9%86" title="صدام حسین – Kashmiri" lang="ks" hreflang="ks" data-title="صدام حسین" data-language-autonym="कॉशुर / کٲشُر" data-language-local-name="Kashmiri" class="interlanguage-link-target">कॉशुर / کٲشُر</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BC_%D0%A5%D1%83%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BD" title="Саддам Хусейн – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Саддам Хусейн" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Saddam Hussein" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sedam_Huseyn" title="Sedam Huseyn – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Sedam Huseyn" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BC_%D0%A5%D1%83%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BD" title="Саддам Хусейн – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Саддам Хусейн" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saddamus_Husseinus" title="Saddamus Husseinus – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Saddamus Husseinus" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sadams_Huseins" title="Sadams Huseins – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Sadams Huseins" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Saddam Hussein" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sadamas_Huseinas" title="Sadamas Huseinas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Sadamas Huseinas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saddam_Hoessein" title="Saddam Hoessein – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Saddam Hoessein" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Saddam Hussein" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Szadd%C3%A1m_Huszein" title="Szaddám Huszein – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Szaddám Huszein" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai mw-list-item"><a href="https://mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE_%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A8" title="सद्दाम हुसेन – Maithili" lang="mai" hreflang="mai" data-title="सद्दाम हुसेन" data-language-autonym="मैथिली" data-language-local-name="Maithili" class="interlanguage-link-target">मैथिली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BC_%D0%A5%D1%83%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%B8%D0%BD" title="Садам Хусеин – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Садам Хусеин" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Saddam Hussein" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%A6%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A6%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%82_%E0%B4%B9%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%88%E0%B5%BB" title="സദ്ദാം ഹുസൈൻ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="സദ്ദാം ഹുസൈൻ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE_%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A8" title="सद्दाम हुसेन – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="सद्दाम हुसेन" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%93%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B_%E1%83%B0%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A1%E1%83%94%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98" title="სადამ ჰუსეინი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="სადამ ჰუსეინი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B5%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%85_%D8%AD%D8%B3%D9%8A%D9%86" title="صدام حسين – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="صدام حسين" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B5%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%85_%D8%AD%D8%B3%DB%8C%D9%86" title="صدام حسین – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="صدام حسین" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target">مازِرونی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Saddam Hussein" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mni mw-list-item"><a href="https://mni.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%AF%81%EA%AF%A5%EA%AF%97%EA%AF%A5%EA%AF%9D_%EA%AF%8D%EA%AF%A8%EA%AF%81%EA%AF%A6%EA%AF%9F" title="ꯁꯥꯗꯥꯝ ꯍꯨꯁꯦꯟ – Manipuri" lang="mni" hreflang="mni" data-title="ꯁꯥꯗꯥꯝ ꯍꯨꯁꯦꯟ" data-language-autonym="ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ" data-language-local-name="Manipuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Saddam Hussein" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BC_%D0%A5%D1%83%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BD" title="Саддам Хусейн – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Саддам Хусейн" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%86%E1%80%92%E1%80%99%E1%80%BA_%E1%80%9F%E1%80%B0%E1%80%85%E1%80%AD%E1%80%94%E1%80%BA" title="ဆဒမ် ဟူစိန် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ဆဒမ် ဟူစိန်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saddam_Hoessein" title="Saddam Hoessein – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Saddam Hoessein" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE_%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A8" title="सद्दाम हुसेन – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="सद्दाम हुसेन" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE_%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A8" title="सद्दाम हुसेन – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="सद्दाम हुसेन" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B5%E3%83%83%E3%83%80%E3%83%BC%E3%83%A0%E3%83%BB%E3%83%95%E3%82%BB%E3%82%A4%E3%83%B3" title="サッダーム・フセイン – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="サッダーム・フセイン" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Saddam Hussein" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Saddam Hussein" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saddam_Husayn" title="Saddam Husayn – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Saddam Husayn" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%B8%E0%AC%A6%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%A6%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%AE_%E0%AC%B9%E0%AD%81%E0%AC%B8%E0%AD%87%E0%AC%A8" title="ସଦ୍ଦାମ ହୁସେନ – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ସଦ୍ଦାମ ହୁସେନ" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target">ଓଡ଼ିଆ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saddam_Husayn" title="Saddam Husayn – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Saddam Husayn" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%A6%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%AE_%E0%A8%B9%E0%A9%81%E0%A8%B8%E0%A9%88%E0%A8%A8" title="ਸਦਾਮ ਹੁਸੈਨ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਸਦਾਮ ਹੁਸੈਨ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B5%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%85_%D8%AD%D8%B3%DB%8C%D9%86" title="صدام حسین – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="صدام حسین" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B5%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%85_%D8%AD%D8%B3%DB%8C%D9%86" title="صدام حسین – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="صدام حسین" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%8A%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%98_%E1%9E%A0%E1%9F%8A%E1%9E%BC%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%81%E1%9E%93" title="សាដាម ហ៊ូសេន – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="សាដាម ហ៊ូសេន" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target">ភាសាខ្មែរ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saddam_Husajn" title="Saddam Husajn – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Saddam Husajn" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Saddam Hussein" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Saddam Hussein" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Saddam Hussein" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BC_%D0%A5%D1%83%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BD" title="Саддам Хусейн – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Саддам Хусейн" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE_%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D" title="सद्दाम हुसेन् – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="सद्दाम हुसेन्" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target">संस्कृतम्</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Saddam Hussein" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sadam_Huseini" title="Sadam Huseini – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Sadam Huseini" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Saddam Hussein" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B7%83%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%B8%E0%B7%8A_%E0%B7%84%E0%B7%94%E0%B7%83%E0%B7%9A%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%8A" title="සදාම් හුසේන් – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="සදාම් හුසේන්" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Saddam Hussein" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sadd%C3%A1m_Husajn" title="Saddám Husajn – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Saddám Husajn" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sadam_Husein" title="Sadam Husein – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Sadam Husein" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sadaam_Xuseen" title="Sadaam Xuseen – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Sadaam Xuseen" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target">Soomaaliga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%DB%95%D8%AF%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%85_%D8%AD%D9%88%D8%B3%DB%8E%D9%86" title="سەددام حوسێن – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="سەددام حوسێن" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BC_%D0%A5%D1%83%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%B8%D0%BD" title="Садам Хусеин – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Садам Хусеин" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sadam_Husein" title="Sadam Husein – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Sadam Husein" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Saddam Hussein" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Saddam Hussein" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Saddam Hussein" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Saddam Hussein" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%89%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%87%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D" title="சதாம் உசேன் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="சதாம் உசேன்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D3%99%D0%B4%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BC_%D0%A5%D3%A9%D1%81%D3%99%D0%B5%D0%BD" title="Сәддам Хөсәен – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Сәддам Хөсәен" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%B8%E0%B0%A6%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%A6%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%AE%E0%B1%8D_%E0%B0%B9%E0%B1%81%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%87%E0%B0%A8%E0%B1%8D" title="సద్దామ్ హుసేన్ – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="సద్దామ్ హుసేన్" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%8B%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%A1_%E0%B8%AE%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%AA%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%8B%E0%B8%99" title="ซัดดัม ฮุสเซน – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ซัดดัม ฮุสเซน" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BC_%D2%B2%D1%83%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BD" title="Саддом Ҳусайн – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Саддом Ҳусайн" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saddam_H%C3%BCseyin" title="Saddam Hüseyin – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Saddam Hüseyin" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saddam_Huse%C3%BDn" title="Saddam Huseýn – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Saddam Huseýn" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="Turkmen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkmençe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BC_%D0%A5%D1%83%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BD" title="Саддам Хусейн – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Саддам Хусейн" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B5%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%85_%D8%AD%D8%B3%DB%8C%D9%86" title="صدام حسین – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="صدام حسین" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Saddam Hussein" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saddam_Hosseyn" title="Saddam Hosseyn – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Saddam Hosseyn" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Walon</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a 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href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A1%D7%90%D7%93%D7%90%D7%9D_%D7%9B%D7%95%D7%A1%D7%A2%D7%99%D7%9F" title="סאדאם כוסעין – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="סאדאם כוסעין" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Saddam Hussein" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target">Yorùbá</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%96%A9%E9%81%94%E5%A7%86%E4%BE%AF%E8%B3%BD%E5%9B%A0" title="薩達姆侯賽因 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="薩達姆侯賽因" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq 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decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/30px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">President of Iraq from 1979 to 2003</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Saddam" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Saddam_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Saddam (disambiguation)">Saddam (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%;"><div class="honorific-prefix" style="font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Field_marshal_(Iraq)" title="Field marshal (Iraq)">Field Marshal</a></div><div class="fn" style="font-size:125%;">Saddam Hussein</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:125%; font-weight:bold;"><div class="nickname" lang="ar"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1227789315">.mw-parser-output .script-arabic{font-family:"Scheherazade New","SF Arabic",Amiri,"Noto Naskh Arabic","Droid Arabic Naskh","Noto Sans Arabic","Sakkal Majalla","Harmattan","Arabic Typesetting","Arabic Transparent","Times New Roman",Arial,Calibri,"Microsoft Sans Serif","Segoe UI",serif,sans-serif;font-weight:normal}</style>صدام حسين‎</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Saddam_Hussein_in_1998.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Saddam_Hussein_in_1998.png/240px-Saddam_Hussein_in_1998.png" decoding="async" width="240" height="317" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Saddam_Hussein_in_1998.png/360px-Saddam_Hussein_in_1998.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Saddam_Hussein_in_1998.png/480px-Saddam_Hussein_in_1998.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="1188" /></a><div class="infobox-caption" style="line-height:normal;padding-top:0.2em;">Saddam in 1998</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;">5th <a href="/wiki/President_of_Iraq" title="President of Iraq">President of Iraq</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none">In office 16 July 1979 – 9 April 2003</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Prime Minister</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>Himself (1979–1991)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Sa%27dun_Hammadi" title="Sa'dun Hammadi">Sa'dun Hammadi</a> (1991)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Mohammed_Hamza_Zubeidi" title="Mohammed Hamza Zubeidi">Mohammed Hamza Zubeidi</a> (1991–1993)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Husayn_Khudayir_as-Samarrai" title="Ahmad Husayn Khudayir as-Samarrai">Ahmad Husayn as-Samarrai</a> (1993–1994)</li><li>Himself (1994–2003)</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Vice President</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taha_Muhie-eldin_Marouf" title="Taha Muhie-eldin Marouf">Taha Muhie-eldin Marouf</a> (1974–2003)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Izzat_Ibrahim_al-Douri" title="Izzat Ibrahim al-Douri">Izzat Ibrahim al-Douri</a> (1979–2003)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Taha_Yassin_Ramadan" title="Taha Yassin Ramadan">Taha Yassin Ramadan</a> (1991–2003)</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Preceded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Hassan_al-Bakr" title="Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr">Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Succeeded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jay_Garner" title="Jay Garner">Jay Garner</a> (as <a href="/wiki/Coalition_Provisional_Authority" title="Coalition Provisional Authority">Director of the Office for Reconstruction and Humanitarian Assistance of Iraq</a>)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Jalal_Talabani" title="Jalal Talabani">Jalal Talabani</a> (2005)</li></ul></div></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_Command_Council_(Iraq)" title="Revolutionary Command Council (Iraq)">Chairman of the Revolutionary Command Council</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none">In office 16 July 1979 – 9 April 2003</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Preceded by</th><td class="infobox-data">Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Succeeded by</th><td class="infobox-data">Office abolished</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Iraq" title="Prime Minister of Iraq">Prime Minister of Iraq</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none">In office 29 May 1994 – 9 April 2003</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">President</th><td class="infobox-data">Himself</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Preceded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Husayn_Khudayir_as-Samarrai" title="Ahmad Husayn Khudayir as-Samarrai">Ahmad Husayn Khudayir as-Samarrai</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Succeeded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Bahr_al-Ulloum" class="mw-redirect" title="Mohammad Bahr al-Ulloum">Mohammad Bahr al-Ulloum</a> (as <a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Governing_Council" title="Iraqi Governing Council">Acting President of the Governing Council of Iraq</a>)</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none">In office 16 July 1979 – 23 March 1991</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">President</th><td class="infobox-data">Himself</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Preceded by</th><td class="infobox-data">Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Succeeded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Sa%27dun_Hammadi" title="Sa'dun Hammadi">Sa'dun Hammadi</a></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party_(Iraqi-dominated_faction)#Secretary-Generals" title="Ba'ath Party (Iraqi-dominated faction)">Secretary General of the National Command</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party_(Iraqi-dominated_faction)" title="Ba'ath Party (Iraqi-dominated faction)">Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none">In office January 1992 – 30 December 2006</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Preceded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Michel_Aflaq" title="Michel Aflaq">Michel Aflaq</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Succeeded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Izzat_Ibrahim_al-Douri" title="Izzat Ibrahim al-Douri">Izzat Ibrahim al-Douri</a></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;">Regional Secretary of the <a href="/wiki/Regional_Command_of_the_Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Iraq_Region" title="Regional Command of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Iraq Region">Regional Command</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Iraq_Region" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Iraq Region">Iraqi Regional Branch</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none">In office 16 July 1979 – 30 December 2006</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">National Secretary</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Aflaq" title="Michel Aflaq">Michel Aflaq</a> (until 1989)</li><li>Himself (from 1989)</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Preceded by</th><td class="infobox-data">Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Succeeded by</th><td class="infobox-data">Izzat Ibrahim ad-Douri</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none">In office February 1964 – October 1966</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Preceded by</th><td class="infobox-data">Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Succeeded by</th><td class="infobox-data">Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_Iraq" title="Vice President of Iraq">Vice President of Iraq</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none">In office 17 July 1968 – 15 July 1979</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">President</th><td class="infobox-data">Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Preceded by</th><td class="infobox-data">Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Succeeded by</th><td class="infobox-data">Izzat Ibrahim al-Douri</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;">Member of the <a href="/wiki/Regional_Command_of_the_Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Iraq_Region" title="Regional Command of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Iraq Region">Regional Command</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Iraq_Region" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Iraq Region">Iraqi Regional Branch</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none">In office February 1964 – 9 April 2003</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender">Personal details</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data">(1937-04-28)28 April 1937<a href="#cite_note-Birth_date_unclear-2">[a]</a> <a href="/wiki/Al-Awja" title="Al-Awja">Al-Awja</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saladin_Governorate" title="Saladin Governorate">Saladin Governorate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Iraq" title="Kingdom of Iraq">Kingdom of Iraq</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">30 December 2006(2006-12-30) (aged 69) <a href="/wiki/Camp_Justice_(Iraq)" title="Camp Justice (Iraq)">Camp Justice</a>, <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Cause of death</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Execution_of_Saddam_Hussein" title="Execution of Saddam Hussein">Execution by hanging</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Resting place</th><td class="infobox-data label">Al-Awja, Saladin, Iraq</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Political party</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party" title="Ba'ath Party">Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party</a> (1957–1966)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Iraq_Region" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Iraq Region">Iraq-based Ba'ath Party</a> (1966–2006)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Spouses</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1151524712">.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin2px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-2px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin3px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-3px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-display-ws{display:inline;white-space:nowrap}</style></li></ul> <div class="marriage-display-ws"><div style="display:inline-block;line-height:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Sajida_Talfah" title="Sajida Talfah">Sajida Talfah</a></div> <div style="display:inline-block;"></div>(<abbr title="married">m.</abbr> 1958)</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1151524712"></li></ul> <div class="marriage-display-ws"><div style="display:inline-block;line-height:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Samira_Shahbandar" title="Samira Shahbandar">Samira Shahbandar</a></div> <div style="display:inline-block;"></div>(<abbr title="married">m.</abbr> 1986)</div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Children</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Uday_Hussein" title="Uday Hussein">Uday</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Qusay_Hussein" title="Qusay Hussein">Qusay</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Raghad_Hussein" title="Raghad Hussein">Raghad</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Rana_Hussein" title="Rana Hussein">Rana</a></li><li><a href="#Personal_life_and_family">Hala</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Alma_mater" title="Alma mater">Alma mater</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Cairo_University" title="Cairo University">Cairo University</a> <a href="/wiki/University_of_Baghdad" title="University of Baghdad">University of Baghdad</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Signature</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/File:Signature_of_Saddam_Hussein.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Saddam Hussein's signature"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Signature_of_Saddam_Hussein.svg/128px-Signature_of_Saddam_Hussein.svg.png" decoding="async" width="128" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Signature_of_Saddam_Hussein.svg/192px-Signature_of_Saddam_Hussein.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Signature_of_Saddam_Hussein.svg/256px-Signature_of_Saddam_Hussein.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="261" /></a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender">Military service</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Allegiance</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Ba%27athist_Iraq" title="Ba'athist Iraq">Iraq</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Branch/service</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Armed_Forces" title="Iraqi Armed Forces">Iraqi Armed Forces</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Rank</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Mushir" title="Mushir">Marshal</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Battles/wars</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1116488514">.mw-parser-output .treeview ul{padding:0;margin:0}.mw-parser-output .treeview li{padding:0;margin:0;list-style-type:none;list-style-image:none}.mw-parser-output .treeview li li{background:url("https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/Treeview-grey-line.png")no-repeat 0 -2981px;padding-left:21px;text-indent:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .treeview li li:last-child{background-position:0 -5971px}.mw-parser-output .treeview li.emptyline>ul>.mw-empty-elt:first-child+.emptyline,.mw-parser-output .treeview li.emptyline>ul>li:first-child{background-position:0 9px}</style><div class="treeview"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_Iraqi%E2%80%93Kurdish_War" title="Second Iraqi–Kurdish War">Second Iraqi–Kurdish War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_War" title="Iran–Iraq War">Iran–Iraq War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Gulf War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1991_Iraqi_uprisings" title="1991 Iraqi uprisings">1991 Iraqi uprisings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Iraq war">Iraq war</a> (<a href="/wiki/Prisoner_of_war" title="Prisoner of war"><abbr title="Prisoner of war">POW</abbr></a>) <a href="/wiki/Execution_of_Saddam_Hussein" title="Executed"><img alt="Executed" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/14px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/21px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/28px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="510" data-file-height="490" /></a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2003_invasion_of_Iraq" title="2003 invasion of Iraq">2003 invasion of Iraq</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data">Criminal conviction<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Height</th><td class="infobox-data">1.88 m (6 ft 2 in)<a href="#cite_note-4">[3]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Criminal status</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Execution_of_Saddam_Hussein" title="Execution of Saddam Hussein">Executed</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Conviction" title="Conviction">Conviction(s)</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Crimes_against_humanity" title="Crimes against humanity">Crimes against humanity</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Dujail_massacre" title="Dujail massacre">Dujail massacre</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Trial</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Trial_of_Saddam_Hussein" title="Trial of Saddam Hussein">Trial of Saddam Hussein</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Criminal penalty</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment" title="Capital punishment">Death by hanging</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Reward amount</div></th><td class="infobox-data">$25 million<a href="#cite_note-3">[2]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Date apprehended</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Saddam_Hussein" title="Capture of Saddam Hussein">13 December 2003</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1096940132">.mw-parser-output .listen .side-box-text{line-height:1.1em}.mw-parser-output .listen-plain{border:none;background:transparent}.mw-parser-output .listen-embedded{width:100%;margin:0;border-width:1px 0 0 0;background:transparent}.mw-parser-output .listen-header{padding:2px}.mw-parser-output .listen-embedded .listen-header{padding:2px 0}.mw-parser-output .listen-file-header{padding:4px 0}.mw-parser-output .listen .description{padding-top:2px}.mw-parser-output .listen .mw-tmh-player{max-width:100%}@media(max-width:719px){.mw-parser-output .listen{clear:both}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .listen:not(.listen-noimage){width:320px}.mw-parser-output .listen-left{overflow:visible;float:left}.mw-parser-output .listen-center{float:none;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-left listen noprint listen-embedded listen-noimage listen-center"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><div class="haudio"> <div class="listen-file-header"><a href="/wiki/File:Saddam_Husseins_Presidental_Oath.wav" title="File:Saddam Husseins Presidental Oath.wav">Saddam Hussein's voice</a></div> <div><audio id="mwe_player_0" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="215" style="width:215px;" data-durationhint="47" data-mwtitle="Saddam_Husseins_Presidental_Oath.wav" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/8/85/Saddam_Husseins_Presidental_Oath.wav/Saddam_Husseins_Presidental_Oath.wav.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-transcodekey="ogg" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/8/85/Saddam_Husseins_Presidental_Oath.wav/Saddam_Husseins_Presidental_Oath.wav.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/85/Saddam_Husseins_Presidental_Oath.wav" type="audio/wav" data-width="0" data-height="0" /></audio></div> <div class="description">Saddam recites an <a href="/wiki/Oath_of_office" title="Oath of office">oath of office</a> following the <a href="/wiki/1995_Iraqi_presidential_referendum" title="1995 Iraqi presidential referendum">1995 Iraqi presidential referendum</a>.</div></div></div></div> </div></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below" style="border-top: 1px solid right;"><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output 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.sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1157919884">.mw-parser-output .sidebar-person{border:4px double #d69d36}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-person .sidebar-title{font-size:110%;padding:0;line-height:150%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-person-title-image{background-color:#002466;vertical-align:middle;padding:5px}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-person-title{background-color:#002466;vertical-align:middle;padding:6px;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-person-title>div{font-size:88%;line-height:normal}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-person .sidebar-content{padding:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-person .sidebar-navbar{text-align:center}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239334494">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1214851843">.mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{box-sizing:border-box;width:100%;padding:5px;border:none;font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .hidden-title{font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .hidden-content{text-align:left}@media all and (max-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{width:auto!important;clear:none!important;float:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214851843"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214851843"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214851843"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214851843"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214851843"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214851843"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214851843"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214851843"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214851843"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214851843"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214851843"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214851843"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214851843"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214851843"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214851843"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks sidebar-person vcard hlist" style="border-color: #017B48"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><table><tbody><tr> <td class="sidebar-person-title-image" style="background-color:#CE1126;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/File:%D8%B5%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%85.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/%D8%B5%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%85.png/75px-%D8%B5%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%85.png" decoding="async" width="75" height="97" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/%D8%B5%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%85.png/113px-%D8%B5%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%85.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/%D8%B5%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%85.png/150px-%D8%B5%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%85.png 2x" data-file-width="468" data-file-height="603" /></a></td> <td class="sidebar-person-title" style="background-color:#CE1126;color: #FFF;"><div>This article is part of a series about</div><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Saddam Hussein</a></td> </tr></tbody></table></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <hr /> <div class="hidden-begin mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style=""><div class="hidden-title skin-nightmode-reset-color" style="">Personal</div><div class="hidden-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:center;"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Early_life_and_education">Early life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saddamism" title="Saddamism">Saddamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ba%27athist_Iraq" title="Ba'athist Iraq">Ba'athist Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_of_Saddam_Hussein" title="Family of Saddam Hussein">Family</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Uday_Hussein" title="Uday Hussein">Uday</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qusay_Hussein" title="Qusay Hussein">Qusay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raghad_Hussein" title="Raghad Hussein">Raghad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rana_Hussein" title="Rana Hussein">Rana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sajida_Talfah" title="Sajida Talfah">Sajida Talfah</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></div> <hr /> <div class="hidden-begin mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style=""><div class="hidden-title skin-nightmode-reset-color" style="">Affiliations</div><div class="hidden-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:center;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party" title="Ba'ath Party">Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Iraq_Region" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Iraq Region">Iraq-based Ba'ath Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_Command_Council_(Iraq)" title="Revolutionary Command Council (Iraq)">Revolutionary Command Council</a></li></ul> </div></div> <hr /> <div class="hidden-begin mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style=""><div class="hidden-title skin-nightmode-reset-color" style="">Political offices</div><div class="hidden-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:center;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/President_of_Iraq" title="President of Iraq">President of Iraq</a> (1979–2003)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Iraq" title="Prime Minister of Iraq">Prime Minister of Iraq</a> (1979–1991, 1994–2003)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_Iraq" title="Vice President of Iraq">Vice President of Iraq</a> (1968–1979)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_Command_Council_(Iraq)" title="Revolutionary Command Council (Iraq)">Chairman of the Revolutionary Command Council</a> (1979–2003)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_Command_of_the_Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Iraq_Region" title="Regional Command of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Iraq Region">Regional Secretary of the Iraqi Ba'ath Party</a> (1964–1966, 1979–2006)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party_(Iraqi-dominated_faction)" title="Ba'ath Party (Iraqi-dominated faction)">Secretary General of the Iraqi Ba'ath Party</a> (1992–2006)</li></ul> </div></div> <hr /> <div class="hidden-begin mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style=""><div class="hidden-title skin-nightmode-reset-color" style="">Rise to power</div><div class="hidden-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:center;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1959_Mosul_uprising" title="1959 Mosul uprising">1959 Mosul uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramadan_Revolution" title="Ramadan Revolution">Ramadan Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/17_July_Revolution" title="17 July Revolution">17 July Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Iraqi%E2%80%93Kurdish_War" title="First Iraqi–Kurdish War">First Iraqi–Kurdish War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yom_Kippur_War" title="Yom Kippur War">Yom Kippur War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Iraqi%E2%80%93Kurdish_War" title="Second Iraqi–Kurdish War">Second Iraqi–Kurdish War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1974%E2%80%9375_Shatt_al-Arab_conflict" title="1974–75 Shatt al-Arab conflict">1974–75 Shatt al-Arab conflict</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1975_Algiers_Agreement" title="1975 Algiers Agreement">1975 Algiers Agreement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1979_Ba%27ath_Party_Purge" title="1979 Ba'ath Party Purge">1979 Ba'ath Party Purge</a></li></ul> </div></div> <hr /> <div class="hidden-begin mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style=""><div class="hidden-title skin-nightmode-reset-color" style="">Presidency</div><div class="hidden-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:center;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_War" title="Iran–Iraq War">Iran–Iraq War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_invasion_of_Iran" title="Iraqi invasion of Iran">Iraqi invasion of Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dujail_massacre" title="Dujail massacre">Dujail massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anfal_campaign" title="Anfal campaign">Anfal campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halabja_massacre" title="Halabja massacre">Halabja massacre</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_invasion_of_Kuwait" title="Iraqi invasion of Kuwait">Iraqi invasion of Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Gulf War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1991_Iraqi_missile_attacks_against_Israel" title="1991 Iraqi missile attacks against Israel">missile attacks on Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_ballistic_missile_attacks_on_Saudi_Arabia" title="Iraqi ballistic missile attacks on Saudi Arabia">missile attacks on U.S. bases in Saudi Arabia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1991_Iraqi_uprisings" title="1991 Iraqi uprisings">1991 Iraqi uprisings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1999_Shia_uprising_in_Iraq" title="1999 Shia uprising in Iraq">1999 Shia uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2003_invasion_of_Iraq" title="2003 invasion of Iraq">2003 invasion of Iraq</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Baghdad_(2003)" title="Battle of Baghdad (2003)">Battle of Baghdad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firdos_Square_statue_destruction" class="mw-redirect" title="Firdos Square statue destruction">Firdos Square statue destruction</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Ba%27athist_Iraq" title="Human rights in Ba'athist Iraq">Human rights record</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saddam_Hussein_and_al-Qaeda_link_allegations" title="Saddam Hussein and al-Qaeda link allegations">Al-Qaeda link allegations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Saddam_Hussein_and_al-Qaeda_link_allegations" title="Timeline of Saddam Hussein and al-Qaeda link allegations">Timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Iraq and weapons of mass destruction">Nuclear weapon program</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Opera" title="Operation Opera">Operation Opera</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></div> <hr /> <div class="hidden-begin mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style=""><div class="hidden-title skin-nightmode-reset-color" style="">Desposition</div><div class="hidden-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:center;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Saddam_Hussein" title="Capture of Saddam Hussein">Capture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interrogation_of_Saddam_Hussein" title="Interrogation of Saddam Hussein">Interrogation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trial_of_Saddam_Hussein" title="Trial of Saddam Hussein">Trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Execution_of_Saddam_Hussein" title="Execution of Saddam Hussein">Execution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reactions_to_the_execution_of_Saddam_Hussein" title="Reactions to the execution of Saddam Hussein">Reactions</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></div> <hr /> <div class="hidden-begin mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style=""><div class="hidden-title skin-nightmode-reset-color" style="">Elections and referendums</div><div class="hidden-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:center;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1995_Iraqi_presidential_referendum" title="1995 Iraqi presidential referendum">1995 Iraqi presidential referendum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2002_Iraqi_presidential_referendum" title="2002 Iraqi presidential referendum">2002 Iraqi presidential referendum</a></li></ul> </div></div> <hr /> <div class="hidden-begin mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style=""><div class="hidden-title skin-nightmode-reset-color" style=""><a href="/wiki/Saddam_Hussein%27s_novels" title="Saddam Hussein's novels">Novels</a></div><div class="hidden-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:center;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blood_Quran" title="Blood Quran">Blood Quran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zabibah_and_the_King" title="Zabibah and the King">Zabibah and the King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Fortified_Castle" title="The Fortified Castle">The Fortified Castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Men_and_the_City" title="Men and the City">Men and the City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Begone,_Demons" title="Begone, Demons">Begone, Demons</a></li></ul> </div></div> <hr /> <a href="/wiki/File:Coat_of_arms_of_Iraq_(1991%E2%80%932004).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Coat_of_arms_of_Iraq_%281991%E2%80%932004%29.svg/50px-Coat_of_arms_of_Iraq_%281991%E2%80%932004%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="70" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Coat_of_arms_of_Iraq_%281991%E2%80%932004%29.svg/75px-Coat_of_arms_of_Iraq_%281991%E2%80%932004%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Coat_of_arms_of_Iraq_%281991%E2%80%932004%29.svg/100px-Coat_of_arms_of_Iraq_%281991%E2%80%932004%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="767" /></a></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Ba%27athism" title="Category:Ba'athism">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="padding-bottom: 0; font-size: 175%;"><a href="/wiki/Ba%27athism" title="Ba'athism">Ba'athism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Ba%27ath_Party.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Flag of the Ba'ath Party"><img alt="Flag of the Ba'ath Party" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Flag_of_the_Ba%27ath_Party.svg/150px-Flag_of_the_Ba%27ath_Party.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Flag_of_the_Ba%27ath_Party.svg/225px-Flag_of_the_Ba%27ath_Party.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Flag_of_the_Ba%27ath_Party.svg/300px-Flag_of_the_Ba%27ath_Party.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Ba%27athist_movements#Major_groups" title="List of Ba'athist movements">Organizations</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-top:0;"><table class="infobox" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Arab_Ba%27ath" title="Arab Ba'ath">Arab Ba'ath</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap;">1940–1947</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Arab_Ba%27ath_Movement" title="Arab Ba'ath Movement">Arab Ba'ath Movement</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap;">1940–1947</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party" title="Ba'ath Party">Ba'ath Party</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap;">1947–1966</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party_(Iraqi-dominated_faction)" title="Ba'ath Party (Iraqi-dominated faction)">Baath Party (pro-Iraqi)</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap;">1968–2003</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party_(Syrian-dominated_faction)" title="Ba'ath Party (Syrian-dominated faction)">Baath Party (pro-Syrian)</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap;">1966–2024</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Variants</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-top:0;"><table class="infobox" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Neo-Ba%27athism" title="Neo-Ba'athism">Neo-Ba'athism</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap;">1966–2024</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Saddamism" title="Saddamism">Saddamism</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap;">1979–2003</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">People</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-top:0;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zaki_al-Arsuzi" title="Zaki al-Arsuzi">Zaki al-Arsuzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Aflaq" title="Michel Aflaq">Michel Aflaq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salah_al-Din_al-Bitar" title="Salah al-Din al-Bitar">Salah al-Din al-Bitar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdullah_Rimawi" title="Abdullah Rimawi">Abdullah Rimawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wahib_al-Ghanim" title="Wahib al-Ghanim">Wahib al-Ghanim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuad_al-Rikabi" title="Fuad al-Rikabi">Fuad al-Rikabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salah_Jadid" title="Salah Jadid">Salah Jadid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hafez_al-Assad" title="Hafez al-Assad">Hafez al-Assad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Hassan_al-Bakr" title="Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr">Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Saddam Hussein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bashar_al-Assad" title="Bashar al-Assad">Bashar al-Assad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Izzat_Ibrahim_al-Douri" title="Izzat Ibrahim al-Douri">Izzat Ibrahim al-Douri</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Literature</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-top:0;;font-style:italic;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Way_of_Resurrection" title="On the Way of Resurrection">On the Way of Resurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Battle_for_One_Destiny" title="The Battle for One Destiny">The Battle for One Destiny</a></li> <li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Zaki_al-Arsuzi" title="Zaki al-Arsuzi">The Genius of Arabic in Its Tongue</a></div></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Ba%27ath_Party" title="History of the Ba'ath Party">History</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ba%27athist_Iraq" title="Ba'athist Iraq">Ba'athist Iraq</a> <a href="/wiki/Attempted_assassination_of_Abdul-Karim_Qasim" title="Attempted assassination of Abdul-Karim Qasim">Attempted assassination of Abdul-Karim Qasim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramadan_Revolution" title="Ramadan Revolution">Ramadan Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/November_1963_Iraqi_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="November 1963 Iraqi coup d'état">November 1963 coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/17_July_Revolution" title="17 July Revolution">17 July Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1979_Ba%27ath_Party_Purge" title="1979 Ba'ath Party Purge">1979 Ba'ath Party Purge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_War" title="Iran–Iraq War">Iran–Iraq War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Gulf War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanctions_against_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanctions against Iraq">UN sanctions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq_War" title="Iraq War">Iraq War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/De-Ba%27athification" title="De-Ba'athification">De-Ba'athification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ba%27athist_Syria" title="Ba'athist Syria">Ba'athist Syria</a> <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Committee_to_Help_Iraq" title="Syrian Committee to Help Iraq">Syrian Committee to Help Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1963_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1963 Syrian coup d'état">1963</a> / <a href="/wiki/1966_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1966 Syrian coup d'état">1966 coup d'états</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_invasion_of_Jordan" title="Syrian invasion of Jordan">Syrian invasion of Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corrective_Movement_(Syria)" title="Corrective Movement (Syria)">Corrective Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_intervention_in_the_Lebanese_Civil_War" title="Syrian intervention in the Lebanese Civil War">Intervention in Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_occupation_of_Lebanon" title="Syrian occupation of Lebanon">Syrian occupation of Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_civil_war" title="Syrian civil war">Syrian civil war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Assad_regime" title="Fall of the Assad regime">Fall of the Assad regime</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Ba%27athist_movements#Regional_branches" title="List of Ba'athist movements">Regional organizations</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-top:0;"><table class="infobox" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none;text-align:center;"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Algeria</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_of_Algeria" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party of Algeria">pro-Iraq</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party_(Syrian-dominated_faction)#Algeria" title="Ba'ath Party (Syrian-dominated faction)">pro-Syria</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Bahrain</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nationalist_Democratic_Assembly" title="Nationalist Democratic Assembly">pro-Iraq</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party_(Syrian-dominated_faction)#Bahrain" title="Ba'ath Party (Syrian-dominated faction)">pro-Syria</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Egypt</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Egypt_Region" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Egypt Region">pro-Iraq</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party_(Syrian-dominated_faction)#Egypt" title="Ba'ath Party (Syrian-dominated faction)">pro-Syria</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Iraq</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Iraq_Region" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Iraq Region">pro-Iraq</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party_(Syrian-dominated_faction)#Iraq" title="Ba'ath Party (Syrian-dominated faction)">pro-Syria</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Jordan</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jordanian_Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party" title="Jordanian Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party">pro-Iraq</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Ba%27ath_Progressive_Party" title="Arab Ba'ath Progressive Party">pro-Syria</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Kuwait</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party_(Iraqi-dominated_faction)#Kuwait" title="Ba'ath Party (Iraqi-dominated faction)">pro-Iraq</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Lebanon</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_Arab_Lebanon_Vanguard_Party" title="Socialist Arab Lebanon Vanguard Party">pro-Iraq</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Lebanon_Region" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Lebanon Region">pro-Syria</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Libya</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Libyan_Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party" title="Libyan Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party">pro-Iraq</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Mauritania</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Vanguard_Party" title="National Vanguard Party">pro-Iraq</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_Democratic_Unionist_Party" title="Socialist Democratic Unionist Party">pro-Syria</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Palestine</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Liberation_Front" title="Arab Liberation Front">pro-Iraq</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/As-Sa%27iqa" title="As-Sa'iqa">pro-Syria</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Sudan</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Region_of_Sudan" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Region of Sudan">pro-Iraq</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Organization_of_Sudan" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Organization of Sudan">pro-Syria</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Syria</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party_(Iraqi-dominated_faction)#Syria" title="Ba'ath Party (Iraqi-dominated faction)">pro-Iraq</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Syria_Region" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region">pro-Syria</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Tunisia</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_Ba%27ath_Movement" title="Tunisian Ba'ath Movement">pro-Iraq</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party_(Syrian-dominated_faction)#Tunisia" title="Ba'ath Party (Syrian-dominated faction)">pro-Syria</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Yemen</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Yemen_Region" title="National Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Yemen Region">pro-Iraq</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Yemen_Region" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Yemen Region">pro-Syria</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Ba%27athist_movements#Splinter-groups" title="List of Ba'athist movements">Splinter groups</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-top:0;"><table class="infobox" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Revolutionary_Ba%27ath_Party" title="Arab Socialist Revolutionary Ba'ath Party">Arab Socialist Revolutionary Ba'ath Party</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap;">1960–1962/63</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Socialist_Lebanon" title="Socialist Lebanon">Socialist Lebanon</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap;">1965–1970</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Arab_Revolutionary_Workers_Party" title="Arab Revolutionary Workers Party">Arab Revolutionary Workers Party</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap;">1966–present</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Socialist_Arab_Ba%27ath_Party" title="Democratic Socialist Arab Ba'ath Party">Democratic Socialist Arab Ba'ath Party</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap;">1970–present</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Sudanese_Ba%27ath_Party" title="Sudanese Ba'ath Party">Sudanese Ba'ath Party</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap;">2002–present</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Armed groups</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-top:0;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Liberation_Front" title="Arab Liberation Front">Arab Liberation Front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Awda_(guerrilla_organization)" title="Al-Awda (guerrilla organization)">Al-Awda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Abud_Network" title="Al-Abud Network">Al-Abud Network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeish_Muhammad" title="Jeish Muhammad">Jeish Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rejectionists" title="Rejectionists">Rejectionists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snake_Party" title="Snake Party">Snake Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Command_for_Jihad_and_Liberation" title="Supreme Command for Jihad and Liberation">Supreme Command for Jihad and Liberation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Army_of_the_Men_of_the_Naqshbandi_Order" title="Army of the Men of the Naqshbandi Order">Naqshbandi Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_Military_Council_for_Iraqi_Revolutionaries" title="General Military Council for Iraqi Revolutionaries">General Military Council for Iraqi Revolutionaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Iraqi_Army" title="Free Iraqi Army">Free Iraqi Army</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-top:0;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_nationalism" title="Arab nationalism">Arab nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_socialism" title="Arab socialism">Arab socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assadist%E2%80%93Saddamist_conflict" title="Assadist–Saddamist conflict">Assadist–Saddamist conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nasserism" title="Nasserism">Nasserism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Arabism" title="Pan-Arabism">Pan-Arabism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wa%E1%B8%A5da,_%E1%B8%A4urriyya,_Ishtir%C4%81kiyya" title="Waḥda, Ḥurriyya, Ishtirākiyya">Waḥda, Ḥurriyya, Ishtirākiyya</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Politics" title="Portal:Politics">Politics portal</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Socialism" title="Portal:Socialism">Socialism portal</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ba%27athism_sidebar" title="Template:Ba'athism sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ba%27athism_sidebar" title="Template talk:Ba'athism sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ba%27athism_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ba'athism sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Saddam Hussein<a href="#cite_note-10">[c]</a> (28 April 1937 – 30 December 2006) was an Iraqi politician and revolutionary who served as the fifth <a href="/wiki/President_of_Iraq" title="President of Iraq">president of Iraq</a> from 1979 until <a href="/wiki/Saddam_Hussein_statue_destruction" title="Saddam Hussein statue destruction">his overthrow</a> in 2003. He previously served as the <a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_Iraq" title="Vice President of Iraq">vice president of Iraq</a> from 1968 to 1979 and also served as <a href="/wiki/Prime_minister_of_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="Prime minister of Iraq">prime minister</a> from 1979 to 1991 and later from 1994 to 2003. He was a leading member of the revolutionary <a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party" title="Ba'ath Party">Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party</a> and later its <a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Iraq_Region" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Iraq Region">Iraqi regional branch</a>. Ideologically, he espoused <a href="/wiki/Ba%27athism" title="Ba'athism">Ba'athism</a>, a mix of <a href="/wiki/Arab_nationalism" title="Arab nationalism">Arab nationalism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arab_socialism" title="Arab socialism">Arab socialism</a>, while the policies and political ideas he championed are collectively known as <a href="/wiki/Saddamism" title="Saddamism">Saddamism</a>. Saddam was born in the village of <a href="/wiki/Al-Awja" title="Al-Awja">Al-Awja</a>, near <a href="/wiki/Tikrit" title="Tikrit">Tikrit</a> in northern <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>, to a <a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam" title="Sunni Islam">Sunni</a> <a href="/wiki/Arabs" title="Arabs">Arab</a> family.<a href="#cite_note-11">[8]</a> He joined the <a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party" title="Ba'ath Party">Ba'ath Party</a> in 1957, and later in 1966 the Iraqi and Baghdad-based Ba'ath parties. He played a key role in the <a href="/wiki/17_July_Revolution" title="17 July Revolution">17 July Revolution</a> and was appointed <a href="/wiki/Vice_president_of_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="Vice president of Iraq">vice president</a> by <a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Hassan_al-Bakr" title="Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr">Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr</a>. During his tenure as vice president, Saddam nationalized the <a href="/wiki/Iraq_Petroleum_Company" title="Iraq Petroleum Company">Iraq Petroleum Company</a>, diversifying the <a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Iraq" title="Economy of Iraq">Iraqi economy</a>. He presided over the <a href="/wiki/Second_Iraqi%E2%80%93Kurdish_War" title="Second Iraqi–Kurdish War">Second Iraqi–Kurdish War</a> (1974–1975) and the <a href="/wiki/1975_Algiers_Agreement" title="1975 Algiers Agreement">Algiers Agreement</a> which settled territorial disputes along the <a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_border" title="Iran–Iraq border">Iran–Iraq border</a>. Following al-Bakr's resignation in 1979, Saddam formally took power, although he had already been the de facto head of Iraq for several years. Positions of power in the country were mostly filled with Sunni Arabs, a minority that made up about a <a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam_in_Iraq" title="Sunni Islam in Iraq">fifth of the population</a>.<a href="#cite_note-12">[9]</a> In 1979, upon taking office, Saddam <a href="/wiki/1979_Ba%27ath_Party_Purge" title="1979 Ba'ath Party Purge">purged the Ba'ath Party</a>. He ordered the <a href="/wiki/Iraqi_invasion_of_Iran" title="Iraqi invasion of Iran">invasion of Iran</a> in 1980 in a purported effort to capture <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>'s Arab-majority <a href="/wiki/Khuzestan_province" title="Khuzestan province">Khuzestan province</a>, and end Iranian attempts to <a href="/wiki/The_policy_of_exporting_the_Islamic_Revolution" title="The policy of exporting the Islamic Revolution">export its 1979 revolution</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Arab_world" title="Arab world">Arab world</a> and overthrow his regime. The <a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_War" title="Iran–Iraq War">Iran–Iraq War</a> ended in 1988 in a <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_598" title="United Nations Security Council Resolution 598">stalemate</a>, after a million people were killed and Iran suffered economic losses of $561 billion. At the end of the war, Saddam ordered the <a href="/wiki/Anfal_campaign" title="Anfal campaign">Anfal campaign</a> against <a href="/wiki/Kurds" title="Kurds">Kurdish</a> rebels who sided with Iran, recognized as an act of <a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">genocide</a> by <a href="/wiki/Human_Rights_Watch" title="Human Rights Watch">Human Rights Watch</a>. Later, Saddam accused his former ally <a href="/wiki/Kuwait" title="Kuwait">Kuwait</a> of <a href="/wiki/Directional_drilling" title="Directional drilling">slant-drilling</a> <a href="/wiki/Oil_reserves_in_Iraq" title="Oil reserves in Iraq">Iraq's oil reserves</a> and <a href="/wiki/Iraqi_invasion_of_Kuwait" title="Iraqi invasion of Kuwait">invaded the country</a>, initiating the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Gulf War</a> (1990–1991), which ended in Iraq's defeat by a <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>-led <a href="/wiki/Coalition_of_the_Gulf_War" title="Coalition of the Gulf War">multinational coalition</a>. The <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> subsequently placed <a href="/wiki/International_sanctions_against_Iraq" title="International sanctions against Iraq">sanctions against Iraq</a>. Saddam brutally suppressed the <a href="/wiki/1991_Iraqi_uprisings" title="1991 Iraqi uprisings">1991 Iraqi uprisings</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Kurds_in_Iraq" title="Kurds in Iraq">Kurds</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam_in_Iraq" title="Shia Islam in Iraq">Shias</a>, which sought to gain independence or overthrow the government. Saddam adopted an <a href="/wiki/Anti-Americanism" title="Anti-Americanism">anti-American</a> stance and established the <a href="/wiki/Faith_Campaign" title="Faith Campaign">Faith Campaign</a>, pursuing an <a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamist</a> agenda in Iraq. In 2003, a US-led <a href="/wiki/Multi-National_Force_%E2%80%93_Iraq" title="Multi-National Force – Iraq">coalition</a> <a href="/wiki/2003_invasion_of_Iraq" title="2003 invasion of Iraq">invaded Iraq</a>, falsely accusing Saddam of developing <a href="/wiki/Iraq_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Iraq and weapons of mass destruction">weapons of mass destruction</a> and of <a href="/wiki/Saddam_Hussein_and_al-Qaeda_link_allegations" title="Saddam Hussein and al-Qaeda link allegations">having ties with al-Qaeda</a>. After the quick coalition victory in the war, the <a href="/wiki/De-Ba%27athification" title="De-Ba'athification">Ba'ath Party was banned</a> and Saddam went into hiding. After <a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Saddam_Hussein" title="Capture of Saddam Hussein">his capture</a> on 13 December 2003, <a href="/wiki/Trial_of_Saddam_Hussein" title="Trial of Saddam Hussein">his trial</a> took place under the <a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Interim_Government" title="Iraqi Interim Government">Iraqi Interim Government</a>. On 5 November 2006, Saddam was convicted by the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Iraqi_Criminal_Tribunal" title="Supreme Iraqi Criminal Tribunal">Iraqi High Tribunal</a> of <a href="/wiki/Crimes_against_humanity" title="Crimes against humanity">crimes against humanity</a> related to the <a href="/wiki/Dujail_massacre" title="Dujail massacre">1982 Dujail massacre</a> of over 140 Shia Muslims and sentenced to death by <a href="/wiki/Hanging" title="Hanging">hanging</a>. He <a href="/wiki/Execution_of_Saddam_Hussein" title="Execution of Saddam Hussein">was executed</a> on 30 December 2006. A highly polarizing and controversial figure, Saddam dominated Iraqi politics for 35 years and was the subject of a <a href="/wiki/Cult_of_personality" title="Cult of personality">cult of personality</a>. Many <a href="/wiki/Arabs" title="Arabs">Arabs</a> regard Saddam as a resolute leader who challenged <a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">Western</a> <a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">imperialism</a>, opposed the <a href="/wiki/Israeli-occupied_territories" title="Israeli-occupied territories">Israeli occupation of Palestine</a>, and resisted foreign intervention in the region. Conversely, many Iraqis, particularly Shias and Kurds, perceive him negatively as a <a href="/wiki/Dictator" title="Dictator">dictator</a> responsible for severe <a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">authoritarianism</a>, repression, and numerous injustices. Human Rights Watch estimated that Saddam's regime was responsible for the <a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Ba%27athist_Iraq#Number_of_victims" title="Human rights in Ba'athist Iraq">murder or disappearance of 250,000 to 290,000 Iraqis</a>. Saddam's government has been described by several analysts as authoritarian and <a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">totalitarian</a>, and by some as <a href="/wiki/Arab_fascism" title="Arab fascism">fascist</a>, although the applicability of those labels has been contested. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_life_and_education">Early life and education</h2></div> Saddam Hussein Al-Majid Al-Tikriti was born on 28 April 1937, in <a href="/wiki/Al-Awja" title="Al-Awja">al-Awja</a>, a small village near <a href="/wiki/Tikrit" title="Tikrit">Tikrit</a>, to Hussein Abid Al-Majid and Subha Tulfah Al-Mussallat. They were both from the Al-Bejat clan of the <a href="/wiki/Al-Bu_Nasir_(Iraqi_tribe)" title="Al-Bu Nasir (Iraqi tribe)">Al-Bu Nasir</a> tribe, which was descended from <a href="/wiki/Sayyid" title="Sayyid">Sayyid</a> Ahmed Nasiruddin bin Hussein, a descendant of <a href="/wiki/Husayn_ibn_Ali" title="Husayn ibn Ali">Husayn ibn Ali</a>.<a href="#cite_note-alriyadh-13">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-14">[11]</a> His father Hussein was from the Al-Majid branch of the Al-Bejat clan, his mother Subha was granddaughter of Mussallat bin Omar Al-Nasiri, a tribal leader of the Al-Bu Nasir tribe and an opponent of the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman</a> rule in Iraq.<a href="#cite_note-15">[12]</a> His Al-Bejat clan descended from Omar Bey bin Shabib Al-Nasiri who was appointed as a <a href="/wiki/Bey" title="Bey">Bey</a> by the ruling Ottomans over the region of <a href="/wiki/Tikrit" title="Tikrit">Tikrit</a>.<a href="#cite_note-alriyadh-13">[10]</a> The majority of the <a href="/wiki/Al-Bu_Nasir_(Iraqi_tribe)" title="Al-Bu Nasir (Iraqi tribe)">Al-Bu Nasir</a> led a <a href="/wiki/Bedouin" title="Bedouin">Bedouin</a> life in Tikrit, Saddam's own father Hussein Al-Majid being a shepherd Bedouin.<a href="#cite_note-16">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-Baram_2003-17">[14]</a> His <a href="/wiki/Husaynids" title="Husaynids">Husaynid</a> Bedouin Al-Bu Nasir originally been settled in <a href="/wiki/Yemen" title="Yemen">Yemen</a>, migrated to <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a> settling in <a href="/wiki/Aleppo" title="Aleppo">Aleppo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Harran" title="Harran">Harran</a>, later settling in Tikrit in <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a> under Ottoman rule.<a href="#cite_note-18">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-19">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-alriyadh-13">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-Baram_2003-17">[14]</a> Saddam's name means "the fighter who stands steadfast".<a href="#cite_note-20">[17]</a> His father died before his birth. This made Saddam's mother, Subha, so depressed that she unsuccessfully attempted to <a href="/wiki/Abortion" title="Abortion">abort</a> her pregnancy and commit <a href="/wiki/Suicide" title="Suicide">suicide</a>. His mother was saved by a Jewish family.<a href="#cite_note-21">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-22">[19]</a> Subha "would have nothing to do with him", and Saddam was eventually taken in by an uncle.<a href="#cite_note-23">[20]</a> His mother remarried, and Saddam gained three half-brothers through this marriage. His stepfather, Ibrahim al-Hassan, treated Saddam harshly after his return, and (according to a psychological profile created by the <a href="/wiki/CIA" class="mw-redirect" title="CIA">CIA</a>) beat him regularly, sometimes to wake him up.<a href="#cite_note-24">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-beat1-25">[22]</a> At around the age of 10, Saddam fled the family and returned to live in <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a> with his uncle <a href="/wiki/Khairallah_Talfah" title="Khairallah Talfah">Khairallah Talfah</a>, who became a fatherly figure to Saddam.<a href="#cite_note-Karsh_13–15-26">[23]</a> Talfah, the father of Saddam's future wife, was a devout <a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam" title="Sunni Islam">Sunni</a> Muslim and a veteran of the 1941 <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Iraqi_War" title="Anglo-Iraqi War">Anglo-Iraqi War</a> between <a href="/wiki/Iraqi_nationalists" class="mw-redirect" title="Iraqi nationalists">Iraqi nationalists</a> and the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>, which remained a major colonial power in the region.<a href="#cite_note-27">[24]</a> Talfah was appointed the mayor of Baghdad during Saddam's time in power, until his notorious corruption compelled Saddam to force him out of office.<a href="#cite_note-Karsh_13–15-26">[23]</a> Later in his life, relatives from his native city became some of his closest advisors and supporters. Under the guidance of his uncle, he attended a nationalistic high school in Baghdad. After secondary school, Saddam studied at an <a href="/wiki/Iraqi_law_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Iraqi law school">Iraqi law school</a> for three years, dropping out in 1957 at the age of 20 to join the revolutionary pan-Arab <a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Iraq_Region" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Iraq Region">Ba'ath Party</a>, of which his uncle was a supporter. During this time, Saddam apparently supported himself as a secondary school teacher.<a href="#cite_note-28">[25]</a> Ba'athist ideology originated in <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a> and the Ba'ath Party had a large following in Syria at the time, but in 1955 there were fewer than 300 Ba'ath Party members in Iraq, and it is believed that Saddam's primary reason for joining the party as opposed to the more established Iraqi nationalist parties was his familial connection to <a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Hassan_al-Bakr" title="Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr">Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr</a> and other leading Ba'athists through his uncle.<a href="#cite_note-Karsh_13–15-26">[23]</a> Revolutionary sentiment was characteristic of the era in Iraq and throughout the Middle East. In Iraq, <a href="/wiki/Progressivism" title="Progressivism">progressives</a> and <a href="/wiki/Socialists" class="mw-redirect" title="Socialists">socialists</a> assailed traditional political elites (colonial-era bureaucrats and landowners, wealthy merchants and tribal chiefs, and monarchists).<a href="#cite_note-29">[26]</a> Moreover, the pan-Arab nationalism of <a href="/wiki/Gamal_Abdel_Nasser" title="Gamal Abdel Nasser">Gamal Abdel Nasser</a> in Egypt profoundly influenced young Ba'athists like Saddam. The rise of Nasser foreshadowed a wave of revolutions throughout the Middle East in the 1950s and 1960s, with the collapse of the monarchies of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Iraq" title="Kingdom of Iraq">Iraq</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Kingdom of Egypt">Egypt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Yemen" title="Kingdom of Yemen">Yemen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Libya" title="Kingdom of Libya">Libya</a>. Nasser inspired nationalists throughout the Middle East by fighting the <a href="/wiki/British_Army" title="British Army">British</a> and the <a href="/wiki/French_Army" title="French Army">French</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Suez_Crisis" title="Suez Crisis">Suez Crisis of 1956</a>, modernizing Egypt, and uniting the <a href="/wiki/Arab_world" title="Arab world">Arab world</a> politically.<a href="#cite_note-30">[27]</a> Saddam's father-in-law, <a href="/wiki/Khairallah_Talfah" title="Khairallah Talfah">Khairallah Talfah</a>, was reported to have served five years in prison for his role in fighting against Great Britain in the <a href="/wiki/1941_Iraqi_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1941 Iraqi coup d'état">1941 Iraqi coup d'état</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Iraqi_War" title="Anglo-Iraqi War">Anglo-Iraqi War</a>, and often mentored and told tales of his exploits to the young Saddam.<a href="#cite_note-beat1-25">[22]</a> In 1958, a year after Saddam had joined the Ba'ath party, army officers led by General <a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Karim_Qasim" class="mw-redirect" title="Abd al-Karim Qasim">Abd al-Karim Qasim</a> overthrew <a href="/wiki/Faisal_II_of_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="Faisal II of Iraq">Faisal II of Iraq</a> in the <a href="/wiki/14_July_Revolution" title="14 July Revolution">14 July Revolution</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Rise_to_power">Rise to power</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Ba%27athist_Iraq" title="Ba'athist Iraq">Ba'athist Iraq</a></div> The Ba'ath Party was originally represented in Qasim's cabinet; however, Qasim—reluctant to join Nasser's newly formed <a href="/wiki/United_Arab_Republic" title="United Arab Republic">union between Egypt and Syria</a>—sided with various groups within Iraq (notably the <a href="/wiki/National_Democratic_Party_(Iraq,_1946)" title="National Democratic Party (Iraq, 1946)">social democrats</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Communist_Party" title="Iraqi Communist Party">Iraqi Communist Party</a>) that told him such an action would be dangerous. Instead, Qasim adopted a wataniyah policy of "Iraq First".<a href="#cite_note-31">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-32">[29]</a> To strengthen his own position within the government, Qasim also had an alliance with the Iraqi Communist Party (ICP), which was opposed to the notion of pan-Arabism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoughlin200525–26-33">[30]</a> His policies angered several pan-Arab organisations, including the Ba'ath Party, which later began plotting to <a href="/wiki/Attempted_assassination_of_Abdul-Karim_Qasim" title="Attempted assassination of Abdul-Karim Qasim">assassinate</a> Qasim at Al-Rashid Street on 7 October 1959 and take power. Saddam was recruited to the assassination conspiracy by its ring-leader, Abdul Karim al-Shaikhly, after one of the would-be assassins left.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoughlin200529-34">[31]</a> During the ambush, Saddam (who was only supposed to provide cover) began shooting prematurely, which disorganised the whole operation. Qasim's chauffeur was killed and Qasim was hit in the arm and shoulder. The assassins thought they had killed Qasim and quickly retreated to their headquarters, but Qasim survived.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoughlin200529-34">[31]</a> Saddam himself is not believed to have received any training outside of Iraq, as he was a late addition to the assassination team.<a href="#cite_note-35">[32]</a> <a href="/wiki/Richard_Sale_(journalist)" title="Richard Sale (journalist)">Richard Sale</a> of <a href="/wiki/United_Press_International" title="United Press International">United Press International</a> (UPI), citing former United States diplomat and intelligence officials, <a href="/wiki/Adel_Darwish" title="Adel Darwish">Adel Darwish</a>, and other experts, reported that the unsuccessful assassination attempt on Qasim was a collaboration between the United States <a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">Central Intelligence Agency</a> (CIA) and <a href="/wiki/General_Intelligence_Directorate_(Egypt)" class="mw-redirect" title="General Intelligence Directorate (Egypt)">Egyptian intelligence</a>.<a href="#cite_note-36">[33]</a> Pertinent contemporary records relating to CIA operations in Iraq have remained classified or heavily redacted, thus "allow[ing] for plausible deniability."<a href="#cite_note-Osgood_p._16-37">[34]</a> It is generally accepted that Egypt, in some capacity, was involved in the assassination attempt, and that "[t]he United States was working with Nasser on some level."<a href="#cite_note-Osgood_pp._21–23-38">[35]</a> Sale and Darwish's account has been disputed by historian Bryan R. Gibson who concludes that available U.S. declassified documents show that "while the United States was aware of several plots against Qasim, it had still adhered to [a] nonintervention policy."<a href="#cite_note-39">[36]</a> On the other hand, historian Kenneth Osgood writes that "the circumstantial evidence is such that the possibility of US–UAR collaboration with Ba'ath Party activists cannot be ruled out," concluding that "[w]hatever the validity of [Sale's] charges, at the very least currently declassified documents reveal that US officials were actively considering various plots against Qasim and that the CIA was building up assets for covert operations in Iraq."<a href="#cite_note-Osgood_pp._21–23-38">[35]</a> At the time of the attack, the Ba'ath Party had fewer than 1,000 members;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoughlin200530-40">[37]</a> however, the failed assassination attempt led to widespread exposure for Saddam and the Ba'ath within Iraq, where both had previously languished in obscurity, and later became a crucial part of Saddam's public image during his tenure as <a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_Iraq" title="List of presidents of Iraq">president of Iraq</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Osgood_pp._21–23-38">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-41">[38]</a> <a href="/wiki/Kanan_Makiya" title="Kanan Makiya">Kanan Makiya</a> recounts: <blockquote>The man and the myth merge in this episode. His biography—and Iraqi television, which stages the story ad nauseam—tells of his familiarity with guns from the age of ten; his fearlessness and loyalty to the party during the 1959 operation; his bravery in saving his comrades by commandeering a car at gunpoint; the bullet that was gouged out of his flesh under his direction in hiding; the iron discipline that led him to draw a gun on weaker comrades who would have dropped off a seriously wounded member of the hit team at a hospital; the calculating shrewdness that helped him save himself minutes before the police broke in leaving his wounded comrades behind; and finally the long trek of a wounded man from house to house, city to town, across the desert to refuge in <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>.<a href="#cite_note-42">[39]</a></blockquote> <a href="/wiki/Michel_Aflaq" title="Michel Aflaq">Michel Aflaq</a>, the leader of the Ba'athist movement, organized the expulsion of leading Iraqi Ba'athist members, such as <a href="/wiki/Fuad_al-Rikabi" title="Fuad al-Rikabi">Fuad al-Rikabi</a>, on the grounds that the party should not have initiated the attempt on Qasim's life. At the same time, Aflaq secured seats in the Iraqi Ba'ath leadership for his supporters, one of them being Saddam.<a href="#cite_note-43">[40]</a> The assassins, including Saddam, all eventually escaped to <a href="/wiki/Cairo" title="Cairo">Cairo</a>, Egypt "where they enjoyed Nasser's protection for the remainder of Qasim's tenure in power."<a href="#cite_note-WH2021_1959_2-44">[41]</a> Saddam initially escaped to Syria and then to Egypt itself in February 1960, and he continued to live there until 1963, graduating from high school in 1961 and unsuccessfully pursuing a law degree<a href="#cite_note-45">[42]</a> at <a href="/wiki/Cairo_Law_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Cairo Law School">Cairo Law School</a> (1962–1963).<a href="#cite_note-46">[43]</a> It is possible that Saddam visited the U.S. embassy in <a href="/wiki/Cairo" title="Cairo">Cairo</a> during his exile,<a href="#cite_note-47">[44]</a> and some evidence suggests that he was "in frequent contact with US officials and intelligence agents."<a href="#cite_note-Osgood_pp._21–23-38">[35]</a> A former high-ranking U.S. official told historians Marion Farouk–Sluglett and Peter Sluglett that Iraqi Ba'athists, including Saddam, "had made contact with the American authorities in the late 1950s and early 1960s."<a href="#cite_note-Slugletts_p._327-48">[45]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Iraq_1963_-_Saddam_and_other_Ba%27athists.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Iraq_1963_-_Saddam_and_other_Ba%27athists.jpg/220px-Iraq_1963_-_Saddam_and_other_Ba%27athists.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="137" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7c/Iraq_1963_-_Saddam_and_other_Ba%27athists.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="285" data-file-height="177" /></a><figcaption>Saddam and other Ba'athists posing on top of a tank after a successful coup in February 1963</figcaption></figure> Army officers with ties to the Ba'ath Party overthrew and killed Qasim in the <a href="/wiki/Ramadan_Revolution" title="Ramadan Revolution">Ramadan Revolution</a> coup of February 1963; long suspected to be supported by the CIA,<a href="#cite_note-49">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-50">[47]</a> however, pertinent contemporary documents relating to the CIA's operations in Iraq have remained classified by the U.S. government,<a href="#cite_note-51">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-52">[49]</a> although the Ba'athists are documented to have maintained supportive relationships with U.S. officials before, during, and after the coup.<a href="#cite_note-53">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-54">[51]</a> Ba'athist leaders were appointed to the cabinet and <a href="/wiki/Abdul_Salam_Arif" title="Abdul Salam Arif">Abdul Salam Arif</a> became president. Arif dismissed and arrested the Ba'athist leaders later that year in the <a href="/wiki/November_1963_Iraqi_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="November 1963 Iraqi coup d'état">November 1963 Iraqi coup d'état</a>. Being exiled in Egypt at the time, Saddam played no role in the 1963 coup or the brutal anti-communist purge that followed; although he returned to Iraq after the coup, becoming a key organizer within the Ba'ath Party's civilian wing upon his return.<a href="#cite_note-55">[52]</a> Unlike during the Qasim years, Saddam remained in Iraq following Arif's anti-Ba'athist purge in November 1963, and became involved in planning to assassinate Arif. In marked contrast to Qasim, Saddam knew that he faced no death penalty from Arif's government and knowingly accepted the risk of being arrested rather than fleeing to Syria again. Saddam was arrested in October 1964 and served approximately two years in prison before escaping in 1966.<a href="#cite_note-56">[53]</a> In 1966, <a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Hassan_al-Bakr" title="Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr">Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr</a> appointed him Deputy Secretary of the Regional Command. Saddam, who would prove to be a skilled organizer, revitalized the party.<a href="#cite_note-57">[54]</a> He was elected to the Regional Command, as the story goes, with help from Michel Aflaq—the founder of Ba'athist thought.<a href="#cite_note-Hanna_Batatu-58">[55]</a> In September 1966, Saddam initiated an extraordinary challenge to Syrian domination of the Ba'ath Party in response to the <a href="/wiki/1966_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1966 Syrian coup d'état">Marxist takeover of the Syrian Ba'ath</a> earlier that year, resulting in the Party's formalized split into two <a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party_(Syrian-dominated_faction)" title="Ba'ath Party (Syrian-dominated faction)">separate</a> <a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party_(Iraqi-dominated_faction)" title="Ba'ath Party (Iraqi-dominated faction)">factions</a>.<a href="#cite_note-59">[56]</a> Saddam then created a Ba'athist security service, which he alone controlled.<a href="#cite_note-60">[57]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Vice_Presidency_(1968–1979)">Vice Presidency (1968–1979)</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/17_July_Revolution" title="17 July Revolution">17 July Revolution</a></div> In July 1968, Saddam participated in a <a href="/wiki/17_July_Revolution" title="17 July Revolution">bloodless coup</a> led by <a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Hassan_al-Bakr" title="Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr">Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr</a> that overthrew <a href="/wiki/Abdul_Rahman_Arif" title="Abdul Rahman Arif">Abdul Rahman Arif</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Bashkin2009-61">[58]</a>: 174  Salam Arif's brother and successor. While Saddam's role in the coup was not hugely significant (except in the official account), Saddam planned and carried out the subsequent purge of the non-Ba'athist faction led by <a href="/wiki/List_of_Prime_Ministers_of_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Prime Ministers of Iraq">Prime Minister</a> <a href="/wiki/Abdul_Razzaq_an-Naif" title="Abdul Razzaq an-Naif">Abdul Razzaq an-Naif</a>, whose support had been essential to the coup's success.<a href="#cite_note-62">[59]</a> According to a semi-official biography, Saddam personally led Naif at gunpoint to the plane that escorted him out of Iraq.<a href="#cite_note-63">[60]</a> Arif was given refuge in London and then <a href="/wiki/Istanbul" title="Istanbul">Istanbul</a>. Al-Bakr was named president and Saddam was named his deputy, and deputy chairman of the Ba'athist <a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Revolutionary_Command_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="Iraqi Revolutionary Command Council">Revolutionary Command Council</a>. According to biographers, Saddam never forgot the tensions within the first Ba'athist government, which formed the basis for his measures to promote Ba'ath party unity as well as his resolve to maintain power and programs to ensure social stability. Although Saddam was al-Bakr's deputy, he was a strong behind-the-scenes party politician. Al-Bakr was the older and more prestigious of the two, but by 1969 Saddam had become the moving force behind the party. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Political_program">Political program</h3></div> In the late 1960s and early 1970s, as vice chairman of the Revolutionary Command Council, formally al-Bakr's second-in-command, Saddam built a reputation as a progressive, effective politician.<a href="#cite_note-64">[61]</a> At this time, Saddam moved up the ranks in the new government by aiding attempts to strengthen and unify the Ba'ath party and taking a leading role in addressing the country's major domestic problems and expanding the party's following. Saddam actively fostered the modernization of the Iraqi economy and created a strong security apparatus to prevent coups within the power structure and insurrections apart from it. Ever concerned with broadening his base of support among the diverse elements of Iraqi society and mobilizing mass support, he closely followed the administration of state welfare and development programs.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] At the center of this strategy was Iraq's oil. On 1 June 1972, Saddam oversaw the seizure of international oil interests, which, at the time, dominated the country's oil sector.<a href="#cite_note-65">[62]</a> A year later, world oil prices rose dramatically as a result of the <a href="/wiki/1973_energy_crisis" class="mw-redirect" title="1973 energy crisis">1973 energy crisis</a>, and skyrocketing revenues enabled Saddam to expand his agenda. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Economic_Reforms">Economic Reforms</h4></div> With the help of increasing oil revenues, Saddam diversified the largely oil-based <a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Iraq" title="Economy of Iraq">Iraqi economy</a>. Saddam implemented a national infrastructure campaign that made great progress in building roads, promoting mining, and developing other industries. The campaign helped Iraq's energy industries. Electricity was brought to nearly every city in Iraq, and many outlying areas. Before the 1970s, most of Iraq's people lived in the countryside and roughly two-thirds were peasants. This number would decrease quickly during the 1970s as global oil prices helped revenues to rise from less than a half billion dollars to tens of billions of dollars and the country invested into industrial expansion. He nationalized independent banks, eventually leaving the banking system insolvent due to <a href="/wiki/Inflation" title="Inflation">inflation</a> and bad loans.<a href="#cite_note-economist2004-66">[63]</a> Saddam focused on fostering loyalty to the Ba'athists in the rural areas. After nationalizing foreign oil interests, Saddam supervised the modernization of the countryside, mechanizing agriculture on a large scale, and distributing land to peasant farmers.<a href="#cite_note-67">[64]</a> The Ba'athists established farm cooperatives and the government also doubled expenditures for agricultural development in 1974–1975. Saddam's welfare programs were part of a combination of "carrot and stick" tactics to enhance support for Saddam. The state-owned banks were put under his thumb. Lending was based on cronyism.<a href="#cite_note-economist2004-66">[63]</a> Saddam also pursued to beautify the cities of Iraq. Many monuments were constructed in Baghdad, and the city's Airport was inaugurated in 1982, bearing his name "Saddam International Airport". He also proposed the Baghdad Metro project in 1980, though it did not ultimately come to fruition, due to troubles concerning the <a href="/wiki/Iran-Iraq_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Iran-Iraq War">Iran-Iraq War</a>. Throughout the 24 years of his presidency, Saddam built more than 100 palaces across the country.<a href="#cite_note-68">[65]</a> By the late 1970s, Iraq had experienced significant economic growth, with a <a href="/wiki/Bank_reserves" title="Bank reserves">budget reserve</a> surpassing US$35 billion. The value of 1 Iraqi dinar was worth more than 3 dollars, making it one of the most notable economic expansions in the region. Saddam Hussein's regime aimed to diversify the Iraqi economy beyond oil. The government invested in various industries, including petrochemicals, fertilizer production, and textile manufacturing, to reduce dependence on oil revenues and promote economic self-sufficiency.<a href="#cite_note-69">[66]</a> The oil revenue benefited Saddam politically.<a href="#cite_note-economist2007-70">[67]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/The_Economist" title="The Economist">The Economist</a>, "Much as <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a> won early praise for galvanizing German industry, ending mass unemployment and building autobahns, Saddam earned admiration abroad for his deeds. He had a good instinct for what the "<a href="/wiki/Arab_street" title="Arab street">Arab street</a>" demanded, following the decline in Egyptian leadership brought about by the trauma of Israel's six-day victory in the 1967 war, the death of the pan-Arabist hero, Gamal Abdul Nasser, in 1970, and the "traitorous" drive by his successor, Anwar Sadat, to sue for peace with the Jewish state. Saddam's self-aggrandizing propaganda, with himself posing as the defender of Arabism against Zionist or <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Persian</a> intruders, was heavy-handed, but consistent as a drumbeat. It helped, of course, that his <a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Intelligence_Service" title="Iraqi Intelligence Service">mukhabarat</a> (secret police) put dozens of Arab news editors, writers and artists on the payroll."<a href="#cite_note-economist2007-70">[67]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Socio-Economic_Reforms">Socio-Economic Reforms</h4></div> Under his tenure, Iraq was providing unprecedented social services among Middle Eastern countries.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Saddam established and controlled the "National Campaign for the Eradication of Illiteracy" and the campaign for "Compulsory Free Education in Iraq". Largely under his auspices, the government established universal free schooling up to the highest education levels; hundreds of thousands learned to read in the years following the initiation of the program, with punishments for not attending consisting of heavy fines, and even jail time. By 1979 alone, over 2 million Iraqi adults were studying in more than 28,735 literacy schools, with over 75,000 teachers.<a href="#cite_note-71">[68]</a> He also introduced social security programs, with the notable parts of the program consisting of disability benefits, with disabled people in Iraq becoming eligible for financial assistance.<a href="#cite_note-72">[69]</a> It also introduced healthcare coverage, ensuring Iraqi citizens had access to healthcare and medication when needed.<a href="#cite_note-73">[70]</a> The government supported families of soldiers and gave subsidies to farmers. Iraq created one of the most modernized public health systems in the Middle East. These efforts at building welfare in Iraq earned Saddam an award from the <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization</a> (UNESCO).<a href="#cite_note-74">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-75">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-76">[73]</a> Saddam also took steps to promote women's rights within Iraq. By the late 1970s, women in Iraq held significant roles in society, representing 46% of all teachers, 29% of all doctors, 46% of all dentists and 70% of all pharmacists. These advancements signaled progress in women's participation in various professional fields.<a href="#cite_note-77">[74]</a> Women also saw drastic increase in rights in other-aspects of life, with women being given equal-rights in marriage, divorce, inheritance, and custody.<a href="#cite_note-edition.cnn.com-78">[75]</a> Women in Iraq also had the ability to pass their citizenship down to their children even if they married a non-Iraqi. Women's education no longer was a luxury, with women having the same opportunities as men in higher education.<a href="#cite_note-edition.cnn.com-78">[75]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ethnicity_and_religion">Ethnicity and religion</h4></div> With a Muslim majority, Iraq consists of a multi-ethnic, multi-religious and multi-sectarian population.<a href="#cite_note-The_World_from_PRX_2016-79">[76]</a> After the <a href="/wiki/Ba%27athists" class="mw-redirect" title="Ba'athists">Ba'athists</a> took power in 1968, Saddam focused on attaining stability in a nation riddled with profound tensions.<a href="#cite_note-Humphreys,_78-80">[77]</a> Long before him, Iraq had been split along social, ethnic, religious, and economic fault lines: Sunni versus <a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam">Shi'ite</a>, Arab versus <a href="/wiki/Kurds" title="Kurds">Kurd</a>, tribal chief versus urban merchant, nomad versus peasant and Jews versus Muslims.<a href="#cite_note-Humphreys,_78-80">[77]</a> The desire for stable rule in a country rife with <a href="/wiki/Political_faction" title="Political faction">factionalism</a> led Saddam to pursue both massive repression and the improvement of living standards.<a href="#cite_note-Humphreys,_78-80">[77]</a> During his rule, numerous religious and ethnic groups existed in the country.<a href="#cite_note-The_World_from_PRX_2016-79">[76]</a> Following the end of the <a href="/wiki/First_Iraqi%E2%80%93Kurdish_War" title="First Iraqi–Kurdish War">First Iraqi–Kurdish War</a> in November 1970, Saddam signed a peace treaty with <a href="/wiki/Mustafa_Barzani" title="Mustafa Barzani">Mustafa Barzani</a>, which agreement granted autonomy to the Kurds.<a href="#cite_note-81">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-ekurd.net-82">[79]</a> They were now allowed to speak Kurdish language in schools, on television, and in newspapers, with textbooks being translated for the Kurdish regions. Iraqi Kurds were also able to elect a Kurdish representative to Baghdad with the <a href="/wiki/Kurdistan_Democratic_Party" title="Kurdistan Democratic Party">KDP</a> being legitimized as a legal, progressive party in Iraq.<a href="#cite_note-:1-83">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-MERIP_Reports_1974-84">[81]</a> However the failure of the agreement and <a href="/wiki/Ba%27athist_Arabization_campaigns_in_northern_Iraq" title="Ba'athist Arabization campaigns in northern Iraq">Arabization program</a> in oil-rich regions around Kirkuk and Khanaqin in Northern Iraq, led to the <a href="/wiki/Second_Iraqi%E2%80%93Kurdish_War" title="Second Iraqi–Kurdish War">Second Iraqi–Kurdish War</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ekurd.net-82">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-MERIP_Reports_1974-84">[81]</a> During this time, <a href="/wiki/Feyli_(tribe)" title="Feyli (tribe)">Feyil Kurds</a> were <a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Feyli_Kurds_under_Saddam_Hussein" title="Persecution of Feyli Kurds under Saddam Hussein">systemically persecuted</a>.<a href="#cite_note-85">[82]</a> During his rule, Iraq retained a <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Iraq" title="History of the Jews in Iraq">substantial Jewish community</a>, around 15,000.<a href="#cite_note-86">[83]</a><a href="#cite_note-87">[84]</a> During the early years of the Ba'ath rule, Jews were initially oppressed under the government.<a href="#cite_note-AJS_Perspectives_2017-88">[85]</a> Saddam was given the charge of <a href="/wiki/1969_Baghdad_hangings" title="1969 Baghdad hangings">publicly hanging 13 men</a>, including many Jews.<a href="#cite_note-AJS_Perspectives_2017-88">[85]</a> They were accused by the government of spying for Israel.<a href="#cite_note-AJS_Perspectives_2017-88">[85]</a> However, according to several reports, this was lesser than the harsh treatment by previous regimes. Later government abolished its repressive policies on Jews.<a href="#cite_note-AJS_Perspectives_2017-88">[85]</a> In November 1975, the government issued a decree inviting Jews back to Iraq, who were expelled.<a href="#cite_note-AJS_Perspectives_2017-88">[85]</a> The Israeli government panned the decree by calling it political propaganda.<a href="#cite_note-AJS_Perspectives_2017-88">[85]</a> Only a few Jewish families returned to Iraq.<a href="#cite_note-AJS_Perspectives_2017-88">[85]</a> Treatment later improved, and the Jews were protected and treated well by Saddam..<a href="#cite_note-89">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-90">[87]</a> He reportedly helped an estimated 150 remaining Jews to leave the country.<a href="#cite_note-91">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-Remember_Baghdad-92">[89]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Paramilitary_and_police_organizations">Paramilitary and police organizations</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Saddam_Hussein%27s_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="Human rights in Saddam Hussein's Iraq">Human rights in Saddam Hussein's Iraq</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1224211176">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{text-align:center;font-size:110%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:30em; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> "There is a feeling that at least three million Iraqis are watching the eleven million others." </blockquote> <div style="padding-bottom: 0; padding-top: 0.5em"><cite class="left-aligned" style="">—"A European diplomat", quoted in <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>, April 3, 1984.<a href="#cite_note-Makiya_62-65-93">[90]</a></cite></div> </div> Iraqi society fissures along lines of language, religion and ethnicity. The Ba'ath Party, secular by nature, adopted Pan-Arab ideologies which in turn were problematic for significant parts of the population. Following the <a href="/wiki/Iranian_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian Revolution">Iranian Revolution</a> of 1979, Iraq faced the prospect of régime change from two Shi'ite factions (<a href="/wiki/Islamic_Dawa_Party" title="Islamic Dawa Party">Dawa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Supreme_Council_of_Iraq" title="Islamic Supreme Council of Iraq">SCIRI</a>) which aspired to model Iraq on its neighbour Iran as a Shia theocracy. A separate threat to Iraq came from parts of the ethnic Kurdish population of <a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Kurdistan" title="Iraqi Kurdistan">northern Iraq</a> which opposed being part of an Iraqi state and favored independence (an ongoing ideology which had preceded Ba'ath Party rule). To alleviate the threat of revolution, Saddam afforded certain benefits to the potentially hostile population. Membership in the Ba'ath Party remained open to all Iraqi citizens regardless of background, and repressive measures were taken against its opponents.<a href="#cite_note-Iraq:_A_Country_Study-94">[91]</a> The major instruments for accomplishing this control were the paramilitary and police organizations. Beginning in 1974, <a href="/wiki/Taha_Yassin_Ramadan" title="Taha Yassin Ramadan">Taha Yassin Ramadan</a> (himself a Kurdish Ba'athist), a close associate of Saddam, commanded the <a href="/wiki/Popular_Army_(Iraq)" title="Popular Army (Iraq)">People's Army</a>, which had responsibility for internal security. As the Ba'ath Party's paramilitary, the People's Army acted as a counterweight against any coup attempts by the regular armed forces. In addition to the People's Army, the Department of General Intelligence was the most notorious arm of the state-security system, feared for its use of <a href="/wiki/Torture" title="Torture">torture</a> and assassination. <a href="/wiki/Barzan_Ibrahim_al-Tikriti" title="Barzan Ibrahim al-Tikriti">Barzan Ibrahim al-Tikriti</a>, Saddam's younger <a href="/wiki/Sibling" title="Sibling">half-brother</a>, commanded Mukhabarat. Foreign observers believed that from 1982 this department operated both at home and abroad in its mission to seek out and eliminate Saddam's perceived opponents.<a href="#cite_note-Iraq:_A_Country_Study-94">[91]</a><a href="#cite_note-95">[92]</a> Saddam was notable for using terror against his own people. The Economist described Saddam as "one of the last of the 20th century's great dictators, but not the least in terms of egotism, or cruelty, or morbid will to power."<a href="#cite_note-economist2007-70">[67]</a> Saddam's regime brought about the deaths of at least 250,000 Iraqis<a href="#cite_note-250k-96">[93]</a> and committed <a href="/wiki/War_crime" title="War crime">war crimes</a> in Iran, Kuwait, and Saudi Arabia. <a href="/wiki/Human_Rights_Watch" title="Human Rights Watch">Human Rights Watch</a> and <a href="/wiki/Amnesty_International" title="Amnesty International">Amnesty International</a> issued regular reports of widespread <a href="/wiki/Imprisonment" title="Imprisonment">imprisonment</a> and torture. Conversely, Saddam used Iraq's oil wealth to develop an extensive <a href="/wiki/Patronage" title="Patronage">patronage</a> system for the regime's supporters.<a href="#cite_note-Sassoon_2017-97">[94]</a> Although Saddam is often described as a <a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">totalitarian</a> leader, Joseph Sassoon notes that there are important differences between Saddam's repression and the totalitarianism practiced by <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a> and <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a>, particularly with regard to <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_movement" title="Freedom of movement">freedom of movement</a> and <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion" title="Freedom of religion">freedom of religion</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Sassoon_2017-97">[94]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Foreign_relations">Foreign relations</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Foreign_affairs">Foreign affairs</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Iraq" title="Foreign relations of Iraq">Foreign relations of Iraq</a></div> In foreign affairs, Saddam sought to have Iraq play a leading role in the Middle East.<a href="#cite_note-Healy-98">[95]</a> In 1972, Saddam signed a 15-year Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation with the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>. Arms were sent along with several thousand advisers. According to historian <a href="/wiki/Charles_R._H._Tripp" title="Charles R. H. Tripp">Charles R. H. Tripp</a>, the treaty upset "the US-sponsored security system established as part of the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> in the Middle East. It appeared that any enemy of the Baghdad regime was a potential ally of the United States."<a href="#cite_note-Tripp-99">[96]</a> In response, the US covertly financed Kurdish rebels led by <a href="/wiki/Mustafa_Barzani" title="Mustafa Barzani">Mustafa Barzani</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Second_Iraqi%E2%80%93Kurdish_War" title="Second Iraqi–Kurdish War">Second Iraqi–Kurdish War</a>; the Kurds were defeated in 1975, leading to the forcible relocation of hundreds of thousands of Kurdish civilians.<a href="#cite_note-Tripp-99">[96]</a> A 1978 crackdown on <a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Communist_Party" title="Iraqi Communist Party">Iraqi Communists</a> and a shift of trade toward the West strained Iraqi relations with the Soviet Union; Iraq then took on a more Western orientation until the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Gulf War</a> in 1991.<a href="#cite_note-100">[97]</a> Saddam's rare trips abroad included two Western countries. The first visit took place in December 1974, when the <a href="/wiki/Caudillo" title="Caudillo">Caudillo</a> of Spain, <a href="/wiki/Francisco_Franco" title="Francisco Franco">Francisco Franco</a>, invited him to <a href="/wiki/Madrid" title="Madrid">Madrid</a> and he visited <a href="/wiki/Granada" title="Granada">Granada</a>, <a href="/wiki/C%C3%B3rdoba,_Spain" title="Córdoba, Spain">Córdoba</a> and <a href="/wiki/Toledo,_Spain" title="Toledo, Spain">Toledo</a>.<a href="#cite_note-101">[98]</a> In September 1975 he met with Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Chirac" title="Jacques Chirac">Jacques Chirac</a> in <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a>, France.<a href="#cite_note-The_Chirac_Doctrine-102">[99]</a> After the <a href="/wiki/1973_oil_crisis" title="1973 oil crisis">oil crisis</a> of 1973, France had changed to a more pro-Arab policy and was accordingly rewarded by Saddam with closer ties. Saddam's 1975 visit further cemented close ties with French business and ruling political circles.<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Arab_Summit_1978.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Arab_Summit_1978.jpg/260px-Arab_Summit_1978.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Arab_Summit_1978.jpg/390px-Arab_Summit_1978.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Arab_Summit_1978.jpg/520px-Arab_Summit_1978.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="382" /></a><figcaption>Saddam Hussein and <a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Hassan_al-Bakr" title="Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr">al-Bakr</a>, <a href="/wiki/De_jure" title="De jure">de jure</a> president of Iraq alongside <a href="/wiki/Hafez_al-Assad" title="Hafez al-Assad">Hafez al-Assad</a> of Syria at an <a href="/wiki/1978_Arab_League_summit" title="1978 Arab League summit">Arab League summit</a> in Baghdad in November 1978</figcaption></figure>Iraq's relations with the Arab world have been extremely varied. Relations between Iraq and Egypt violently ruptured in 1977, when the two nations broke relations with each other following Iraq's criticism of Egyptian President <a href="/wiki/Anwar_Sadat" title="Anwar Sadat">Anwar Sadat</a>'s peace initiatives with <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a>. In 1978, Baghdad hosted an <a href="/wiki/1978_Arab_League_summit" title="1978 Arab League summit">Arab League summit</a> that condemned and ostracized Egypt for accepting the <a href="/wiki/Camp_David_Accords" title="Camp David Accords">Camp David Accords</a>. Saddam led Arab opposition to the Camp David Accords. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Peace_treaty_with_Iran">Peace treaty with Iran</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/1975_Algiers_Agreement" title="1975 Algiers Agreement">1975 Algiers Agreement</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Saddam_%26_Shah_(1975).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Saddam_%26_Shah_%281975%29.png/220px-Saddam_%26_Shah_%281975%29.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Saddam_%26_Shah_%281975%29.png/330px-Saddam_%26_Shah_%281975%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Saddam_%26_Shah_%281975%29.png/440px-Saddam_%26_Shah_%281975%29.png 2x" data-file-width="592" data-file-height="356" /></a><figcaption>Saddam Hussein and Reza Shah during the Algiers agreement</figcaption></figure> Iran and Iraq had been engaged in a long-standing territorial dispute over the Shatt al-Arab waterway, which serves as the border between the two countries.<a href="#cite_note-aljazeera.com-2-103">[100]</a> Iran had backed Kurdish separatists in northern Iraq. A peace treaty, which aimed to address the Shatt al-Arab dispute, was signed in 1975.<a href="#cite_note-aljazeera.com-2-103">[100]</a> The 1975 Algiers Agreement, also known as the Algiers Accord, was a significant diplomatic agreement signed between Iran and Iraq on 6 March 1975, to settle border disputes and improve bilateral relations.<a href="#cite_note-aljazeera.com-2-103">[100]</a> It was mediated by the then president of Algeria, <a href="/wiki/Houari_Boumediene" class="mw-redirect" title="Houari Boumediene">Houari Boumediene</a>.<a href="#cite_note-aljazeera.com-2-103">[100]</a> Thus Algeria played a crucial role in mediating the negotiations between Iran and Iraq, with Boumediene acting as the chief mediator.<a href="#cite_note-aljazeera.com-2-103">[100]</a> Under the accord, Iraq was granted sovereignty over the eastern bank of the waterway, while Iran retained control over the western bank.<a href="#cite_note-aljazeera.com-2-103">[100]</a> The agreement also allowed for joint navigation and other provisions.<a href="#cite_note-aljazeera.com-2-103">[100]</a> The agreement was based on the principles of territorial integrity, respect for sovereignty, non-interference in internal affairs, and the peaceful resolution of disputes.<a href="#cite_note-aljazeera.com-2-103">[100]</a> The agreement established a new border line along the Shatt al-Arab, dividing the waterway equally between Iran and Iraq up to the midpoint.<a href="#cite_note-aljazeera.com-2-103">[100]</a> Iran made significant concessions in the agreement, including relinquishing its claims on the eastern bank of the Shatt al-Arab, which had been under Iranian control.<a href="#cite_note-aljazeera.com-2-103">[100]</a> They also pledged to withdraw support for the Kurds. Saddam aimed to secure Iraq's territorial claims, particularly regarding the Shatt al-Arab waterway, which had been a longstanding source of contention between Iran and Iraq.<a href="#cite_note-aljazeera.com-2-103">[100]</a> Both parties recognized each other's sovereignty and territorial integrity, affirming the principle of non-aggression.<a href="#cite_note-aljazeera.com-2-103">[100]</a> The agreement called for the restoration of full diplomatic relations between Iran and Iraq, including the exchange of ambassadors.<a href="#cite_note-aljazeera.com-2-103">[100]</a> The agreement emphasized the importance of economic cooperation between the two countries, particularly in areas such as trade, transport, and joint development projects.<a href="#cite_note-aljazeera.com-2-103">[100]</a> The signing of the Algiers Agreement occurred during a period of relative stability in Iraq, with Saddam gradually consolidating power within the ruling Ba'ath Party.<a href="#cite_note-aljazeera.com-2-103">[100]</a> Saddam played a pivotal role in the negotiations leading up to the Algiers Agreement, representing Iraq's interests.<a href="#cite_note-aljazeera.com-2-103">[100]</a> Saddam's growing influence within the government allowed him to shape Iraq's approach and stance during the negotiation process.<a href="#cite_note-aljazeera.com-2-103">[100]</a> Following the agreement, Iraq and Iran restored full diplomatic relations and exchanged ambassadors, representing a significant diplomatic breakthrough.<a href="#cite_note-aljazeera.com-2-103">[100]</a> The Shah withdrew support of the Kurds, who were promptly defeated by the Iraqis. The agreement emphasized the importance of economic cooperation between Iraq and Iran, particularly in areas like trade and joint development projects.<a href="#cite_note-aljazeera.com-2-103">[100]</a> This agreement, while ultimately unable to prevent future hostilities, remained a notable diplomatic achievement for Iraq during Saddam's early political career.<a href="#cite_note-aljazeera.com-2-103">[100]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Succession">Succession</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Saddam_Hussein_and_Hassan_al-Bakr_1978.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Saddam_Hussein_and_Hassan_al-Bakr_1978.jpg/220px-Saddam_Hussein_and_Hassan_al-Bakr_1978.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Saddam_Hussein_and_Hassan_al-Bakr_1978.jpg/330px-Saddam_Hussein_and_Hassan_al-Bakr_1978.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7b/Saddam_Hussein_and_Hassan_al-Bakr_1978.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="290" /></a><figcaption>Saddam and al-Bakr</figcaption></figure> In 1976, Saddam rose to the position of general in the Iraqi armed forces, and rapidly became the <a href="/wiki/Strongman_(politics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Strongman (politics)">strongman</a> of the government.<a href="#cite_note-:4-104">[101]</a> As the ailing, elderly al-Bakr became unable to execute his duties, Saddam took on an increasingly prominent role as the face of the government both internally and externally.<a href="#cite_note-:4-104">[101]</a> He soon became the architect of Iraq's foreign policy and represented the nation in all diplomatic situations.<a href="#cite_note-:4-104">[101]</a> He was the de facto leader of Iraq some years before he formally came to power in 1979.<a href="#cite_note-:4-104">[101]</a> He slowly began to consolidate his power over Iraq's government and the Ba'ath party.<a href="#cite_note-:4-104">[101]</a> Relationships with fellow party members were carefully cultivated, and Saddam soon accumulated a powerful circle of support within the party.<a href="#cite_note-:4-104">[101]</a> In 1979, al-Bakr started to make treaties with Syria, also under Ba'athist leadership, that would lead to unification between the two countries.<a href="#cite_note-:4-104">[101]</a> Syrian President <a href="/wiki/Hafez_al-Assad" title="Hafez al-Assad">Hafez al-Assad</a> would become deputy leader in a union, and this would drive Saddam to obscurity.<a href="#cite_note-:4-104">[101]</a> Saddam acted to secure his grip on power.<a href="#cite_note-:4-104">[101]</a> He forced the ailing al-Bakr to resign on 16 July 1979, and formally assumed the presidency.<a href="#cite_note-:4-104">[101]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Presidency_(1979–2003)">Presidency (1979–2003)</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Domestic_policies">Domestic policies</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Religion_and_sectarianism">Religion and sectarianism</h4></div> Saddam, contrary to popular belief, was not inherently sectarian.<a href="#cite_note-The_World_from_PRX_2016-79">[76]</a> While he did place his close relatives in key security and military positions, he also promoted individuals from other communities and minorities to the highest levels of power in Iraq.<a href="#cite_note-Joffe_2007-105">[102]</a> His primary criterion for these appointments was unwavering loyalty to him and his regime.<a href="#cite_note-Joffe_2007-105">[102]</a> To gain support from different communities, Saddam made generous contribution and had personal relations with other religious groups. It can be seen as a result of Saddam's overthrow, religious minorities of Iraq have faced significant hardships. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Saddam_2003.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Saddam_2003.png/220px-Saddam_2003.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Saddam_2003.png/330px-Saddam_2003.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/19/Saddam_2003.png 2x" data-file-width="420" data-file-height="267" /></a><figcaption>Cardinal Roger Etchegaray with Saddam in Baghdad, 2003</figcaption></figure> Before 2003, more than 1.2 million <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Iraq" title="Christianity in Iraq">Christians lived in Iraq</a>. <a href="/wiki/Tariq_Aziz" title="Tariq Aziz">Tariq Aziz</a>, an ethnic <a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Assyrians" class="mw-redirect" title="Iraqi Assyrians">Iraqi Assyrian</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Chaldean_Catholics" class="mw-redirect" title="Chaldean Catholics">Chaldean Catholic</a>, was selected by Saddam to serve as Iraq's <a href="/wiki/Deputy_Prime_Minister" class="mw-redirect" title="Deputy Prime Minister">Deputy Prime Minister</a> from 1979 to 2003 and <a href="/wiki/Minister_of_Foreign_Affairs_(Iraq)" title="Minister of Foreign Affairs (Iraq)">Foreign Minister</a> from 1983 to 1991.<a href="#cite_note-PBS_News_2011-106">[103]</a> A close advisor to him, Aziz was also appointed as a member of the <a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_Command_Council_(Iraq)" title="Revolutionary Command Council (Iraq)">Revolutionary Command Council</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Regional_Command_of_the_Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Iraq_Region" title="Regional Command of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Iraq Region">Regional Command</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Ba%27ath_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="Iraqi Ba'ath Party">Iraqi Branch</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party">Ba'ath Party</a>.<a href="#cite_note-PBS_News_2011-106">[103]</a> Georges Sada, another Christian was a top advisor to Saddam. <a href="/wiki/Michel_Aflaq" title="Michel Aflaq">Michel Aflaq</a>, the founder of <a href="/wiki/Ba%27athism" title="Ba'athism">Ba'athism</a>, was also a <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Syria" title="Christianity in Syria">Christian</a>.<a href="#cite_note-PBS_News_2011-106">[103]</a><a href="#cite_note-Associated_Press_2015-107">[104]</a> Cardinal <a href="/wiki/Fernando_Filoni" title="Fernando Filoni">Fernando Filoni</a>, who was Vatican's ambassador to Iraq, stated that under his regime, Christians were free to practice their faith in the majority-Muslim country.<a href="#cite_note-NCR_2023-108">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-PBS_News_2011-106">[103]</a><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Saddam_Hussein_Shaking_hands_with_Mandaean_Rishama.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Saddam_Hussein_Shaking_hands_with_Mandaean_Rishama.png/220px-Saddam_Hussein_Shaking_hands_with_Mandaean_Rishama.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="184" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Saddam_Hussein_Shaking_hands_with_Mandaean_Rishama.png/330px-Saddam_Hussein_Shaking_hands_with_Mandaean_Rishama.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Saddam_Hussein_Shaking_hands_with_Mandaean_Rishama.png/440px-Saddam_Hussein_Shaking_hands_with_Mandaean_Rishama.png 2x" data-file-width="938" data-file-height="785" /></a><figcaption>Rishama Sattar Jabbar and President Saddam Hussein Shaking Hands.</figcaption></figure> Under Saddam, Mandaeans were given state protection.<a href="#cite_note-Genocide_in_Iraq-109">[106]</a> As a sign of respect, the <a href="/wiki/Mandaean_Book_of_John" title="Mandaean Book of John">Mandaean Book of John's</a> first copy translation into Arabic was given to Saddam.<a href="#cite_note-These_Iraqi_Gnostics_Hold_Water_Sacred-110">[107]</a> After this he vowed to construct temples for the Mandaeans, with quoting, "Iraqis have religious freedom, whether they are Muslims, Christians or <a href="/wiki/Mandaeism" title="Mandaeism">Sabaeans</a>".<a href="#cite_note-111">[108]</a> A large number of Mandeans also worked in numerous positions, such as poet Abdul Razzaq, the cultural advisor to the Ministry of Culture and Information and Lamia Abbas, a cultural attaché and deputy permanent representative of Iraq to UNESCO in Paris for the period 1973-1975.<a href="#cite_note-mandaeanunion-112">[109]</a><a href="#cite_note-113">[110]</a> They were some of the best goldsmiths and jewelers in Iraq, with Saddam's personal jeweler being of Mandaean background.<a href="#cite_note-mandaeanunion-112">[109]</a><a href="#cite_note-The_National-114">[111]</a> However, after his downfall, Mandaeans faced severe persecution, and constant kidnappings.<a href="#cite_note-The_National-114">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-mandaeanunion-112">[109]</a> They often expressed that they were better under Saddam's rule, and praise him for the protection they received.<a href="#cite_note-mandaeanunion-112">[109]</a><a href="#cite_note-The_National-114">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-www.algardenia.com-115">[112]</a> During Iran–Iraq War, Saddam sought to gain support from the Shi'ite community.<a href="#cite_note-:0-116">[113]</a> He adopted new policies that improved the living standards of Shi'as.<a href="#cite_note-:0-116">[113]</a> A large number of Shi'a were invited to the ruling party.<a href="#cite_note-:0-116">[113]</a> As a result, Shi'as began to play an important role in the society of Iraq.<a href="#cite_note-:0-116">[113]</a> Shi'as were majority in the party governing body and 40% of the National Assembly.<a href="#cite_note-:0-116">[113]</a> Majority of the Iraqi Armed Forces were Shi'a, which comprised 80%.<a href="#cite_note-:0-116">[113]</a> Some of them held top key positions, such as <a href="/wiki/Abdul_Ghani_al-Asadi" title="Abdul Ghani al-Asadi">Abdul Ghani al-Asadi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Talib_Shaghati" title="Talib Shaghati">Talib Shaghati</a>, <a href="/wiki/Abu_Tahsin_al-Salihi" title="Abu Tahsin al-Salihi">Abu Tahsin al-Salihi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Abboud_Qanbar" title="Abboud Qanbar">Abboud Qanbar</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:0-116">[113]</a> Saddam also appointed some of the Shi'as on ministerial positions, such as <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Saeed_al-Sahhaf" title="Muhammad Saeed al-Sahhaf">Muhammad Saeed al-Sahhaf</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sadun_Hammadi" class="mw-redirect" title="Sadun Hammadi">Sadun Hammadi</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:0-116">[113]</a> The Jews in Iraq were granted protection by Saddam.<a href="#cite_note-:5-117">[114]</a> In the government and military, some prominent <a href="/wiki/Civil_service" title="Civil service">civil officers</a>, doctors, and engineers were Jews, such as Shaul Sassoon and <a href="/wiki/Eliyahu_Basrawi" title="Eliyahu Basrawi">Dr. Eliyahu</a>.<a href="#cite_note-118">[115]</a><a href="#cite_note-119">[116]</a> There was a Jewish representative in his government.<a href="#cite_note-:5-117">[114]</a> A Jewish chemist, from <a href="/wiki/Basra" title="Basra">Basra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ibrahim_Hesqel" title="Ibrahim Hesqel">Ibrahim Hesqel</a> was sent by Saddam on a trade mission to <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> in 1988.<a href="#cite_note-The_Scribe_1988-120">[117]</a> Saddam helped in the restoration of <a href="/wiki/Meir_Taweig_Synagogue" title="Meir Taweig Synagogue">Meir Taweig Synagogue</a> and construction <a href="/wiki/Al-Habibiyah_Jewish_Cemetery" title="Al-Habibiyah Jewish Cemetery">a new cemetery</a> for Jews in Baghdad.<a href="#cite_note-Sun_Sentinel_2003-121">[118]</a> In 1998, on the day of Jewish festival of <a href="/wiki/Sukkot" title="Sukkot">Sukkot</a>, a Palestinian entered the Baghdad synagogue and shot four people to death, including two Jews.<a href="#cite_note-122">[119]</a> The attacker was arrested and executed in 1999.<a href="#cite_note-www.dangoor.com-123">[120]</a> A cabinet meeting chaired by Saddam condemned the attack.<a href="#cite_note-www.dangoor.com-123">[120]</a> He also said that: "Anyone who hurt the Jews in Baghdad would pay a heavy price".<a href="#cite_note-124">[121]</a><a href="#cite_note-125">[122]</a><a href="#cite_note-Sun_Sentinel_2003-121">[118]</a><a href="#cite_note-The_Scribe_1988-120">[117]</a><a href="#cite_note-Remember_Baghdad-92">[89]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Bundling_citations" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">excessive citations</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ethnic_rights_and_autonomy">Ethnic rights and autonomy</h4></div> Saddam's position on Kurdish politics is debated, with events such as the <a href="/wiki/Anfal_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Anfal Campaign">Anfal Campaign</a> leading many critics to denounce Saddam. Despite this, Saddam's government had a higher tolerance of <a href="/wiki/Kurds_in_Iraq" title="Kurds in Iraq">Iraqi Kurds</a> than in countries such as <a href="/wiki/Kurds_in_Syria#History" title="Kurds in Syria">Syria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Human_rights_of_Kurdish_people_in_Turkey" title="Human rights of Kurdish people in Turkey">Turkey</a>, with partial autonomy being granted to them<a href="#cite_note-:1-83">[80]</a> and Kurdish being recognized as an official language that was freely spoken.<a href="#cite_note-:2-126">[123]</a><a href="#cite_note-:1-83">[80]</a> As a result of the 1970 agreement that came out of the <a href="/wiki/First_Iraqi%E2%80%93Kurdish_War" title="First Iraqi–Kurdish War">First Iraqi–Kurdish War</a>, Saddam granted autonomy to Kurds to an extent.<a href="#cite_note-:1-83">[80]</a> The Kurds were allowed to speak Kurdish in schools, on television, and in newspapers, with textbooks being translated for the Kurdish regions.<a href="#cite_note-:1-83">[80]</a> Kurds in Iraq were able to elect a Kurdish representative to Baghdad with the <a href="/wiki/Kurdistan_Democratic_Party" title="Kurdistan Democratic Party">KDP</a> being legitimized as a legal, progressive party in Iraq.<a href="#cite_note-:1-83">[80]</a> Two Kurdish vice-presidents, <a href="/wiki/Taha_Yassin_Ramadan" title="Taha Yassin Ramadan">Taha Yassin Ramadan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Taha_Muhie-eldin_Marouf" title="Taha Muhie-eldin Marouf">Taha Muhie-eldin Marouf</a> were appointed in Saddam's government as a result of the agreements. In Iraq, especially compared to other middle-eastern countries such as <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>, <a href="/wiki/Human_rights_of_Kurdish_people_in_Turkey" title="Human rights of Kurdish people in Turkey">Turkey</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Kurds" class="mw-redirect" title="Iraqi Kurds">Iraqi Kurds</a> were treated well under Saddam when compared to their conditions in the neighboring countries, with the Kurdish language being tolerated under Saddam's regime in education, and media, and spoken as an official language.<a href="#cite_note-:2-126">[123]</a><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D9%86%DA%86%DB%8C%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B2%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/%D9%86%DA%86%DB%8C%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B2%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C.jpg/220px-%D9%86%DA%86%DB%8C%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B2%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/%D9%86%DA%86%DB%8C%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B2%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C.jpg/330px-%D9%86%DA%86%DB%8C%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B2%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3f/%D9%86%DA%86%DB%8C%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B2%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C.jpg 2x" data-file-width="415" data-file-height="278" /></a><figcaption>Saddam with <a href="/wiki/Nechirvan_Barzani" title="Nechirvan Barzani">Nechirvan Barzani</a></figcaption></figure>Saddam also had multiple Kurdish ministers and generals, with the highest ranking one being <a href="/wiki/Taha_Yassin_Ramadan" title="Taha Yassin Ramadan">Taha Yassin Ramadan</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Kurd" class="mw-redirect" title="Iraqi Kurd">Iraqi Kurd</a> —was appointed by Saddam, largely due to his loyalty, as one of Iraq's three Vice Presidents.<a href="#cite_note-Joffe_2007-105">[102]</a> He was also made Deputy Secretary of the <a href="/wiki/Regional_Command_of_the_Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Iraq_Region" title="Regional Command of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Iraq Region">Regional Command</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Iraq_Region" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Iraq Region">Iraqi Branch</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party" title="Ba'ath Party">Ba'ath Party</a> and commander of the <a href="/wiki/Popular_Army_(Iraq)" title="Popular Army (Iraq)">People's Army</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Joffe_2007-105">[102]</a> <a href="/wiki/Taha_Muhie-eldin_Marouf" title="Taha Muhie-eldin Marouf">Taha Muhie-eldin Marouf</a>, another Kurd, was one of the three vice presidents from 1974 to 2003 and served as ambassador to <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Malta" title="Malta">Malta</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Albania" title="Albania">Albania</a>.<a href="#cite_note-VPObit-127">[124]</a> Saddam himself personally enjoyed Kurdish culture, often wearing traditional Kurdish clothing in state visits to northern Iraq.<a href="#cite_note-VPObit2-128">[125]</a> He expressed personal admiration for the Kurdish people.<a href="#cite_note-129">[126]</a> Iraqi Christians are predominantly native Assyrians, followed by Armenians and Arabs.<a href="#cite_note-:6-130">[127]</a><a href="#cite_note-:7-131">[128]</a> In 1972, the government issued a decree, recognizing the cultural rights of Assyrian people in Iraq.<a href="#cite_note-:6-130">[127]</a> However, the decree did not take in-effect.<a href="#cite_note-:6-130">[127]</a> Though Assyrians had cultural centers, programs on televisions and magazines.<a href="#cite_note-:7-131">[128]</a> Despite imposition of Arab nationalism, they often enjoyed broad religious rights under Saddam.<a href="#cite_note-:7-131">[128]</a> Tariq Aziz and Georges Sada were ethnically Assyrians.<a href="#cite_note-:7-131">[128]</a> <a href="/wiki/Armenians_in_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="Armenians in Iraq">Armenians in Iraq</a> were fairly treated by Saddam.<a href="#cite_note-keghart.org_2016-132">[129]</a> As a result of his modernization efforts, the Armenian community flourished and prospered.<a href="#cite_note-Hovannisian-133">[130]</a> Before 2003, there were 100,000 Armenians in Iraq.<a href="#cite_note-Hovannisian2-134">[131]</a> Saddam's nanny was an Iraqi–Armenian, along with one of his body guards, his jeweler, tailor, and housestaff.<a href="#cite_note-135">[132]</a> During the war with Iran, when the Kurds fled to avoid military service, Armenians went to fight for Iraq.<a href="#cite_note-keghart.org_2016-132">[129]</a> Many Armenians also fought for Saddam during the Gulf War, where three of them were killed.<a href="#cite_note-keghart.org_2016-132">[129]</a> Despite tense relations, Saddam had multiple Turkmen in the army, such as <a href="/wiki/Abdul_Nasser_Qardash" title="Abdul Nasser Qardash">Abdul Nasser Qardash</a>, <a href="/wiki/Abu_Muslim_al-Turkmani" title="Abu Muslim al-Turkmani">Abu Muslim al-Turkmani</a> and <a href="/wiki/Abu_Ali_al-Anbari" title="Abu Ali al-Anbari">Abu Ali al-Anbari</a>.<a href="#cite_note-WSJ3Sep14-136">[133]</a><a href="#cite_note-:02-137">[134]</a><a href="#cite_note-Al-Hashimi-138">[135]</a> Later, many of them joined <a href="/wiki/Islamic_State" title="Islamic State">Islamic State</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:03-139">[136]</a> <a href="/wiki/Rifat_Chadirji" title="Rifat Chadirji">Rifat Chadirji</a>, an Iraqi Turkmen, was an architect selected by Saddam to oversee the preparations for an international conference to be held in Baghdad in 1983 and to assist with general plans to give Baghdad a facelift.<a href="#cite_note-Harvard-140">[137]</a><a href="#cite_note-:3-141">[138]</a> Chadirji became Councillor to the Mayor, a role that found him overseeing all the reconstruction projects in Baghdad.<a href="#cite_note-Al-Khalil,_S_1991,_p._95-142">[139]</a> He also became Saddam's architectural consultant for Baghdad City Planning.<a href="#cite_note-:3-141">[138]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1979_Ba'ath_Party_Purge">1979 Ba'ath Party Purge</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/1979_Ba%27ath_Party_Purge" title="1979 Ba'ath Party Purge">1979 Ba'ath Party Purge</a></div> Saddam convened an assembly of Ba'ath party leaders on 22 July 1979. During the assembly, which he ordered videotaped,<a href="#cite_note-143">[140]</a> Saddam claimed to have found a <a href="/wiki/Fifth_column" title="Fifth column">fifth column</a> within the Ba'ath Party and directed <a href="/wiki/Muhyi_Abdul-Hussein_Mashhadi" title="Muhyi Abdul-Hussein Mashhadi">Muhyi Abdul-Hussein</a> to read out a confession and the names of 68 alleged co-conspirators. These members were labelled "disloyal" and were removed from the room one by one and taken into custody. After the list was read, Saddam congratulated those still seated in the room for their past and future loyalty. The 68 people arrested at the meeting were subsequently tried together and found guilty of <a href="/wiki/Treason" title="Treason">treason</a>; 22 were sentenced to execution. Other high-ranking members of the party formed the firing squad. By 1 August 1979, hundreds of high-ranking Ba'ath party members had been executed.<a href="#cite_note-144">[141]</a><a href="#cite_note-145">[142]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Iran–Iraq_War:_1980–1988">Iran–Iraq War: 1980–1988</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_War" title="Iran–Iraq War">Iran–Iraq War</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/United_States_support_for_Iraq_during_the_Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_War" title="United States support for Iraq during the Iran–Iraq War">United States support for Iraq during the Iran–Iraq War</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Locator_map_Iran_Khuzestan_Province.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Locator_map_Iran_Khuzestan_Province.png/220px-Locator_map_Iran_Khuzestan_Province.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="196" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Locator_map_Iran_Khuzestan_Province.png/330px-Locator_map_Iran_Khuzestan_Province.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Locator_map_Iran_Khuzestan_Province.png/440px-Locator_map_Iran_Khuzestan_Province.png 2x" data-file-width="672" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>In the <a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_War" title="Iran–Iraq War">Iran–Iraq War</a> (1980–1988), Iraq claimed it had the right to hold sovereignty to the east bank of the <a href="/wiki/Shatt_al-Arab" title="Shatt al-Arab">Shatt al-Arab</a> river held by Iran.<a href="#cite_note-146">[143]</a></figcaption></figure> In early 1979, Iran's Shah <a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Reza_Pahlavi" title="Mohammad Reza Pahlavi">Mohammad Reza Pahlavi</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Pahlavi_dynasty" title="Pahlavi dynasty">Pahlavi dynasty</a> were overthrown by the <a href="/wiki/Iranian_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian Revolution">Islamic Revolution</a>, thus giving way to an Islamic republic led by Ayatollah <a href="/wiki/Ruhollah_Khomeini" title="Ruhollah Khomeini">Ruhollah Khomeini</a>.<a href="#cite_note-HISTORY-2021-147">[144]</a> The influence of revolutionary Shi'ite Islam grew apace in the region, particularly in countries with large Shi'ite populations, especially Iraq.<a href="#cite_note-HISTORY-2021-147">[144]</a> Saddam feared that radical Islamic ideas—hostile to his secular rule—were rapidly spreading inside his country among the majority Shi'ite population.<a href="#cite_note-HISTORY-2021-147">[144]</a> Despite Saddam's fears of massive unrest, Iran's attempts to <a href="/wiki/The_policy_of_exporting_the_Islamic_Revolution" title="The policy of exporting the Islamic Revolution">export its Islamic Revolution</a> were largely unsuccessful in rallying support from Shi'ites in Iraq and the <a href="/wiki/Arab_states_of_the_Persian_Gulf" title="Arab states of the Persian Gulf">Gulf states</a>. Most Iraqi Shi'ites, who comprised the majority of the Iraqi Armed Forces, chose their own country over their Shi'ite Iranian coreligionists during the war that ensued.<a href="#cite_note-PIRRR-148">[145]</a> There had also been bitter enmity between Saddam and Khomeini since the 1970s.<a href="#cite_note-HISTORY-2021-147">[144]</a> Khomeini, having been exiled from Iran in 1964, took up residence in Iraq, at the Shi'ite holy city of <a href="/wiki/Najaf" title="Najaf">Najaf</a>.<a href="#cite_note-HISTORY-2021-147">[144]</a> There he involved himself with Iraqi Shi'ites and developed a strong religious and political following against the Iranian Government, which Saddam tolerated.<a href="#cite_note-HISTORY-2021-147">[144]</a> When Khomeini began to urge the Shi'ites there to overthrow Saddam and under pressure from the Shah, who had agreed to a rapprochement between Iraq and Iran in 1975, Saddam agreed to expel Khomeini in 1978 to France.<a href="#cite_note-HISTORY-2021-147">[144]</a> Here, Khomeini gained media connections and collaborated with a much larger Iranian community, to his advantage.<a href="#cite_note-HISTORY-2021-147">[144]</a> After Khomeini gained power, skirmishes between Iraq and revolutionary Iran occurred for ten months over the sovereignty of the disputed <a href="/wiki/Shatt_al-Arab" title="Shatt al-Arab">Shatt al-Arab</a> waterway, which divides the two countries.<a href="#cite_note-HISTORY-2021-147">[144]</a> During this period, Saddam publicly maintained that it was in Iraq's interest not to engage with Iran, and that it was in the interests of both nations to maintain peaceful relations.<a href="#cite_note-HISTORY-2021-147">[144]</a><a href="#cite_note-149">[146]</a> In the coming months before the official start of the Iran-Iraq war, Saddam Hussein had on multiple occasions attempted to convey his support of Khomeini, which Khomeini responded with by calling for Iraqi Shias to uprise and overthrow the "Infidels". Iranian forces also engaged in countless skirmishes on the Iraqi border, as well as the shelling of the cities Khanaqin and Mendeli on 4 September.<a href="#cite_note-:11-150">[147]</a> After Iranian aggression and ideological sabre-rattling,<a href="#cite_note-:11-150">[147]</a> <a href="/wiki/Iraqi_invasion_of_Iran" title="Iraqi invasion of Iran">Iraq invaded Iran</a> on 22 September 1980, first <a href="/wiki/22_September_1980_Iraqi_airstrike_on_Iran" title="22 September 1980 Iraqi airstrike on Iran">launching airstrikes on numerous targets in Iran</a>, including the <a href="/wiki/Mehrabad_Airport" class="mw-redirect" title="Mehrabad Airport">Mehrabad Airport</a> of <a href="/wiki/Tehran" title="Tehran">Tehran</a>, before occupying the oil-rich Iranian province of <a href="/wiki/Khuzestan_province" title="Khuzestan province">Khuzestan</a>, which also has a sizable <a href="/wiki/Khuzestani_Arabs" title="Khuzestani Arabs">Arab minority</a>.<a href="#cite_note-HISTORY-2021-147">[144]</a> The invasion was initially successful, as Iraq captured more than 25,900 km2 of Iranian territory by 5 December 1980.<a href="#cite_note-151">[148]</a><a href="#cite_note-HISTORY-2021-147">[144]</a> With the support of other <a href="/wiki/Arab_world" title="Arab world">Arab states</a>, the United States, and Europe, and heavily financed by the Arab states of the Persian Gulf, Saddam Hussein had become "the defender of the Arab world" against a revolutionary, fundamentalist and <a href="/wiki/Shia_Islamism" title="Shia Islamism">Shia Islamist</a> Iran.<a href="#cite_note-HISTORY-2021-147">[144]</a> The only exception was the Soviet Union, which initially refused to supply Iraq on the basis of neutrality in the conflict, although in his memoirs, <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Mikhail Gorbachev">Mikhail Gorbachev</a> claimed that <a href="/wiki/Leonid_Brezhnev" title="Leonid Brezhnev">Leonid Brezhnev</a> refused to aid Saddam over infuriation of Saddam's treatment of Iraqi communists. Consequently, many viewed Iraq as "an agent of the civilized world."<a href="#cite_note-PIRRR-148">[145]</a> The blatant disregard of international law and violations of international borders were ignored. Instead Iraq received economic and military support from its allies, who overlooked Saddam's use of chemical warfare against the Kurds and the Iranians, in addition to Iraq's efforts to develop nuclear weapons.<a href="#cite_note-PIRRR-148">[145]</a><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cardoen_Saddam.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Cardoen_Saddam.jpg/220px-Cardoen_Saddam.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="203" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Cardoen_Saddam.jpg/330px-Cardoen_Saddam.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ce/Cardoen_Saddam.jpg 2x" data-file-width="382" data-file-height="353" /></a><figcaption>Saddam greeting <a href="/wiki/Carlos_Cardoen" title="Carlos Cardoen">Carlos Cardoen</a>– a Chilean businessman who provided Iraq with weapons during the war in the 1980s</figcaption></figure> In the first days of the war, there was heavy ground fighting around strategic ports as Iraq launched an attack on Khuzestan. After making some initial gains, Iraq's troops began to suffer losses from <a href="/wiki/Human_wave_attack" title="Human wave attack">human wave attacks</a> by Iran. Meanwhile, Saddam's efforts to develop nuclear weapons faced a setback when Iraq's <a href="/wiki/Osirak_Nuclear_Reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Osirak Nuclear Reactor">nuclear reactor</a> was destroyed on 7 June 1981 by an Israeli <a href="/wiki/Operation_Opera" title="Operation Opera">air strike</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Osirak-152">[149]</a> By 1982, Iraq was on the defensive and looking for ways to end the war.<a href="#cite_note-HISTORY-2021-147">[144]</a> Middle East special envoy <a href="/wiki/Donald_Rumsfeld" title="Donald Rumsfeld">Donald Rumsfeld</a> met Saddam Hussein on 19–20 December 1983. Iraq quickly found itself bogged down in one of the longest and most destructive <a href="/wiki/Attrition_warfare" title="Attrition warfare">wars of attrition</a> of the 20th century.<a href="#cite_note-HISTORY-2021-147">[144]</a> During the war, Iraq used <a href="/wiki/Chemical_weapon" title="Chemical weapon">chemical weapons</a> against Iranian forces fighting on the southern front and Kurdish separatists who were attempting to open up a northern front in Iraq with the help of Iran.<a href="#cite_note-HISTORY-2021-147">[144]</a> Iraqi Foreign Minister <a href="/wiki/Tariq_Aziz" title="Tariq Aziz">Tariq Aziz</a> later acknowledged <a href="/wiki/Iraqi_chemical_attacks_against_Iran" title="Iraqi chemical attacks against Iran">Iraq's use of chemical weapons against Iran</a>, but said that Iran had used them against Iraq first.<a href="#cite_note-153">[150]</a><a href="#cite_note-HISTORY-2021-147">[144]</a> These chemical weapons were developed by Iraq from materials and technology supplied primarily by <a href="/wiki/West_Germany" title="West Germany">West German</a> companies as well as using dual-use technology imported following the <a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Ronald_Reagan" title="Presidency of Ronald Reagan">Reagan administration</a>'s lifting of export restrictions.<a href="#cite_note-Isa-154">[151]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States" title="Federal government of the United States">United States government</a> also supplied Iraq with "satellite photos showing Iranian deployments."<a href="#cite_note-155">[152]</a> This satellite imagery may have played a crucial role in blocking the <a href="/wiki/Operation_Ramadan" title="Operation Ramadan">Iranian invasion of Iraq</a> in 1982.<a href="#cite_note-156">[153]</a> However, Saddam's government later blamed the Iraqi defeat in the <a href="/wiki/First_Battle_of_al-Faw" title="First Battle of al-Faw">First Battle of al-Faw</a> in February 1986 on "misinformation from the U.S."<a href="#cite_note-157">[154]</a> In a US bid to open full diplomatic relations with Iraq, the country was removed from the <a href="/wiki/State_Sponsors_of_Terrorism_(U.S._list)" title="State Sponsors of Terrorism (U.S. list)">US list of State Sponsors of Terrorism</a> in February 1982.<a href="#cite_note-158">[155]</a> Ostensibly, this was because of improvement in the regime's record, although former US Assistant Secretary of Defense Noel Koch later stated, "No one had any doubts about [the Iraqis'] continued involvement in <a href="/wiki/State_terrorism" title="State terrorism">terrorism</a> ... The real reason was to help them succeed in the war against Iran."<a href="#cite_note-Borer-159">[156]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>, France, and <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> together accounted for over 90% of the value of Iraq's arms imports between 1980 and 1988.<a href="#cite_note-160">[157]</a> While the United States supplied Iraq with arms, dual-use technology and economic aid, it was also involved in a covert and illegal arms deal, providing sanctioned Iran with weaponry.<a href="#cite_note-HISTORY-2021-147">[144]</a> This political scandal became known as the <a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Contra_affair" title="Iran–Contra affair">Iran–Contra affair</a>.<a href="#cite_note-161">[158]</a> Saddam reached out to other Arab governments for cash and political support during the war, particularly after Iraq's oil industry severely suffered at the hands of the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Republic_of_Iran_Navy" title="Islamic Republic of Iran Navy">Iranian navy</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a>.<a href="#cite_note-HISTORY-2021-147">[144]</a> Iraq successfully gained some military and financial aid, as well as diplomatic and moral support, from the Soviet Union, China, France, and the United States, which together feared the prospects of the expansion of revolutionary Iran's influence in the region.<a href="#cite_note-HISTORY-2021-147">[144]</a> The Iranians, demanding that the international community should force Iraq to pay war reparations to Iran, refused any suggestions for a cease-fire.<a href="#cite_note-HISTORY-2021-147">[144]</a> Despite several <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolutions_concerning_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations Security Council Resolutions concerning Iraq">calls for a ceasefire</a> by the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council" title="United Nations Security Council">United Nations Security Council</a>, hostilities continued until 20 August 1988.<a href="#cite_note-HISTORY-2021-147">[144]</a> The bloody eight-year war ended in a stalemate. <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a> states: "Estimates of total casualties range from 1,000,000 to twice that number.<a href="#cite_note-HISTORY-2021-147">[144]</a> The number killed on both sides was perhaps 500,000, with Iran suffering the greatest losses."<a href="#cite_note-162">[159]</a> Neither side had achieved what they had originally desired and the borders were left nearly unchanged.<a href="#cite_note-HISTORY-2021-147">[144]</a> The southern, oil rich and prosperous Khuzestan and Basra area (the main focus of the war, and the primary source of their economies) were almost completely destroyed and were left at the pre-1979 border, while Iran managed to make some small gains on its borders in the Northern Kurdish area.<a href="#cite_note-HISTORY-2021-147">[144]</a> Both economies, previously healthy and expanding, were left in ruins.<a href="#cite_note-HISTORY-2021-147">[144]</a> Saddam borrowed tens of billions of dollars from other Arab states and a few billions from elsewhere during the 1980s to fight Iran, mainly to prevent the expansion of Shi'a radicalism.<a href="#cite_note-HISTORY-2021-147">[144]</a> This backfired on Iraq and the Arab states, for Khomeini was widely perceived as a hero for managing to defend Iran and maintain the war with little foreign support against the heavily backed Iraq and only managed to boost Islamic radicalism not only within the Arab states, but within Iraq itself, creating new tensions between the Sunni Ba'ath Party and the majority Shi'a population.<a href="#cite_note-HISTORY-2021-147">[144]</a> Faced with rebuilding Iraq's infrastructure and internal resistance, Saddam desperately re-sought cash, this time for postwar reconstruction.<a href="#cite_note-HISTORY-2021-147">[144]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anfal_campaign:_1986–1989">Anfal campaign: 1986–1989</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Anfal_campaign" title="Anfal campaign">Anfal campaign</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/Anfal_campaign" title="Anfal campaign">Anfal campaign</a> was a genocidal campaign<a href="#cite_note-163">[160]</a> that took place during the Iran–Iraq War against the <a href="/wiki/Kurds" title="Kurds">Kurdish people</a> (and many others) in Kurdish regions of Iraq led by the government of Saddam Hussein and headed by <a href="/wiki/Ali_Hassan_al-Majid" title="Ali Hassan al-Majid">Ali Hassan al-Majid</a>. The campaign takes its name from <a href="/wiki/Qur%27anic_chapter_8" class="mw-redirect" title="Qur'anic chapter 8">Qur'anic chapter 8</a> (al-ʾanfāl), which was used as a <a href="/wiki/Code_name" title="Code name">code name</a> by the former Iraqi <a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Iraq_Region" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Iraq Region">Ba'athist</a> administration for a series of attacks against the peshmerga rebels and the mostly Kurdish civilian population of rural Northern Iraq, conducted between 1986 and 1989 culminating in 1988. This campaign also targeted <a href="/wiki/Shabak_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Shabak people">Shabaks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yazidi" class="mw-redirect" title="Yazidi">Yazidis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_people" title="Assyrian people">Assyrians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Turkmen" title="Iraqi Turkmen">Turkoman people</a> and many villages belonging to these ethnic groups were also destroyed. Human Rights Watch estimates that between 50,000 and 100,000 people were killed.<a href="#cite_note-164">[161]</a> Some Kurdish sources put the number higher, estimating that 182,000 Kurds were killed.<a href="#cite_note-165">[162]</a><a href="#cite_note-166">[163]</a><a href="#cite_note-250k-96">[93]</a> On 16 March 1988, the Kurdish town of <a href="/wiki/Halabja" title="Halabja">Halabja</a> was attacked with a mix of <a href="/wiki/Mustard_gas" title="Mustard gas">mustard gas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nerve_agent" title="Nerve agent">nerve agents</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Halabja_massacre" title="Halabja massacre">Halabja massacre</a>, killing between 3,200 and 5,000 people, and injuring 7,000 to 10,000 more, mostly civilians.<a href="#cite_note-Halabja-167">[164]</a><a href="#cite_note-die-168">[165]</a><a href="#cite_note-169">[166]</a> The attack occurred in conjunction with the Anfal campaign designed to reassert central control of the mostly Kurdish population of areas of northern Iraq and defeat the Kurdish <a href="/wiki/Peshmerga" title="Peshmerga">peshmerga</a> rebel forces. Following the incident, The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_State" title="United States Department of State">U.S. State Department</a> took the official position that Iran was partly to blame for the Halabja massacre.<a href="#cite_note-mind-170">[167]</a> A study by the <a href="/wiki/Defense_Intelligence_Agency" title="Defense Intelligence Agency">Defense Intelligence Agency</a> held Iran responsible for the attack. This assessment was subsequently used by the <a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">Central Intelligence Agency</a> for much of the early 1990s.<a href="#cite_note-171">[168]</a> Despite this, few observers today doubt that it was Iraq that executed the Halabja massacre.<a href="#cite_note-172">[169]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tensions_with_Kuwait:_1988–1990">Tensions with Kuwait: 1988–1990</h3></div> The end of the war with Iran served to deepen latent tensions between Iraq and its wealthy neighbor Kuwait. Saddam urged the Kuwaitis to waive the Iraqi debt accumulated in the war, some $30 billion, but they refused.<a href="#cite_note-Humphreys,_105-173">[170]</a> Saddam pushed oil-exporting countries to raise oil prices by cutting back production; Kuwait refused, then led the opposition in <a href="/wiki/OPEC" title="OPEC">OPEC</a> to the cuts that Saddam had requested. Kuwait was pumping large amounts of oil, and thus keeping prices low, when Iraq needed to sell high-priced oil from its wells to pay off its huge debt.<a href="#cite_note-Humphreys,_105-173">[170]</a> Saddam had consistently argued that Kuwait had historically been an integral part of Iraq, and had only come into being as a result of interference from the <a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Government of the United Kingdom">British government</a>; echoing a belief that Iraqi nationalists had supported for the past fifty years. This belief was one of the few articles of faith uniting the political scene in a nation rife with sharp social, ethnic, religious, and ideological divides.<a href="#cite_note-Humphreys,_105-173">[170]</a> The extent of Kuwaiti oil reserves also intensified tensions in the region. The oil reserves of Kuwait (with a population of 2 million next to Iraq's 25) were roughly equal to those of Iraq. Taken together, Iraq and Kuwait sat on top of some 20 percent of the world's known oil reserves; <a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a> held another 25 percent. Saddam still had an experienced and well-equipped army, which he used to influence regional affairs. He later ordered troops to the Iraq–Kuwait border.<a href="#cite_note-Humphreys,_105-173">[170]</a> As Iraq–Kuwait relations rapidly deteriorated, Saddam was receiving conflicting information about how the US would respond to the prospects of an invasion. For one, Washington had been taking measures to cultivate a constructive relationship with Iraq for roughly a decade. The <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Reagan administration</a> gave Iraq roughly $4 billion in agricultural credits to bolster it against Iran.<a href="#cite_note-174">[171]</a> Saddam's Iraq became "the third-largest recipient of US assistance."<a href="#cite_note-175">[172]</a> Reacting to Western criticism in April 1990, Saddam threatened to destroy half of Israel with chemical weapons if it moved against Iraq.<a href="#cite_note-176">[173]</a> In May 1990 he criticized US support for Israel warning that "the US cannot maintain such a policy while professing friendship towards the Arabs."<a href="#cite_note-177">[174]</a> In July 1990 he threatened force against Kuwait and the UAE saying "The policies of some Arab rulers are American ... They are inspired by America to undermine Arab interests and security."<a href="#cite_note-178">[175]</a> The US sent warplanes and combat ships to the Persian Gulf in response to these threats.<a href="#cite_note-179">[176]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:April_Glaspie,_Sadoun_al-Zubaydi_and_Saddam_Hussein.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/April_Glaspie%2C_Sadoun_al-Zubaydi_and_Saddam_Hussein.jpg/220px-April_Glaspie%2C_Sadoun_al-Zubaydi_and_Saddam_Hussein.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/April_Glaspie%2C_Sadoun_al-Zubaydi_and_Saddam_Hussein.jpg/330px-April_Glaspie%2C_Sadoun_al-Zubaydi_and_Saddam_Hussein.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/April_Glaspie%2C_Sadoun_al-Zubaydi_and_Saddam_Hussein.jpg/440px-April_Glaspie%2C_Sadoun_al-Zubaydi_and_Saddam_Hussein.jpg 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="300" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/United_States_Ambassador_to_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Ambassador to Iraq">U.S. Ambassador to Iraq</a> <a href="/wiki/April_Glaspie" title="April Glaspie">April Glaspie</a> calls upon Saddam for an emergency meeting.</figcaption></figure> The US ambassador to Iraq, <a href="/wiki/April_Glaspie" title="April Glaspie">April Glaspie</a>, met with Saddam in an emergency meeting on 25 July 1990, where the Iraqi leader attacked American policy with regards to Kuwait and the United Arab Emirates (UAE):<a href="#cite_note-nytimes1990-180">[177]</a> <dl><dd><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">So what can it mean when America says it will now protect its friends? It can only mean prejudice against Iraq. This stance plus maneuvers and statements which have been made has encouraged the UAE and Kuwait to disregard Iraqi rights. If you use pressure, we will deploy pressure and force. We know that you can harm us although we do not threaten you. But we too can harm you. Everyone can cause harm according to their ability and their size. We cannot come all the way to you in the US, but individual Arabs may reach you. We do not place America among the enemies. We place it where we want our friends to be and we try to be friends. But repeated American statements last year made it apparent that America did not regard us as friends.</blockquote></dd></dl> Glaspie replied:<a href="#cite_note-nytimes1990-180">[177]</a> <dl><dd><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">I know you need funds. We understand that and our opinion is that you should have the opportunity to rebuild your country. But we have no opinion on the Arab-Arab conflicts, like your border disagreement with Kuwait. ... Frankly, we can only see that you have deployed massive troops in the south. Normally that would not be any of our business. But when this happens in the context of what you said on your national day, then when we read the details in the two letters of the Foreign Minister, then when we see the Iraqi point of view that the measures taken by the UAE and Kuwait is, in the final analysis, parallel to military aggression against Iraq, then it would be reasonable for me to be concerned.<div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/April_Glaspie" title="April Glaspie">April Glaspie</a></cite></div></blockquote></dd></dl> Saddam stated that he would attempt last-ditch negotiations with the Kuwaitis but Iraq "would not accept death."<a href="#cite_note-nytimes1990-180">[177]</a> US officials attempted to maintain a conciliatory line with Iraq, indicating that while <a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush" title="George H. W. Bush">George H. W. Bush</a> and <a href="/wiki/James_Baker" title="James Baker">James Baker</a> did not want force used, they would not take any position on the Iraq–Kuwait boundary dispute and did not want to become involved.<a href="#cite_note-181">[178]</a> Later, Iraq and Kuwait met for a final negotiation session, which failed. Saddam then sent his troops into Kuwait. As tensions between Washington and Saddam began to escalate, the Soviet Union, under Mikhail Gorbachev, strengthened its military relationship with the Iraqi leader, providing him military advisers, arms and aid.<a href="#cite_note-182">[179]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gulf_War:_1990–1991">Gulf War: 1990–1991</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Gulf War</a></div> On 2 August 1990, Saddam invaded Kuwait, initially claiming assistance to "Kuwaiti revolutionaries", thus sparking an international crisis. On 4 August an Iraqi-backed "<a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Kuwait" title="Republic of Kuwait">Provisional Government of Free Kuwait</a>" was proclaimed, but a total lack of legitimacy and support for it led to an 8 August announcement of a "merger" of the two countries. On 28 August Kuwait formally became the <a href="/wiki/Kuwait_Governorate" title="Kuwait Governorate">19th Governorate of Iraq</a>. Just two years after the 1988 Iraq and Iran truce, "Saddam did what his Gulf patrons had earlier paid him to prevent." Having removed the threat of Iranian fundamentalism he "overran Kuwait and confronted his Gulf neighbors in the name of Arab nationalism and Islam."<a href="#cite_note-PIRRR-148">[145]</a> Saddam justified the <a href="/wiki/Iraqi_invasion_of_Kuwait" title="Iraqi invasion of Kuwait">invasion of Kuwait</a> in 1990 by claiming that <a href="/wiki/Kuwait" title="Kuwait">Kuwait</a> had always been an integral part of Iraq and only became an independent nation due to the interference of the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-183">[180]</a><figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Saddam_Hussain_Duty_Uniform.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/83/Saddam_Hussain_Duty_Uniform.jpg" decoding="async" width="234" height="300" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="234" data-file-height="300" /></a><figcaption>Saddam in duty uniform</figcaption></figure>When later asked why he invaded Kuwait, Saddam first claimed that it was because Kuwait was rightfully Iraq's 19th <a href="/wiki/Governorates_of_Iraq" title="Governorates of Iraq">province</a> and then said "When I get something into my head I act. That's just the way I am."<a href="#cite_note-economist2007-70">[67]</a> Saddam Hussein could pursue such military aggression with a "military machine paid for in large part by the tens of billions of dollars Kuwait and the Gulf states had poured into Iraq and the weapons and technology provided by the Soviet Union, Germany, and France."<a href="#cite_note-PIRRR-148">[145]</a> It was revealed during his 2003–2004 interrogation that in addition to economic disputes, an insulting exchange between the Kuwaiti <a href="/wiki/Emir" title="Emir">emir</a> <a href="/wiki/Jaber_Al-Ahmad_Al-Sabah" title="Jaber Al-Ahmad Al-Sabah">Al Sabah</a> and the Iraqi foreign minister – during which Saddam claimed that the emir stated his intention to turn "every Iraqi woman into a $10 prostitute" by ruining Iraq financially – was a decisive factor in triggering the Iraqi invasion.<a href="#cite_note-cbsnews.com-184">[181]</a> Shortly before he invaded Kuwait, he shipped 100 new <a href="/wiki/Mercedes-Benz" title="Mercedes-Benz">Mercedes</a> 200 Series cars to top editors in Egypt and Jordan. Two days before the first attacks, Saddam reportedly offered Egypt's <a href="/wiki/Hosni_Mubarak" title="Hosni Mubarak">Hosni Mubarak</a> 50 million dollars in cash, "ostensibly for grain."<a href="#cite_note-185">[182]</a> <a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush" title="George H. W. Bush">George H. W. Bush</a> responded cautiously for the first several days. On one hand, Kuwait, prior to this point, had been a virulent enemy of Israel and was the Persian Gulf monarchy that had the most friendly relations with the Soviets.<a href="#cite_note-186">[183]</a> On the other hand, Washington foreign policymakers, along with Middle East experts, military critics, and firms heavily invested in the region, were extremely concerned with stability in this region.<a href="#cite_note-187">[184]</a> The invasion immediately triggered fears that the world's <a href="/wiki/Crude_oil#Pricing" class="mw-redirect" title="Crude oil">price of oil</a>, and therefore control of the world economy, was at stake. Britain profited heavily from billions of dollars of Kuwaiti investments and bank deposits. Bush was perhaps swayed while meeting with British prime minister <a href="/wiki/Margaret_Thatcher" title="Margaret Thatcher">Margaret Thatcher</a>, who happened to be in the US at the time.<a href="#cite_note-188">[185]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kuwaiti_Prime_Minister_Alaa_Hussein_Ali_1990_with_Iraqi_President_Saddam_Hussein.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Kuwaiti_Prime_Minister_Alaa_Hussein_Ali_1990_with_Iraqi_President_Saddam_Hussein.jpg/220px-Kuwaiti_Prime_Minister_Alaa_Hussein_Ali_1990_with_Iraqi_President_Saddam_Hussein.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="138" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Kuwaiti_Prime_Minister_Alaa_Hussein_Ali_1990_with_Iraqi_President_Saddam_Hussein.jpg/330px-Kuwaiti_Prime_Minister_Alaa_Hussein_Ali_1990_with_Iraqi_President_Saddam_Hussein.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Kuwaiti_Prime_Minister_Alaa_Hussein_Ali_1990_with_Iraqi_President_Saddam_Hussein.jpg/440px-Kuwaiti_Prime_Minister_Alaa_Hussein_Ali_1990_with_Iraqi_President_Saddam_Hussein.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="400" /></a><figcaption>Saddam welcomes <a href="/wiki/Alaa_Hussein_Ali" title="Alaa Hussein Ali">Colonel Alaa Hussein Ali</a>, Prime Minister of Kuwait <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Kuwait" title="Republic of Kuwait">Provisional Free Government</a> for unification talks in Bagdad, 1990</figcaption></figure> Cooperation between the United States and the Soviet Union made possible the passage of resolutions in the United Nations Security Council giving Iraq a deadline to leave Kuwait and approving the use of force if Saddam did not comply with the timetable.<a href="#cite_note-economist2004-66">[63]</a> The United States officials feared Iraqi retaliation against oil-rich Saudi Arabia, since the 1940s a close ally of Washington, for the Saudis' opposition to the invasion of Kuwait.<a href="#cite_note-economist2004-66">[63]</a> Accordingly, the United States and a group of allies, including countries as diverse as Egypt, Syria and <a href="/wiki/Czechoslovakia" title="Czechoslovakia">Czechoslovakia</a>, deployed a massive number of troops along the Saudi border with Kuwait and Iraq in order to encircle the Iraqi army, the largest in the Middle East. Saddam's officers looted Kuwait, stripping even the marble from its palaces to move it to Saddam's own palace.<a href="#cite_note-economist2004-66">[63]</a> During the period of negotiations and threats following the invasion, Saddam focused renewed attention on the <a href="/wiki/State_of_Palestine" class="mw-redirect" title="State of Palestine">Palestinian</a> problem by promising to withdraw his forces from Kuwait if Israel would relinquish the occupied territories in the <a href="/wiki/West_Bank" title="West Bank">West Bank</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Golan_Heights" title="Golan Heights">Golan Heights</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Gaza_Strip" title="Gaza Strip">Gaza Strip</a>. Saddam's proposal further split the Arab world, pitting US- and Western-supported Arab states against the Palestinians. The allies ultimately rejected any linkage between the Kuwait crisis and Palestinian issues. Saddam ignored the Security Council deadline.<a href="#cite_note-Pierson_2011-189">[186]</a> Backed by the Security Council, a US-led coalition launched round-the-clock missile and aerial attacks on Iraq, beginning 16 January 1991.<a href="#cite_note-Pierson_2011-189">[186]</a> Israel, though <a href="/wiki/Iraqi_rocket_attacks_on_Israel" class="mw-redirect" title="Iraqi rocket attacks on Israel">subjected to attack by Iraqi missiles</a>, refrained from retaliating in order not to provoke Arab states into leaving the coalition.<a href="#cite_note-Pierson_2011-189">[186]</a> A ground force consisting largely of US and British armored and infantry divisions ejected Saddam's army from Kuwait in February 1991 and occupied the southern portion of Iraq as far as the <a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Pierson_2011-189">[186]</a> On 6 March 1991, Bush announced "What is at stake is more than one small country, it is a big idea—a <a href="/wiki/New_world_order_(politics)" title="New world order (politics)">new world order</a>, where diverse nations are drawn together in common cause to achieve the universal aspirations of mankind: peace and security, freedom, and the rule of law."<a href="#cite_note-Bush_2017-190">[187]</a> In the end, the Iraqi army proved unable to compete on the battlefield with the highly mobile coalition land forces and their overpowering air support.<a href="#cite_note-Bush_2017-190">[187]</a> Some 175,000 Iraqis were taken prisoner and casualties were estimated at over 85,000.<a href="#cite_note-Bush_2017-190">[187]</a> As part of the cease-fire agreement, Iraq agreed to scrap all poison gas and <a href="/wiki/Biological_warfare" title="Biological warfare">germ weapons</a> and allow UN observers to inspect the sites.<a href="#cite_note-Bush_2017-190">[187]</a> UN trade sanctions would remain in effect until Iraq complied with all terms.<a href="#cite_note-Bush_2017-190">[187]</a> Saddam publicly claimed victory at the end of the war.<a href="#cite_note-Bush_2017-190">[187]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Uprisings">Uprisings</h3></div> Iraq's ethnic and religious divisions, together with the brutality of the conflict that this had engendered, laid the groundwork for postwar rebellions.<a href="#cite_note-:8-191">[188]</a> In the aftermath of the fighting, social and ethnic unrest among Shi'ite Muslims, Kurds, and dissident military units threatened the stability of Saddam's government.<a href="#cite_note-:8-191">[188]</a> Uprisings erupted in the Kurdish north and Shi'a southern and central parts of Iraq, but were ruthlessly repressed.<a href="#cite_note-:8-191">[188]</a> <a href="/wiki/1991_Iraqi_uprisings" title="1991 Iraqi uprisings">Uprisings in 1991</a> led to the death of 100,000–180,000 people, mostly civilians.<a href="#cite_note-:8-191">[188]</a> The U.S, which had urged Iraqi people to rise up against Saddam, did nothing to assist the rebellions.<a href="#cite_note-PIRRR-148">[145]</a> The Iranians, despite the widespread Shi'ite rebellions, had no interest in provoking another war, while <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a> opposed any prospect of Kurdish independence, and the Saudis and other conservative Arab states feared an Iran-style Shi'ite revolution.<a href="#cite_note-PIRRR-148">[145]</a> Saddam, having survived the immediate crisis in the wake of defeat, was left firmly in control of Iraq, although the country never recovered either economically or militarily from the Gulf War.<a href="#cite_note-PIRRR-148">[145]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Later_years:_1990s_to_2003">Later years: 1990s to 2003</h3></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Saddam_Hussein_in_1996.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Saddam_Hussein_in_1996.png/207px-Saddam_Hussein_in_1996.png" decoding="async" width="207" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Saddam_Hussein_in_1996.png/310px-Saddam_Hussein_in_1996.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Saddam_Hussein_in_1996.png/414px-Saddam_Hussein_in_1996.png 2x" data-file-width="677" data-file-height="720" /></a><figcaption>Saddam in 1996</figcaption></figure> Saddam routinely cited his survival as "proof" that Iraq had in fact won the war against the U.S.<a href="#cite_note-PIRRR-148">[145]</a> This message earned Saddam a great deal of popularity in many sectors of the Arab world.<a href="#cite_note-PIRRR-148">[145]</a> John Esposito wrote, "Arabs and Muslims were pulled in two directions. That they rallied not so much to Saddam Hussein as to the bipolar nature of the confrontation (the West versus the Arab Muslim world) and the issues that Saddam proclaimed: Arab unity, self-sufficiency, and social justice."<a href="#cite_note-PIRRR-148">[145]</a> As a result, Saddam appealed to many people for the same reasons that attracted more and more followers to Islamic revivalism and also for the same reasons that fueled <a href="/wiki/Anti-Western_sentiment" title="Anti-Western sentiment">anti-Western</a> feelings.<a href="#cite_note-PIRRR-148">[145]</a> One U.S Muslim observer[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch">who?</a>] noted: "People forgot about Saddam's record and concentrated on America ... Saddam Hussein might be wrong, but it is not America who should correct him." A significant shift became visible among many Islamic movements in the post war period, "from an initial Islamic ideological rejection of Saddam Hussein, the secular persecutor of Islamic movements, and his invasion of Kuwait to a more populist Arab nationalist, anti-imperialist support for Saddam (or more precisely those issues he represented or championed) and the condemnation of foreign intervention and occupation."<a href="#cite_note-PIRRR-148">[145]</a> Some elements of <a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">Sharia</a> law were re-introduced, and the phrase "<a href="/wiki/Allahu_Akbar" class="mw-redirect" title="Allahu Akbar">Allahu Akbar</a>" ("God is great"), in Saddam's handwriting, was added to the national flag. Saddam also commissioned the production of a "<a href="/wiki/Blood_Qur%27an" class="mw-redirect" title="Blood Qur'an">Blood Qur'an</a>", written using 27 litres of his own blood, to thank God for saving him from various dangers and conspiracies.<a href="#cite_note-BBC-2000-192">[189]</a> The <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a>-placed <a href="/wiki/Sanctions_against_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanctions against Iraq">sanctions against Iraq</a> for invading Kuwait were not lifted, blocking Iraqi oil exports. Economic hardship followed within the country as GDP plummeted from US$44.36 billion in 1990 to US$9 billion by 1995. Iraq had lost around US$170 billion of oil revenues. Sanctions also restricted basic-medical equipment and supplies from getting into Iraq.<a href="#cite_note-193">[190]</a> During the mid 1990s, the UN considered relaxing the sanctions imposed because of the hardships suffered by ordinary Iraqis. Studies dispute the number of people who died in south and central Iraq during the years of the sanctions.<a href="#cite_note-194">[191]</a><a href="#cite_note-Spagat-195">[192]</a><a href="#cite_note-196">[193]</a><a href="#cite_note-197">[194]</a><a href="#cite_note-198">[195]</a> On 9 December 1996, Saddam's government accepted the <a href="/wiki/Oil-for-Food_Programme" title="Oil-for-Food Programme">Oil-for-Food Programme</a> that the UN had first offered in 1992. Relations between the U.S and Iraq remained tense following the Gulf War.<a href="#cite_note-:9-199">[196]</a> The U.S launched a <a href="/wiki/1993_cruise_missile_strikes_on_Iraq" title="1993 cruise missile strikes on Iraq">missile attack</a> aimed at Iraq's intelligence headquarters in Baghdad on 26 June 1993, citing evidence of repeated Iraqi violations of the "no fly zones" imposed after the Gulf War and for incursions into Kuwait.<a href="#cite_note-:9-199">[196]</a> American officials continued to accuse Saddam of violating the terms of the Gulf War's cease fire, by developing <a href="/wiki/Weapons_of_mass_destruction" class="mw-redirect" title="Weapons of mass destruction">weapons of mass destruction</a> and other banned weaponry, and violating the UN-imposed sanctions.<a href="#cite_note-:9-199">[196]</a> Also during the 1990s, President <a href="/wiki/Bill_Clinton" title="Bill Clinton">Bill Clinton</a> maintained sanctions and ordered air strikes in the "Iraqi no-fly zones" (<a href="/wiki/1998_bombing_of_Iraq" title="1998 bombing of Iraq">Operation Desert Fox</a>), in the hope that Saddam would be overthrown by political enemies inside Iraq.<a href="#cite_note-:9-199">[196]</a> Western charges of Iraqi resistance to UN access to suspected weapons were the pretext for crises between 1997 and 1998, culminating in intensive US and British missile strikes on Iraq, 16–19 December 1998.<a href="#cite_note-:9-199">[196]</a> After two years of intermittent activity, US and British warplanes <a href="/wiki/February_2001_airstrike_in_Iraq" title="February 2001 airstrike in Iraq">struck</a> harder at sites near Baghdad in February 2001. Former CIA case officer <a href="/wiki/Robert_Baer" title="Robert Baer">Robert Baer</a> reports that he "tried to assassinate" Saddam in 1995,<a href="#cite_note-:9-199">[196]</a> amid "a decade-long effort to encourage a military coup in Iraq."<a href="#cite_note-200">[197]</a> Saddam continued involvement in politics abroad.<a href="#cite_note-:10-201">[198]</a> Video tapes retrieved after show his intelligence chiefs meeting with Arab journalists, including a meeting with the former managing director of Al-Jazeera, Mohammed Jassem al-Ali, in 2000.<a href="#cite_note-:10-201">[198]</a> In the video Saddam's son Uday advised al-Ali about hires in Al-Jazeera: "During your last visit here along with your colleagues we talked about a number of issues, and it does appear that you indeed were listening to what I was saying since changes took place and new faces came on board such as that lad, Mansour."<a href="#cite_note-:10-201">[198]</a> He was later sacked by Al-Jazeera.<a href="#cite_note-:10-201">[198]</a> By then, diplomatic isolation of Iraq with Arab states were gradually disappearing, and the economy of Iraq had improved by 2000, with its GDP increasing to U$23.73 billion.<a href="#cite_note-202">[199]</a><a href="#cite_note-203">[200]</a> On 25 April 2001, the British government started investigation on alleged war crimes done by Saddam.<a href="#cite_note-204">[201]</a> On 28 April 2001, Saddam celebrated his birthday, in form of a mega event.<a href="#cite_note-205">[202]</a><figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Iraq,_Saddam_Hussein_(222).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Iraq%2C_Saddam_Hussein_%28222%29.jpg/180px-Iraq%2C_Saddam_Hussein_%28222%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="233" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Iraq%2C_Saddam_Hussein_%28222%29.jpg/271px-Iraq%2C_Saddam_Hussein_%28222%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f1/Iraq%2C_Saddam_Hussein_%28222%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="348" data-file-height="450" /></a><figcaption>Saddam addresses state television, in January 2001.</figcaption></figure>In October 2000, Saddam was visited by Libyan leader <a href="/wiki/Muammar_Gaddafi" title="Muammar Gaddafi">Muammar Gaddafi</a>'s daughter <a href="/wiki/Ayesha_Gaddafi" title="Ayesha Gaddafi">Ayesha Gaddafi</a>.<a href="#cite_note-206">[203]</a> Saddam later decided to use <a href="/wiki/Euro" title="Euro">Euro</a>, instead of <a href="/wiki/Dollars" class="mw-redirect" title="Dollars">Dollars</a> for Iraqi oil.<a href="#cite_note-Islam_2003-207">[204]</a> Almost all of Iraq's oil exports under the United Nations oil-for-food program were paid in euros since 2001.<a href="#cite_note-Islam_2003-207">[204]</a> Approximately 26 billion euros (£17.4bn) was paid for 3.3 billion barrels of oil into an escrow account in New York.<a href="#cite_note-Islam_2003-207">[204]</a> Internally Saddam continued authoritarian way of governance and suppressed political opponents.<a href="#cite_note-208">[205]</a> In May 2001, the Iraqi Ba'ath Party held its 12th Regional Congress. Saddam commenced the congress with a speech advising the more than 300 delegates on how to vote.<a href="#cite_note-Faleh_2001-209">[206]</a> After the speech, the elections took place, and Saddam was reelected as party general secretary at the Ba'ath congress in Baghdad, with every delegate in the hall rising to their feet.<a href="#cite_note-Faleh_2001-209">[206]</a> State television reported that 24 candidates stood, and eight new members were elected for positions in the Ba'ath's 18-member executive, known as the Iraqi Regional Command.<a href="#cite_note-Faleh_2001-209">[206]</a> The deputy secretary general of the command, Izzat Ibrahim, was re-elected, and according to the constitution, he would become the interim president in the event of Saddam's sudden death.<a href="#cite_note-Faleh_2001-209">[206]</a> Saddam's youngest son and heir apparent <a href="/wiki/Qusay_Hussein" title="Qusay Hussein">Qusay</a> was elected for the first time into the Command.<a href="#cite_note-Faleh_2001-209">[206]</a> A surprise was the election of <a href="/wiki/Huda_Salih_Mahdi_Ammash" title="Huda Salih Mahdi Ammash">Huda Saleh Mehdi Ammash</a>, the first woman to win a seat on the party executive.<a href="#cite_note-Faleh_2001-209">[206]</a> Saddam had recently encouraged women to play a greater role in Iraq.<a href="#cite_note-Faleh_2001-209">[206]</a> Among those who lost their executive seats was the deputy prime minister, <a href="/wiki/Mohammed_Hamza_Zubeidi" title="Mohammed Hamza Zubeidi">Mohammed Hamza al-Zubaidi</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Faleh_2001-209">[206]</a> Saddam also invited Kurds to the negotiation table.<a href="#cite_note-210">[207]</a> A foreign <a href="/wiki/Coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="Coup d'état">coup d'état</a> was planned to overthrow Saddam, but dropped following the <a href="/wiki/September_11_attacks" title="September 11 attacks">September 11 attacks</a>.<a href="#cite_note-211">[208]</a> In 2002, Austrian prosecutors investigated Saddam government's transactions with <a href="/wiki/Fritz_Edlinger" class="mw-redirect" title="Fritz Edlinger">Fritz Edlinger</a> that possibly violated Austrian <a href="/wiki/Money_laundering" title="Money laundering">money laundering</a> and embargo regulations.<a href="#cite_note-format-212">[209]</a> Fritz Edlinger, president of the General Secretary of the Society for Austro-Arab relations (GÖAB) and a former member of <a href="/wiki/Socialist_International" title="Socialist International">Socialist International</a>'s Middle East Committee, was an outspoken supporter of Saddam Hussein. In 2005, an Austrian journalist revealed that Fritz Edlinger's GÖAB had received $100,000 from an Iraqi front company as well as donations from Austrian companies soliciting business in Iraq.<a href="#cite_note-pfeifer-213">[210]</a> In 2002, a resolution sponsored by the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a> was adopted by the Commission for Human Rights, which stated that there had been no improvement in the human rights crisis in Iraq.<a href="#cite_note-pfeifer-213">[210]</a> The statement condemned Saddam's government for its "systematic, widespread and extremely grave violations of human rights and <a href="/wiki/International_humanitarian_law" title="International humanitarian law">international humanitarian law</a>."<a href="#cite_note-pfeifer-213">[210]</a> The resolution demanded that Iraq immediately put an end to its "summary and arbitrary executions ... <a href="/wiki/War_rape" class="mw-redirect" title="War rape">the use of rape as a political tool</a> and all enforced and involuntary disappearances."<a href="#cite_note-214">[211]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Foreign_Affairs_2">Foreign Affairs</h3></div> In foreign affairs, Saddam sought to have Iraq play a leading role in the Middle East.<a href="#cite_note-Healy-98">[95]</a> Saddam rarely left Iraq and had <a href="/wiki/Tariq_Aziz" title="Tariq Aziz">Tariq Aziz</a>, one of his deputies, travel abroad extensively and represent Iraq at many diplomatic meetings.<a href="#cite_note-Healy-98">[95]</a> Saddam enjoyed a close relationship with Russian intelligence agent <a href="/wiki/Yevgeny_Primakov" title="Yevgeny Primakov">Yevgeny Primakov</a> that dated back to the 1960s; Primakov may have helped Saddam to stay in power in 1991.<a href="#cite_note-215">[212]</a> In July 2001, Russian president <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Putin" title="Vladimir Putin">Vladimir Putin</a> sent a message to Saddam, seeking to improve diplomatic relations between Iraq and Russia.<a href="#cite_note-216">[213]</a> Saddam also opposed Chechen separatism in Russia.<a href="#cite_note-217">[214]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ratio4x3_1920.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Ratio4x3_1920.jpg/220px-Ratio4x3_1920.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Ratio4x3_1920.jpg/330px-Ratio4x3_1920.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Ratio4x3_1920.jpg/440px-Ratio4x3_1920.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1440" /></a><figcaption>Saddam with Hugo Chavez and <a href="/wiki/Abid_Hamid_Mahmud" title="Abid Hamid Mahmud">Abid Hamid Mahmud</a> at <a href="/wiki/Baghdad_Airport" class="mw-redirect" title="Baghdad Airport">Baghdad Airport</a>, 11 August 2000</figcaption></figure> In August 2000, Venezuelan president <a href="/wiki/Hugo_Ch%C3%A1vez" title="Hugo Chávez">Hugo Chávez</a> made a visit to Iraq and met Saddam.<a href="#cite_note-ABC_News-218">[215]</a> He was first leader of a foreign state to visit the country, since the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Gulf War</a>.<a href="#cite_note-LA_Times_2000-219">[216]</a><a href="#cite_note-ABC_News-218">[215]</a> His meeting with Saddam was criticized by the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, a major importer of Venezuela's oil.<a href="#cite_note-LA_Times_2000-219">[216]</a> During the tour to invite the leaders of 10 OPEC member states to a summit the following month, Chávez expressed that he had engaged in "fruitful" discussions with Saddam regarding the future role of the <a href="/wiki/OPEC" title="OPEC">Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries</a> and the defense of reasonable oil prices.<a href="#cite_note-LA_Times_2000-219">[216]</a> He emphasized the significance of <a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Venezuela" title="Foreign relations of Venezuela">bilateral cooperation between their nations</a> in these matters.<a href="#cite_note-LA_Times_2000-219">[216]</a> The discussions between Chávez and Saddam took place in the past, during a period when both leaders were active.<a href="#cite_note-LA_Times_2000-219">[216]</a> Chávez sought to strengthen ties and foster collaboration among OPEC member states, focusing on the organization's future trajectory and the importance of maintaining oil prices at a reasonable level.<a href="#cite_note-LA_Times_2000-219">[216]</a> The aim was to ensure stability and fairness in the global oil market.<a href="#cite_note-LA_Times_2000-219">[216]</a> Saddam had friendly relations with <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Chirac" title="Jacques Chirac">Jacques Chirac</a>. Several Iraqi leaders, Lebanese arms merchant <a href="/wiki/Sarkis_Soghanalian" title="Sarkis Soghanalian">Sarkis Soghanalian</a> and others have claimed that Saddam financed Chirac's party. After <a href="/wiki/Op%C3%A9ration_Daguet" title="Opération Daguet">France participated in the Gulf War</a> against Iraq, Saddam threatened to expose those who had taken largesse from him: "From Mr. Chirac to Mr. Chevènement, politicians and economic leaders were in open competition to spend time with us and flatter us. We have now grasped the reality of the situation. If the trickery continues, we will be forced to unmask them, all of them, before the French public."<a href="#cite_note-The_Chirac_Doctrine-102">[99]</a> France armed Saddam and it was Iraq's largest trade partner throughout Saddam's rule. Seized documents show how French officials and businessmen close to Chirac, including <a href="/wiki/Charles_Pasqua" title="Charles Pasqua">Charles Pasqua</a>, his former interior minister, personally benefitted from the deals with Saddam.<a href="#cite_note-The_Chirac_Doctrine-102">[99]</a> Iraq's relations with the Arab world have been extremely varied. Relations between Iraq and Egypt deteriorated in 1977, as a result of Egyptian President <a href="/wiki/Anwar_Sadat" title="Anwar Sadat">Anwar Sadat</a>'s peace initiatives with <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a>. Egypt's strong material and diplomatic support for Iraq in the war with Iran led to warmer relations and numerous contacts between senior officials, despite the continued absence of ambassadorial-level representation. Since 1983, Iraq has repeatedly called for restoration of Egypt's "natural role" among Arab countries. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Arab–Israeli_conflict">Arab–Israeli conflict</h4></div> Following the outbreak of the <a href="/wiki/Second_Intifada" title="Second Intifada">Second Intifada</a> in the Palestinian territories, Saddam openly expressed solidarity with the Palestinians, and established the <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem_Army" title="Jerusalem Army">Jerusalem Army</a>, a volunteer force in solidarity with the Palestinians.<a href="#cite_note-220">[217]</a><a href="#cite_note-Brookings-221">[218]</a><a href="#cite_note-222">[219]</a> Saddam also provided financial assistance from Iraq's oil revenue, to the families of the Palestinian victims and militants. Around 20% of Iraq's oil revenue, by the oil-for-food program was for donating to the Palestinians.<a href="#cite_note-223">[220]</a><a href="#cite_note-Independent_2003-224">[221]</a> Contrary to the claims of the United States and the Israelis, not all the money was sent to support suicide bombing.<a href="#cite_note-Independent_2003-224">[221]</a> On eve of <a href="/wiki/Christmas" title="Christmas">Christmas in 2000</a>, Saddam wrote a public letter, calling for Christians and Muslims, to lead jihad against the Zionist movement.<a href="#cite_note-225">[222]</a> In 2001, Saddam declared on the state Iraqi television:<a href="#cite_note-226">[223]</a><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Palestine is Arab and must be liberated <a href="/wiki/From_the_river_to_the_sea" title="From the river to the sea">from the river to the sea</a> and all the <a href="/wiki/Zionism" title="Zionism">Zionists</a> who emigrated to the land of Palestine must leave.<div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Saddam Hussein</cite></div></blockquote> In 2002, the <a href="/wiki/Arab_League" title="Arab League">Arab League</a> <a href="/wiki/2002_Arab_League_summit" title="2002 Arab League summit">summit</a> was held in <a href="/wiki/Beirut" title="Beirut">Beirut</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lebanon" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a>, where the <a href="/wiki/Arab_Peace_Initiative" title="Arab Peace Initiative">Arab Peace Initiative</a> was proposed, calling for an end of the <a href="/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_conflict" title="Arab–Israeli conflict">Arab-Israeli conflict</a> if Israel withdrew from territory they occupied beyond the 1967 lines.<a href="#cite_note-BBC_News_2015-227">[224]</a> <a href="/wiki/Izzat_Ibrahim_al-Douri" title="Izzat Ibrahim al-Douri">Izzat Ibrahim al-Douri</a> represented Iraq at the summit. Al-Douri did not oppose the plan.<a href="#cite_note-BBC_News_2015-227">[224]</a> At the summit, the League also rejected any attack on Iraq.<a href="#cite_note-228">[225]</a> Following an <a href="/wiki/Operation_Defensive_Shield" title="Operation Defensive Shield">Israeli offensive</a> into Palestinian territory, Saddam stopped supplying oil to Western countries in order to force Israel to abandon its offensive, a move supported by <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a> and <a href="/wiki/Libya" title="Libya">Libya</a>.<a href="#cite_note-229">[226]</a> In May 2000, Saddam and his representatives had secret meetings with the Israeli government.<a href="#cite_note-Burke_2000-230">[227]</a> He offered that Iraq will end its anti–Israel foreign policy, if Israel will resolve Palestinian refugees issue in Lebanon.<a href="#cite_note-Burke_2000-230">[227]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="2003_invasion_of_Iraq_and_Iraq_War">2003 invasion of Iraq and Iraq War</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/2003_invasion_of_Iraq" title="2003 invasion of Iraq">2003 invasion of Iraq</a>, <a href="/wiki/Firdos_Square_statue_destruction" class="mw-redirect" title="Firdos Square statue destruction">Firdos Square statue destruction</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Iraq_War" title="Iraq War">Iraq War</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Invasion_and_overthrow">Invasion and overthrow</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SaddamStatue.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/SaddamStatue.jpg/220px-SaddamStatue.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/SaddamStatue.jpg/330px-SaddamStatue.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/SaddamStatue.jpg/440px-SaddamStatue.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1700" data-file-height="1072" /></a><figcaption>Statue of Saddam <a href="/wiki/Firdos_Square_statue_destruction" class="mw-redirect" title="Firdos Square statue destruction">being toppled in Firdos Square</a> after the invasion</figcaption></figure> Many members of the international community, especially the US, continued to view Saddam as a bellicose tyrant who was a threat to the stability of the region.<a href="#cite_note-Bush_2002a-231">[228]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bush_2002b-232">[229]</a> In his January 2002 <a href="/wiki/2002_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="2002 State of the Union Address">state of the union address</a> to Congress, President <a href="/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush">George W. Bush</a> spoke of an "<a href="/wiki/Axis_of_evil" title="Axis of evil">axis of evil</a>" consisting of Iran, North Korea, and Iraq.<a href="#cite_note-Bush_2002a-231">[228]</a> Moreover, Bush announced that he would possibly take action to topple the Iraqi government, because of the threat of its weapons of mass destruction.<a href="#cite_note-Bush_2002b-232">[229]</a> Bush stated that "The Iraqi regime has plotted to develop <a href="/wiki/Anthrax" title="Anthrax">anthrax</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Nerve_gas" class="mw-redirect" title="Nerve gas">nerve gas</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">nuclear weapons</a> for over a decade ... Iraq continues to flaunt its hostility toward America and to support terror."<a href="#cite_note-Bush_2002a-231">[228]</a> After the passing of <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_1441" title="United Nations Security Council Resolution 1441">UNSC Resolution 1441</a>, which demanded that Iraq give "immediate, unconditional and active cooperation" with UN and IAEA inspections,<a href="#cite_note-CNN_Transcript_of_Blix_2003-233">[230]</a> Saddam allowed U.N. weapons inspectors led by <a href="/wiki/Hans_Blix" title="Hans Blix">Hans Blix</a> to return to Iraq.<a href="#cite_note-CNN_Transcript_of_Blix_2003-233">[230]</a> During the renewed inspections beginning in November 2002, Blix found no stockpiles of WMD and noted the "proactive" but not always "immediate" Iraqi cooperation as called for by Resolution 1441.<a href="#cite_note-234">[231]</a> With war still looming on 24 February 2003, Saddam took part in <a href="/wiki/February_2003_Saddam_Hussein_interview" title="February 2003 Saddam Hussein interview">an interview</a> with <a href="/wiki/CBS_News" title="CBS News">CBS News</a> reporter <a href="/wiki/Dan_Rather" title="Dan Rather">Dan Rather</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Behind_The_Scenes_With_Saddam-235">[232]</a> Talking for more than three hours, he denied possessing any weapons of mass destruction, or any other weapons prohibited by UN guidelines.<a href="#cite_note-Behind_The_Scenes_With_Saddam-235">[232]</a> He also expressed a wish to have a live televised debate with <a href="/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush">George W. Bush</a>, which was declined.<a href="#cite_note-Behind_The_Scenes_With_Saddam-235">[232]</a><a href="#cite_note-cbsnews.com-184">[181]</a> It was his first interview with an American reporter in over a decade.<a href="#cite_note-Behind_The_Scenes_With_Saddam-235">[232]</a><a href="#cite_note-cbsnews.com-184">[181]</a> CBS aired the taped interview later that week. Saddam later told an FBI interviewer that he once left open the possibility that Iraq possessed weapons of mass destruction in order to appear strong against Iran.<a href="#cite_note-236">[233]</a><a href="#cite_note-cbsnews.com-184">[181]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Multi-National_Force_%E2%80%93_Iraq" title="Multi-National Force – Iraq">United States-led coalition forces</a> launched invasion of Iraq on 20 March 2003.<a href="#cite_note-AP_News_2023-237">[234]</a> The Iraqi government and military collapsed within three weeks of the beginning of the invasion.<a href="#cite_note-AP_News_2023-237">[234]</a> By the beginning of April, the coalition forces occupied much of Iraq.<a href="#cite_note-AP_News_2023-237">[234]</a> The resistance of the much-weakened Iraqi Armed Forces either crumbled or shifted to <a href="/wiki/Guerrilla" class="mw-redirect" title="Guerrilla">guerrilla</a> tactics, and it appeared that Saddam had lost control of Iraq.<a href="#cite_note-AP_News_2023-237">[234]</a> He was last seen in a video which purported to show him in the Baghdad suburbs surrounded by supporters.<a href="#cite_note-AP_News_2023-237">[234]</a> In July 2003, his sons <a href="/wiki/Uday_Hussein" title="Uday Hussein">Uday</a> and <a href="/wiki/Qusay_Hussein" title="Qusay Hussein">Qusay</a> and 14-year-old grandson Mustafa were killed <a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Qusay_and_Uday_Hussein" title="Killing of Qusay and Uday Hussein">in a three-hour gunfight with US forces</a> in <a href="/wiki/Mosul" title="Mosul">Mosul</a>.<a href="#cite_note-238">[235]</a><a href="#cite_note-239">[236]</a><a href="#cite_note-240">[237]</a> Upon their deaths, he commemorated them as "martyrs" on radio.<a href="#cite_note-AP_News_2023-237">[234]</a> When Baghdad fell to US-led forces on 9 April, marked symbolically by the <a href="/wiki/Firdos_Square_statue_destruction" class="mw-redirect" title="Firdos Square statue destruction">toppling of his statue</a>,<a href="#cite_note-241">[238]</a> Saddam was nowhere to be found and his government was completely overthrown.<a href="#cite_note-AP_News_2023-237">[234]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Capture_and_interrogation">Capture and interrogation</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Saddam_Hussein" title="Capture of Saddam Hussein">Capture of Saddam Hussein</a> and <a href="/wiki/Interrogation_of_Saddam_Hussein" title="Interrogation of Saddam Hussein">Interrogation of Saddam Hussein</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Saddamcapture.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Saddamcapture.jpg/120px-Saddamcapture.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Saddamcapture.jpg/180px-Saddamcapture.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Saddamcapture.jpg/240px-Saddamcapture.jpg 2x" data-file-width="623" data-file-height="876" /></a><figcaption>Saddam shortly after being captured</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sadam_hussein_fingerprints_fbi.pdf" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Sadam_hussein_fingerprints_fbi.pdf/page1-220px-Sadam_hussein_fingerprints_fbi.pdf.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="286" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Sadam_hussein_fingerprints_fbi.pdf/page1-330px-Sadam_hussein_fingerprints_fbi.pdf.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Sadam_hussein_fingerprints_fbi.pdf/page1-440px-Sadam_hussein_fingerprints_fbi.pdf.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1270" data-file-height="1650" /></a><figcaption>Saddam Hussein's fingerprints, obtained by the National Security Archive</figcaption></figure> In April 2003, Saddam's whereabouts remained in question during the weeks following the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Baghdad_(2003)" title="Battle of Baghdad (2003)">fall of Baghdad</a> and the conclusion of the major fighting of the war.<a href="#cite_note-AP_News_2023-237">[234]</a> Various sightings of Saddam were reported in the weeks following the war, but none were authenticated.<a href="#cite_note-AP_News_2023-237">[234]</a> At various times Saddam released audio tapes promoting popular resistance to his ousting.<a href="#cite_note-AP_News_2023-237">[234]</a> Saddam was placed at the top of the <a href="/wiki/U.S._list_of_most-wanted_Iraqis" title="U.S. list of most-wanted Iraqis">US list of most-wanted Iraqis</a>, which included officials of his government and the party members.<a href="#cite_note-AP_News_2023-237">[234]</a> On 13 December 2003, in <a href="/wiki/Operation_Red_Dawn" class="mw-redirect" title="Operation Red Dawn">Operation Red Dawn</a>, Saddam was captured by American forces after being found hiding in a hole in the ground near a farmhouse in <a href="/wiki/Ad-Dawr" title="Ad-Dawr">ad-Dawr</a>, near Tikrit.<a href="#cite_note-AP_News_2023-237">[234]</a> Following his capture, Saddam was transported to a US base near Tikrit, and later taken to the American base near Baghdad Airport.<a href="#cite_note-AP_News_2023-237">[234]</a> Documents obtained and released by the National Security Archive detail FBI interviews and conversations with Saddam while he was in US custody.<a href="#cite_note-242">[239]</a> On 14 December, US administrator in Iraq <a href="/wiki/Paul_Bremer" title="Paul Bremer">Paul Bremer</a> confirmed that Saddam had indeed been captured at a farmhouse in ad-Dawr near Tikrit.<a href="#cite_note-Saddam_2003-243">[240]</a> Bremer presented video footage of Saddam in custody.<a href="#cite_note-Saddam_2003-243">[240]</a> Saddam was shown with a full beard and hair longer than his familiar appearance.<a href="#cite_note-Saddam_2003-243">[240]</a> He was described by US officials as being in good health.<a href="#cite_note-Saddam_2003-243">[240]</a> Bremer reported plans to put Saddam on trial, but claimed that the details of such a trial had not yet been determined.<a href="#cite_note-Saddam_2003-243">[240]</a> Iraqis and Americans who spoke with Saddam after his capture generally reported that he remained self-assured, describing himself as a "firm, but just leader."<a href="#cite_note-244">[241]</a> British tabloid newspaper <a href="/wiki/The_Sun_(United_Kingdom)" title="The Sun (United Kingdom)">The Sun</a> posted a picture of Saddam wearing white briefs on the front cover of a newspaper. Other photographs inside the paper show Saddam washing his trousers, shuffling, and sleeping. The US government stated that it considered the release of the pictures a violation of the <a href="/wiki/Geneva_Convention" class="mw-redirect" title="Geneva Convention">Geneva Convention</a> and that it would investigate the photographs.<a href="#cite_note-245">[242]</a><a href="#cite_note-246">[243]</a> During this period <a href="/wiki/Interrogation_of_Saddam_Hussein" title="Interrogation of Saddam Hussein">Saddam was interrogated</a> by <a href="/wiki/FBI" class="mw-redirect" title="FBI">FBI</a> agent <a href="/wiki/George_Piro" title="George Piro">George Piro</a>.<a href="#cite_note-247">[244]</a> The guards at the Baghdad detention facility called their prisoner "Vic", which stands for "Very Important Criminal" and let him plant a small garden near his cell. The nickname and the garden are among the details about the former Iraqi leader that emerged during a March 2008 tour of the Baghdad prison and cell where Saddam slept, bathed, kept a journal, and wrote poetry in the final days before his execution; he was concerned to ensure his legacy and how the history would be told. The tour was conducted by US Marine Maj. Gen. <a href="/wiki/Douglas_M._Stone" title="Douglas M. Stone">Doug Stone</a>, overseer of detention operations for the US military in Iraq at the time. During his imprisonment he exercised and was allowed to have his personal garden; he also smoked his cigars and wrote his diary in the courtyard of his cell.<a href="#cite_note-VIC-248">[245]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Trial">Trial</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Trial_of_Saddam_Hussein" title="Trial of Saddam Hussein">Trial of Saddam Hussein</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Saddam_Hussein_at_trial,_July_2004.JPEG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Saddam_Hussein_at_trial%2C_July_2004.JPEG/186px-Saddam_Hussein_at_trial%2C_July_2004.JPEG" decoding="async" width="186" height="285" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Saddam_Hussein_at_trial%2C_July_2004.JPEG/279px-Saddam_Hussein_at_trial%2C_July_2004.JPEG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Saddam_Hussein_at_trial%2C_July_2004.JPEG/371px-Saddam_Hussein_at_trial%2C_July_2004.JPEG 2x" data-file-width="1960" data-file-height="3008" /></a><figcaption>Saddam speaking in court during his trial</figcaption></figure> On 30 June 2004, Saddam Hussein, held in custody by US forces at the US base "<a href="/wiki/Camp_Cropper" title="Camp Cropper">Camp Cropper</a>", along with 11 other senior Ba'athist leaders, was handed over to the interim Iraqi government to stand trial for <a href="/wiki/Crimes_against_humanity" title="Crimes against humanity">crimes against humanity</a> and other offences. A few weeks later, he was charged by the <a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Special_Tribunal" class="mw-redirect" title="Iraqi Special Tribunal">Iraqi Special Tribunal</a> with <a href="/wiki/Dujail_Massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Dujail Massacre">crimes committed against residents of Dujail</a> in 1982, following a failed assassination attempt against him. Specific charges included the murder of 148 people, torture of women and children and the illegal arrest of 399 others.<a href="#cite_note-HRW1-249">[246]</a><a href="#cite_note-250">[247]</a> Among the many challenges of the trial were: <ul><li>Saddam and his lawyers contesting the court's authority and maintaining that he was still the <a href="/wiki/President_of_Iraq" title="President of Iraq">President of Iraq</a>.<a href="#cite_note-251">[248]</a></li> <li>The assassinations and attempted assassinations of several of Saddam's lawyers.</li> <li>The replacement of the chief presiding judge midway through the trial.</li></ul> On 5 November 2006, Saddam was found guilty of crimes against humanity and <a href="/wiki/Sentenced_to_death" class="mw-redirect" title="Sentenced to death">sentenced to death</a> by hanging. Saddam's half-brother, <a href="/wiki/Barzan_Ibrahim_al-Tikriti" title="Barzan Ibrahim al-Tikriti">Barzan Ibrahim</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Awad_Hamed_al-Bandar" title="Awad Hamed al-Bandar">Awad Hamed al-Bandar</a>, head of Iraq's Revolutionary Court in 1982, were convicted of similar charges. The verdict and sentencing were both appealed, but subsequently affirmed by Iraq's Supreme Court of Appeals.<a href="#cite_note-252">[249]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Execution">Execution</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Execution_of_Saddam_Hussein" title="Execution of Saddam Hussein">Execution of Saddam Hussein</a></div> Saddam was <a href="/wiki/Executed" class="mw-redirect" title="Executed">executed</a> by <a href="/wiki/Hanging" title="Hanging">hanging</a> on the first day of <a href="/wiki/Eid_al-Adha" title="Eid al-Adha">Eid ul-Adha</a>, 30 December 2006,<a href="#cite_note-BBCexecution-253">[250]</a> despite his wish to be executed by <a href="/wiki/Firing_squad" class="mw-redirect" title="Firing squad">firing squad</a> (which he argued was the lawful military capital punishment, citing his military position as the commander-in-chief of the Iraqi military).<a href="#cite_note-254">[251]</a> The execution was carried out at <a href="/wiki/Camp_Justice_(Iraq)" title="Camp Justice (Iraq)">Camp Justice</a>, an Iraqi army base in <a href="/wiki/Kadhimiya" title="Kadhimiya">Kadhimiya</a>, a neighborhood of northeast Baghdad. Saudi Arabia condemned Iraqi authorities for carrying out the execution on a holy day. A presenter from the Al-Ikhbariya television station officially stated: "There is a feeling of surprise and disapproval that the verdict has been applied during the holy months and the first days of Eid al-Adha. Leaders of Islamic countries should show respect for this blessed occasion ... not demean it."<a href="#cite_note-255">[252]</a> Video of the execution was recorded on a mobile phone and his captors could be heard insulting Saddam. The video was leaked to electronic media and posted on the Internet within hours, becoming the subject of global controversy.<a href="#cite_note-256">[253]</a> It was later claimed by the head guard at the tomb where his remains lay that Saddam's body had been stabbed six times after the execution.<a href="#cite_note-257">[254]</a> Saddam's demeanor while being led to the gallows has been discussed by two witnesses, Iraqi Judge Munir Haddad and Iraqi national security adviser Mowaffak al-Rubaie. The accounts of the two witnesses are contradictory as Haddad describes Saddam as being strong in his final moments whereas al-Rubaie says Saddam was clearly afraid, but the common view is not of the latter.<a href="#cite_note-258">[255]</a> Saddam spoke his last words during the execution, "May God's blessings be upon Muhammad and his household. And may God hasten their appearance and curse their enemies." Then one of the crowd repeatedly said the name of the Iraqi Shiite cleric <a href="/wiki/Muqtada_al-Sadr" title="Muqtada al-Sadr">Moqtada Al-Sadr</a>. Saddam laughed and later said, "Do you consider this manhood?" The crowd shouted, "go to Hell." Saddam replied, "To the hell that is Iraq!?" Again, one of the crowd asked those who shouted to keep quiet for God. Saddam Hussein started recitation of final Muslim prayers, "I bear witness that there is no god but Allah and I testify that Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah." One of the crowd shouted, "The tyrant [dictator] has collapsed!" Saddam said, "May God's blessings be upon Muhammad and his household (family)". He recited the shahada one and a half times, as while he was about to say 'Muhammad' on the second <a href="/wiki/Shahada" title="Shahada">shahada</a>, the trapdoor opened, cutting him off mid-sentence. The rope broke his neck, killing him instantly.<a href="#cite_note-259">[256]</a> Not long before the execution, Saddam's lawyers released his last letter.<a href="#cite_note-Hussein's_last_letter-260">[257]</a> A second unofficial video, apparently showing Saddam's body on a trolley, emerged several days later. It sparked speculation that the execution was carried out incorrectly as Saddam Hussein had a gaping hole in his neck.<a href="#cite_note-newvideo-261">[258]</a> Saddam was buried at his birthplace of Al-Awja in Tikrit, Iraq, on 31 December 2006. He was buried 3 km (2 mi) from his sons Uday and Qusay Hussein.<a href="#cite_note-burial-262">[259]</a> His tomb was reported to have been destroyed in March 2015.<a href="#cite_note-263">[260]</a> Before it was destroyed, a Sunni tribal group reportedly removed his body to a secret location, fearful of what might happen.<a href="#cite_note-264">[261]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Personal_life_and_family">Personal life and family</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Family_of_Saddam_Hussein" title="Family of Saddam Hussein">Family of Saddam Hussein</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Saddam-family-Pre1995.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Saddam-family-Pre1995.jpg/300px-Saddam-family-Pre1995.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="194" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Saddam-family-Pre1995.jpg/450px-Saddam-family-Pre1995.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Saddam-family-Pre1995.jpg/600px-Saddam-family-Pre1995.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1290" /></a><figcaption>Saddam Hussein's family, mid-late 1980s</figcaption></figure> <ul><li>Saddam married his first wife and cousin <a href="/wiki/Sajida_Talfah" title="Sajida Talfah">Sajida Talfah</a> (or Tulfah/Tilfah)<a href="#cite_note-Sheri_&_Bob_Stritof-265">[262]</a> in 1963 in an arranged marriage. Sajida is the daughter of Khairallah Talfah, Saddam's uncle and mentor; the two were raised as brother and sister. Their marriage was arranged for Saddam at age five when Sajida was seven. They became engaged in Egypt during his exile, and married in Iraq after Saddam's 1963 return.<a href="#cite_note-266">[263]</a> The couple had five children.<a href="#cite_note-Sheri_&_Bob_Stritof-265">[262]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Uday_Hussein" title="Uday Hussein">Uday Hussein</a> (1964–2003), who was Saddam's oldest son, who ran the <a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Football_Association" class="mw-redirect" title="Iraqi Football Association">Iraqi Football Association</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fedayeen_Saddam" title="Fedayeen Saddam">Fedayeen Saddam</a>, and several media corporations in Iraq including <a href="/wiki/Iraqi_TV" class="mw-redirect" title="Iraqi TV">Iraqi TV</a> and the newspaper <a href="/wiki/Babel_(newspaper)" title="Babel (newspaper)">Babel</a>. Uday, while originally Saddam's favorite son and likely successor, eventually fell out of favor with his father due to his erratic behavior; he was responsible for many car crashes and rapes around Baghdad, constant feuds with other members of his family, and killing his father's favorite valet and food taster <a href="/wiki/Kamel_Hana_Gegeo" title="Kamel Hana Gegeo">Kamel Hana Gegeo</a> at a party in Egypt honoring Egyptian first lady <a href="/wiki/Suzanne_Mubarak" title="Suzanne Mubarak">Suzanne Mubarak</a>. He became well known in the west for his involvement in looting Kuwait during the Gulf War, allegedly taking millions of dollars worth of gold, cars, and medical supplies (which were in short supply at the time) for himself and close supporters. He was widely known for his paranoia and his obsession with torturing people who disappointed him in any way, which included tardy girlfriends, friends who disagreed with him and, most notoriously, Iraqi athletes who performed poorly. He was briefly married to <a href="/wiki/Izzat_Ibrahim_ad-Douri" class="mw-redirect" title="Izzat Ibrahim ad-Douri">Izzat Ibrahim ad-Douri</a>'s daughter, but later divorced her. The couple had no children.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qusay_Hussein" title="Qusay Hussein">Qusay Hussein</a> (1966–2003), who was Saddam's second—and, after the mid-1990s, his favorite—son. Qusay was believed to have been Saddam's later intended successor, as he was less erratic than his older brother and kept a low profile. He was second in command of the military (behind his father) and ran the elite <a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Republican_Guard" class="mw-redirect" title="Iraqi Republican Guard">Iraqi Republican Guard</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Special_Security_Organization" title="Iraqi Special Security Organization">SSO</a>. He was believed to have ordered the army to kill thousands of rebelling <a href="/wiki/Marsh_Arabs" title="Marsh Arabs">Marsh Arabs</a> and was instrumental in suppressing Shi'ite rebellions in the mid-1990s. He was married once and had three children.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raghad_Hussein" title="Raghad Hussein">Raghad Hussein</a> (1968), who is Saddam's oldest daughter. After the 2003 invasion of Iraq, Raghad fled to <a href="/wiki/Amman" title="Amman">Amman</a>, Jordan where she received sanctuary from the royal family. She is currently wanted by the <a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Government" class="mw-redirect" title="Iraqi Government">Iraqi Government</a> for allegedly financing and supporting the insurgency of the now banned Iraqi Ba'ath Party.<a href="#cite_note-267">[264]</a><a href="#cite_note-268">[265]</a> The Jordanian royal family refused to hand her over. She was married to <a href="/wiki/Hussein_Kamel_al-Majid" title="Hussein Kamel al-Majid">Hussein Kamel al-Majid</a> and has had five children from this marriage.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rana_Hussein" title="Rana Hussein">Rana Hussein</a> (1969), who is Saddam's second daughter. She, like her sister, fled to Jordan and has stood up for her father's rights. She was married to <a href="/wiki/Saddam_Kamel" title="Saddam Kamel">Saddam Kamel</a> and has had four children from this marriage.</li> <li>Hala Hussein (1972), who is Saddam's third and youngest daughter. Very little information is known about her. Her father arranged for her to marry General Kamal Mustafa Abdallah Sultan al-Tikriti in 1998. She fled with her children and sisters to <a href="/wiki/Jordan" title="Jordan">Jordan</a>. In June 2021, an Iraqi court ordered the release of her husband after 18 years in prison.<a href="#cite_note-269">[266]</a></li></ul></li> <li>Saddam met his second wife, <a href="/wiki/Samira_Shahbandar" title="Samira Shahbandar">Samira Shahbandar</a>, in 1979 and married her in 1986.<a href="#cite_note-Sheri_&_Bob_Stritof-265">[262]</a> She was originally the wife of an <a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Airways" title="Iraqi Airways">Iraqi Airways</a> executive, but later became the mistress of Saddam. Eventually, Saddam forced Samira's husband to divorce her so he could marry her.<a href="#cite_note-Sheri_&_Bob_Stritof-265">[262]</a> After the war, Samira fled to <a href="/wiki/Beirut" title="Beirut">Beirut</a>, Lebanon. <ul><li>Ali Saddam Hussein (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1981), who is believed to be Saddam's youngest child. He is listed on United States' Treasury sanctions list.<a href="#cite_note-270">[267]</a><a href="#cite_note-271">[268]</a><a href="#cite_note-272">[269]</a><a href="#cite_note-273">[270]</a> Not very much is known about him other than the fact that his mother is Samira Shahbandar.<a href="#cite_note-Sheri_&_Bob_Stritof-265">[262]</a> His existence was repeatedly denied by Saddam's family.<a href="#cite_note-274">[271]</a></li></ul></li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Defense.gov_News_Photo_030722-A-0000W-001.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Defense.gov_News_Photo_030722-A-0000W-001.jpg/220px-Defense.gov_News_Photo_030722-A-0000W-001.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Defense.gov_News_Photo_030722-A-0000W-001.jpg/330px-Defense.gov_News_Photo_030722-A-0000W-001.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Defense.gov_News_Photo_030722-A-0000W-001.jpg/440px-Defense.gov_News_Photo_030722-A-0000W-001.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1474" /></a><figcaption>Saddam Hussein's sons <a href="/wiki/Qusay_Hussein" title="Qusay Hussein">Qusay</a> and <a href="/wiki/Uday_Hussein" title="Uday Hussein">Uday</a> were killed in a gun battle in <a href="/wiki/Mosul" title="Mosul">Mosul</a> on 22 July 2003.</figcaption></figure> <ul><li>Saddam had allegedly married a third wife, Nidal al-Hamdani, the general manager of the Solar Energy Research Center in the Council of Scientific Research.<a href="#cite_note-275">[272]</a></li> <li>Wafa Mullah Huwaysh is rumored to have married Saddam as his fourth wife in 2002. There is no firm evidence for this marriage. Wafa is the daughter of <a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Tawab_Mullah_Huwaysh" title="Abd al-Tawab Mullah Huwaysh">Abd al-Tawab Mullah Huwaysh</a>, a former minister of military industry in Iraq and Saddam's last deputy Prime Minister.</li></ul> In August 1995, Raghad and her husband, <a href="/wiki/Hussein_Kamel_al-Majid" title="Hussein Kamel al-Majid">Hussein Kamel al-Majid</a>, and Rana and her husband, <a href="/wiki/Saddam_Kamel" title="Saddam Kamel">Saddam Kamel al-Majid</a>, defected to <a href="/wiki/Jordan" title="Jordan">Jordan</a>, taking their children with them. They returned to Iraq when they received assurances that Saddam would pardon them. Within three days of their return in February 1996, both of the Kamel brothers were attacked and killed in a gunfight with other clan members who considered them traitors. In August 2003, Saddam's daughters Raghad and Rana received sanctuary in <a href="/wiki/Amman" title="Amman">Amman</a>, Jordan. That month, they spoke with <a href="/wiki/CNN" title="CNN">CNN</a> and the Arab satellite station <a href="/wiki/Al-Arabiya" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Arabiya">Al-Arabiya</a> in Amman. When asked about her father, Raghad told CNN, "He was a very good father, loving, has a big heart." Asked if she wanted to give a message to her father, she said: "I love you and I miss you." Her sister Rana also remarked, "He had so many feelings and he was very tender with all of us."<a href="#cite_note-daughtersinterview-276">[273]</a> Saddam developed a reputation for liking expensive goods, such as his diamond-coated <a href="/wiki/Rolex" title="Rolex">Rolex</a> wristwatch, and sent copies of them to his friends around the world. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Philanthropy">Philanthropy</h2></div> In 1979, Jacob Yasso of <a href="/wiki/Sacred_Heart_Chaldean_Church" title="Sacred Heart Chaldean Church">Sacred Heart Chaldean Church</a> in <a href="/wiki/Detroit,_Michigan" class="mw-redirect" title="Detroit, Michigan">Detroit, Michigan</a> congratulated Saddam Hussein on his presidency. In return, Yasso said that Saddam Hussein donated US$250,000 to his church, which is made up of at least 1,200 families of Middle Eastern descent. In 1980, <a href="/wiki/Detroit_Mayor" class="mw-redirect" title="Detroit Mayor">Detroit Mayor</a> <a href="/wiki/Coleman_Young" title="Coleman Young">Coleman Young</a> allowed Yasso to present the <a href="/wiki/Key_to_the_city" class="mw-redirect" title="Key to the city">key to the city</a> of Detroit to Saddam Hussein. At the time, Saddam then asked Yasso, "I heard there was a debt on your church. How much is it?" After the inquiry, Saddam then donated another $200,000 to Chaldean Sacred Heart Church. Yasso said that Saddam made donations to <a href="/wiki/Chaldean_Catholic_Church" title="Chaldean Catholic Church">Chaldean</a> churches all over the world, and even went on record as saying "He's very kind to Christians."<a href="#cite_note-detroitkey-277">[274]</a><a href="#cite_note-Associated_Press_2015-107">[104]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Honors_and_awards">Honors and awards</h2></div> In 1991, the <a href="/wiki/Iraqi_government" class="mw-redirect" title="Iraqi government">Iraqi government</a> awarded Saddam the Rafidain medal, also known as <a href="/wiki/Order_of_the_Two_Rivers" title="Order of the Two Rivers">Order of the Two Rivers</a>, the country's highest honor, as a recognition of his "historic role" and "noble services to Iraq".<a href="#cite_note-latimes.com-278">[275]</a><a href="#cite_note-Zee_News-2003-279">[276]</a> This announcement was made following a Cabinet meeting, and Information Minister <a href="/wiki/Hamid_Yusif_Hummadi" title="Hamid Yusif Hummadi">Hamid Youssef Hummadi</a> stated that the decision was unanimous.<a href="#cite_note-latimes.com-278">[275]</a><a href="#cite_note-Zee_News-2003-279">[276]</a> The award was bestowed on Saddam Hussein, during his 54th birthday, in appreciation of his exceptional contributions and significant impact on Iraq.<a href="#cite_note-latimes.com-278">[275]</a> He was honored by titles such as "Field Marshal" and "Comrade". Saddam Hussein is one of the recipients of the <a href="/wiki/Key_to_the_City" class="mw-redirect" title="Key to the City">Key to the City</a>.<a href="#cite_note-detroitkey-277">[274]</a><a href="#cite_note-280">[277]</a> In 1980, Saddam Hussein was awarded a key to the city of <a href="/wiki/Detroit" title="Detroit">Detroit</a> after he donated almost half a million dollars to a church in the city.<a href="#cite_note-Bidoun-281">[278]</a> The Ba'ath government led by Saddam Hussein successfully turned Iraq into a leading hub for healthcare and education.<a href="#cite_note-282">[279]</a> This improved quality of life in Iraq.<a href="#cite_note-283">[280]</a> For improving <a href="/wiki/Quality_of_life" title="Quality of life">quality of life</a> of Iraqis, Saddam was honored by an award from UNESCO.<a href="#cite_note-284">[281]</a> Saddam received a number of medals, which were displayed at a museum in <a href="/wiki/Johannesburg" title="Johannesburg">Johannesburg</a>, South Africa.<a href="#cite_note-285">[282]</a> He received the <a href="/wiki/Order_of_Merit" title="Order of Merit">Order of Merit</a> (Wisam al-Jadara), which is rare and was awarded to only a few Iraqi rulers.<a href="#cite_note-286">[283]</a> Order of the Mother of Battles was awarded to Saddam Hussein for his role in the <a href="/wiki/1991_Gulf_War" class="mw-redirect" title="1991 Gulf War">1991 Gulf War</a> against <a href="/wiki/Kuwait" title="Kuwait">Kuwait</a> and the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>.<a href="#cite_note-287">[284]</a> Saddam received medals for the <a href="/wiki/1948_Palestinian_War" class="mw-redirect" title="1948 Palestinian War">1948–'49 Palestinian War</a>, crushing the <a href="/wiki/Kurdish_rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Kurdish rebellion">Kurdish rebellion</a>, the <a href="/wiki/14_July_Revolution" title="14 July Revolution">1963</a> and <a href="/wiki/17_July_Revolution" title="17 July Revolution">1968</a> revolutions, cooperation with Syria, peace in 1970, and the <a href="/wiki/1973_war" class="mw-redirect" title="1973 war">1973 war</a> with <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a>.<a href="#cite_note-288">[285]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Political_and_cultural_image">Political and cultural image</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Saddamism" title="Saddamism">Saddamism</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti 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img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:408px;max-width:408px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Stamped_brick_at_the_ancient_city_of_Babylon_bearing_the_name_of_Saddam_Hussein.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Stamped brick at the ancient city of Babylon bearing the name of Saddam Hussein" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Stamped_brick_at_the_ancient_city_of_Babylon_bearing_the_name_of_Saddam_Hussein.jpg/200px-Stamped_brick_at_the_ancient_city_of_Babylon_bearing_the_name_of_Saddam_Hussein.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Stamped_brick_at_the_ancient_city_of_Babylon_bearing_the_name_of_Saddam_Hussein.jpg/300px-Stamped_brick_at_the_ancient_city_of_Babylon_bearing_the_name_of_Saddam_Hussein.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Stamped_brick_at_the_ancient_city_of_Babylon_bearing_the_name_of_Saddam_Hussein.jpg/400px-Stamped_brick_at_the_ancient_city_of_Babylon_bearing_the_name_of_Saddam_Hussein.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Stamped brick at the ancient city of <a href="/wiki/Babylon" title="Babylon">Babylon</a> bearing the name of Saddam Hussein</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Palace_of_Saddam_Hussein_(30629368765).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Palace_of_Saddam_Hussein_%2830629368765%29.jpg/200px-Palace_of_Saddam_Hussein_%2830629368765%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Palace_of_Saddam_Hussein_%2830629368765%29.jpg/300px-Palace_of_Saddam_Hussein_%2830629368765%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Palace_of_Saddam_Hussein_%2830629368765%29.jpg/400px-Palace_of_Saddam_Hussein_%2830629368765%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Saddam's palace near the ruins of the North Palace of <a href="/wiki/Nebuchadnezzar_II" title="Nebuchadnezzar II">Nebuchadnezzar II</a> at <a href="/wiki/Babylon" title="Babylon">Babylon</a></div></div></div></div></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Al-Qadissiya_6.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Al-Qadissiya_6.jpg/170px-Al-Qadissiya_6.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Al-Qadissiya_6.jpg/255px-Al-Qadissiya_6.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Al-Qadissiya_6.jpg/340px-Al-Qadissiya_6.jpg 2x" data-file-width="372" data-file-height="558" /></a><figcaption>Propaganda art to glorify Saddam after <a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_War" title="Iran–Iraq War">Iran–Iraq War</a>, 1988</figcaption></figure> The political ideas and politics pursued by Saddam Hussein became known as <a href="/wiki/Saddamism" title="Saddamism">Saddamism</a>. This doctrine was officially endorsed by his government and promoted by the Iraqi daily newspaper <a href="/wiki/Babel_(newspaper)" title="Babel (newspaper)">Babil</a> owned by his son <a href="/wiki/Uday_Hussein" title="Uday Hussein">Uday Hussein</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ofrabengio-289">[286]</a> During his leadership, Saddam promoted the idea of dual nationalism which combines <a href="/wiki/Iraqi_nationalism" title="Iraqi nationalism">Iraqi nationalism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arab_nationalism" title="Arab nationalism">Arab nationalism</a>, a much broader form of <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_nationalism" title="Ethnic nationalism">ethnic nationalism</a> which supports Iraqi nationalism and links it to matters that impact <a href="/wiki/Arabs" title="Arabs">Arabs</a> as a whole.<a href="#cite_note-Orit_Bashkin_2009._Pp._174-290">[287]</a> Saddam Hussein believed that the recognition of the ancient <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamian</a> origins and heritage of Iraqi Arabs was complementary to supporting Arab nationalism.<a href="#cite_note-Orit_Bashkin_2009._Pp._174-290">[287]</a> It is believed that Saddam had a soft spot for Jews because his mother was saved by her Jewish neighbors.<a href="#cite_note-291">[288]</a> Saddam's Bedouin tribal nature often carried a sense of nobility, reflected in certain aspects of his character and behavior. A notable example occurred upon the death of Ayatollah Khomeini, his long-time adversary. Addressing his cabinet after receiving the news, Saddam said:<a href="#cite_note-292">[289]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">The news came today that Ayatollah Khomeini died. And I have now instructed all the Arab media outlets not to show any gloating and to just say, Khomeini, may God have mercy on his soul. Because when he was alive, he was our enemy and we can do whatever we want. We can insult him, we can write all attack pieces on him, but when he is dead, it's our manners and our culture and our traditions that if someone is dead, that's it. You don't talk ill of the dead. So, he now went to a higher authority and he will have to answer for everything he did, but for us, we don't gloat.</blockquote> In the course of his reign, the <a href="/wiki/Ba%27athist_Iraq" title="Ba'athist Iraq">Ba'athist regime</a> officially included the historic Kurdish Muslim leader <a href="/wiki/Saladin" title="Saladin">Saladin</a> as a patriotic symbol in <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>, while Saddam called himself son of the <a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Babylonian</a> King <a href="/wiki/Nebuchadnezzar_II" title="Nebuchadnezzar II">Nebuchadnezzar</a> and had stamped the bricks of ancient <a href="/wiki/Babylon" title="Babylon">Babylon</a> with his name and titles next to him.<a href="#cite_note-Kiernan,_Ben_2007._Pp._587-293">[290]</a><a href="#cite_note-294">[291]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Gulf War</a>, Saddam claimed the historic roles of Nebuchadnezzar, Saladin and <a href="/wiki/Gamal_Abdel_Nasser" title="Gamal Abdel Nasser">Gamal Abdel Nasser</a>.<a href="#cite_note-PIRRR-148">[145]</a> He also conducted two <a href="/wiki/Show_election" class="mw-redirect" title="Show election">show elections</a>, in 1995 and 2002. In the <a href="/wiki/1995_Iraqi_presidential_referendum" title="1995 Iraqi presidential referendum">1995 referendum</a>, conducted on 15 October, he reportedly received 99.96% of the votes in a 99.47% turnout, getting 3,052 negative votes among an electorate of 8.4 million.<a href="#cite_note-295">[292]</a><a href="#cite_note-296">[293]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/2002_Iraqi_presidential_referendum" title="2002 Iraqi presidential referendum">15 October 2002 referendum</a> he officially achieved 100% of approval votes and 100% turnout, as the electoral commission reported the next day that every one of the 11,445,638 eligible voters cast a "Yes" vote for the president.<a href="#cite_note-297">[294]</a> He erected statues around the country, which Iraqis toppled after <a href="/wiki/Iraq_War#Iraq_Study_Group_report_and_Saddam's_execution" title="Iraq War">his fall</a>.<a href="#cite_note-298">[295]</a><a href="#cite_note-299">[296]</a> The popular cartoon <a href="/wiki/South_Park" title="South Park">South Park</a> satirized Hussein on several different occasions. He first appeared in the episode <a href="/wiki/Terrance_and_Phillip_in_Not_Without_My_Anus" title="Terrance and Phillip in Not Without My Anus">Terrance and Phillip in Not Without My Anus</a>. The show incorporates a running gag where Saddam finds a love interest in a cartoon version of <a href="/wiki/Satan" title="Satan">Satan</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reception_and_legacy">Reception and legacy</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/De-Ba%27athification" title="De-Ba'athification">De-Ba'athification</a> and <a href="/wiki/Leadership_analysis#Saddam_Hussein" title="Leadership analysis">Leadership analysis § Saddam Hussein</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Saddam_Hussein_1980.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Saddam_Hussein_1980.jpg/220px-Saddam_Hussein_1980.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="315" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Saddam_Hussein_1980.jpg/330px-Saddam_Hussein_1980.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Saddam_Hussein_1980.jpg/440px-Saddam_Hussein_1980.jpg 2x" data-file-width="705" data-file-height="1008" /></a><figcaption>Saddam Hussein in 1980</figcaption></figure> Many Arabs praise Saddam as a true leader who stood up to <a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">Western</a> <a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">imperialism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Israeli-occupied_territories" title="Israeli-occupied territories">Israeli occupation of Palestine</a>, and foreign intervention in the region, while many Iraqis, especially Shias and Kurds, view him negatively as a dictator responsible for brutal authoritarianism, repression and injustices.<a href="#cite_note-300">[297]</a> Supporters noted that under Saddam, the government invested heavily in infrastructure projects, such as roads, bridges, and public buildings.<a href="#cite_note-301">[298]</a><a href="#cite_note-302">[299]</a> This development contributed to the modernization of Iraq's cities and improved the country's overall infrastructure.<a href="#cite_note-Ibrahim-303">[300]</a> Under Saddam's regime, there was an emphasis on improving access to education and healthcare.<a href="#cite_note-Ibrahim-303">[300]</a><a href="#cite_note-304">[301]</a><a href="#cite_note-305">[302]</a> The government invested in building schools and hospitals, and literacy rates in Iraq increased significantly during his rule.<a href="#cite_note-306">[303]</a><a href="#cite_note-307">[304]</a><a href="#cite_note-308">[305]</a> He implemented policies aimed at advancing women's rights in Iraq.<a href="#cite_note-309">[306]</a> Women were encouraged to participate in education and the workforce, and many held high-ranking positions in government and public institutions.<a href="#cite_note-310">[307]</a><a href="#cite_note-311">[308]</a><a href="#cite_note-aljazeera.com-312">[309]</a> For his policies, Saddam is remembered well among Iraqi women.<a href="#cite_note-313">[310]</a><a href="#cite_note-314">[311]</a> Saddam's regime had a secular character, which meant that religion did not play a dominant role in the government's policies.<a href="#cite_note-aljazeera.com-312">[309]</a> This allowed for a degree of religious diversity and tolerance within Iraq. Still today, many Iraqi Jews respect Saddam, for his fair treatment of Jews.<a href="#cite_note-aljazeera.com-312">[309]</a> This was also seen for the Iraqi Mandaeans, with many Iraqi Mandaeans holding strong-respect for Saddam's protection of the Mandaeans; Saddam even constructed temples for the Mandaean people.<a href="#cite_note-315">[312]</a><a href="#cite_note-316">[313]</a><a href="#cite_note-317">[314]</a> Saddam's regime later placed greater emphasis on Islam in all sectors of Iraqi life from 1993 through the <a href="/wiki/Faith_Campaign" title="Faith Campaign">Faith Campaign</a>.<a href="#cite_note-aljazeera.com-312">[309]</a> In 1977, Saddam stated "<a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Iraq_Region" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Iraq Region">our Party</a> does not take a neutral stance between faith and atheism; it is always on the side of faith."<a href="#cite_note-318">[315]</a> By contrast, critics have condemned Saddam as a repressive totalitarian leader.<a href="#cite_note-Sassoon_2017-97">[94]</a><a href="#cite_note-319">[316]</a><a href="#cite_note-320">[317]</a> His regime was notorious for its repressive tactics, including <a href="/wiki/Surveillance" title="Surveillance">widespread surveillance</a>, <a href="/wiki/Torture" title="Torture">torture</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Extrajudicial_killings" class="mw-redirect" title="Extrajudicial killings">extrajudicial killings</a>.<a href="#cite_note-321">[318]</a><a href="#cite_note-politicalscience.stanford.edu-322">[319]</a> <a href="/wiki/Human_rights_organizations" class="mw-redirect" title="Human rights organizations">Human rights organizations</a> documented numerous cases of human rights abuses committed by his government.<a href="#cite_note-323">[320]</a> Saddam's regime suppressed political dissent and opposition through a combination of violence, intimidation, and censorship.<a href="#cite_note-politicalscience.stanford.edu-322">[319]</a> Freedom of speech and freedom of the press were severely curtailed, and political opponents were often executed or imprisoned.<a href="#cite_note-324">[321]</a> He initiated three military conflicts, including the <a href="/wiki/Iran-Iraq_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Iran-Iraq War">Iran-Iraq War</a>, <a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Kuwait" class="mw-redirect" title="Invasion of Kuwait">Invasion of Kuwait</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Gulf War</a>.<a href="#cite_note-325">[322]</a> These actions resulted in significant loss of life and destabilized the region.<a href="#cite_note-326">[323]</a> While there were economic development initiatives, Saddam's regime was also marked by mismanagement and widespread corruption, particularly during the final years of his regime.<a href="#cite_note-327">[324]</a> The <a href="/wiki/International_sanctions_against_Iraq" title="International sanctions against Iraq">economic sanctions imposed on Iraq</a> during his rule further exacerbated hardships for the country's population.<a href="#cite_note-328">[325]</a> <a href="/wiki/Saddamism" title="Saddamism">Saddamism</a> has been described by critics as a mix of "<a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam" title="Sunni Islam">Sunni</a> <a href="/wiki/Arab_nationalism" title="Arab nationalism">Arab nationalism</a>, confused <a href="/wiki/Stalinism" title="Stalinism">Stalinism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Arab_fascism" title="Arab fascism">fascist</a> zeal for the fatherland and its leader".<a href="#cite_note-329">[326]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Arab_world" title="Arab world">Arab world</a>, Saddam is well-regarded, especially for his <a href="/wiki/Iraq%E2%80%93Palestine_relations" title="Iraq–Palestine relations">support</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Palestinian_cause" class="mw-redirect" title="Palestinian cause">Palestinian cause</a>.<a href="#cite_note-330">[327]</a> A memorial dedicated to Saddam was built in <a href="/wiki/Qalqilya" title="Qalqilya">Qalqilya</a>, Palestine.<a href="#cite_note-331">[328]</a><a href="#cite_note-332">[329]</a><a href="#cite_note-333">[330]</a> Additionally, many portraits and other forms of memorials are found throughout <a href="/wiki/State_of_Palestine" class="mw-redirect" title="State of Palestine">Palestine</a>.<a href="#cite_note-334">[331]</a><a href="#cite_note-335">[332]</a> During his regime, Iraq and India shared a <a href="/wiki/India%E2%80%93Iraq_relations" title="India–Iraq relations">strong relationship</a>.<a href="#cite_note-336">[333]</a> Even today, Saddam has a huge fan following in India.<a href="#cite_note-337">[334]</a> Indian singer <a href="/wiki/Sidhu_Moose_Wala" title="Sidhu Moose Wala">Sidhu Moose Wala</a> mentioned Saddam in his song "Bambiha Bole", stating that he was a well-reputed person. Saddam was an admirer of <a href="/wiki/Indira_Gandhi" title="Indira Gandhi">Indira Gandhi</a>, whom he met in 1974 during an international trip to India.<a href="#cite_note-338">[335]</a> In July 2016, then US presidential candidate <a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Donald Trump</a> praised Saddam for militant suppression and stability during his presidency in <a href="/wiki/Ba%27athist_Iraq" title="Ba'athist Iraq">Iraq</a>.<a href="#cite_note-339">[336]</a> A beach near the Indian city of <a href="/wiki/Malappuram" title="Malappuram">Malappuram</a> has been named <a href="/wiki/Saddam_Beach" title="Saddam Beach">Saddam Beach</a>. Saddam is still loved by many <a href="/wiki/Jordanians" class="mw-redirect" title="Jordanians">Jordanians</a>.<a href="#cite_note-340">[337]</a> Despite having tense relations with <a href="/wiki/Kurdish_separatist" class="mw-redirect" title="Kurdish separatist">Kurdish separatists</a>, Saddam developed good relations with some Kurds who supported him.<a href="#cite_note-341">[338]</a> Libyan politician and commander of the <a href="/wiki/Libyan_National_Army" title="Libyan National Army">Libyan National Arab Army</a>, <a href="/wiki/Khalifa_Haftar" title="Khalifa Haftar">Khalifa Haftar</a>, named his son <a href="/wiki/Saddam_Haftar" title="Saddam Haftar">Saddam Haftar</a> after Saddam Hussein.<a href="#cite_note-342">[339]</a><a href="#cite_note-343">[340]</a><a href="#cite_note-344">[341]</a> Cultural depictions of Saddam can be found in various movies, including three documentary movies made on Saddam. Saddam's Tribe, released in 2007, explores the complex relationship between Saddam Hussein and the <a href="/wiki/Al-Bu_Nasir_(Iraqi_tribe)" title="Al-Bu Nasir (Iraqi tribe)">Al-Bu Nasir</a>, a powerful tribal group in Iraq to which Saddam belongs. In 2008, a TV series based on his life — <a href="/wiki/House_of_Saddam" title="House of Saddam">House of Saddam</a> was released. Irish actor <a href="/wiki/Barry_Keoghan" title="Barry Keoghan">Barry Keoghan</a> will appear in a new movie about Saddam which was announced in 2024.<a href="#cite_note-345">[342]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Flag_of_Iraq.svg/32px-Flag_of_Iraq.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="21" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Flag_of_Iraq.svg/48px-Flag_of_Iraq.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Flag_of_Iraq.svg/64px-Flag_of_Iraq.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:Iraq" title="Portal:Iraq">Iraq portal</a></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/P_vip.svg/28px-P_vip.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/P_vip.svg/41px-P_vip.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/P_vip.svg/55px-P_vip.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1911" data-file-height="1944" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:Biography" title="Portal:Biography">Biography portal</a></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><a href="/wiki/File:A_coloured_voting_box.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/28px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/42px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/56px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /></a><a href="/wiki/Portal:Politics" title="Portal:Politics">Politics portal</a></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/MiddleEast_blacky.svg/31px-MiddleEast_blacky.svg.png" decoding="async" width="31" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/MiddleEast_blacky.svg/47px-MiddleEast_blacky.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/MiddleEast_blacky.svg/62px-MiddleEast_blacky.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1551" data-file-height="1402" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:Middle_East" class="mw-redirect" title="Portal:Middle East">Middle East portal</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modern_history_of_Iraq" title="Modern history of Iraq">Modern history of Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saddam_Beach" title="Saddam Beach">Saddam Beach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saddam_Hussein_Nagar,_Sri_Lanka" title="Saddam Hussein Nagar, Sri Lanka">Saddam Hussein Nagar, Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saddam_Hussein%27s_novels" title="Saddam Hussein's novels">Saddam Hussein's novels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U.S._list_of_most-wanted_Iraqis" title="U.S. list of most-wanted Iraqis">US list of most-wanted Iraqis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Most-wanted_Iraqi_playing_cards" title="Most-wanted Iraqi playing cards">Most-wanted Iraqi playing cards</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Birth_date_unclear-2"><a href="#cite_ref-Birth_date_unclear_2-0">^</a> Under his government, this date was his official date of birth. His real date of birth was never recorded, but it is believed to be between 1935 and 1939.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Saddam_(name)" title="Saddam (name)">Saddam</a> (<a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: صدام), pronounced <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Arabic" title="Help:IPA/Arabic">[sˤɑdˈdæːm]</a> in <a href="/wiki/Modern_Standard_Arabic" title="Modern Standard Arabic">Modern Standard Arabic</a>, is his personal name, and means "the stubborn one" or "he who confronts". Hussein (sometimes also transliterated as Hussayn or Hussain) is not a surname in the Western sense but a <a href="/wiki/Patronymic_in_Arabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Patronymic in Arabic">patronymic</a> or <a href="/wiki/Nasab" class="mw-redirect" title="Nasab">nasab</a>, his father's given personal name;<a href="#cite_note-Notzonetal-6">[5]</a> Abd al-Majid his grandfather's; al-Tikriti is a <a href="/wiki/Laqab" class="mw-redirect" title="Laqab">laqab</a> meaning he was born and raised in, or near, <a href="/wiki/Tikrit" title="Tikrit">Tikrit</a>. He was commonly referred to as Saddam Hussein, or Saddam for short. The observation that referring to the deposed Iraqi president as only Saddam is derogatory or inappropriate may be based on the assumption that Hussein is a family name, and "Hussein" was treated this way in English.<a href="#cite_note-Notzonetal-6">[5]</a> Thus <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a> refers to him as "Mr. Hussein",<a href="#cite_note-7">[6]</a> while <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a> uses just Saddam.<a href="#cite_note-8">[7]</a> A full discussion can be found in the CBC reference preceding this note. </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/səˈdɑːm huːˈseɪn/</a> <span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-1" class="noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/4\/4e\/En-us-Saddam_Hussein_from_Iraq_pronunciation_%28Voice_of_America%29.ogg\/En-us-Saddam_Hussein_from_Iraq_pronunciation_%28Voice_of_America%29.ogg.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"En-us-Saddam Hussein from Iraq pronunciation (Voice of America).ogg"},"classes":["noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton","ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/4e/En-us-Saddam_Hussein_from_Iraq_pronunciation_%28Voice_of_America%29.ogg/En-us-Saddam_Hussein_from_Iraq_pronunciation_%28Voice_of_America%29.ogg.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"></a><a href="/wiki/File:En-us-Saddam_Hussein_from_Iraq_pronunciation_(Voice_of_America).ogg" title="File:En-us-Saddam Hussein from Iraq pronunciation (Voice of America).ogg">ⓘ</a> <a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key">sə-DAHM hoo-SAYN</a>; <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: صدام حسين, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style>Mesopotamian Arabic: <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">[sˤɐdˈdɑːm ɜħˈsɪe̯n]</a>; also known by his full name Ṣaddām Ḥusayn ʿAbd al-Maǧīd al-Tikrītiyy; <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: صدام حسين عبد المجيد التكريتي. He is known <a href="/wiki/Mononym" title="Mononym">mononymously</a> as Saddam.<a href="#cite_note-5">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-9">[b]</a> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> Con Coughlin, <a href="/wiki/Saddam:_The_Secret_Life" class="mw-redirect" title="Saddam: The Secret Life">Saddam: The Secret Life</a> Pan Books, 2003 (<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-330-39310-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-330-39310-2">978-0-330-39310-2</a>). </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-14666182">"Do rewards help capture the world's most wanted men?"</a>. 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Maxwell Airforce Base. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210521205900/https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a424787.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 21 May 2021. 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Stephen Humphreys, Between Memory and Desire: The Middle East in a Troubled Age, University of California Press, 1999, p. 68. </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> Humphreys, 68 </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPolk2005" class="citation book cs1">Polk, William Roe (2005). Understanding Iraq. <a href="/wiki/I.B._Tauris" title="I.B. Tauris">I.B. 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Retrieved 2 April 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=United+Press+International&rft.atitle=Exclusive%3A+Saddam+Key+in+Early+CIA+Plot&rft.date=2003-04-10&rft.aulast=Sale&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.upi.com%2FExclusive-Saddam-key-in-early-CIA-plot%2F65571050017416%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaddam+Hussein" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Osgood_p._16-37"><a href="#cite_ref-Osgood_p._16_37-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOsgood2009" class="citation book cs1">Osgood, Kenneth (2009). "Eisenhower and regime change in Iraq: the United States and the Iraqi Revolution of 1958". America and Iraq: Policy-making, Intervention and Regional Politics. <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. p. 16. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781134036721" title="Special:BookSources/9781134036721"><bdi>9781134036721</bdi></a>. <q>The documentary record is filled with holes. A remarkable volume of material remains classified, and those records that are available are obscured by redactions – large blacked-out sections that allow for plausible deniability. While it is difficult to know exactly what actions were taken to destabilize or overthrow Qasim's regime, we can discern fairly clearly what was on the planning table. We also can see clues as to what was authorized.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Eisenhower+and+regime+change+in+Iraq%3A+the+United+States+and+the+Iraqi+Revolution+of+1958&rft.btitle=America+and+Iraq%3A+Policy-making%2C+Intervention+and+Regional+Politics&rft.pages=16&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9781134036721&rft.aulast=Osgood&rft.aufirst=Kenneth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaddam+Hussein" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Osgood_pp._21–23-38">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Osgood_pp._21–23_38-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Osgood_pp._21–23_38-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Osgood_pp._21–23_38-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Osgood_pp._21–23_38-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOsgood2009" class="citation book cs1">Osgood, Kenneth (2009). "Eisenhower and regime change in Iraq: the United States and the Iraqi Revolution of 1958". America and Iraq: Policy-making, Intervention and Regional Politics. <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. pp. 21–23. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781134036721" title="Special:BookSources/9781134036721"><bdi>9781134036721</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Eisenhower+and+regime+change+in+Iraq%3A+the+United+States+and+the+Iraqi+Revolution+of+1958&rft.btitle=America+and+Iraq%3A+Policy-making%2C+Intervention+and+Regional+Politics&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E21-%3C%2Fspan%3E23&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9781134036721&rft.aulast=Osgood&rft.aufirst=Kenneth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaddam+Hussein" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGibson2015" class="citation book cs1">Gibson, Bryan R. (2015). Sold Out? US Foreign Policy, Iraq, the Kurds, and the Cold War. <a href="/wiki/Palgrave_Macmillan" title="Palgrave Macmillan">Palgrave Macmillan</a>. pp. 25–26. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-137-48711-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-137-48711-7"><bdi>978-1-137-48711-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sold+Out%3F+US+Foreign+Policy%2C+Iraq%2C+the+Kurds%2C+and+the+Cold+War&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E25-%3C%2Fspan%3E26&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-137-48711-7&rft.aulast=Gibson&rft.aufirst=Bryan+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaddam+Hussein" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECoughlin200530-40"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoughlin200530_40-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCoughlin2005">Coughlin 2005</a>, p. 30. </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKarshRautsi2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Efraim_Karsh" title="Efraim Karsh">Karsh, Efraim</a>; Rautsi, Inari (2002). Saddam Hussein: A Political Biography. <a href="/wiki/Grove_Press" title="Grove Press">Grove Press</a>. pp. 15–22, 25. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8021-3978-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8021-3978-8"><bdi>978-0-8021-3978-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Saddam+Hussein%3A+A+Political+Biography&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E15-%3C%2Fspan%3E22%2C+25&rft.pub=Grove+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-8021-3978-8&rft.aulast=Karsh&rft.aufirst=Efraim&rft.au=Rautsi%2C+Inari&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaddam+Hussein" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMakiya1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Kanan_Makiya" title="Kanan Makiya">Makiya, Kanan</a> (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/republicoffearpo00maki">Republic of Fear: The Politics of Modern Iraq, Updated Edition</a>. University of California Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/republicoffearpo00maki/page/118">118</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-92124-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-92124-5"><bdi>978-0-520-92124-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Republic+of+Fear%3A+The+Politics+of+Modern+Iraq%2C+Updated+Edition&rft.pages=118&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-520-92124-5&rft.aulast=Makiya&rft.aufirst=Kanan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frepublicoffearpo00maki&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaddam+Hussein" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoughlin2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Con_Coughlin" title="Con Coughlin">Coughlin, Con</a> (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/saddam00conc/page/34">Saddam: His Rise and Fall</a>. <a href="/wiki/Harper_Perennial" title="Harper Perennial">Harper Perennial</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/saddam00conc/page/34">34</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-050543-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-06-050543-1"><bdi>978-0-06-050543-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Saddam%3A+His+Rise+and+Fall&rft.pages=34&rft.pub=Harper+Perennial&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-06-050543-1&rft.aulast=Coughlin&rft.aufirst=Con&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsaddam00conc%2Fpage%2F34&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaddam+Hussein" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-WH2021_1959_2-44"><a href="#cite_ref-WH2021_1959_2_44-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWolfe-Hunnicutt2021" class="citation book cs1">Wolfe-Hunnicutt, Brandon (2021). The Paranoid Style in American Diplomacy: Oil and Arab Nationalism in Iraq. <a href="/wiki/Stanford_University_Press" title="Stanford University Press">Stanford University Press</a>. pp. 53–54. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5036-1382-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5036-1382-9"><bdi>978-1-5036-1382-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Paranoid+Style+in+American+Diplomacy%3A+Oil+and+Arab+Nationalism+in+Iraq&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E53-%3C%2Fspan%3E54&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-1-5036-1382-9&rft.aulast=Wolfe-Hunnicutt&rft.aufirst=Brandon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaddam+Hussein" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKarshRautsi2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Efraim_Karsh" title="Efraim Karsh">Karsh, Efraim</a>; Rautsi, Inari (2002). Saddam Hussein: A Political Biography. <a href="/wiki/Grove_Press" title="Grove Press">Grove Press</a>. pp. 15–22. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8021-3978-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8021-3978-8"><bdi>978-0-8021-3978-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Saddam+Hussein%3A+A+Political+Biography&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E15-%3C%2Fspan%3E22&rft.pub=Grove+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-8021-3978-8&rft.aulast=Karsh&rft.aufirst=Efraim&rft.au=Rautsi%2C+Inari&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaddam+Hussein" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saddam-Hussein">"Saddam Hussein"</a>. Britannica. 29 May 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Saddam+Hussein&rft.pub=Britannica&rft.date=2023-05-29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fbiography%2FSaddam-Hussein&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaddam+Hussein" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKarshRautsi2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Efraim_Karsh" title="Efraim Karsh">Karsh, Efraim</a>; Rautsi, Inari (2002). Saddam Hussein: A Political Biography. <a href="/wiki/Grove_Press" title="Grove Press">Grove Press</a>. pp. 20–21. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8021-3978-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8021-3978-8"><bdi>978-0-8021-3978-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Saddam+Hussein%3A+A+Political+Biography&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E20-%3C%2Fspan%3E21&rft.pub=Grove+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-8021-3978-8&rft.aulast=Karsh&rft.aufirst=Efraim&rft.au=Rautsi%2C+Inari&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaddam+Hussein" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Slugletts_p._327-48"><a href="#cite_ref-Slugletts_p._327_48-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFarouk–SluglettSluglett2001" class="citation book cs1">Farouk–Sluglett, Marion; Sluglett, Peter (2001). Iraq Since 1958: From Revolution to Dictatorship. <a href="/wiki/I.B._Tauris" title="I.B. Tauris">I.B. Tauris</a>. p. 327. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780857713735" title="Special:BookSources/9780857713735"><bdi>9780857713735</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Iraq+Since+1958%3A+From+Revolution+to+Dictatorship&rft.pages=327&rft.pub=I.B.+Tauris&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=9780857713735&rft.aulast=Farouk%E2%80%93Sluglett&rft.aufirst=Marion&rft.au=Sluglett%2C+Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaddam+Hussein" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> For sources that agree or sympathize with assertions of U.S. involvement, see: <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWolfe-HunnicuttMiddle_East_Studies_Pedagogy_Initiative_(MESPI)2018" class="citation web cs1">Wolfe-Hunnicutt, Brandon; Middle East Studies Pedagogy Initiative (MESPI) (20 July 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jadaliyya.com/Details/37783/Essential-Readings-The-US-and-Iraq">"Essential Readings: The United States and Iraq before Saddam Hussein's Rule"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Jadaliyya" title="Jadaliyya">Jadaliyya</a>. <q>CIA involvement in the 1963 coup that first brought the Ba'th to power in Iraq has been an open secret for decades. American government and media have never been asked to fully account for the CIA's role in the coup. On the contrary, the US government has put forward and official narrative riddled with holes–redactions that cannot be declassified for "national security" reasons.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Jadaliyya&rft.atitle=Essential+Readings%3A+The+United+States+and+Iraq+before+Saddam+Hussein%27s+Rule&rft.date=2018-07-20&rft.aulast=Wolfe-Hunnicutt&rft.aufirst=Brandon&rft.au=Middle+East+Studies+Pedagogy+Initiative+%28MESPI%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jadaliyya.com%2FDetails%2F37783%2FEssential-Readings-The-US-and-Iraq&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaddam+Hussein" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCitino2017" class="citation book cs1">Citino, Nathan J. (2017). "The People's Court". Envisioning the Arab Future: Modernization in US-Arab Relations, 1945–1967. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. pp. 182–183. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-108-10755-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-108-10755-6"><bdi>978-1-108-10755-6</bdi></a>. <q>Washington backed the movement by military officers linked to the pan-Arab Ba'th Party that overthrew Qasim in a coup on February 8, 1963.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+People%27s+Court&rft.btitle=Envisioning+the+Arab+Future%3A+Modernization+in+US-Arab+Relations%2C+1945%E2%80%931967&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E182-%3C%2Fspan%3E183&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-108-10755-6&rft.aulast=Citino&rft.aufirst=Nathan+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaddam+Hussein" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJacobsen2013" class="citation journal cs1">Jacobsen, E. (1 November 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.oup.com/dh/article-lookup/doi/10.1093/dh/dht049">"A Coincidence of Interests: Kennedy, U.S. Assistance, and the 1963 Iraqi Ba'th Regime"</a>. Diplomatic History. 37 (5): 1029–1059. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fdh%2Fdht049">10.1093/dh/dht049</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0145-2096">0145-2096</a>. <q>There is ample evidence that the CIA not only had contacts with the Iraqi Ba'th in the early sixties, but also assisted in the planning of the coup.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Diplomatic+History&rft.atitle=A+Coincidence+of+Interests%3A+Kennedy%2C+U.S.+Assistance%2C+and+the+1963+Iraqi+Ba%27th+Regime&rft.volume=37&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1029-%3C%2Fspan%3E1059&rft.date=2013-11-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fdh%2Fdht049&rft.issn=0145-2096&rft.aulast=Jacobsen&rft.aufirst=E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Facademic.oup.com%2Fdh%2Farticle-lookup%2Fdoi%2F10.1093%2Fdh%2Fdht049&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaddam+Hussein" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIsmaelIsmaelPerry2016" class="citation book cs1">Ismael, Tareq Y.; Ismael, Jacqueline S.; Perry, Glenn E. (2016). Government and Politics of the Contemporary Middle East: Continuity and Change (2nd ed.). <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. p. 240. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-66282-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-66282-2"><bdi>978-1-317-66282-2</bdi></a>. <q>Ba'thist forces and army officers overthrew Qasim on February 8, 1963, in collaboration with the CIA.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Government+and+Politics+of+the+Contemporary+Middle+East%3A+Continuity+and+Change&rft.pages=240&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-317-66282-2&rft.aulast=Ismael&rft.aufirst=Tareq+Y.&rft.au=Ismael%2C+Jacqueline+S.&rft.au=Perry%2C+Glenn+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaddam+Hussein" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLittle2004" class="citation journal cs1">Little, Douglas (14 October 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.oup.com/dh/article-abstract/28/5/663/337167">"Mission Impossible: The CIA and the Cult of Covert Action in the Middle East"</a>. Diplomatic History. 28 (5): 663–701. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1467-7709.2004.00446.x">10.1111/j.1467-7709.2004.00446.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1467-7709">1467-7709</a>. <q>Such self-serving denials notwithstanding, the CIA actually appears to have had a great deal to do with the bloody Ba'athist coup that toppled Qassim in February 1963. Deeply troubled by Qassim's steady drift to the left, by his threats to invade Kuwait, and by his attempt to cancel Western oil concessions, U.S. intelligence made contact with anticommunist Ba'ath activists both inside and outside the Iraqi army during the early 1960s.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Diplomatic+History&rft.atitle=Mission+Impossible%3A+The+CIA+and+the+Cult+of+Covert+Action+in+the+Middle+East&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E663-%3C%2Fspan%3E701&rft.date=2004-10-14&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1467-7709.2004.00446.x&rft.issn=1467-7709&rft.aulast=Little&rft.aufirst=Douglas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Facademic.oup.com%2Fdh%2Farticle-abstract%2F28%2F5%2F663%2F337167&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaddam+Hussein" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOsgood2009" class="citation book cs1">Osgood, Kenneth (2009). "Eisenhower and regime change in Iraq: the United States and the Iraqi Revolution of 1958". America and Iraq: Policy-making, Intervention and Regional Politics. <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. pp. 26–27. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781134036721" title="Special:BookSources/9781134036721"><bdi>9781134036721</bdi></a>. <q>Working with Nasser, the Ba'ath Party, and other opposition elements, including some in the Iraqi army, the CIA by 1963 was well positioned to help assemble the coalition that overthrew Qasim in February of that year. It is not clear whether Qasim's assassination, as Said Aburish has written, was 'one of the most elaborate CIA operations in the history of the Middle East.' That judgment remains to be proven. But the trail linking the CIA is suggestive.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Eisenhower+and+regime+change+in+Iraq%3A+the+United+States+and+the+Iraqi+Revolution+of+1958&rft.btitle=America+and+Iraq%3A+Policy-making%2C+Intervention+and+Regional+Politics&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E26-%3C%2Fspan%3E27&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9781134036721&rft.aulast=Osgood&rft.aufirst=Kenneth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaddam+Hussein" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSluglett" class="citation web cs1">Sluglett, Peter. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dissentmagazine.org/wp-content/files_mf/1389811754d4Sluglett.pdf">"The Old Social Classes and the Revolutionary Movements of Iraq: A Study of Iraq's Old Landed and Commercial Classes and of its Communists, Ba'thists and Free Officers (Review)"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Democratiya" title="Democratiya">Democratiya</a>. p. 9. <q>Batatu infers on pp. 985–86 that the CIA was involved in the coup of 1963 (which brought the Ba'ath briefly to power): Even if the evidence here is somewhat circumstantial, there can be no question about the Ba'ath's fervent anti-communism.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Democratiya&rft.atitle=The+Old+Social+Classes+and+the+Revolutionary+Movements+of+Iraq%3A+A+Study+of+Iraq%27s+Old+Landed+and+Commercial+Classes+and+of+its+Communists%2C+Ba%27thists+and+Free+Officers+%28Review%29&rft.pages=9&rft.aulast=Sluglett&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.dissentmagazine.org%2Fwp-content%2Ffiles_mf%2F1389811754d4Sluglett.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaddam+Hussein" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWolfe-Hunnicutt2021" class="citation book cs1">Wolfe-Hunnicutt, Brandon (2021). The Paranoid Style in American Diplomacy: Oil and Arab Nationalism in Iraq. Stanford University Press. p. 119. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5036-1382-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5036-1382-9"><bdi>978-1-5036-1382-9</bdi></a>. <q>Weldon Matthews, Malik Mufti, Douglas Little, William Zeman, and Eric Jacobsen have all drawn on declassified American records to largely substantiate the plausibility of Batatu's account. Peter Hahn and Bryan Gibson (in separate works) argue that the available evidence does support the claim of CIA collusion with the Ba'th. However, each makes this argument in the course of a much broader study, and neither examines the question in any detail.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Paranoid+Style+in+American+Diplomacy%3A+Oil+and+Arab+Nationalism+in+Iraq&rft.pages=119&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-1-5036-1382-9&rft.aulast=Wolfe-Hunnicutt&rft.aufirst=Brandon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaddam+Hussein" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMitchel2002" class="citation book cs1">Mitchel, Timothy (2002). Rule of Experts: Egypt, Techno-Politics, Modernity. <a href="/wiki/University_of_California_Press" title="University of California Press">University of California Press</a>. p. 149. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780520928251" title="Special:BookSources/9780520928251"><bdi>9780520928251</bdi></a>. <q>Qasim was killed three years later in a coup welcomed and possibly aided by the CIA, which brought to power the Ba'ath, the party of Saddam Hussein.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rule+of+Experts%3A+Egypt%2C+Techno-Politics%2C+Modernity&rft.pages=149&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=9780520928251&rft.aulast=Mitchel&rft.aufirst=Timothy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaddam+Hussein" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeiner2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Tim_Weiner" title="Tim Weiner">Weiner, Tim</a> (2008). Legacy of Ashes: The History of the CIA. <a href="/wiki/Doubleday_(publisher)" title="Doubleday (publisher)">Doubleday</a>. p. 163. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780307455628" title="Special:BookSources/9780307455628"><bdi>9780307455628</bdi></a>. <q>The agency finally backed a successful coup in Iraq in the name of American influence.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Legacy+of+Ashes%3A+The+History+of+the+CIA&rft.pages=163&rft.pub=Doubleday&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9780307455628&rft.aulast=Weiner&rft.aufirst=Tim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaddam+Hussein" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> For sources that dispute assertions of U.S. involvement, see: <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGibson2015" class="citation book cs1">Gibson, Bryan R. (2015). Sold Out? US Foreign Policy, Iraq, the Kurds, and the Cold War. <a href="/wiki/Palgrave_Macmillan" title="Palgrave Macmillan">Palgrave Macmillan</a>. p. 58. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-137-48711-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-137-48711-7"><bdi>978-1-137-48711-7</bdi></a>. <q>Barring the release of new information, the balance of evidence suggests that while the United States was actively plotting the overthrow of the Qasim regime, it did not appear to be directly involved in the February 1963 coup.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sold+Out%3F+US+Foreign+Policy%2C+Iraq%2C+the+Kurds%2C+and+the+Cold+War&rft.pages=58&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-137-48711-7&rft.aulast=Gibson&rft.aufirst=Bryan+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaddam+Hussein" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHahn2011" class="citation book cs1">Hahn, Peter (2011). Missions Accomplished?: The United States and Iraq Since World War I. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. p. 48. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780195333381" title="Special:BookSources/9780195333381"><bdi>9780195333381</bdi></a>. <q>Declassified U.S. government documents offer no evidence to support these suggestions.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Missions+Accomplished%3F%3A+The+United+States+and+Iraq+Since+World+War+I&rft.pages=48&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9780195333381&rft.aulast=Hahn&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaddam+Hussein" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarrett2007" class="citation book cs1">Barrett, Roby C. (2007). The Greater Middle East and the Cold War: US Foreign Policy Under Eisenhower and Kennedy. <a href="/wiki/I.B._Tauris" title="I.B. Tauris">I.B. Tauris</a>. p. 451. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780857713087" title="Special:BookSources/9780857713087"><bdi>9780857713087</bdi></a>. <q>Washington wanted to see Qasim and his Communist supporters removed, but that is a far cry from Batatu's inference that the U.S. had somehow engineered the coup. The U.S. lacked the operational capability to organize and carry out the coup, but certainly after it had occurred the U.S. government preferred the Nasserists and Ba'athists in power, and provided encouragement and probably some peripheral assistance.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Greater+Middle+East+and+the+Cold+War%3A+US+Foreign+Policy+Under+Eisenhower+and+Kennedy&rft.pages=451&rft.pub=I.B.+Tauris&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9780857713087&rft.aulast=Barrett&rft.aufirst=Roby+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaddam+Hussein" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWest2017" class="citation book cs1">West, Nigel (2017). Encyclopedia of Political Assassinations. <a href="/wiki/Rowman_%26_Littlefield" title="Rowman & Littlefield">Rowman & Littlefield</a>. p. 205. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781538102398" title="Special:BookSources/9781538102398"><bdi>9781538102398</bdi></a>. <q>Although Qasim was regarded as an adversary by the West, having nationalized the Iraq Petroleum Company, which had joint Anglo-American ownership, no plans had been made to depose him, principally because of the absence of a plausible successor. Nevertheless, the CIA pursued other schemes to prevent Iraq from coming under Soviet influence, and one such target was an unidentified colonel, thought to have been Qasim's cousin, the notorious Fadhil Abbas al-Mahdawi who was appointed military prosecutor to try members of the previous Hashemite monarchy.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Political+Assassinations&rft.pages=205&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9781538102398&rft.aulast=West&rft.aufirst=Nigel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaddam+Hussein" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWolfe-Hunnicutt2021" class="citation book cs1">Wolfe-Hunnicutt, Brandon (2021). The Paranoid Style in American Diplomacy: Oil and Arab Nationalism in Iraq. Stanford University Press. p. 117. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5036-1382-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5036-1382-9"><bdi>978-1-5036-1382-9</bdi></a>. <q>What really happened in Iraq in February 1963 remains shrouded behind a veil of official secrecy. Many of the most relevant documents remain classified. Others were destroyed. And still others were never created in the first place.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Paranoid+Style+in+American+Diplomacy%3A+Oil+and+Arab+Nationalism+in+Iraq&rft.pages=117&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-1-5036-1382-9&rft.aulast=Wolfe-Hunnicutt&rft.aufirst=Brandon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaddam+Hussein" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMatthews2011" class="citation journal cs1">Matthews, Weldon C. (9 November 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/international-journal-of-middle-east-studies/article/abs/kennedy-administration-counterinsurgency-and-iraqs-first-bathist-regime/B4DA680E1CD37E8293DCEE8788C7C826">"The Kennedy Administration, Counterinsurgency, and Iraq's First Ba'thist Regime"</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Journal_of_Middle_East_Studies" title="International Journal of Middle East Studies">International Journal of Middle East Studies</a>. 43 (4): 635–653. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0020743811000882">10.1017/S0020743811000882</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1471-6380">1471-6380</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:159490612">159490612</a>. <q>Archival sources on the U.S. relationship with this regime are highly restricted. Many records of the Central Intelligence Agency's operations and the Department of Defense from this period remain classified, and some declassified records have not been transferred to the National Archives or cataloged.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Middle+East+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Kennedy+Administration%2C+Counterinsurgency%2C+and+Iraq%27s+First+Ba%27thist+Regime&rft.volume=43&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E635-%3C%2Fspan%3E653&rft.date=2011-11-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A159490612%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1471-6380&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0020743811000882&rft.aulast=Matthews&rft.aufirst=Weldon+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fjournals%2Finternational-journal-of-middle-east-studies%2Farticle%2Fabs%2Fkennedy-administration-counterinsurgency-and-iraqs-first-bathist-regime%2FB4DA680E1CD37E8293DCEE8788C7C826&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaddam+Hussein" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMatthews2011" class="citation journal cs1">Matthews, Weldon C. (9 November 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0020743811000882/type/journal_article">"The Kennedy Administration, Counterinsurgency, and Iraq's First Ba'thist Regime"</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Journal_of_Middle_East_Studies" title="International Journal of Middle East Studies">International Journal of Middle East Studies</a>. 43 (4): 635–653. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0020743811000882">10.1017/S0020743811000882</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0020-7438">0020-7438</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:159490612">159490612</a>. <q>[Kennedy] Administration officials viewed the Iraqi Ba'th Party in 1963 as an agent of counterinsurgency directed against Iraqi communists, and they cultivated supportive relationships with Ba'thist officials, police commanders, and members of the Ba'th Party militia. The American relationship with militia members and senior police commanders had begun even before the February coup, and Ba'thist police commanders involved in the coup had been trained in the United States.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Middle+East+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Kennedy+Administration%2C+Counterinsurgency%2C+and+Iraq%27s+First+Ba%27thist+Regime&rft.volume=43&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E635-%3C%2Fspan%3E653&rft.date=2011-11-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A159490612%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0020-7438&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0020743811000882&rft.aulast=Matthews&rft.aufirst=Weldon+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fproduct%2Fidentifier%2FS0020743811000882%2Ftype%2Fjournal_article&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaddam+Hussein" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWolfe-Hunnicutt2015" class="citation journal cs1">Wolfe-Hunnicutt, B. (1 January 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.oup.com/dh/article-lookup/doi/10.1093/dh/dht121">"Embracing Regime Change in Iraq: American Foreign Policy and the 1963 Coup d'etat in Baghdad"</a>. Diplomatic History. 39 (1): 98–125. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fdh%2Fdht121">10.1093/dh/dht121</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0145-2096">0145-2096</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Diplomatic+History&rft.atitle=Embracing+Regime+Change+in+Iraq%3A+American+Foreign+Policy+and+the+1963+Coup+d%27etat+in+Baghdad&rft.volume=39&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E98-%3C%2Fspan%3E125&rft.date=2015-01-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fdh%2Fdht121&rft.issn=0145-2096&rft.aulast=Wolfe-Hunnicutt&rft.aufirst=B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Facademic.oup.com%2Fdh%2Farticle-lookup%2Fdoi%2F10.1093%2Fdh%2Fdht121&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaddam+Hussein" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWolfe-Hunnicutt2021" class="citation book cs1">Wolfe-Hunnicutt, Brandon (2021). The Paranoid Style in American Diplomacy: Oil and Arab Nationalism in Iraq. Stanford University Press. p. 206. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5036-1382-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5036-1382-9"><bdi>978-1-5036-1382-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Paranoid+Style+in+American+Diplomacy%3A+Oil+and+Arab+Nationalism+in+Iraq&rft.pages=206&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-1-5036-1382-9&rft.aulast=Wolfe-Hunnicutt&rft.aufirst=Brandon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaddam+Hussein" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKarshRautsi2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Efraim_Karsh" title="Efraim Karsh">Karsh, Efraim</a>; Rautsi, Inari (2002). Saddam Hussein: A Political Biography. <a href="/wiki/Grove_Press" title="Grove Press">Grove Press</a>. pp. 25–26. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8021-3978-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8021-3978-8"><bdi>978-0-8021-3978-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Saddam+Hussein%3A+A+Political+Biography&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E25-%3C%2Fspan%3E26&rft.pub=Grove+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-8021-3978-8&rft.aulast=Karsh&rft.aufirst=Efraim&rft.au=Rautsi%2C+Inari&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaddam+Hussein" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTripp2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Charles_R._H._Tripp" title="Charles R. H. Tripp">Tripp, Charles</a> (2010). A History of Iraq. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. p. 183. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-87823-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-87823-4"><bdi>978-0-521-87823-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Iraq&rft.pages=183&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-521-87823-4&rft.aulast=Tripp&rft.aufirst=Charles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaddam+Hussein" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hanna_Batatu-58"><a href="#cite_ref-Hanna_Batatu_58-0">^</a> The Old Social Classes and the Revolutionary Movements of Iraq (Princeton 1978). </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKarshRautsi2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Efraim_Karsh" title="Efraim Karsh">Karsh, Efraim</a>; Rautsi, Inari (2002). Saddam Hussein: A Political Biography. <a href="/wiki/Grove_Press" title="Grove Press">Grove Press</a>. pp. 26–27. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8021-3978-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8021-3978-8"><bdi>978-0-8021-3978-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Saddam+Hussein%3A+A+Political+Biography&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E26-%3C%2Fspan%3E27&rft.pub=Grove+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-8021-3978-8&rft.aulast=Karsh&rft.aufirst=Efraim&rft.au=Rautsi%2C+Inari&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaddam+Hussein" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKarshRautsi2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Efraim_Karsh" title="Efraim Karsh">Karsh, Efraim</a>; Rautsi, Inari (2002). Saddam Hussein: A Political Biography. <a href="/wiki/Grove_Press" title="Grove Press">Grove Press</a>. p. 27. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8021-3978-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8021-3978-8"><bdi>978-0-8021-3978-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Saddam+Hussein%3A+A+Political+Biography&rft.pages=27&rft.pub=Grove+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-8021-3978-8&rft.aulast=Karsh&rft.aufirst=Efraim&rft.au=Rautsi%2C+Inari&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaddam+Hussein" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bashkin2009-61"><a href="#cite_ref-Bashkin2009_61-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBashkin2009" class="citation book cs1">Bashkin, Orit (2009). The other Iraq: pluralism and culture in Hashemite Iraq. 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University of California Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/republicoffearpo00maki/page/62">62</a>–65. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-92124-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-92124-5"><bdi>978-0-520-92124-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Republic+of+Fear%3A+The+Politics+of+Modern+Iraq%2C+Updated+Edition&rft.pages=62-65&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-520-92124-5&rft.aulast=Makiya&rft.aufirst=Kanan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frepublicoffearpo00maki&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaddam+Hussein" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Iraq:_A_Country_Study-94">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Iraq:_A_Country_Study_94-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Iraq:_A_Country_Study_94-1">b</a> <a href="/wiki/Helen_Chapin_Metz" title="Helen Chapin Metz">Helen Chapin Metz</a> (ed) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://memory.loc.gov/frd/cs/iqtoc.html">Iraq: A Country Study:</a> "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+iq0115)">Internal Security in the 1980s"</a>, <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress_Country_Studies" title="Library of Congress Country Studies">Library of Congress Country Studies</a>, 1988 </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://fpc.state.gov/documents/organization/58276.pdf">"U.S. Relations With Anti-Saddam Groups"</a> (PDF). 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Retrieved 31 May 2017. <q>Having devoted extensive time and effort to documenting [Saddam's] atrocities, we estimate that in the last twenty-five years of Ba'ath Party rule the Iraqi government murdered or 'disappeared' some quarter of a million Iraqis, if not more.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=War+in+Iraq%3A+Not+a+Humanitarian+Intervention&rft.pub=Human+Rights+Watch&rft.date=2004-01-25&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hrw.org%2Fnews%2F2004%2F01%2F25%2Fwar-iraq-not-humanitarian-intervention&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaddam+Hussein" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sassoon_2017-97">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sassoon_2017_97-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sassoon_2017_97-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sassoon_2017_97-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSassoon2017" class="citation journal cs1">Sassoon, Joseph (February 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/international-journal-of-middle-east-studies/article/aaron-m-faust-the-bathification-of-iraq-saddam-husseins-totalitarianism-austin-tex-university-of-texas-press-2015-pp-296-5500-cloth-isbn-9781477305577/3E2A3E4D523556848C0E24AC9318B019">"Aaron M. Faust, The Ba'thification of Iraq: Saddam Hussein's Totalitarianism [Book Review]"</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Journal_of_Middle_East_Studies" title="International Journal of Middle East Studies">International Journal of Middle East Studies</a>. 49 (1). <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>: 205–206. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0020743816001392">10.1017/S0020743816001392</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:164804585">164804585</a>. <q>First, Faust totally ignores the economy in his analysis. This oversight is remarkable given his attempt to trace how the regime became totalitarian, which, by definition, encompasses all facets of life. ... Second, the comparison with Stalin or Hitler is weak when one takes into consideration how many Iraqis were allowed to leave the country. Although citizens needed to undergo a convoluted and bureaucratic procedure to obtain the necessary papers to leave the country, the fact remains that more than one million Iraqis migrated from Iraq from the end of the Iran–Iraq War in 1988 until the US-led invasion in 2003. 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Oxford University Press. p. 97. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-005022-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-005022-1"><bdi>978-0-19-005022-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cold+War+in+the+Islamic+World%3A+Saudi+Arabia%2C+Iran+and+the+Struggle+for+Supremacy&rft.pages=97&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2019-02-01&rft.isbn=978-0-19-005022-1&rft.aulast=Hiro&rft.aufirst=Dilip&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhBqJDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaddam+Hussein" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Osirak-152"><a href="#cite_ref-Osirak_152-0">^</a> BBC, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/june/7/newsid_3014000/3014623.stm">1981: Israel bombs Baghdad nuclear reactor</a>, BBC On This Day 7 June 1981 referenced 6 January 2007 </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchmemannTimes1988" class="citation news cs1">Schmemann, Serge; Times, Special To the New York (2 July 1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1988/07/02/world/iraq-acknowledges-its-use-of-gas-but-says-iran-introduced-it-in-war.html">"Iraq Acknowledges Its Use of Gas But Says Iran Introduced It in War"</a>. The New York Times. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331">0362-4331</a>. Retrieved 16 February 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Iraq+Acknowledges+Its+Use+of+Gas+But+Says+Iran+Introduced+It+in+War&rft.date=1988-07-02&rft.issn=0362-4331&rft.aulast=Schmemann&rft.aufirst=Serge&rft.au=Times%2C+Special+To+the+New+York&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1988%2F07%2F02%2Fworld%2Firaq-acknowledges-its-use-of-gas-but-says-iran-introduced-it-in-war.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaddam+Hussein" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Isa-154"><a href="#cite_ref-Isa_154-0">^</a> Dr. Khalil Ibrahim Al Isa, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://fas.org/nuke/guide/iraq/cw/az120103.html">Iraqi Scientist Reports on German, Other Help for Iraq Chemical Weapons Program</a>, Al Zaman (London), 1 December 2003. </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDickey,_Christopher2002" class="citation news cs1">Dickey, Christopher, Thomas, Evan (22 September 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111213041515/http://www.thedailybeast.com/newsweek/2002/09/22/how-saddam-happened.html">"How Saddam Happened"</a>. Newsweek. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thedailybeast.com/newsweek/2002/09/22/how-saddam-happened.html">the original</a> on 13 December 2011. Retrieved 20 August 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Newsweek&rft.atitle=How+Saddam+Happened&rft.date=2002-09-22&rft.aulast=Dickey%2C+Christopher&rft.aufirst=Thomas%2C+Evan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thedailybeast.com%2Fnewsweek%2F2002%2F09%2F22%2Fhow-saddam-happened.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaddam+Hussein" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_news" title="Template:Cite news">cite news</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlight2012" class="citation book cs1">Blight, James G.; et al. (2012). Becoming Enemies: U.S.-Iran Relations and the Iran-Iraq War, 1979-1988. <a href="/wiki/Rowman_%26_Littlefield" title="Rowman & Littlefield">Rowman & Littlefield</a> Publishers. pp. 21, 97, 113–119. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4422-0830-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4422-0830-8"><bdi>978-1-4422-0830-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Becoming+Enemies%3A+U.S.-Iran+Relations+and+the+Iran-Iraq+War%2C+1979-1988&rft.pages=21%2C+97%2C+%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E113-%3C%2Fspan%3E119&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield+Publishers&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-4422-0830-8&rft.aulast=Blight&rft.aufirst=James+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaddam+Hussein" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTimes1987" class="citation news cs1">Times, Special to the New York (19 January 1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1987/01/19/world/iraq-ascribes-a-key-defeat-in-86-to-misinformation-from-the-us.html">"IRAQ ASCRIBES A KEY DEFEAT IN '86 TO MISINFORMATION FROM THE U.S."</a> The New York Times. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331">0362-4331</a>. Retrieved 17 February 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=IRAQ+ASCRIBES+A+KEY+DEFEAT+IN+%2786+TO+MISINFORMATION+FROM+THE+U.S.&rft.date=1987-01-19&rft.issn=0362-4331&rft.aulast=Times&rft.aufirst=Special+to+the+New+York&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1987%2F01%2F19%2Fworld%2Firaq-ascribes-a-key-defeat-in-86-to-misinformation-from-the-us.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaddam+Hussein" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1990/08/13/world/confrontation-gulf-us-aid-helped-hussein-s-climb-now-critics-say-bill-due.html">Confrontation in the Gulf; U.S. Aid Helped Hussein's Climb; Now, Critics Say, the Bill Is Due</a> The New York Times, 13 August 1990. </li> <li id="cite_note-Borer-159"><a href="#cite_ref-Borer_159-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBorer2003" class="citation web cs1">Borer, Douglas A. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061011195656/http://www.army.mil/professionalwriting/volumes/volume1/july_2003/7_03_2v2.html">"Inverse Engagement: Lessons from U.S.-Iraq Relations, 1982–1990"</a>. U.S. Army Professional Writing Collection. U.S. Army. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.army.mil/professionalWriting/volumes/volume1/july_2003/7_03_2v2.html">the original</a> on 11 October 2006. Retrieved 12 October 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=U.S.+Army+Professional+Writing+Collection&rft.atitle=Inverse+Engagement%3A+Lessons+from+U.S.-Iraq+Relations%2C+1982%E2%80%931990&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Borer&rft.aufirst=Douglas+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.army.mil%2FprofessionalWriting%2Fvolumes%2Fvolume1%2Fjuly_2003%2F7_03_2v2.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaddam+Hussein" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://armstrade.sipri.org/armstrade/page/values.php">SIPRI Database</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151125105813/http://armstrade.sipri.org/armstrade/page/values.php">Archived</a> 25 November 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Indicates that of $29,079 million of arms exported to Iraq from 1980 to 1988 the Soviet Union accounted for $16,808 million, France $4,591 million, and China $5,004 million (Info must be entered) </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB210/">The Iran-Contra Affair 20 Years On</a>. The National Security Archive (George Washington University), 24 November 2006 </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Iran-Iraq-War">"Iran-Iraq War"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>. Retrieved 27 January 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Iran-Iraq+War&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fevent%2FIran-Iraq-War&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaddam+Hussein" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.hrw.org/en/reports/2006/08/14/genocide-iraq-anfal-campaign-against-kurds">[1]</a> The Anfal Campaign Against the Kurds. A Middle East Watch Report: Human Rights Watch 1993. </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hrw.org/reports/1993/iraqanfal/">"Iraqi Anfal, Human Rights Watch, 1993"</a>. Human Rights Watch. Retrieved 20 September 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Iraqi+Anfal%2C+Human+Rights+Watch%2C+1993&rft.pub=Human+Rights+Watch&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhrw.org%2Freports%2F1993%2Firaqanfal%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaddam+Hussein" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081202235943/http://www.jafi.org.il/education/actual/iraq/4.html">"Ethnic Cleansing and the Kurds"</a>. Jafi.org.il. 15 May 2005. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jafi.org.il/education/actual/iraq/4.html">the original</a> on 2 December 2008. Retrieved 20 September 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ethnic+Cleansing+and+the+Kurds&rft.pub=Jafi.org.il&rft.date=2005-05-15&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jafi.org.il%2Feducation%2Factual%2Firaq%2F4.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaddam+Hussein" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurns2003" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Fisher_Burns" title="John Fisher Burns">Burns, John F.</a> (26 January 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2003/01/26/weekinreview/the-world-how-many-people-has-hussein-killed.html">"How Many People Has Hussein Killed?"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>. Retrieved 20 February 2022. <q>The largest number of deaths attributable to Mr. Hussein's regime resulted from the war between Iraq and Iran between 1980 and 1988, which was launched by Mr. Hussein. Iraq says its own toll was 500,000, and Iran's reckoning ranges upward of 300,000. Then there are the casualties in the wake of Iraq's 1990 occupation of Kuwait. Iraq's official toll from American bombing in that war is 100,000—surely a gross exaggeration—but nobody contests that thousands of Iraqi soldiers and civilians were killed in the American campaign to oust Mr. Hussein's forces from Kuwait. In addition, 1,000 Kuwaitis died during the fighting and occupation in their country. Casualties from Iraq's gulag are harder to estimate. Accounts collected by Western human rights groups from Iraqi émigrés and defectors have suggested that the number of those who have 'disappeared' into the hands of the secret police, never to be heard from again, could be 200,000.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=How+Many+People+Has+Hussein+Killed%3F&rft.date=2003-01-26&rft.aulast=Burns&rft.aufirst=John+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2003%2F01%2F26%2Fweekinreview%2Fthe-world-how-many-people-has-hussein-killed.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaddam+Hussein" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Halabja-167"><a href="#cite_ref-Halabja_167-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ei/rls/18714.htm">Saddam's Chemical Weapons Campaign: Halabja, 16 March 1988</a> – Bureau of Public Affairs </li> <li id="cite_note-die-168"><a href="#cite_ref-die_168-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/march/16/newsid_4304000/4304853.stm">"BBC ON THIS DAY | 16 | 1988: Thousands die in Halabja gas attack"</a>. BBC News. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180210230111/http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/march/16/newsid_4304000/4304853.stm">Archived</a> from the original on 10 February 2018. Retrieved 28 August 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=BBC+ON+THIS+DAY+%26%23124%3B+16+%26%23124%3B+1988%3A+Thousands+die+in+Halabja+gas+attack&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2Fonthisday%2Fhi%2Fdates%2Fstories%2Fmarch%2F16%2Fnewsid_4304000%2F4304853.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaddam+Hussein" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://swap.stanford.edu/20100128200211/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/iraq/article6991512.ece">"Halabja, the massacre the West tried to ignore"</a>. The Times. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/iraq/article6991512.ece">the original</a> on 28 January 2010. Retrieved 28 August 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Times&rft.atitle=Halabja%2C+the+massacre+the+West+tried+to+ignore&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.timesonline.co.uk%2Ftol%2Fnews%2Fworld%2Firaq%2Farticle6991512.ece&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaddam+Hussein" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-mind-170"><a href="#cite_ref-mind_170-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHiltermann2003" class="citation web cs1">Hiltermann, Joost R. (17 January 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2003/01/17/opinion/17iht-edjoost_ed3_.html">"Halabja – America didn't seem to mind poison gas"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120724051247/http://www.nytimes.com/2003/01/17/opinion/17iht-edjoost_ed3_.html">Archived</a> from the original on 24 July 2012. Retrieved 28 August 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Halabja+%E2%80%93+America+didn%27t+seem+to+mind+poison+gas&rft.date=2003-01-17&rft.aulast=Hiltermann&rft.aufirst=Joost+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2003%2F01%2F17%2Fopinion%2F17iht-edjoost_ed3_.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaddam+Hussein" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fas.org/man/dod-101/ops/war/docs/3203/">"FMFRP 3-203 – Lessons Learned: Iran-Iraq War"</a>. Fas.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120504002439/http://www.fas.org/man/dod-101/ops/war/docs/3203/">Archived</a> from the original on 4 May 2012. Retrieved 28 August 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=FMFRP+3-203+%E2%80%93+Lessons+Learned%3A+Iran-Iraq+War&rft.pub=Fas.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fas.org%2Fman%2Fdod-101%2Fops%2Fwar%2Fdocs%2F3203%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaddam+Hussein" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHiltermann2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Joost_Hiltermann" title="Joost Hiltermann">Hiltermann, Joost R.</a> (2007). A Poisonous Affair: America, Iraq, and the Gassing of Halabja. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. p. 183. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-87686-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-87686-5"><bdi>978-0-521-87686-5</bdi></a>. <q>Today, few observers question the assertion that it was Iraq that gassed Halabja.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Poisonous+Affair%3A+America%2C+Iraq%2C+and+the+Gassing+of+Halabja&rft.pages=183&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-521-87686-5&rft.aulast=Hiltermann&rft.aufirst=Joost+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaddam+Hussein" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Humphreys,_105-173">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Humphreys,_105_173-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Humphreys,_105_173-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Humphreys,_105_173-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Humphreys,_105_173-3">d</a> Humphreys, 105 </li> <li id="cite_note-174"><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a> A free-access on-line archive relating to U.S.–Iraq relations in the 1980s is offered by The National Security Archive of the <a href="/wiki/George_Washington_University" title="George Washington University">George Washington University</a>. It can be read on line at <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB82/">[2]</a>. The Mount Holyoke International Relations Program also provides a free-access document briefing on U.S.–Iraq relations (1904–present); this can be accessed on line at <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/iraq.htm">[3]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190208105755/https://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/iraq.htm">Archived</a> 8 February 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGalbraith2006" class="citation news cs1">Galbraith, Peter W. (31 August 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.boston.com/news/globe/editorial_opinion/oped/articles/2006/08/31/the_true_iraq_appeasers/">"The true Iraq appeasers"</a>. The Boston Globe. Retrieved 16 July 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Boston+Globe&rft.atitle=The+true+Iraq+appeasers&rft.date=2006-08-31&rft.aulast=Galbraith&rft.aufirst=Peter+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.boston.com%2Fnews%2Fglobe%2Feditorial_opinion%2Foped%2Farticles%2F2006%2F08%2F31%2Fthe_true_iraq_appeasers%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaddam+Hussein" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-176"><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a> Alan Cowell, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1990/04/03/world/iraq-chief-boasting-of-poison-gas-warns-of-disaster-if-israelis-strike.html?">"Iraq Chief, Boasting of Poison Gas, Warns of Disaster if Israelis Strike"</a>, The New York Times, 3 April 1990 </li> <li id="cite_note-177"><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCowell1990" class="citation news cs1">Cowell, Alan (29 May 1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1990/05/29/world/iraqi-takes-harsh-line-at-meeting.html">"Iraqi Takes Harsh Line at Meeting"</a>. The New York Times. Retrieved 20 September 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Iraqi+Takes+Harsh+Line+at+Meeting&rft.date=1990-05-29&rft.aulast=Cowell&rft.aufirst=Alan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1990%2F05%2F29%2Fworld%2Firaqi-takes-harsh-line-at-meeting.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaddam+Hussein" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-178"><a href="#cite_ref-178">^</a> Youssef M. Ibrahim, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1990/07/18/business/iraq-threatens-emirates-and-kuwait-on-oil-glut.html?">"Iraq Threatens Emirates And Kuwait on Oil Glut"</a>, The New York Times, 18 July 1990 </li> <li id="cite_note-179"><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a> Michael R. Gordon, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1990/07/25/world/us-deploys-air-and-sea-forces-after-iraq-threatens-2-neighbors.html?">"U.S. Deploys Air and Sea Forces After Iraq Threatens 2 Neighbors"</a>, The New York Times, 25 July 1990 </li> <li id="cite_note-nytimes1990-180">^ <a href="#cite_ref-nytimes1990_180-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-nytimes1990_180-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-nytimes1990_180-2">c</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1990/09/23/world/confrontation-in-the-gulf-excerpts-from-iraqi-document-on-meeting-with-us-envoy.html?">"CONFRONTATION IN THE GULF; Excerpts From Iraqi Document on Meeting With U.S. Envoy"</a>, The New York Times, 23 September 1990 </li> <li id="cite_note-181"><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a> Greg Palast: Armed Madhouse Chapter 2, "Plume". </li> <li id="cite_note-182"><a href="#cite_ref-182">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-unfit"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130923224607/http://www.heritage.org/dataconvert/pdf/em0280.pdf">""Bush to Gorbachev: Choose Between Saddam and the West," by Jay P. Kosminsky and Michael Johns, Heritage Foundation Executive Memorandum #280, 30 August 1990"</a> (PDF). Archived from the original on 23 September 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%22Bush+to+Gorbachev%3A+Choose+Between+Saddam+and+the+West%2C%22+by+Jay+P.+Kosminsky+and+Michael+Johns%2C+Heritage+Foundation+Executive+Memorandum+%23280%2C+30+August+1990.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.heritage.org%2Fdataconvert%2Fpdf%2Fem0280.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaddam+Hussein" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a> R. Stephen Humphreys, Between Memory and Desire: The Middle East in a Troubled Age, University of California Press, 1999, p. 105. </li> <li id="cite_note-cbsnews.com-184">^ <a href="#cite_ref-cbsnews.com_184-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-cbsnews.com_184-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-cbsnews.com_184-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-cbsnews.com_184-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cbsnews.com/news/interrogator-shares-saddams-confessions/4/">"Interrogator Shares Saddam's Confessions"</a>. cbsnews.com. 24 January 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=cbsnews.com&rft.atitle=Interrogator+Shares+Saddam%27s+Confessions&rft.date=2008-01-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cbsnews.com%2Fnews%2Finterrogator-shares-saddams-confessions%2F4%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaddam+Hussein" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-185"><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHayes2003" class="citation web cs1">Hayes, Stephen F. (5 May 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20030429005735/http://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Public/Articles/000/000/002/605fgcob.asp">"Saddam's Cash"</a>. The Weekly Standard. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Public/Articles/000/000/002/605fgcob.asp">the original</a> on 29 April 2003.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Weekly+Standard&rft.atitle=Saddam%27s+Cash&rft.date=2003-05-05&rft.aulast=Hayes&rft.aufirst=Stephen+F.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.weeklystandard.com%2FContent%2FPublic%2FArticles%2F000%2F000%2F002%2F605fgcob.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaddam+Hussein" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-186"><a href="#cite_ref-186">^</a> Walter LaFeber, Russia, America, and the Cold War, McGraw-Hill, 2002, p. 358. </li> <li id="cite_note-187"><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a> For a statement asserting the overriding importance of oil to U.S. national security and the U.S. economy, see, e.g., the declassified document, "Responding to Iraqi Aggression in the Gulf", The White House, National Security Directive (NSD 54), top secret, 15 January 1991. This document can be read on line in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB21/">George Washington University's National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 21</a> at <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB21/06-01.htm">[4]</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-188"><a href="#cite_ref-188">^</a> See Margaret Thatcher, The Downing Street Years (1979–1990), 817. </li> <li id="cite_note-Pierson_2011-189">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pierson_2011_189-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pierson_2011_189-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pierson_2011_189-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pierson_2011_189-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPierson" class="citation web cs1">Pierson, David S. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110811182711/http://milmag.com/2011/02/battle-at-rumaila/">"Battle at Rumalia"</a>. Military Magazine. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://milmag.com/2011/02/battle-at-rumaila/">the original</a> on 11 August 2011. Retrieved 9 January 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Military+Magazine&rft.atitle=Battle+at+Rumalia&rft.aulast=Pierson&rft.aufirst=David+S.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmilmag.com%2F2011%2F02%2Fbattle-at-rumaila%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaddam+Hussein" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bush_2017-190">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bush_2017_190-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bush_2017_190-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bush_2017_190-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bush_2017_190-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bush_2017_190-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bush_2017_190-5">f</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBush" class="citation web cs1">Bush, George. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170129133253/http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=19253">"Address Before a Joint Session of the Congress on the State of the Union"</a>. The American Presidency Project. University of California. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=19253">the original</a> on 29 January 2017. Retrieved 9 January 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+American+Presidency+Project&rft.atitle=Address+Before+a+Joint+Session+of+the+Congress+on+the+State+of+the+Union&rft.aulast=Bush&rft.aufirst=George&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.presidency.ucsb.edu%2Fws%2F%3Fpid%3D19253&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaddam+Hussein" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:8-191">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:8_191-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_191-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_191-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_191-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoore2006" class="citation news cs1">Moore, Solomon (5 June 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2006-jun-05-fg-graves5-story.html">"2 Mass Graves in Iraq Unearthed"</a>. Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 23 September 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Los+Angeles+Times&rft.atitle=2+Mass+Graves+in+Iraq+Unearthed&rft.date=2006-06-05&rft.aulast=Moore&rft.aufirst=Solomon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.latimes.com%2Farchives%2Fla-xpm-2006-jun-05-fg-graves5-story.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaddam+Hussein" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-BBC-2000-192"><a href="#cite_ref-BBC-2000_192-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/monitoring/media_reports/941490.stm">"Iraqi leader's Koran 'written in blood'"</a>. 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Retrieved 14 December 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Judging+Dujail&rft.pub=Human+Rights+Watch&rft.date=2006-11-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hrw.org%2Fen%2Fnode%2F11112%2Fsection%2F1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaddam+Hussein" class="Z3988"> 393 members of the pro Iranian Dawa Party (a banned organisation) were arrested as suspects of which 148, including ten children, confessed to taking part in the plot. It is believed more than 40 suspects died during interrogation or while in detention. Those arrested who were found not guilty were either exiled if relatives of the convicted or released and returned to Dujail. Only 96 of the 148 condemned were actually executed, two of the condemned were accidentally released while a third was mistakenly transferred to another prison and survived. 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Retrieved 16 March 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Indian+Express&rft.atitle=Forty+Years+Ago%2C+October+5%2C+1980%3A+PM%27s+Letters&rft.date=2020-10-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Findianexpress.com%2Farticle%2Fopinion%2Feditorials%2Fforty-years-ago-october-5-1980-pms-letters-6702884%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaddam+Hussein" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-339"><a href="#cite_ref-339">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDiamond2016" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Diamond" title="Jeremy Diamond">Diamond, Jeremy</a> (6 July 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://amp.cnn.com/cnn/2016/07/05/politics/donald-trump-saddam-hussein-iraq-terrorism/index.html">"Trump praises Saddam Hussein's efficient killing of 'terrorists,' calls today's Iraq 'Harvard for terrorism'"</a>. <a href="/wiki/CNN" title="CNN">CNN</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=CNN&rft.atitle=Trump+praises+Saddam+Hussein%27s+efficient+killing+of+%27terrorists%2C%27+calls+today%27s+Iraq+%27Harvard+for+terrorism%27&rft.date=2016-07-06&rft.aulast=Diamond&rft.aufirst=Jeremy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Famp.cnn.com%2Fcnn%2F2016%2F07%2F05%2Fpolitics%2Fdonald-trump-saddam-hussein-iraq-terrorism%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaddam+Hussein" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-340"><a href="#cite_ref-340">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20230408-iraq-s-saddam-still-revered-in-jordan-20-years-later">"Iraq's Saddam still revered in Jordan 20 years later"</a>. 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Retrieved 5 March 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.newarab.com%2F&rft.atitle=Kurdish+model+arrested+for+allegedly+praising+Saddam+Hussein&rft.date=2022-03-23&rft.aulast=Iraq&rft.aufirst=Dana+Taib+Menmy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newarab.com%2Fnews%2Fkurdish-model-arrested-allegedly-praising-saddam-hussein&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaddam+Hussein" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-342"><a href="#cite_ref-342">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCampbell2023" class="citation news cs1">Campbell, Matthew (16 September 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/libya-flood-gaddafi-civil-war-khalifa-haftar-q8500qkgx">"Gaddafi's 'spiritual son': the general blamed over flood catastrophe"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Times" title="The Times">The Times</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0140-0460">0140-0460</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Times&rft.atitle=Gaddafi%27s+%27spiritual+son%27%3A+the+general+blamed+over+flood+catastrophe&rft.date=2023-09-16&rft.issn=0140-0460&rft.aulast=Campbell&rft.aufirst=Matthew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thetimes.co.uk%2Farticle%2Flibya-flood-gaddafi-civil-war-khalifa-haftar-q8500qkgx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaddam+Hussein" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-343"><a href="#cite_ref-343">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2023/09/21/khalifa-haftar-will-use-libyas-floods-to-deepen-his-control">"Khalifa Haftar will use Libya's floods to deepen his control"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Economist" title="The Economist">The Economist</a>. 21 September 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Economist&rft.atitle=Khalifa+Haftar+will+use+Libya%27s+floods+to+deepen+his+control&rft.date=2023-09-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.economist.com%2Fmiddle-east-and-africa%2F2023%2F09%2F21%2Fkhalifa-haftar-will-use-libyas-floods-to-deepen-his-control&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaddam+Hussein" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-344"><a href="#cite_ref-344">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUddin2023" class="citation news cs1">Uddin, Rayhan (19 September 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/libya-floods-elseddik-saddam-haftar-brothers-vying-power">"Libya floods: Elseddik and Saddam Haftar, the brothers vying for power after disaster"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Middle_East_Eye" title="Middle East Eye">Middle East Eye</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Middle+East+Eye&rft.atitle=Libya+floods%3A+Elseddik+and+Saddam+Haftar%2C+the+brothers+vying+for+power+after+disaster&rft.date=2023-09-19&rft.aulast=Uddin&rft.aufirst=Rayhan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.middleeasteye.net%2Fnews%2Flibya-floods-elseddik-saddam-haftar-brothers-vying-power&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaddam+Hussein" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-345"><a href="#cite_ref-345">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoxborough2024" class="citation web cs1">Roxborough, Scott (15 February 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/movies/movie-news/barry-keoghan-johan-renck-film-saddam-hussein-final-days-1235825751/">"Barry Keoghan to Star in Film From 'Chernobyl' Director Johan Renck About Saddam Hussein's Final Days (Exclusive)"</a>. The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved 16 March 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Hollywood+Reporter&rft.atitle=Barry+Keoghan+to+Star+in+Film+From+%27Chernobyl%27+Director+Johan+Renck+About+Saddam+Hussein%27s+Final+Days+%28Exclusive%29&rft.date=2024-02-15&rft.aulast=Roxborough&rft.aufirst=Scott&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hollywoodreporter.com%2Fmovies%2Fmovie-news%2Fbarry-keoghan-johan-renck-film-saddam-hussein-final-days-1235825751%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaddam+Hussein" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAl-Ani2008" class="citation book cs1">Al-Ani, Abdul-Haq (2008). The Trial of Saddam Hussein. Clarity Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-932863-58-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-932863-58-4"><bdi>978-0-932863-58-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Trial+of+Saddam+Hussein&rft.pub=Clarity+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-932863-58-4&rft.aulast=Al-Ani&rft.aufirst=Abdul-Haq&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaddam+Hussein" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAshtonGibson2013" class="citation book cs1">Ashton, Nigel; Gibson, Bryan, eds. (2013). The Iran-Iraq War: New International Perspectives. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9780203074787">10.4324/9780203074787</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-68524-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-68524-5"><bdi>978-0-415-68524-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Iran-Iraq+War%3A+New+International+Perspectives&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4324%2F9780203074787&rft.isbn=978-0-415-68524-5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaddam+Hussein" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBalaghi2008" class="citation book cs1">Balaghi, Shiva (2008). Saddam Hussein: A Biography. Greenwich Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-33077-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-33077-3"><bdi>978-0-313-33077-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Saddam+Hussein%3A+A+Biography&rft.pub=Greenwich+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-313-33077-3&rft.aulast=Balaghi&rft.aufirst=Shiva&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaddam+Hussein" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaram2014" class="citation book cs1">Baram, Amatzia (2014). Saddam Husayn and Islam, 1968–2003: Ba'thi Iraq from Secularism to Faith. Woodrow Wilson Center Press/Johns Hopkins University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4214-1582-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4214-1582-6"><bdi>978-1-4214-1582-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Saddam+Husayn+and+Islam%2C+1968%E2%80%932003%3A+Ba%27thi+Iraq+from+Secularism+to+Faith&rft.pub=Woodrow+Wilson+Center+Press%2FJohns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-4214-1582-6&rft.aulast=Baram&rft.aufirst=Amatzia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaddam+Hussein" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBozo2016" class="citation book cs1">Bozo, Frédéric (2016). A History of the Iraq Crisis: France, the United States, and Iraq 1991–2003. Translated by Emanuel, Susan. Woodrow Wilson Center Press/Columbia University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-70444-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-231-70444-1"><bdi>978-0-231-70444-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Iraq+Crisis%3A+France%2C+the+United+States%2C+and+Iraq+1991%E2%80%932003&rft.pub=Woodrow+Wilson+Center+Press%2FColumbia+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-231-70444-1&rft.aulast=Bozo&rft.aufirst=Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaddam+Hussein" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBraut-Hegghammer2020" class="citation journal cs1">Braut-Hegghammer, Målfrid (Summer 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://urn.nb.no/URN:NBN:no-88006">"Cheater's Dilemma: Iraq, Weapons of Mass Destruction, and the Path to War"</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Security_(journal)" title="International Security (journal)">International Security</a>. 45 (1): 51–89. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1162%2Fisec_a_00382">10.1162/isec_a_00382</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Security&rft.atitle=Cheater%27s+Dilemma%3A+Iraq%2C+Weapons+of+Mass+Destruction%2C+and+the+Path+to+War&rft.ssn=summer&rft.volume=45&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E51-%3C%2Fspan%3E89&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1162%2Fisec_a_00382&rft.aulast=Braut-Hegghammer&rft.aufirst=M%C3%A5lfrid&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Furn.nb.no%2FURN%3ANBN%3Ano-88006&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaddam+Hussein" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFaust2015" class="citation book cs1">Faust, Aaron M. (2015). The Ba'thification of Iraq: Saddam Hussein's Totalitarianism. University of Texas Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4773-0557-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4773-0557-7"><bdi>978-1-4773-0557-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ba%27thification+of+Iraq%3A+Saddam+Hussein%27s+Totalitarianism&rft.pub=University+of+Texas+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-4773-0557-7&rft.aulast=Faust&rft.aufirst=Aaron+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaddam+Hussein" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGibson2015" class="citation book cs1">Gibson, Bryan R. (2015). Sold Out? US Foreign Policy, Iraq, the Kurds, and the Cold War. Palgrave Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-137-48711-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-137-48711-7"><bdi>978-1-137-48711-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sold+Out%3F+US+Foreign+Policy%2C+Iraq%2C+the+Kurds%2C+and+the+Cold+War&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-137-48711-7&rft.aulast=Gibson&rft.aufirst=Bryan+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaddam+Hussein" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKarshRautsi2002" class="citation book cs1">Karsh, Efraim; Rautsi, Inari (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/saddamhusseinpol0000kars">Saddam Hussein: A Political Biography</a>. Grove Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8021-3978-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8021-3978-8"><bdi>978-0-8021-3978-8</bdi></a> – via the Internet Archive.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Saddam+Hussein%3A+A+Political+Biography&rft.pub=Grove+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-8021-3978-8&rft.aulast=Karsh&rft.aufirst=Efraim&rft.au=Rautsi%2C+Inari&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsaddamhusseinpol0000kars&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaddam+Hussein" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacKey2003" class="citation book cs1">MacKey, Sandra (2003). The Reckoning: Iraq and the Legacy of Saddam Hussein. W. W. Norton & Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-32428-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-32428-0"><bdi>978-0-393-32428-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Reckoning%3A+Iraq+and+the+Legacy+of+Saddam+Hussein&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton+%26+Company&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-393-32428-0&rft.aulast=MacKey&rft.aufirst=Sandra&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaddam+Hussein" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMakiya1998" class="citation book cs1">Makiya, Kanan (1998). Republic of Fear: The Politics of Modern Iraq (Updated ed.). University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-21439-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-21439-2"><bdi>978-0-520-21439-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Republic+of+Fear%3A+The+Politics+of+Modern+Iraq&rft.edition=Updated&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-520-21439-2&rft.aulast=Makiya&rft.aufirst=Kanan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaddam+Hussein" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMurrayWoods2014" class="citation book cs1">Murray, Williamson; Woods, Kevin M. (2014). The Iran–Iraq War: A Military and Strategic History. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-06229-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-06229-0"><bdi>978-1-107-06229-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Iran%E2%80%93Iraq+War%3A+A+Military+and+Strategic+History&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-107-06229-0&rft.aulast=Murray&rft.aufirst=Williamson&rft.au=Woods%2C+Kevin+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaddam+Hussein" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNewtonScharf2008" class="citation book cs1">Newton, Michael A.; Scharf, Michael P. (2008). Enemy of the State: The Trial and Execution of Saddam Hussein. St. Martin's Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-312-38556-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-312-38556-9"><bdi>978-0-312-38556-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Enemy+of+the+State%3A+The+Trial+and+Execution+of+Saddam+Hussein&rft.pub=St.+Martin%27s+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-312-38556-9&rft.aulast=Newton&rft.aufirst=Michael+A.&rft.au=Scharf%2C+Michael+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaddam+Hussein" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSassoon2011" class="citation book cs1">Sassoon, Joseph (2011). Saddam Hussein's Ba'th Party: Inside an Authoritarian Regime. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-14915-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-14915-0"><bdi>978-0-521-14915-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Saddam+Hussein%27s+Ba%27th+Party%3A+Inside+an+Authoritarian+Regime&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-521-14915-0&rft.aulast=Sassoon&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASaddam+Hussein" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1250146164">.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow{padding:0.75em 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow>b{display:block}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul{border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.75em 0;width:217px;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul>li{min-height:31px}.mw-parser-output .sister-logo{display:inline-block;width:31px;line-height:31px;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-link{display:inline-block;margin-left:4px;width:182px;vertical-align:middle}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div role="navigation" aria-labelledby="sister-projects" class="side-box metadata side-box-right sister-box sistersitebox plainlinks"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> Saddam Hussein at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects">sister projects</a></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:_Saddam_Hussein" class="extiw" title="c:Category: Saddam Hussein">Media</a> from Commons</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/27px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/41px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/54px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="759" data-file-height="415" /><a href="https://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Category:Saddam_Hussein" class="extiw" title="n:Category:Saddam Hussein">News</a> from Wikinews</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/23px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/35px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/46px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" class="extiw" title="q:Saddam Hussein">Quotations</a> from Wikiquote</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/26px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="26" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/39px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/51px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Author:Saddam_Hussein" class="extiw" title="s:Author:Saddam Hussein">Texts</a> from Wikisource</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/27px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/41px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/54px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1050" data-file-height="590" /><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1316" class="extiw" title="d:Q1316">Data</a> from Wikidata</li></ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20000930170810/http://www.uruklink.net/iraq/">Government of Iraq</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (archived 30 September 2000) (2000–2003)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/1100529.stm">Saddam Hussein Profile</a> by <a href="/wiki/BBC_News" title="BBC News">BBC News</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/special/iraq/index.htm">The Saddam Hussein Sourcebook</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080513202524/http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/special/iraq/index.htm">Archived</a> 13 May 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Security_Archive" title="National Security Archive">National Security Archive at The George Washington University</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552703">Saddam Hussein and the Iran–Iraq War</a> from the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552494">Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://vault.fbi.gov/Saddam%20Hussein">Federal Bureau of Investigation Records: The Vault – Saddam Hussein</a> (226 pages)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.c-span.org/person/?15928">Appearances</a> on <a href="/wiki/C-SPAN" title="C-SPAN">C-SPAN</a></li></ul> <table class="wikitable succession-box noprint" style="margin:0.5em auto; font-size:small;clear:both;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="3" style="border-top: 5px solid #ccccff;">Political offices </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="2">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Hassan_al-Bakr" title="Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr">Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"> <a href="/wiki/President_of_Iraq" title="President of Iraq">President of Iraq</a> 1979–2003 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Jay_Garner" title="Jay Garner">Jay Garner</a> as <a href="/wiki/Coalition_Provisional_Authority" title="Coalition Provisional Authority">Director of the Office for Reconstruction and Humanitarian Assistance of Iraq</a></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"> <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Iraq" title="Prime Minister of Iraq">Prime Minister of Iraq</a> 1979–1991 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Sa%27dun_Hammadi" title="Sa'dun Hammadi">Sa'dun Hammadi</a></div> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Husayn_Khudayir_as-Samarrai" title="Ahmad Husayn Khudayir as-Samarrai">Ahmad Husayn Khudayir as-Samarrai</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"> <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Iraq" title="Prime Minister of Iraq">Prime Minister of Iraq</a> 1994–2003 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Bahr_al-Ulloum" class="mw-redirect" title="Mohammad Bahr al-Ulloum">Mohammad Bahr al-Ulloum</a></div>as Acting President of the <a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Governing_Council" title="Iraqi Governing Council">Governing Council of Iraq</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3" style="border-top: 5px solid #FFBF00;">Party political offices </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Hassan_al-Bakr" title="Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr">Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"> Leader of the <a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party_(Iraqi-led_faction)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ba'ath Party (Iraqi-led faction)">Ba'ath Party</a> 1979–2006 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Izzat_Ibrahim_ad-Douri" class="mw-redirect" title="Izzat Ibrahim ad-Douri">Izzat Ibrahim ad-Douri</a></div> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output 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class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="History583" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iraq" title="History of Iraq">History</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iraq" title="History of Iraq">Chronology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ubaid_period" title="Ubaid period">Ubaid period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hassuna_culture" title="Hassuna culture">Hassuna culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halaf_culture" title="Halaf culture">Halaf culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halaf-Ubaid_Transitional_period" title="Halaf-Ubaid Transitional period">Halaf-Ubaid Transitional period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samarra_culture" title="Samarra culture">Samarra culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uruk_period" title="Uruk period">Uruk period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jemdet_Nasr_period" title="Jemdet Nasr period">Jemdet Nasr period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer">Sumer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subartu" title="Subartu">Subartu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gutian_rule_in_Mesopotamia" title="Gutian rule in Mesopotamia">Gutian dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="Third Dynasty of Ur">Neo-Sumerian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isin-Larsa_period" title="Isin-Larsa period">Isin-Larsa period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Babylonian_Empire" title="Old Babylonian Empire">First Babylonian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Assyrian_Period" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Assyrian Period">Old Assyrian Period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Assyrian_Empire" title="Middle Assyrian Empire">Middle Assyrian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kassites" title="Kassites">Kassite dynasty of the Babylonian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simurrum" title="Simurrum">Simurrum culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_captivity" title="Babylonian captivity">Babylonian captivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Babylon" title="Fall of Babylon">Fall of Babylon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Assyria" title="Achaemenid Assyria">Achaemenid Assyria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Babylonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian Babylonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asoristan" title="Asoristan">Sassanid Asorestan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">638–1958</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Persia" title="Muslim conquest of Persia">Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buyid_dynasty" title="Buyid dynasty">Buyid dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qara_Qoyunlu" title="Qara Qoyunlu">Qara Qoyunlu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aq_Qoyunlu" title="Aq Qoyunlu">Aq Qoyunlu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safavid_Iran" title="Safavid Iran">Safavids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Iraq" title="Ottoman Iraq">Ottoman Iraq</a> (incl. <a href="/wiki/Mamluk_dynasty_(Iraq)" title="Mamluk dynasty (Iraq)">Mamluk dynasty</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandate_for_Mesopotamia" title="Mandate for Mesopotamia">Mandate for Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandatory_Iraq" title="Mandatory Iraq">Mandatory Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Iraq" title="Kingdom of Iraq">Kingdom of Iraq</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Iraq" title="List of kings of Iraq">Kings</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Federation" title="Arab Federation">Arab Federation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Republic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Republic_(1958%E2%80%931968)" class="mw-redirect" title="Iraqi Republic (1958–1968)">1958–1968</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ba%27athist_Iraq" title="Ba'athist Iraq">1968–2003</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Iraq_(2003%E2%80%932011)" title="Occupation of Iraq (2003–2011)">2003–2011</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">2011–present</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Iraq_Region" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Iraq Region">Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Iraq Region</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party_(Iraqi-dominated_faction)" title="Ba'ath Party (Iraqi-dominated faction)">National Command</a>)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Saddam Hussein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi%E2%80%93Kurdish_conflict" title="Iraqi–Kurdish conflict">Iraqi–Kurdish conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1974%E2%80%9375_Shatt_al-Arab_conflict" title="1974–75 Shatt al-Arab conflict">1974–1975 Shatt al-Arab clashes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1977_Shia_uprising_in_Iraq" title="1977 Shia uprising in Iraq">1977 Shia uprising in Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1979%E2%80%931980_Shia_uprising_in_Iraq" title="1979–1980 Shia uprising in Iraq">1979–1980 Shia uprising in Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Iraq and weapons of mass destruction">Weapons of mass destruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_War" title="Iran–Iraq War">Iran–Iraq War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Opera" title="Operation Opera">Operation Opera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Kuwait" class="mw-redirect" title="Invasion of Kuwait">Invasion of Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Gulf War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1991_Iraqi_uprisings" title="1991 Iraqi uprisings">1991 uprisings</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanctions_against_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanctions against Iraq">Sanctions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq_War" title="Iraq War">Iraq War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2003_invasion_of_Iraq" title="2003 invasion of Iraq">U.S. invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_insurgency_(2003%E2%80%932011)" title="Iraqi insurgency (2003–2011)">Iraqi insurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Withdrawal_of_United_States_troops_from_Iraq_(2007%E2%80%932011)" title="Withdrawal of United States troops from Iraq (2007–2011)">U.S. troop withdrawal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_insurgency_(2011%E2%80%932013)" title="Iraqi insurgency (2011–2013)">Insurgency (2011–2013)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Iraq_(2013%E2%80%932017)" title="War in Iraq (2013–2017)">War (2014–2017)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Mosul" title="Fall of Mosul">Fall of Mosul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mosul_(2016%E2%80%932017)" title="Battle of Mosul (2016–2017)">Mosul liberation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_State_insurgency_in_Iraq_(2017%E2%80%93present)" title="Islamic State insurgency in Iraq (2017–present)">Insurgency</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2019%E2%80%932021_Iraqi_protests" title="2019–2021 Iraqi protests">2019–2021 protests</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021%E2%80%932022_Iraqi_political_crisis" title="2021–2022 Iraqi political crisis">2021–2022 Iraqi political crisis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Geography583" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Iraq" title="Geography of Iraq">Geography</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Faw_peninsula" title="Al-Faw peninsula">Faw peninsula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upper_Mesopotamia" title="Upper Mesopotamia">Upper Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_Mesopotamia" title="Lower Mesopotamia">Lower Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Borders_of_Iraq" title="Template:Borders of Iraq">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates river</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamrin_Mountains" title="Hamrin Mountains">Hamrin Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Kurdistan" title="Iraqi Kurdistan">Iraqi Kurdistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Lakes_of_Iraq" title="Category:Lakes of Iraq">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_Iraq" title="List of islands of Iraq">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_Marshes" title="Mesopotamian Marshes">Mesopotamian Marshes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_places_in_Iraq" title="List of places in Iraq">Places</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shatt_al-Arab" title="Shatt al-Arab">Shatt al-Arab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Desert" title="Syrian Desert">Syrian Desert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tigris" title="Tigris">Tigris river</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umm_Qasr" title="Umm Qasr">Umm Qasr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zagros_Mountains" title="Zagros Mountains">Zagros Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_of_Iraq" title="Wildlife of Iraq">Wildlife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinjar_Mountains" title="Sinjar Mountains">Sinjar Mountains</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Politics583" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Iraq" title="Politics of Iraq">Politics</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Governorates_of_Iraq" title="Governorates of Iraq">Administrative divisions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Iraq" title="Constitution of Iraq">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Representatives_of_Iraq" title="Council of Representatives of Iraq">Council of Representatives (legislative)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_Iraq" title="Democracy in Iraq">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Iraq" title="Elections in Iraq">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_aid_to_Iraq" title="Foreign aid to Iraq">Foreign aid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Iraq" title="Foreign relations of Iraq">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_government_of_Iraq" title="Federal government of Iraq">Government</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Ministers_(Iraq)" title="Council of Ministers (Iraq)">Council of Ministers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_Council_of_Iraq" title="Presidency Council of Iraq">Presidency Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_Iraq" title="President of Iraq">President</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_Iraq" title="List of presidents of Iraq">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Iraq" title="Prime Minister of Iraq">Prime Minister</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_prime_ministers_of_Iraq" title="List of prime ministers of Iraq">List</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Iraq" title="Human rights in Iraq">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_pre-Saddam_Iraq" title="Human rights in pre-Saddam Iraq">in pre-Saddam Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Saddam_Hussein%27s_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="Human rights in Saddam Hussein's Iraq">in Saddam Hussein's Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_post-invasion_Iraq" title="Human rights in post-invasion Iraq">in post-invasion Iraq</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Islamic_State-controlled_territory" title="Human rights in Islamic State-controlled territory">in ISIL-controlled territory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in Iraq">LGBT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_Iraq" title="Freedom of religion in Iraq">Freedom of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Iraq" title="Women in Iraq">Women</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Iraq" title="Law of Iraq">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Armed_Forces" title="Iraqi Armed Forces">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Police" title="Iraqi Police">Police</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_Iraq" title="List of political parties in Iraq">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Iraq" title="Judiciary of Iraq">Judiciary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wars_involving_Iraq" title="List of wars involving Iraq">Wars and conflicts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Economy583" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Iraq" title="Economy of Iraq">Economy</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_banks_in_Iraq" title="List of banks in Iraq">Banks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Bank_of_Iraq" title="Central Bank of Iraq">Central Bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_companies_of_Iraq" title="List of companies of Iraq">Companies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Iraq" title="Corruption in Iraq">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_dinar" title="Iraqi dinar">Dinar (currency)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infrastructure_of_Iraq" title="Infrastructure of Iraq">Infrastructure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investment_in_post-invasion_Iraq" title="Investment in post-invasion Iraq">Foreign Investment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_industry_in_Iraq" title="Petroleum industry in Iraq">Oil Industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_reserves_in_Iraq" title="Oil reserves in Iraq">Oil reserves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investment_in_post-invasion_Iraq" title="Investment in post-invasion Iraq">Reconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq_Stock_Exchange" title="Iraq Stock Exchange">Stock Exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Iraq" title="Telecommunications in Iraq">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Iraq" title="Transport in Iraq">Transportation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_airlines_of_Iraq" title="List of airlines of Iraq">Airlines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Republic_Railways" title="Iraqi Republic Railways">Railways</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Iraq" title="Tourism in Iraq">Tourism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Society583" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_Iraq" title="Category:Society of Iraq">Society</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Iraq" title="Demographics of Iraq">Demographics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iraqis" title="Iraqis">Iraqis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Iraq" title="Languages of Iraq">Languages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="Mesopotamian Arabic">Mesopotamian Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Aramaic_languages" title="Neo-Aramaic languages">Aramaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_language" title="Kurdish language">Kurdish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Turkmen#Language" title="Iraqi Turkmen">Iraqi Turkmen/Turkoman dialects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minorities_in_Iraq" title="Minorities in Iraq">Minorities</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Armenians" title="Iraqi Armenians">Armenians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_people" title="Assyrian people">Assyrians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circassians_in_Iraq" title="Circassians in Iraq">Circassians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurds_in_Iraq" title="Kurds in Iraq">Kurds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandaeans" title="Mandaeans">Mandaeans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsh_Arabs" title="Marsh Arabs">Marsh Arabs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ajam_of_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="Ajam of Iraq">Persians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solluba" title="Solluba">Solluba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Turkmen" title="Iraqi Turkmen">Iraqi Turkmen</a>/Turkoman</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Iraq" title="History of the Jews in Iraq">Jews</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Iraq" title="Religion in Iraq">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secularism_in_Iraq" title="Secularism in Iraq">Secularism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Iraq" title="Islam in Iraq">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Iraq" title="Christianity in Iraq">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandaeism" title="Mandaeism">Mandaeism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yazidis" title="Yazidis">Yazidis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irreligion_in_Iraq" title="Irreligion in Iraq">Irreligion</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_art" title="Iraqi art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_Iraq" title="Cinema of Iraq">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_cuisine" title="Iraqi cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Iraq" title="Culture of Iraq">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature of Iraq">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Iraq" title="Education in Iraq">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_in_Iraq" title="Health in Iraq">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media_in_Iraq" title="Mass media in Iraq">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_in_Iraq" title="Television in Iraq">Television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Iraq" title="Music of Iraq">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoking_in_Iraq" title="Smoking in Iraq">Smoking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_Iraq" title="Sport in Iraq">Sports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Squatting_in_Iraq" title="Squatting in Iraq">Squatting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_Iraq" title="Public holidays in Iraq">Public holidays</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akitu" title="Akitu">Mesopotamian spring festival (Akitu)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dehwa_Rabba" title="Dehwa Rabba">Mandaean New Year</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Iraq" title="Category:Iraq">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Iraq" title="Portal:Iraq">Portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Iraq" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Iraq">WikiProject</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Iraq" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Iraq">Commons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Saddam_Hussein213" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Saddam_Hussein" title="Template:Saddam Hussein"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Saddam_Hussein" title="Template talk:Saddam Hussein"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Saddam_Hussein" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Saddam Hussein"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Saddam_Hussein213" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Saddam Hussein</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Biography</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/17_July_Revolution" title="17 July Revolution">17 July Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1979_Ba%27ath_Party_Purge" title="1979 Ba'ath Party Purge">1979 Ba'ath Party Purge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_War" title="Iran–Iraq War">Iran–Iraq War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_support_for_Iraq_during_the_Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_War" title="United States support for Iraq during the Iran–Iraq War">U.S. support</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anfal_campaign" title="Anfal campaign">Anfal campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Gulf War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1991_Iraqi_uprisings" title="1991 Iraqi uprisings">1991 uprisings</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Ba%27athist_Iraq" title="Human rights in Ba'athist Iraq">Human rights record</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saddam%E2%80%93al-Qaeda_conspiracy_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Saddam–al-Qaeda conspiracy theory">Saddam–al-Qaeda conspiracy theory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Saddam%E2%80%93al-Qaeda_conspiracy_allegations" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of Saddam–al-Qaeda conspiracy allegations">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Saddam_Hussein" title="Capture of Saddam Hussein">Capture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interrogation_of_Saddam_Hussein" title="Interrogation of Saddam Hussein">Interrogation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trial_of_Saddam_Hussein" title="Trial of Saddam Hussein">Trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Execution_of_Saddam_Hussein" title="Execution of Saddam Hussein">Execution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reactions_to_the_execution_of_Saddam_Hussein" title="Reactions to the execution of Saddam Hussein">reactions</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Saddam_Hussein%27s_novels" title="Saddam Hussein's novels">Books</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zabibah_and_the_King" title="Zabibah and the King">Zabibah and the King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Fortified_Castle" title="The Fortified Castle">The Fortified Castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Men_and_the_City" title="Men and the City">Men and the City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Begone,_Demons" title="Begone, Demons">Begone, Demons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_Quran" title="Blood Quran">Blood Quran</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Propaganda</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nayirah_testimony" title="Nayirah testimony">Killing babies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saddam_Hussein%27s_alleged_shredder" title="Saddam Hussein's alleged shredder">Alleged shredder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jumana_Hanna" title="Jumana Hanna">Jumana Hanna</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Saddam%27s_family" class="mw-redirect" title="Saddam's family">Family</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Father: Hussein 'Abid al-Majid</li> <li>Mother: Subha Tulfah al-Mussallat</li> <li>Half-brothers: <a href="/wiki/Watban_Ibrahim" title="Watban Ibrahim">Watban</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sabawi_Ibrahim_al-Tikriti" title="Sabawi Ibrahim al-Tikriti">Sabawi</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Barzan_Ibrahim_al-Tikriti" title="Barzan Ibrahim al-Tikriti">Barzan</a></li> <li>Wives: <a href="/wiki/Sajida_Talfah" title="Sajida Talfah">Sajida Talfah</a> and <a href="/wiki/Samira_Shahbandar" title="Samira Shahbandar">Samira Shahbandar</a></li> <li>Uncle and Father-in-Law: <a href="/wiki/Khairallah_Talfah" title="Khairallah Talfah">Khairallah Talfah</a></li> <li>Sons: <a href="/wiki/Uday_Hussein" title="Uday Hussein">Uday</a> and <a href="/wiki/Qusay_Hussein" title="Qusay Hussein">Qusay</a></li> <li>Daughters: <a href="/wiki/Rana_Hussein" title="Rana Hussein">Rana</a>, <a href="/wiki/Raghad_Hussein" title="Raghad Hussein">Raghad</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hala_Hussein" class="mw-redirect" title="Hala Hussein">Hala</a></li> <li>Grandchildren: <a href="/wiki/Mustapha_Hussein" class="mw-redirect" title="Mustapha Hussein">Mustapha Hussein</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Media</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-ayyam_al-tawila" title="Al-ayyam al-tawila">Al-ayyam al-tawila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Saddam" title="House of Saddam">House of Saddam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Park" title="South Park">South Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Devil%27s_Double" title="The Devil's Double">The Devil's Double</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Saddam_Hussein" title="Category:Saddam Hussein">Category:Saddam Hussein</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Presidents_of_Iraq_(list)285" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Presidents_of_Iraq" title="Template:Presidents of Iraq"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Presidents_of_Iraq" title="Template talk:Presidents of Iraq"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Presidents_of_Iraq" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Presidents of Iraq"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Presidents_of_Iraq_(list)285" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/President_of_Iraq" title="President of Iraq">Presidents of Iraq</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_Iraq" title="List of presidents of Iraq">list</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/First_Republic_of_Iraq" title="First Republic of Iraq">First Republic of Iraq</a> (1958–1968)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Najib_ar-Ruba%27i" title="Muhammad Najib ar-Ruba'i">ar-Ruba'i</a>†</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdul_Salam_Arif" title="Abdul Salam Arif">Abdul Salam Arif</a>†</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Rahman_al-Bazzaz" class="mw-redirect" title="Abd al-Rahman al-Bazzaz">al-Bazzaz</a>†*</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdul_Rahman_Arif" title="Abdul Rahman Arif">Abdul Rahman Arif</a>†</li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Iraq_(1959%E2%80%931963).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Flag_of_Iraq_%281959%E2%80%931963%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_Iraq_%281959%E2%80%931963%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Flag_of_Iraq_%281959%E2%80%931963%29.svg/60px-Flag_of_Iraq_%281959%E2%80%931963%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Flag_of_Iraq_%281959%E2%80%931963%29.svg/80px-Flag_of_Iraq_%281959%E2%80%931963%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="450" /></a> <a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Iraq_(1963%E2%80%931991).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Iraq_%281963%E2%80%931991%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_Iraq_%281963%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Iraq_%281963%E2%80%931991%29.svg/60px-Flag_of_Iraq_%281963%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Iraq_%281963%E2%80%931991%29.svg/80px-Flag_of_Iraq_%281963%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ba%27athist_Iraq" title="Ba'athist Iraq">Ba'athist Iraq</a> (1968–2003)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Hassan_al-Bakr" title="Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr">al-Bakr</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Hussein</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Iraq_(1963%E2%80%931991).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Iraq_%281963%E2%80%931991%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_Iraq_%281963%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Iraq_%281963%E2%80%931991%29.svg/60px-Flag_of_Iraq_%281963%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Iraq_%281963%E2%80%931991%29.svg/80px-Flag_of_Iraq_%281963%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Iraq_(1991%E2%80%932004).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Flag_of_Iraq_%281991%E2%80%932004%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_Iraq_%281991%E2%80%932004%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Flag_of_Iraq_%281991%E2%80%932004%29.svg/60px-Flag_of_Iraq_%281991%E2%80%932004%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Flag_of_Iraq_%281991%E2%80%932004%29.svg/80px-Flag_of_Iraq_%281991%E2%80%932004%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Coalition_Provisional_Authority" title="Coalition Provisional Authority">Coalition Provisional Authority</a> (2003–2004)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jay_Garner" title="Jay Garner">Garner</a>*</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Bremer" title="Paul Bremer">Bremer</a>*</li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Iraq_(1991%E2%80%932004).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Flag_of_Iraq_%281991%E2%80%932004%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_Iraq_%281991%E2%80%932004%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Flag_of_Iraq_%281991%E2%80%932004%29.svg/60px-Flag_of_Iraq_%281991%E2%80%932004%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Flag_of_Iraq_%281991%E2%80%932004%29.svg/80px-Flag_of_Iraq_%281991%E2%80%932004%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Republic of Iraq</a> (since 2004)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ghazi_Mashal_Ajil_al-Yawer" title="Ghazi Mashal Ajil al-Yawer">al-Yawer</a>*</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jalal_Talabani" title="Jalal Talabani">Talabani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuad_Masum" title="Fuad Masum">Masum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barham_Salih" title="Barham Salih">Salih</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdul_Latif_Rashid" title="Abdul Latif Rashid">Rashid</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Iraq_(2004%E2%80%932008).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Flag_of_Iraq_%282004%E2%80%932008%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_Iraq_%282004%E2%80%932008%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Flag_of_Iraq_%282004%E2%80%932008%29.svg/60px-Flag_of_Iraq_%282004%E2%80%932008%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Flag_of_Iraq_%282004%E2%80%932008%29.svg/80px-Flag_of_Iraq_%282004%E2%80%932008%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Iraq.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Flag_of_Iraq.svg/40px-Flag_of_Iraq.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Flag_of_Iraq.svg/60px-Flag_of_Iraq.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Flag_of_Iraq.svg/80px-Flag_of_Iraq.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li>* interim</li> <li>† military</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Prime_ministers_of_Iraq_(list)357" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Prime_ministers_of_Iraq" title="Template:Prime ministers of Iraq"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Prime_ministers_of_Iraq" title="Template talk:Prime ministers of Iraq"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Prime_ministers_of_Iraq" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Prime ministers of Iraq"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Prime_ministers_of_Iraq_(list)357" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Iraq" title="Prime Minister of Iraq">Prime ministers of Iraq</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_prime_ministers_of_Iraq" title="List of prime ministers of Iraq">list</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mandatory_Iraq" title="Mandatory Iraq">Mandatory Iraq</a> (1920–1932)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abd_Al-Rahman_Al-Gillani" title="Abd Al-Rahman Al-Gillani">al-Gillani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdul_Muhsin_al-Sa%27dun" title="Abdul Muhsin al-Sa'dun">al-Sa'dun</a>†</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ja%27far_al-Askari" title="Ja'far al-Askari">al-Askari</a>†</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yasin_al-Hashimi" title="Yasin al-Hashimi">al-Hashimi</a>†</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tawfiq_al-Suwaidi" title="Tawfiq al-Suwaidi">T. Suwaidi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naji_Al-Suwaidi" title="Naji Al-Suwaidi">N. Suwaidi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuri_al-Said" title="Nuri al-Said">al-Said</a>†</li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Iraq_(1924%E2%80%931959).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Flag_of_Iraq_%281924%E2%80%931959%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_Iraq_%281924%E2%80%931959%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Flag_of_Iraq_%281924%E2%80%931959%29.svg/60px-Flag_of_Iraq_%281924%E2%80%931959%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Flag_of_Iraq_%281924%E2%80%931959%29.svg/80px-Flag_of_Iraq_%281924%E2%80%931959%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="300" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Iraq" title="Kingdom of Iraq">Kingdom of Iraq</a> (1932–1958)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Naji_Shawkat" title="Naji Shawkat">Shawkat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rashid_Ali_al-Gaylani" title="Rashid Ali al-Gaylani">al-Gaylani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamil_Al_Midfai" title="Jamil Al Midfai">al-Midfai</a>†</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Jawdat_Al-Ayyubi" title="Ali Jawdat Al-Ayyubi">al-Ayyubi</a>†</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yasin_al-Hashimi" title="Yasin al-Hashimi">al-Hashimi</a>†</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hikmat_Sulayman" title="Hikmat Sulayman">Sulayman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuri_al-Said" title="Nuri al-Said">al-Said</a>†</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taha_al-Hashimi" title="Taha al-Hashimi">al-Hashimi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamdi_al-Pachachi" title="Hamdi al-Pachachi">H. Pachachi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tawfiq_al-Suwaidi" title="Tawfiq al-Suwaidi">T. Suwaidi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arshad_al-Umari" title="Arshad al-Umari">Arshad al-Umari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salih_Jabr" title="Salih Jabr">Jabr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohammad_al-Sadr_(prime_minister)" title="Mohammad al-Sadr (prime minister)">al-Sadr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muzahim_al-Pachachi" title="Muzahim al-Pachachi">Muzahim al-Pachachi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mustafa_Mahmud_al-Umari" title="Mustafa Mahmud al-Umari">Mustafa al-Umari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nureddin_Mahmud" title="Nureddin Mahmud">Mahmud</a>†</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Fadhel_al-Jamali" title="Muhammad Fadhel al-Jamali">al-Jamali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arshad_al-Umari" title="Arshad al-Umari">Arshad al-Umari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdul-Wahab_Mirjan" title="Abdul-Wahab Mirjan">Mirjan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Mukhtar_Baban" title="Ahmad Mukhtar Baban">Baban</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Iraq_(1924%E2%80%931959).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Flag_of_Iraq_%281924%E2%80%931959%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_Iraq_%281924%E2%80%931959%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Flag_of_Iraq_%281924%E2%80%931959%29.svg/60px-Flag_of_Iraq_%281924%E2%80%931959%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Flag_of_Iraq_%281924%E2%80%931959%29.svg/80px-Flag_of_Iraq_%281924%E2%80%931959%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="300" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/First_Republic_of_Iraq" title="First Republic of Iraq">First Republic of Iraq</a> (1958–1968)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abdul-Karim_Qasim" title="Abdul-Karim Qasim">Qasim</a>†</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Hassan_al-Bakr" title="Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr">al-Bakr</a>†</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tahir_Yahya" title="Tahir Yahya">Yahya</a>†</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arif_Abd_ar-Razzaq" class="mw-redirect" title="Arif Abd ar-Razzaq">ar-Razzaq</a>†</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Rahman_al-Bazzaz" class="mw-redirect" title="Abd al-Rahman al-Bazzaz">al-Bazzaz</a>†</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naji_Talib" title="Naji Talib">Talib</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdul_Rahman_Arif" title="Abdul Rahman Arif">Arif</a>†</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tahir_Yahya" title="Tahir Yahya">Yahya</a>†</li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Iraq_(1959%E2%80%931963).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Flag_of_Iraq_%281959%E2%80%931963%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_Iraq_%281959%E2%80%931963%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Flag_of_Iraq_%281959%E2%80%931963%29.svg/60px-Flag_of_Iraq_%281959%E2%80%931963%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Flag_of_Iraq_%281959%E2%80%931963%29.svg/80px-Flag_of_Iraq_%281959%E2%80%931963%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="450" /></a> <a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Iraq_(1963%E2%80%931991).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Iraq_%281963%E2%80%931991%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_Iraq_%281963%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Iraq_%281963%E2%80%931991%29.svg/60px-Flag_of_Iraq_%281963%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Iraq_%281963%E2%80%931991%29.svg/80px-Flag_of_Iraq_%281963%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ba%27athist_Iraq" title="Ba'athist Iraq">Ba'athist Iraq</a> (1968–2003)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abdul_Razzaq_an-Naif" title="Abdul Razzaq an-Naif">an-Naif</a>†</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Hassan_al-Bakr" title="Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr">al-Bakr</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Hussein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%27dun_Hammadi" title="Sa'dun Hammadi">Hammadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohammed_Hamza_Zubeidi" title="Mohammed Hamza Zubeidi">Zubeidi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Husayn_Khudayir_as-Samarrai" title="Ahmad Husayn Khudayir as-Samarrai">as-Samarrai</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Hussein</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Iraq_(1963%E2%80%931991).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Iraq_%281963%E2%80%931991%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_Iraq_%281963%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Iraq_%281963%E2%80%931991%29.svg/60px-Flag_of_Iraq_%281963%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Iraq_%281963%E2%80%931991%29.svg/80px-Flag_of_Iraq_%281963%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Iraq_(1991%E2%80%932004).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Flag_of_Iraq_%281991%E2%80%932004%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_Iraq_%281991%E2%80%932004%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Flag_of_Iraq_%281991%E2%80%932004%29.svg/60px-Flag_of_Iraq_%281991%E2%80%932004%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Flag_of_Iraq_%281991%E2%80%932004%29.svg/80px-Flag_of_Iraq_%281991%E2%80%932004%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Governing_Council" title="Iraqi Governing Council">Iraqi Governing Council</a> (2003–2004)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Bahr_al-Uloom" title="Mohammad Bahr al-Uloom">al-Ulooum</a>*</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibrahim_al-Jaafari" title="Ibrahim al-Jaafari">al-Jaafari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Chalabi" title="Ahmed Chalabi">Chalabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayad_Allawi" title="Ayad Allawi">Allawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jalal_Talabani" title="Jalal Talabani">Talabani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdul_Aziz_al-Hakim" title="Abdul Aziz al-Hakim">al-Hakim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adnan_Pachachi" title="Adnan Pachachi">A. Pachachi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohsen_Abdel_Hamid" title="Mohsen Abdel Hamid">Hamid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Bahr_al-Uloom" title="Mohammad Bahr al-Uloom">al-Uloom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masoud_Barzani" title="Masoud Barzani">Barzani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ezzedine_Salim" title="Ezzedine Salim">Salim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghazi_Mashal_Ajil_al-Yawer" title="Ghazi Mashal Ajil al-Yawer">al-Yawer</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Iraq_(1991%E2%80%932004).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Flag_of_Iraq_%281991%E2%80%932004%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_Iraq_%281991%E2%80%932004%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Flag_of_Iraq_%281991%E2%80%932004%29.svg/60px-Flag_of_Iraq_%281991%E2%80%932004%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Flag_of_Iraq_%281991%E2%80%932004%29.svg/80px-Flag_of_Iraq_%281991%E2%80%932004%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Republic of Iraq</a> (since 2004)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ayad_Allawi" title="Ayad Allawi">Allawi</a>*</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibrahim_al-Jaafari" title="Ibrahim al-Jaafari">al-Jaafari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nouri_al-Maliki" title="Nouri al-Maliki">al-Maliki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haider_al-Abadi" title="Haider al-Abadi">al-Abadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adil_Abdul-Mahdi" title="Adil Abdul-Mahdi">Abdul-Mahdi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mustafa_Al-Kadhimi" title="Mustafa Al-Kadhimi">Al-Kadhimi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohammed_Shia%27_Al_Sudani" title="Mohammed Shia' Al Sudani">Al Sudani</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Iraq_(2004%E2%80%932008).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Flag_of_Iraq_%282004%E2%80%932008%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_Iraq_%282004%E2%80%932008%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Flag_of_Iraq_%282004%E2%80%932008%29.svg/60px-Flag_of_Iraq_%282004%E2%80%932008%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Flag_of_Iraq_%282004%E2%80%932008%29.svg/80px-Flag_of_Iraq_%282004%E2%80%932008%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Iraq.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Flag_of_Iraq.svg/40px-Flag_of_Iraq.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Flag_of_Iraq.svg/60px-Flag_of_Iraq.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Flag_of_Iraq.svg/80px-Flag_of_Iraq.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li>* interim</li> <li>† military</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Arab_Socialist_Ba&#039;ath_Party957" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#017B48;color:white;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ba%27ath_Party" title="Template:Ba'ath Party"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:white">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ba%27ath_Party" title="Template talk:Ba'ath Party"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:white">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ba%27ath_Party" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ba'ath Party"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:white">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Arab_Socialist_Ba&#039;ath_Party957" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party" title="Ba'ath Party">Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background:#017B48;color:white;;background:#017B48;color:white;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party_(Iraqi-dominated_faction)" title="Ba'ath Party (Iraqi-dominated faction)">Iraqi-dominated faction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party_(Syrian-dominated_faction)" title="Ba'ath Party (Syrian-dominated faction)">Syrian-dominated faction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#017B48;color:white;"><div id="History957" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Ba%27ath_Party" title="History of the Ba'ath Party">History</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;;line-height:1.1em;">Predecessors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Ba%27ath" title="Arab Ba'ath">Arab Ba'ath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Ba%27ath_Movement" title="Arab Ba'ath Movement">Arab Ba'ath Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Movement" title="Arab Socialist Movement">Arab Socialist Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Committee_to_Help_Iraq" title="Syrian Committee to Help Iraq">Syrian Committee to Help Iraq</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;;line-height:1.1em;">Founders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Aflaq" title="Michel Aflaq">Michel Aflaq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salah_al-Din_al-Bitar" title="Salah al-Din al-Bitar">Salah al-Din al-Bitar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;;line-height:1.1em;">Pre-split</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1954_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1954 Syrian coup d'état">1954 Syrian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/14_July_Revolution" title="14 July Revolution">14 July Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1959_Mosul_uprising" title="1959 Mosul uprising">1959 Mosul uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attempted_assassination_of_Abdul-Karim_Qasim" title="Attempted assassination of Abdul-Karim Qasim">Attempted assassination of Abdul-Karim Qasim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramadan_Revolution" title="Ramadan Revolution">Ramadan Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1963_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1963 Syrian coup d'état">1963 Syrian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ba%27athist_Syria" title="Ba'athist Syria">Ba'athist Syria</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Ba%27athist_Syria" title="Politics of Ba'athist Syria">Politics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Council_for_the_Revolutionary_Command" title="National Council for the Revolutionary Command">National Council for the Revolutionary Command</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ar-Rashid_revolt" title="Ar-Rashid revolt">Ar-Rashid revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/November_1963_Iraqi_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="November 1963 Iraqi coup d'état">November 1963 Iraqi coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1964_Hama_riot" title="1964 Hama riot">1964 Hama riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1966_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1966 Syrian coup d'état">1966 Syrian coup d'état</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;;line-height:1.1em;">Post-split</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/17_July_Revolution" title="17 July Revolution">17 July Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ba%27athist_Iraq" title="Ba'athist Iraq">Ba'athist Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_Command_Council_(Iraq)" title="Revolutionary Command Council (Iraq)">Revolutionary Command Council</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_members_of_the_Revolutionary_Command_Council_under_Ahmed_Hassan_al-Bakr" title="List of members of the Revolutionary Command Council under Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr">Members</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Belt" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab Belt">Arab Belt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corrective_Movement_(Syria)" title="Corrective Movement (Syria)">Corrective Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_of_Arab_Republics_(1972)" title="Union of Arab Republics (1972)">Union of Arab Republics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ba%27athist_Arabization_campaigns_in_northern_Iraq" title="Ba'athist Arabization campaigns in northern Iraq">Ba'athist Arabization campaigns in northern Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1979_Ba%27ath_Party_Purge" title="1979 Ba'ath Party Purge">1979 Ba'ath Party Purge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assadist%E2%80%93Saddamist_conflict" title="Assadist–Saddamist conflict">Assadist–Saddamist conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_Campaign" title="Faith Campaign">Faith Campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_conflict" title="Iraqi conflict">Iraqi conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/De-Ba%27athification_in_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="De-Ba'athification in Iraq">De-Ba'athification in Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party_archives" title="Ba'ath Party archives">Ba'ath Party archives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_civil_war" title="Syrian civil war">Syrian civil war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Assad_regime" title="Fall of the Assad regime">Fall of the Assad regime</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#017B48;color:white;"><div id="Leadership957" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Leadership</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;;line-height:1.1em;">General Secretaries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;line-height:1.1em;">Pre-split</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Aflaq" title="Michel Aflaq">Michel Aflaq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Munif_Razzaz" title="Munif Razzaz">Munif Razzaz</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;line-height:1.1em;">Iraqi-dominated faction</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Aflaq" title="Michel Aflaq">Michel Aflaq</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Saddam Hussein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Izzat_Ibrahim_al-Douri" title="Izzat Ibrahim al-Douri">Izzat Ibrahim al-Douri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salah_Al-Mukhtar" title="Salah Al-Mukhtar">Salah Al-Mukhtar</a>*</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;line-height:1.1em;">Syrian-dominated faction</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nureddin_al-Atassi" title="Nureddin al-Atassi">Nureddin al-Atassi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hafez_al-Assad" title="Hafez al-Assad">Hafez al-Assad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdullah_al-Ahmar" title="Abdullah al-Ahmar">Abdullah al-Ahmar (de facto)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bashar_al-Assad" title="Bashar al-Assad">Bashar al-Assad</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;;line-height:1.1em;">Regional Secretaries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;line-height:1.1em;">Iraq</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fuad_al-Rikabi" title="Fuad al-Rikabi">Fuad al-Rikabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talib_El-Shibib" title="Talib El-Shibib">Talib El-Shibib</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Salih_al-Sa%27di" title="Ali Salih al-Sa'di">Ali Salih al-Sa'di</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Hassan_al-Bakr" title="Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr">Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Saddam Hussein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Izzat_Ibrahim_al-Douri" title="Izzat Ibrahim al-Douri">Izzat Ibrahim al-Douri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohammed_Younis_al-Ahmed" title="Mohammed Younis al-Ahmed">Mohammed Younis al-Ahmed</a>*</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;line-height:1.1em;">Jordan</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abdullah_Rimawi" title="Abdullah Rimawi">Abdullah Rimawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Munif_Razzaz" title="Munif Razzaz">Munif Razzaz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akram_al-Homsi" title="Akram al-Homsi">Akram al-Homsi</a>*</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;line-height:1.1em;">Lebanon</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assem_Qanso" title="Assem Qanso">Assem Qanso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Majid_al-Rafei" title="Abd al-Majid al-Rafei">Abd al-Majid al-Rafei</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;line-height:1.1em;">Palestine</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isam_al-Qadi" title="Isam al-Qadi">Isam al-Qadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rakad_Salem" title="Rakad Salem">Rakad Salem</a>*</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;line-height:1.1em;">Syria</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hammud_al-Shufi" title="Hammud al-Shufi">Hammud al-Shufi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shibli_al-Aysami" title="Shibli al-Aysami">Shibli al-Aysami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amin_al-Hafiz" title="Amin al-Hafiz">Amin al-Hafiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nureddin_al-Atassi" title="Nureddin al-Atassi">Nureddin al-Atassi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hafez_al-Assad" title="Hafez al-Assad">Hafez al-Assad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bashar_al-Assad" title="Bashar al-Assad">Bashar al-Assad</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;;line-height:1.1em;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Members_of_the_National_Command_of_the_Ba%27ath_Party" title="Category:Members of the National Command of the Ba'ath Party">Members</a> of the <a href="/wiki/National_Command_of_the_Ba%27ath_Party" title="National Command of the Ba'ath Party">National Command</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hadiya_Khalaf_Abbas" title="Hadiya Khalaf Abbas">Hadiya Khalaf Abbas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Aflaq" title="Michel Aflaq">Michel Aflaq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdullah_al-Ahmar" title="Abdullah al-Ahmar">Abdullah al-Ahmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaki_al-Arsuzi" title="Zaki al-Arsuzi">Zaki al-Arsuzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bashar_al-Assad" title="Bashar al-Assad">Bashar al-Assad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hafez_al-Assad" title="Hafez al-Assad">Hafez al-Assad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nureddin_al-Atassi" title="Nureddin al-Atassi">Nureddin al-Atassi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mansur_al-Atrash" title="Mansur al-Atrash">Mansur al-Atrash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shibli_al-Aysami" title="Shibli al-Aysami">Shibli al-Aysami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Abdullah_Ayyoub" title="Ali Abdullah Ayyoub">Ali Abdullah Ayyoub</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Hassan_al-Bakr" title="Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr">Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salah_al-Din_al-Bitar" title="Salah al-Din al-Bitar">Salah al-Din al-Bitar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elias_Farah" title="Elias Farah">Elias Farah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hakem_Al-Fayez" title="Hakem Al-Fayez">Hakem Al-Fayez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wahib_al-Ghanim" title="Wahib al-Ghanim">Wahib al-Ghanim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amin_al-Hafiz" title="Amin al-Hafiz">Amin al-Hafiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akram_al-Hawrani" class="mw-redirect" title="Akram al-Hawrani">Akram al-Hawrani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salah_Jadid" title="Salah Jadid">Salah Jadid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zuheir_Mohsen" title="Zuheir Mohsen">Zuheir Mohsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Munif_Razzaz" title="Munif Razzaz">Munif Razzaz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuad_al-Rikabi" title="Fuad al-Rikabi">Fuad al-Rikabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdullah_Rimawi" title="Abdullah Rimawi">Abdullah Rimawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Salih_al-Sa%27di" title="Ali Salih al-Sa'di">Ali Salih al-Sa'di</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talib_El-Shibib" title="Talib El-Shibib">Talib El-Shibib</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khaled_Yashruti" title="Khaled Yashruti">Khaled Yashruti</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;;line-height:1.1em;">Members of the Regional Commands</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;line-height:"><a href="/wiki/Regional_Command_of_the_Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Iraq_Region" title="Regional Command of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Iraq Region">Iraq</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Humam_Abd_al-Khaliq_Abd_al-Ghafur" title="Humam Abd al-Khaliq Abd al-Ghafur">Humam Abd al-Khaliq Abd al-Ghafur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghanim_Abdul-Jalil" title="Ghanim Abdul-Jalil">Ghanim Abdul-Jalil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saad_Abdul-Majid" title="Saad Abdul-Majid">Saad Abdul-Majid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamal_Mustafa_Abdullah" title="Jamal Mustafa Abdullah">Jamal Mustafa Abdullah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohammed_Younis_al-Ahmed" title="Mohammed Younis al-Ahmed">Mohammed Younis al-Ahmed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salah_Omar_al-Ali" title="Salah Omar al-Ali">Salah Omar al-Ali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huda_Salih_Mahdi_Ammash" title="Huda Salih Mahdi Ammash">Huda Salih Mahdi Ammash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salih_Mahdi_Ammash" title="Salih Mahdi Ammash">Salih Mahdi Ammash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hussein_Al-Awadi" title="Hussein Al-Awadi">Hussein Al-Awadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tariq_Aziz" title="Tariq Aziz">Tariq Aziz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Hassan_al-Bakr" title="Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr">Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adil_Abdullah_Mahdi_Al-Douri" title="Adil Abdullah Mahdi Al-Douri">Adil Abdullah Mahdi Al-Douri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Izzat_Ibrahim_al-Douri" title="Izzat Ibrahim al-Douri">Izzat Ibrahim al-Douri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saadoun_Ghaidan" title="Saadoun Ghaidan">Saadoun Ghaidan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fadil_Mahmud_Gharib" title="Fadil Mahmud Gharib">Fadil Mahmud Gharib</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizban_Khadr_al-Hadi" title="Mizban Khadr al-Hadi">Mizban Khadr al-Hadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%27dun_Hammadi" title="Sa'dun Hammadi">Sa'dun Hammadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qusay_Hussein" title="Qusay Hussein">Qusay Hussein</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Saddam Hussein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latif_Nassif_Jassim" title="Latif Nassif Jassim">Latif Nassif Jassim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rashid_Taan_Kazim" title="Rashid Taan Kazim">Rashid Taan Kazim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adnan_Khayr_Allah" title="Adnan Khayr Allah">Adnan Khayr Allah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Hassan_al-Majid" title="Ali Hassan al-Majid">Ali Hassan al-Majid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhyi_Abdul-Hussein_Mashhadi" title="Muhyi Abdul-Hussein Mashhadi">Muhyi Abdul-Hussein Mashhadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samir_Abdul_Aziz_al-Najim" title="Samir Abdul Aziz al-Najim">Samir Abdul Aziz al-Najim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aziz_Saleh_Al-Numan" title="Aziz Saleh Al-Numan">Aziz Saleh Al-Numan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghazi_Hamoud_Al-Obaidi" title="Ghazi Hamoud Al-Obaidi">Ghazi Hamoud Al-Obaidi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taha_Yassin_Ramadan" title="Taha Yassin Ramadan">Taha Yassin Ramadan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fawzi_Mutlaq_al-Rawi" title="Fawzi Mutlaq al-Rawi">Fawzi Mutlaq al-Rawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rashid_al-Rifai" title="Rashid al-Rifai">Rashid al-Rifai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuad_al-Rikabi" title="Fuad al-Rikabi">Fuad al-Rikabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Salih_al-Sa%27di" title="Ali Salih al-Sa'di">Ali Salih al-Sa'di</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abd_Al-Baqi_Abd_Karim_Al-Sadun" title="Abd Al-Baqi Abd Karim Al-Sadun">Abd Al-Baqi Abd Karim Al-Sadun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Zimam_al-Sadun" title="Muhammad Zimam al-Sadun">Muhammad Zimam al-Sadun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Khaliq_al-Samarra%27i" class="mw-redirect" title="Abd al-Khaliq al-Samarra'i">Abd al-Khaliq al-Samarra'i</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdullah_Sallum_al-Samarra%27i" title="Abdullah Sallum al-Samarra'i">Abdullah Sallum al-Samarra'i</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talib_El-Shibib" title="Talib El-Shibib">Talib El-Shibib</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nayef_Shindakh_Thamer" title="Nayef Shindakh Thamer">Nayef Shindakh Thamer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khamis_Sirhan" title="Khamis Sirhan">Khamis Sirhan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hardan_al-Tikriti" title="Hardan al-Tikriti">Hardan al-Tikriti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yahya_Abdallah_al-Ubaydi" title="Yahya Abdallah al-Ubaydi">Yahya Abdallah al-Ubaydi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tahir_Yahya" title="Tahir Yahya">Tahir Yahya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohammed_Hamza_Zubeidi" title="Mohammed Hamza Zubeidi">Mohammed Hamza Zubeidi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibrahim_Hesqel" title="Ibrahim Hesqel">Ibrahim Hesqel</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;line-height:">Lebanon</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Musa_Shuaib" title="Musa Shuaib">Musa Shuaib</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;line-height:"><a href="/wiki/Central_Command_of_the_Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Syria_Region" title="Central Command of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region">Syria</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hadiya_Khalaf_Abbas" title="Hadiya Khalaf Abbas">Hadiya Khalaf Abbas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdullah_al-Ahmar" title="Abdullah al-Ahmar">Abdullah al-Ahmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hussein_Arnous" title="Hussein Arnous">Hussein Arnous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bashar_al-Assad" title="Bashar al-Assad">Bashar al-Assad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hafez_al-Assad" title="Hafez al-Assad">Hafez al-Assad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maher_al-Assad" title="Maher al-Assad">Maher al-Assad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rifaat_al-Assad" title="Rifaat al-Assad">Rifaat al-Assad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nureddin_al-Atassi" title="Nureddin al-Atassi">Nureddin al-Atassi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shibli_al-Aysami" title="Shibli al-Aysami">Shibli al-Aysami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Abdullah_Ayyoub" title="Ali Abdullah Ayyoub">Ali Abdullah Ayyoub</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohammed_Saeed_Bekheitan" title="Mohammed Saeed Bekheitan">Mohammed Saeed Bekheitan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhsen_Bilal" title="Muhsen Bilal">Muhsen Bilal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahdi_Dakhlallah" title="Mahdi Dakhlallah">Mahdi Dakhlallah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Diyab" title="Ahmad Diyab">Ahmad Diyab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Duba" title="Ali Duba">Ali Duba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fahd_Jassem_al-Freij" title="Fahd Jassem al-Freij">Fahd Jassem al-Freij</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marwan_Habash" title="Marwan Habash">Marwan Habash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibrahim_al-Hadid" title="Ibrahim al-Hadid">Ibrahim al-Hadid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amin_al-Hafiz" title="Amin al-Hafiz">Amin al-Hafiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ali_al-Halabi" title="Muhammad Ali al-Halabi">Muhammad Ali al-Halabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wael_Nader_al-Halqi" title="Wael Nader al-Halqi">Wael Nader al-Halqi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adnan_Badr_Hassan" title="Adnan Badr Hassan">Adnan Badr Hassan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salim_Hatum" title="Salim Hatum">Salim Hatum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilal_Hilal" title="Hilal Hilal">Hilal Hilal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohammad_al-Hussein" title="Mohammad al-Hussein">Mohammad al-Hussein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hisham_Ikhtiyar" title="Hisham Ikhtiyar">Hisham Ikhtiyar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salah_Jadid" title="Salah Jadid">Salah Jadid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdul-Karim_al-Jundi" title="Abdul-Karim al-Jundi">Abdul-Karim al-Jundi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sami_al-Jundi" title="Sami al-Jundi">Sami al-Jundi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdul_Rauf_al-Kasm" title="Abdul Rauf al-Kasm">Abdul Rauf al-Kasm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdul_Halim_Khaddam" title="Abdul Halim Khaddam">Abdul Halim Khaddam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imad_Khamis" title="Imad Khamis">Imad Khamis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_al-Khatib" title="Ahmad al-Khatib">Ahmad al-Khatib</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdul_Rahman_Khleifawi" title="Abdul Rahman Khleifawi">Abdul Rahman Khleifawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Jihad_al-Laham" title="Mohammad Jihad al-Laham">Mohammad Jihad al-Laham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibrahim_Makhous" title="Ibrahim Makhous">Ibrahim Makhous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zuhair_Masharqa" title="Zuhair Masharqa">Zuhair Masharqa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Mustafa_Mero" title="Muhammad Mustafa Mero">Muhammad Mustafa Mero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Naji_al-Otari" title="Muhammad Naji al-Otari">Muhammad Naji al-Otari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdul_Qadir_Qaddura" title="Abdul Qadir Qaddura">Abdul Qadir Qaddura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hammouda_Sabbagh" title="Hammouda Sabbagh">Hammouda Sabbagh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farouk_al-Sharaa" title="Farouk al-Sharaa">Farouk al-Sharaa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hikmat_al-Shihabi" title="Hikmat al-Shihabi">Hikmat al-Shihabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hammud_al-Shufi" title="Hammud al-Shufi">Hammud al-Shufi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mustafa_Tlass" title="Mustafa Tlass">Mustafa Tlass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hasan_Turkmani" title="Hasan Turkmani">Hasan Turkmani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Umran" title="Muhammad Umran">Muhammad Umran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salim_Yasin" title="Salim Yasin">Salim Yasin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yusuf_Zuayyin" title="Yusuf Zuayyin">Yusuf Zuayyin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;line-height:">Yemen</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Ali_Ahmad_Nasser_al-Dhahab" title="Ali Ahmad Nasser al-Dhahab">Ali Ahmad Nasser al-Dhahab</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;;line-height:1.1em;">Heads of state</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;line-height:"><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_Iraq" title="List of presidents of Iraq">Iraq</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Hassan_al-Bakr" title="Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr">Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Saddam Hussein</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;line-height:"><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_Syria" title="List of presidents of Syria">Syria</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amin_al-Hafiz" title="Amin al-Hafiz">Amin al-Hafiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nureddin_al-Atassi" title="Nureddin al-Atassi">Nureddin al-Atassi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_al-Khatib" title="Ahmad al-Khatib">Ahmad al-Khatib</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hafez_al-Assad" title="Hafez al-Assad">Hafez al-Assad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdul_Halim_Khaddam" title="Abdul Halim Khaddam">Abdul Halim Khaddam (interim)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bashar_al-Assad" title="Bashar al-Assad">Bashar al-Assad</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;;line-height:1.1em;">Heads of government</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;line-height:"><a href="/wiki/List_of_prime_ministers_of_Iraq" title="List of prime ministers of Iraq">Iraq</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Hassan_al-Bakr" title="Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr">Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Saddam Hussein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%27dun_Hammadi" title="Sa'dun Hammadi">Sa'dun Hammadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohammed_Hamza_Zubeidi" title="Mohammed Hamza Zubeidi">Mohammed Hamza Zubeidi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Husayn_Khudayir_as-Samarrai" title="Ahmad Husayn Khudayir as-Samarrai">Ahmad Husayn Khudayir as-Samarrai</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;line-height:"><a href="/wiki/List_of_prime_ministers_of_Syria" title="List of prime ministers of Syria">Syria</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Salah_al-Din_al-Bitar" title="Salah al-Din al-Bitar">Salah al-Din al-Bitar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amin_al-Hafiz" title="Amin al-Hafiz">Amin al-Hafiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yusuf_Zuayyin" title="Yusuf Zuayyin">Yusuf Zuayyin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nureddin_al-Atassi" title="Nureddin al-Atassi">Nureddin al-Atassi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hafez_al-Assad" title="Hafez al-Assad">Hafez al-Assad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdul_Rahman_Khleifawi" title="Abdul Rahman Khleifawi">Abdul Rahman Khleifawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahmoud_al-Ayyubi" title="Mahmoud al-Ayyubi">Mahmoud al-Ayyubi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ali_al-Halabi" title="Muhammad Ali al-Halabi">Muhammad Ali al-Halabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdul_Rauf_al-Kasm" title="Abdul Rauf al-Kasm">Abdul Rauf al-Kasm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahmoud_Al-Zoubi" title="Mahmoud Al-Zoubi">Mahmoud Al-Zoubi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Mustafa_Mero" title="Muhammad Mustafa Mero">Muhammad Mustafa Mero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Naji_al-Otari" title="Muhammad Naji al-Otari">Muhammad Naji al-Otari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adel_Safar" title="Adel Safar">Adel Safar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riyad_Farid_Hijab" title="Riyad Farid Hijab">Riyad Farid Hijab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omar_Ibrahim_Ghalawanji" title="Omar Ibrahim Ghalawanji">Omar Ibrahim Ghalawanji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wael_Nader_al-Halqi" title="Wael Nader al-Halqi">Wael Nader al-Halqi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imad_Khamis" title="Imad Khamis">Imad Khamis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hussein_Arnous" title="Hussein Arnous">Hussein Arnous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Ghazi_al-Jalali" title="Mohammad Ghazi al-Jalali">Mohammad Ghazi al-Jalali</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background:#017B48;color:white;"><div>* = incumbent</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#017B48;color:white;"><div id="Organization957" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Category:Organization_of_the_Ba%27ath_Party" title="Category:Organization of the Ba'ath Party">Organization</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;line-height:1.1em;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Ba%27athist_regional_branches" title="Category:Ba'athist regional branches">Regional branches</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;line-height:1.1em;">Iraqi-dominated faction</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_of_Algeria" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party of Algeria">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalist_Democratic_Assembly" title="Nationalist Democratic Assembly">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Egypt_Region" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Egypt Region">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Iraq_Region" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Iraq Region">Iraq</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Regional_Command_of_the_Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Iraq_Region" title="Regional Command of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Iraq Region">Regional Command</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordanian_Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party" title="Jordanian Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_Arab_Lebanon_Vanguard_Party" title="Socialist Arab Lebanon Vanguard Party">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libyan_Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party" title="Libyan Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Vanguard_Party" title="National Vanguard Party">Mauritania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Liberation_Front" title="Arab Liberation Front">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Region_of_Sudan" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Region of Sudan">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_Ba%27ath_Movement" title="Tunisian Ba'ath Movement">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Yemen_Region" title="National Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Yemen Region">Yemen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;line-height:1.1em;">Syrian-dominated faction</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Ba%27ath_Progressive_Party" title="Arab Ba'ath Progressive Party">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Lebanon_Region" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Lebanon Region">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_Democratic_Unionist_Party" title="Socialist Democratic Unionist Party">Mauritania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/As-Sa%27iqa" title="As-Sa'iqa">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Vanguard_Party_(South_Yemen)" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Vanguard Party (South Yemen)">South Yemen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Organization_of_Sudan" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Organization of Sudan">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Syria_Region" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region">Syria</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Command_of_the_Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Syria_Region" title="Central Command of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region">Central Command</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Syria_Region" title="History of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Security_Bureau_of_the_Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Syria_Region" title="National Security Bureau of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region">National Security Bureau</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Yemen_Region" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Yemen Region">Yemen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;line-height:1.1em;">Newspapers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Ba%27ath" title="Al-Ba'ath">Al-Ba'ath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sawt_al-Jamahir" title="Sawt al-Jamahir">Sawt al-Jamahir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Thawra_(newspaper)" title="Al-Thawra (newspaper)">Al-Thawra</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;line-height:1.1em;">Popular fronts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Progressive_Front_(Iraq)" title="National Progressive Front (Iraq)">National Progressive Front (Iraq)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Progressive_Front_(Syria)" title="National Progressive Front (Syria)">National Progressive Front (Syria)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;line-height:1.1em;">Wings</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;line-height:1.1em;">Paramilitary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Brigades" title="Ba'ath Brigades">Ba'ath Brigades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fedayeen_Saddam" title="Fedayeen Saddam">Fedayeen Saddam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Defense_Battalions_(Iraq)" title="National Defense Battalions (Iraq)">National Defense Battalions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_Army_(Iraq)" title="Popular Army (Iraq)">Popular Army</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;line-height:1.1em;">Youth</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_Youth_Union" title="Revolutionary Youth Union">Revolutionary Youth Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#017B48;color:white;"><div id="Associated_organizations957" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Category:Organizations_associated_with_the_Ba%27ath_Party" title="Category:Organizations associated with the Ba'ath Party">Associated organizations</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48; color:white; line-height:1.1em;">Armed groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Abud_Network" title="Al-Abud Network">Al-Abud Network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Army_of_the_Men_of_the_Naqshbandi_Order" title="Army of the Men of the Naqshbandi Order">Army of the Men of the Naqshbandi Order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Iraqi_Army" title="Free Iraqi Army">Free Iraqi Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_Military_Council_for_Iraqi_Revolutionaries" title="General Military Council for Iraqi Revolutionaries">General Military Council for Iraqi Revolutionaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeish_Muhammad" title="Jeish Muhammad">Jeish Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rejectionists" title="Rejectionists">Rejectionists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snake_Party" title="Snake Party">Snake Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Command_for_Jihad_and_Liberation" title="Supreme Command for Jihad and Liberation">Supreme Command for Jihad and Liberation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48; color:white; line-height:1.1em;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Ba%27ath_Party_breakaway_groups" title="Category:Ba'ath Party breakaway groups">Breakaway groups</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Revolutionary_Workers_Party" title="Arab Revolutionary Workers Party">Arab Revolutionary Workers Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Movement" title="Arab Socialist Movement">Arab Socialist Movement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Movement_(Damascus_branch)" title="Arab Socialist Movement (Damascus branch)">Damascus branch</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Revolutionary_Ba%27ath_Party" title="Arab Socialist Revolutionary Ba'ath Party">Arab Socialist Revolutionary Ba'ath Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_Toilers%27_Movement" title="Arabic Toilers' Movement">Arabic Toilers' Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Awda_(guerrilla_organization)" title="Al-Awda (guerrilla organization)">Al-Awda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Socialist_Arab_Ba%27ath_Party" title="Democratic Socialist Arab Ba'ath Party">Democratic Socialist Arab Ba'ath Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_Arab_Front" title="Palestinian Arab Front">Palestinian Arab Front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_Lebanon" title="Socialist Lebanon">Socialist Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sudanese_Ba%27ath_Party" title="Sudanese Ba'ath Party">Sudanese Ba'ath Party</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48; color:white; line-height:1.1em;">Political alliances</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;line-height:1.1em;">Current</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alliance_of_Palestinian_Forces" title="Alliance of Palestinian Forces">Alliance of Palestinian Forces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forces_of_Freedom_and_Change" title="Forces of Freedom and Change">Forces of Freedom and Change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_8_Alliance" title="March 8 Alliance">March 8 Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Consensus_Forces" title="National Consensus Forces">National Consensus Forces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Democratic_Alliance_(Sudan)" title="National Democratic Alliance (Sudan)">National Democratic Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestine_Liberation_Organization" title="Palestine Liberation Organization">Palestine Liberation Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_National_and_Islamic_Forces" title="Palestinian National and Islamic Forces">Palestinian National and Islamic Forces</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;line-height:1.1em;">Former</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahd_Bloc" title="Ahd Bloc">Ahd Bloc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Front_of_Patriotic_and_National_Parties" title="Front of Patriotic and National Parties">Front of Patriotic and National Parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_National_Movement" title="Lebanese National Movement">Lebanese National Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_National_Resistance_Front" title="Lebanese National Resistance Front">Lebanese National Resistance Front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Alliance_for_the_Liberation_of_Syria" title="National Alliance for the Liberation of Syria">National Alliance for the Liberation of Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Union_Front_(Iraq)" title="National Union Front (Iraq)">National Union Front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_National_Alliance" title="Palestinian National Alliance">Palestinian National Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_National_Salvation_Front" title="Palestinian National Salvation Front">Palestinian National Salvation Front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rejectionist_Front" title="Rejectionist Front">Rejectionist Front</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48; color:white; line-height:1.1em;">Political parties</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Union_Party_(Syria)" title="Arab Socialist Union Party (Syria)">Arab Socialist Union Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Democratic_Union_Party" title="Arab Democratic Union Party">Arab Democratic Union Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Socialist_Unionist_Party" title="Democratic Socialist Unionist Party">Democratic Socialist Unionist Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdistan_Revolutionary_Party" title="Kurdistan Revolutionary Party">Kurdistan Revolutionary Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libyan_National_Movement" title="Libyan National Movement">Libyan National Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Covenant_Party" title="National Covenant Party">National Covenant Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_Unity_Party_(Iraq)" title="Popular Unity Party (Iraq)">Popular Unity Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sawab_(Mauritania)" title="Sawab (Mauritania)">Sawab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_Democratic_Unionists" title="Social Democratic Unionists">Social Democratic Unionists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_Unionist_Party_(Syria)" title="Socialist Unionist Party (Syria)">Socialist Unionist Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Communist_Party" title="Syrian Communist Party">Syrian Communist Party</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Communist_Party_(Bakdash)" title="Syrian Communist Party (Bakdash)">Bakdash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Communist_Party_(Unified)" title="Syrian Communist Party (Unified)">Unified</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Social_Nationalist_Party" title="Syrian Social Nationalist Party">Syrian Social Nationalist Party</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Social_Nationalist_Party_in_Lebanon" title="Syrian Social Nationalist Party in Lebanon">in Lebanon</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48; color:white; line-height:1.1em;">Other organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/General_Federation_of_Trade_Unions_(Syria)" title="General Federation of Trade Unions (Syria)">General Federation of Trade Unions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_Union_of_Peasants" title="General Union of Peasants">General Union of Peasants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_Union_of_Syrian_Women" title="General Union of Syrian Women">General Union of Syrian Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#017B48;color:white;"><div id="Miscellaneous957" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Miscellaneous</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48; color:white; line-height:1.1em;">Ideology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-imperialism" title="Anti-imperialism">Anti-imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Zionism" title="Anti-Zionism">Anti-Zionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_nationalism" title="Arab nationalism">Arab nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_socialism" title="Arab socialism">Arab socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ba%27athism" title="Ba'athism">Ba'athism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Ba%27athism" title="Neo-Ba'athism">Neo-Ba'athism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Arabism" title="Pan-Arabism">Pan-Arabism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressivism" title="Progressivism">Progressivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">Republicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_socialism" title="Revolutionary socialism">Revolutionary socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saddamism" title="Saddamism">Saddamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secularism" title="Secularism">Secularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vanguardism" title="Vanguardism">Vanguardism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48; color:white; line-height:1.1em;">Literature</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Battle_for_One_Destiny" title="The Battle for One Destiny">The Battle for One Destiny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Way_of_Resurrection" title="On the Way of Resurrection">On the Way of Resurrection</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48; color:white; line-height:1.1em;">Symbolism</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wa%E1%B8%A5da,_%E1%B8%A4urriyya,_Ishtir%C4%81kiyya" title="Waḥda, Ḥurriyya, Ishtirākiyya">Waḥda, Ḥurriyya, Ishtirākiyya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ardulfurataini" title="Ardulfurataini">Ardulfurataini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Arab_colors" title="Pan-Arab colors">Pan-Arab colors</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="U.S._list_of_most-wanted_Iraqis93" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:U.S._list_of_most-wanted_Iraqis" title="Template:U.S. list of most-wanted Iraqis"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:U.S._list_of_most-wanted_Iraqis" title="Template talk:U.S. list of most-wanted Iraqis"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:U.S._list_of_most-wanted_Iraqis" title="Special:EditPage/Template:U.S. list of most-wanted Iraqis"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="U.S._list_of_most-wanted_Iraqis93" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/U.S._list_of_most-wanted_Iraqis" title="U.S. list of most-wanted Iraqis">U.S. list of most-wanted Iraqis</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">In <a href="/wiki/Most-wanted_Iraqi_playing_cards" title="Most-wanted Iraqi playing cards">playing cards</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Spades ♠</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Saddam Hussein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Hassan_al-Majid" title="Ali Hassan al-Majid">Ali Hassan al-Majid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohammed_Hamza_Zubeidi" title="Mohammed Hamza Zubeidi">Mohammed Hamza Zubeidi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibrahim_Ahmad_Abd_al-Sattar" title="Ibrahim Ahmad Abd al-Sattar">Ibrahim Ahmad Abd al-Sattar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamid_Raja_Shalah" title="Hamid Raja Shalah">Hamid Raja Shalah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rukan_Razuki_Abd_al-Ghafar" title="Rukan Razuki Abd al-Ghafar">Rukan Razuki Abd al-Ghafar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tariq_Aziz" title="Tariq Aziz">Tariq Aziz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahmud_Dhiyab" title="Mahmud Dhiyab">Mahmud Dhiyab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amer_Mohammad_Rashid" title="Amer Mohammad Rashid">Amer Mohammad Rashid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watban_Ibrahim" title="Watban Ibrahim">Watban Ibrahim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Zimam_Abd_Al-Razzaq" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad Zimam Abd Al-Razzaq">Muhammad Zimam Abd Al-Razzaq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saad_Abdul-Majid" title="Saad Abdul-Majid">Saad Abdul-Majid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rashid_Taan_Kazim" title="Rashid Taan Kazim">Rashid Taan Kazim</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Clubs ♣</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qusay_Hussein" title="Qusay Hussein">Qusay Hussein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Izzat_Ibrahim_al-Douri" title="Izzat Ibrahim al-Douri">Izzat Ibrahim al-Douri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamal_Mustafa_Abdullah" title="Kamal Mustafa Abdullah">Kamal Mustafa Abdullah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saif_Al-Din_Al-Rawi" title="Saif Al-Din Al-Rawi">Saif Al-Din Al-Rawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latif_Nassif_Jassim" title="Latif Nassif Jassim">Latif Nassif Jassim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamal_Mustafa_Abdullah" title="Jamal Mustafa Abdullah">Jamal Mustafa Abdullah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walid_Hamid_Tawfiq" title="Walid Hamid Tawfiq">Walid Hamid Tawfiq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iyad_Futayyih" title="Iyad Futayyih">Iyad Futayyih</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hossam_Mohammed_Amin" title="Hossam Mohammed Amin">Hossam Mohammed Amin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barzan_Ibrahim_al-Tikriti" title="Barzan Ibrahim al-Tikriti">Barzan Ibrahim al-Tikriti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samir_Abdul_Aziz_al-Najim" title="Samir Abdul Aziz al-Najim">Samir Abdul Aziz al-Najim</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sayf_al-Din_Al-Mashhadani&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sayf al-Din Al-Mashhadani (page does not exist)">Sayf al-Din Al-Mashhadani</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ugla_Abid_Saqr&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ugla Abid Saqr (page does not exist)">Ugla Abid Saqr</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Hearts ♥</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Uday_Hussein" title="Uday Hussein">Uday Hussein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hani_Abd_Latif_Tilfah" title="Hani Abd Latif Tilfah">Hani Abd Latif Tilfah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barzan_Abdul_Ghafoor_Sulaiman" class="mw-redirect" title="Barzan Abdul Ghafoor Sulaiman">Barzan Abdul Ghafoor Sulaiman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rafi_Abd_Latif_Tilfah" title="Rafi Abd Latif Tilfah">Rafi Abd Latif Tilfah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Tawab_Mullah_Huwaysh" title="Abd al-Tawab Mullah Huwaysh">Abd al-Tawab Mullah Huwaysh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizban_Khadr_al-Hadi" title="Mizban Khadr al-Hadi">Mizban Khadr al-Hadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sultan_Hashim" class="mw-redirect" title="Sultan Hashim">Sultan Hashim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zuhayr_Talib_Abd_al-Sattar_al-Naqib" title="Zuhayr Talib Abd al-Sattar al-Naqib">Zuhayr Talib Abd al-Sattar al-Naqib</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Mahdi_Salih" title="Muhammad Mahdi Salih">Muhammad Mahdi Salih</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huda_Salih_Mahdi_Ammash" title="Huda Salih Mahdi Ammash">Huda Salih Mahdi Ammash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humam_Abd_al-Khaliq_Abd_al-Ghafur" title="Humam Abd al-Khaliq Abd al-Ghafur">Humam Abd al-Khaliq Abd al-Ghafur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fadil_Mahmud_Gharib" title="Fadil Mahmud Gharib">Fadil Mahmud Gharib</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghazi_Hammud" class="mw-redirect" title="Ghazi Hammud">Ghazi Hammud</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Diamonds ♦</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abid_Hamid_Mahmud" title="Abid Hamid Mahmud">Abid Hamid Mahmud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aziz_Saleh_Al-Numan" title="Aziz Saleh Al-Numan">Aziz Saleh Al-Numan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muzahim_Saab_Hassan" title="Muzahim Saab Hassan">Muzahim Saab Hassan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tahir_Jalil_Habbush" title="Tahir Jalil Habbush">Tahir Jalil Habbush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taha_Yassin_Ramadan" title="Taha Yassin Ramadan">Taha Yassin Ramadan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taha_Muhie-eldin_Marouf" title="Taha Muhie-eldin Marouf">Taha Muhie-eldin Marouf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hikmat_Mizban_Ibrahim" title="Hikmat Mizban Ibrahim">Hikmat Mizban Ibrahim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amir_Hamudi_Hasan_al-Sadi" title="Amir Hamudi Hasan al-Sadi">Amir Hamudi Hasan al-Sadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sabawi_Ibrahim_al-Tikriti" title="Sabawi Ibrahim al-Tikriti">Sabawi Ibrahim al-Tikriti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abd_Al-Baqi_Abd_Karim_Al-Sadun" title="Abd Al-Baqi Abd Karim Al-Sadun">Abd Al-Baqi Abd Karim Al-Sadun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yahya_Abdallah_al-Ubaydi" title="Yahya Abdallah al-Ubaydi">Yahya Abdallah al-Ubaydi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhsin_Khidr_al-Khafaji" title="Muhsin Khidr al-Khafaji">Muhsin Khidr al-Khafaji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adil_Abdallah_Mahdi" class="mw-redirect" title="Adil Abdallah Mahdi">Adil Abdallah Mahdi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nayif_Shindakh_Thamir" class="mw-redirect" title="Nayif Shindakh Thamir">Nayif Shindakh Thamir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Husayn_al-Awadi" class="mw-redirect" title="Husayn al-Awadi">Husayn al-Awadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khamis_Sirhan" title="Khamis Sirhan">Khamis Sirhan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Arab_nationalism328" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Arab_nationalism" title="Template:Arab nationalism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Arab_nationalism" title="Template talk:Arab nationalism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Arab_nationalism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Arab nationalism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Arab_nationalism328" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Arab_nationalism" title="Arab nationalism">Arab nationalism</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ideology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_socialism" title="Arab socialism">Arab socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ba%27athism" title="Ba'athism">Ba'athism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nasserism" title="Nasserism">Nasserism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Arabism" title="Pan-Arabism">Pan-Arabism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_International_Theory" title="Third International Theory">Third International Theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Revolt" title="Arab Revolt">Arab Revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intercommunal_conflict_in_Mandatory_Palestine" title="Intercommunal conflict in Mandatory Palestine">Intercommunal conflict in Mandatory Palestine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1936%E2%80%931939_Arab_revolt_in_Palestine" title="1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine">1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Revolt" title="Iraqi Revolt">Iraqi Revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_separatism_in_Khuzestan" title="Arab separatism in Khuzestan">Arab separatism in Khuzestan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1979_Khuzestan_insurgency" title="1979 Khuzestan insurgency">1979 Khuzestan insurgency</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Syrian_Revolt" title="Great Syrian Revolt">Great Syrian Revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1941_Iraqi_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1941 Iraqi coup d'état">1941 Iraqi coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Iraqi_War" title="Anglo-Iraqi War">Anglo-Iraqi War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_conflict" title="Arab–Israeli conflict">Arab–Israeli conflict</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Suez_Crisis" title="Suez Crisis">Suez Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Six-Day_War" title="Six-Day War">Six-Day War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_Attrition" title="War of Attrition">War of Attrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yom_Kippur_War" title="Yom Kippur War">Yom Kippur War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israeli%E2%80%93Palestinian_conflict" title="Israeli–Palestinian conflict">Israeli–Palestinian conflict</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1952_Egyptian_revolution" title="1952 Egyptian revolution">1952 Egyptian revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Intifada_(1952)" title="Iraqi Intifada (1952)">Iraqi Intifada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_War" title="Algerian War">Algerian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/14_July_Revolution" title="14 July Revolution">14 July Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1959_Mosul_uprising" title="1959 Mosul uprising">1959 Mosul uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1961_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1961 Syrian coup d'état">1961 Syrian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Cold_War" title="Arab Cold War">Arab Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Yemen_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="North Yemen Civil War">North Yemen Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramadan_Revolution" title="Ramadan Revolution">Ramadan Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1963_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1963 Syrian coup d'état">1963 Syrian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhofar_War" title="Dhofar War">Dhofar War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/November_1963_Iraqi_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="November 1963 Iraqi coup d'état">November 1963 Iraqi coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aden_Emergency" title="Aden Emergency">Aden Emergency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1966_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1966 Syrian coup d'état">1966 Syrian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/17_July_Revolution" title="17 July Revolution">17 July Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1969_Sudanese_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1969 Sudanese coup d'état">1969 Sudanese coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1969_Libyan_revolution" title="1969 Libyan revolution">1969 Libyan revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_September" title="Black September">Black September</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Civil_War" title="Lebanese Civil War">Lebanese Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Saudi_Arabia_proxy_conflict" title="Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict">Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemeni_unification" title="Yemeni unification">Yemeni unification</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_identity" title="Arab identity">Arab identity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Union" title="Arab Union">Arab Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_world" title="Arab world">Arab world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabization" title="Arabization">Arabization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Arab_nationalists" title="Category:Arab nationalists">Personalities</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Butrus_al-Bustani" title="Butrus al-Bustani">Butrus al-Bustani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Aflaq" title="Michel Aflaq">Michel Aflaq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jassem_Alwan" title="Jassem Alwan">Jassem Alwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yasser_Arafat" title="Yasser Arafat">Yasser Arafat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdul_Rahman_Arif" title="Abdul Rahman Arif">Abdul Rahman Arif</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdul_Salam_Arif" title="Abdul Salam Arif">Abdul Salam Arif</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaki_al-Arsuzi" title="Zaki al-Arsuzi">Zaki al-Arsuzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bashar_al-Assad" title="Bashar al-Assad">Bashar al-Assad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hafez_al-Assad" title="Hafez al-Assad">Hafez al-Assad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamal_al-Atassi" title="Jamal al-Atassi">Jamal al-Atassi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mansur_al-Atrash" title="Mansur al-Atrash">Mansur al-Atrash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sultan_al-Atrash" title="Sultan al-Atrash">Sultan al-Atrash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tariq_Aziz" title="Tariq Aziz">Tariq Aziz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Hassan_al-Bakr" title="Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr">Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Ben_Bella" title="Ahmed Ben Bella">Ahmed Ben Bella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salah_al-Din_al-Bitar" title="Salah al-Din al-Bitar">Salah al-Din al-Bitar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Izzat_Darwaza" title="Izzat Darwaza">Izzat Darwaza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faisal_I_of_Iraq" title="Faisal I of Iraq">Faisal I of Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muammar_Gaddafi" title="Muammar Gaddafi">Muammar Gaddafi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rashid_Ali_al-Gaylani" title="Rashid Ali al-Gaylani">Rashid Ali al-Gaylani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Habash" title="George Habash">George Habash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sati%27_al-Husri" title="Sati' al-Husri">Sati' al-Husri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hussein_bin_Ali,_King_of_Hejaz" title="Hussein bin Ali, King of Hejaz">Hussein bin Ali, King of Hejaz</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Saddam Hussein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amin_al-Husseini" title="Amin al-Husseini">Amin al-Husseini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salah_Jadid" title="Salah Jadid">Salah Jadid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Rahman_al-Kawakibi" title="Abd al-Rahman al-Kawakibi">Abd al-Rahman al-Kawakibi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Most%C3%A9fa_Merarda" title="Mostéfa Merarda">Mostéfa Merarda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamal_Abdel_Nasser" title="Gamal Abdel Nasser">Gamal Abdel Nasser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adnan_Pachachi" title="Adnan Pachachi">Adnan Pachachi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ameen_Rihani" title="Ameen Rihani">Ameen Rihani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuad_al-Rikabi" title="Fuad al-Rikabi">Fuad al-Rikabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdullah_Rimawi" title="Abdullah Rimawi">Abdullah Rimawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamdeen_Sabahi" title="Hamdeen Sabahi">Hamdeen Sabahi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantin_Zureiq" title="Constantin Zureiq">Constantin Zureiq</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Arab_nationalist_parties" title="List of Arab nationalist parties">Organizations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Awda_(guerrilla_organization)" title="Al-Awda (guerrilla organization)">Al-Awda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Fatat" title="Al-Fatat">Al-Fatat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mourabitoun" title="Al-Mourabitoun">Al-Mourabitoun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Ba%27ath" title="Arab Ba'ath">Arab Ba'ath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Ba%27ath_Movement" title="Arab Ba'ath Movement">Arab Ba'ath Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Federation" title="Arab Federation">Arab Federation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Higher_Committee" title="Arab Higher Committee">Arab Higher Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Islamic_Republic" title="Arab Islamic Republic">Arab Islamic Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Liberation_Army" title="Arab Liberation Army">Arab Liberation Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Nationalist_Movement" title="Arab Nationalist Movement">Arab Nationalist Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Action_Party" title="Arab Socialist Action Party">Arab Socialist Action Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Union_(Egypt)" title="Arab Socialist Union (Egypt)">Arab Socialist Union (Egypt)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Union_(Iraq)" title="Arab Socialist Union (Iraq)">Arab Socialist Union (Iraq)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Union_(Libya)" title="Arab Socialist Union (Libya)">Arab Socialist Union (Libya)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Union_Party_(Syria)" title="Arab Socialist Union Party (Syria)">Arab Socialist Union Party (Syria)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula_People%27s_Union" title="Arabian Peninsula People's Union">Arabian Peninsula People's Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Army_of_the_Men_of_the_Naqshbandi_Order" title="Army of the Men of the Naqshbandi Order">Army of the Men of the Naqshbandi Order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party" title="Ba'ath Party">Ba'ath Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party_(Iraqi-dominated_faction)" title="Ba'ath Party (Iraqi-dominated faction)">Ba'ath Party (Iraqi-dominated faction)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party_(Syrian-dominated_faction)" title="Ba'ath Party (Syrian-dominated faction)">Ba'ath Party (Syrian-dominated faction)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fatah" title="Fatah">Fatah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federation_of_Arab_Republics" title="Federation of Arab Republics">Federation of Arab Republics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_Military_Council_for_Iraqi_Revolutionaries" title="General Military Council for Iraqi Revolutionaries">General Military Council for Iraqi Revolutionaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independence_Party_(Mandatory_Palestine)" title="Independence Party (Mandatory Palestine)">Independence Party (Mandatory Palestine)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_Legion" title="Islamic Legion">Islamic Legion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_National_Movement" title="Lebanese National Movement">Lebanese National Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Liberation_Front_(Algeria)" title="National Liberation Front (Algeria)">National Liberation Front (Algeria)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestine_Liberation_Organization" title="Palestine Liberation Organization">Palestine Liberation Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_Front_for_the_Liberation_of_Palestine" title="Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine">Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rejectionist_Front" title="Rejectionist Front">Rejectionist Front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Command_for_Jihad_and_Liberation" title="Supreme Command for Jihad and Liberation">Supreme Command for Jihad and Liberation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unified_Political_Command" title="Unified Political Command">Unified Political Command</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_of_Arab_Republics_(1972)" title="Union of Arab Republics (1972)">Union of Arab Republics (1972)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Arab_Republic" title="United Arab Republic">United Arab Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Arab_States" title="United Arab States">United Arab States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Literature</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Arab_Awakening" title="The Arab Awakening">The Arab Awakening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Battle_for_One_Destiny" title="The Battle for One Destiny">The Battle for One Destiny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Way_of_Resurrection" title="On the Way of Resurrection">On the Way of Resurrection</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Arab_nationalist_symbols" title="Category:Arab nationalist symbols">Symbolism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Liberation_Flag" title="Arab Liberation Flag">Arab Liberation Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_the_United_Arab_Republic" title="Coat of arms of the United Arab Republic">Coat of arms of the United Arab Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eagle_of_Saladin" title="Eagle of Saladin">Eagle of Saladin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_Arab_Federation" title="Flag of the Arab Federation">Flag of the Arab Federation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_Arab_Revolt" title="Flag of the Arab Revolt">Flag of the Arab Revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_Federation_of_Arab_Republics" title="Flag of the Federation of Arab Republics">Flag of the Federation of Arab Republics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_United_Arab_Republic" title="Flag of the United Arab Republic">Flag of the United Arab Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawk_of_Quraish" title="Hawk of Quraish">Hawk of Quraish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Arab_colors" title="Pan-Arab colors">Pan-Arab colors</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_nationalism" title="Algerian nationalism">Algerian nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_nationalism" title="Egyptian nationalism">Egyptian nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Mauritania" title="Greater Mauritania">Greater Mauritania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Morocco" title="Greater Morocco">Greater Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syria_(region)" title="Syria (region)">Greater Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Yemen" title="Greater Yemen">Greater Yemen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_nationalism" title="Iraqi nationalism">Iraqi nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordanian_nationalism" title="Jordanian nationalism">Jordanian nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_nationalism" title="Lebanese nationalism">Lebanese nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libyan_nationalism" title="Libyan nationalism">Libyan nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_nationalism" title="Palestinian nationalism">Palestinian nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Islamism" title="Pan-Islamism">Pan-Islamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sahrawi_nationalism" title="Sahrawi nationalism">Sahrawi nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_nationalism" title="Syrian nationalism">Syrian nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_nationalism" title="Tunisian nationalism">Tunisian nationalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Arab_nationalism" title="Category:Arab nationalism">Category</a></li></ul> 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</div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-b766959bd-tdwjm","wgBackendResponseTime":165,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"3.458","walltime":"4.049","ppvisitednodes":{"value":38757,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":1072541,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":51174,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":23,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":41,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":1378610,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 3417.316 1 -total"," 41.33% 1412.459 2 Template:Reflist"," 17.04% 582.171 1 Template:Infobox_officeholder"," 14.84% 507.203 138 Template:Cite_web"," 10.66% 364.368 81 Template:Cite_news"," 7.96% 272.124 62 Template:Cite_book"," 5.70% 194.618 3 Template:Efn"," 5.26% 179.898 17 Template:Infobox_officeholder/office"," 3.95% 134.976 1 Template:Infobox_criminal"," 3.67% 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[\"CITEREFBumiller2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBurkeVulliamyBeaverYork2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBurns2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBurns2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBush\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBush2002\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFBy1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBy2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCampbell2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCitino2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClarkMcIntyrePayneStarr2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCoughlin2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCowell1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDiamond2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDickey,_Christopher2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDysonCetorelli2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFaleh2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFarouk–SluglettSluglett2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFaust2015\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFGalbraith2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGibson2015\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFGoldberg1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGuitta2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHahn2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarvey2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHassan2018\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFHayes2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaynes2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHiltermann2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHiltermann2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHiro2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHusham_Al-Hashimi2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIbrahim\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFIraq2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIslamcorrespondent2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIsmaelIsmaelPerry2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJack\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJacobsen2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJawad2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJoffe2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJordan2021\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFJoyce_Battle2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKarounyVillelabeitia2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKarshRautsi2002\"] = 12,\n [\"CITEREFKelidar1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLittle2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMacAskillMacalister2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMacAskilleditor2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMacDonald2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMacFarquhar2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMacKey2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMagid2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMakiya1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMakiya1998\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFMargonelli2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMatthews2011\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFMedoff2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMehdi2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMitchel2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoore2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoore2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMurrayWoods2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNewtonScharf2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNixon2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNotzonNesom2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOsgood2009\"] = 4,\n [\"CITEREFPelley2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPfeifer2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPhilp2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPierson\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPolk2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPolon2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPost\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPost1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRasheed2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRawat2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobinson2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoxborough2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRubin2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSale2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSassoon2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSassoon2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchmemannTimes1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShane2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShenonTimes1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSheri_\u0026amp;_Bob_Stritof2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShewchuk2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSimons1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSluglett\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSly2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSpagat2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStaff2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTemkoBeaumont2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTimes1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTripp2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTripp2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTunzelmann2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUddin2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWaterbury2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWe_Are_The_Mighty2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeiner2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWest2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWistrich2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWolfe-Hunnicutt2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWolfe-Hunnicutt2021\"] = 4,\n [\"CITEREFWolfe-HunnicuttMiddle_East_Studies_Pedagogy_Initiative_(MESPI)2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWoodsStout2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWrzesniewski2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFalwatan2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFbataween2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFלרון2021\"] = 1,\n [\"Invasion_of_Iraq_in_2003\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 13,\n [\"Anchor\"] = 1,\n [\"Arab nationalism\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Ba'ath Party\"] = 1,\n [\"Ba'athism sidebar\"] = 1,\n [\"Birth date\"] = 1,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 3,\n [\"C-SPAN\"] = 1,\n [\"Circa\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation\"] = 2,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 62,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 17,\n [\"Cite magazine\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 81,\n [\"Cite speech\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite thesis\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 138,\n [\"Convert\"] = 1,\n [\"DEFAULTSORT:Hussein, Saddam\"] = 1,\n [\"Death date and age\"] = 1,\n [\"Efn\"] = 3,\n [\"Executed\"] = 1,\n [\"Further\"] = 1,\n [\"Hlist\"] = 1,\n [\"IPA\"] = 2,\n [\"IPAc-en\"] = 1,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 2,\n [\"Infobox criminal\"] = 1,\n [\"Infobox officeholder\"] = 1,\n [\"Iraq topics\"] = 1,\n [\"IraqiPMs\"] = 1,\n [\"IraqiPres\"] = 1,\n [\"Langx\"] = 3,\n [\"Listen\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 13,\n [\"Marriage\"] = 2,\n [\"Multiple image\"] = 1,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"Overcite\"] = 1,\n [\"Plainlist\"] = 2,\n [\"Portal\"] = 1,\n [\"Pow\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp-move\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp-semi-indef\"] = 1,\n [\"Quote\"] = 1,\n [\"Quote box\"] = 1,\n [\"Redirect\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Respell\"] = 1,\n [\"Rp\"] = 1,\n [\"S-aft\"] = 4,\n [\"S-bef\"] = 3,\n [\"S-end\"] = 1,\n [\"S-off\"] = 1,\n [\"S-ppo\"] = 1,\n [\"S-start\"] = 1,\n [\"S-ttl\"] = 4,\n [\"Saddam Hussein\"] = 1,\n [\"Saddam Hussein series\"] = 1,\n [\"Script/Arabic\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 3,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 4,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Sister project links\"] = 1,\n [\"Small\"] = 1,\n [\"Subscription required\"] = 1,\n [\"Tree list\"] = 1,\n [\"Tree list/end\"] = 1,\n [\"U.S. list of most-wanted Iraqis\"] = 1,\n [\"Ubl\"] = 4,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 7,\n [\"Who\"] = 1,\n [\"YouTube\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\nciteref_patterns = table#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["?","480","20.3"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","480","20.3"],["dataWrapper 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Hussein","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Saddam_Hussein","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q1316","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q1316","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2002-01-10T16:03:29Z","dateModified":"2025-02-16T21:13:33Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/9\/9a\/Saddam_Hussein_in_1998.png","headline":"Iraqi president, army officer and Baathist politician (1937\u20132006)"}</script> </body> </html>