CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html id="top" lang="en-US" itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/WebPage">   <head> <title>Encyclopaedia Iranica</title> <meta charset="utf-8" /> <meta name="description" content="The Encyclopaedia Iranica is a comprehensive research tool dedicated to the study of Iranian civilization in the Middle East, the Caucasus, Central Asia, and the Indian subcontinent"> <meta name="keywords" content="iran, persia iran history, persia history, persian language, afghanistan, central asia, zoroastrianism, shi’ism" /> <meta name="author" content="Encyclopaedia Iranica Foundation" /> <meta name="thumbnail" content="https://iranicaonline.org/webroot/uploads/images/og/vol-16.jpg"> <link rel="alternate" href="" title="RSS Feed" type="application/rss+xml" />  <link rel="stylesheet" href="https://iranicaonline.org/app/webroot/css/global.css" />  <meta property="og:title" content="Welcome to Encyclopaedia Iranica" /> <meta property="og:description" content="The Encyclopaedia Iranica is a comprehensive research tool dedicated to the study of Iranian civilization in the Middle East, the Caucasus, Central Asia, and the Indian subcontinent" /> <meta property="og:image" content="https://iranicaonline.org/webroot/uploads/images/og/vol-16.jpg" /> <meta property="og:url" content="https://iranicaonline.org" /> <meta property="og:type" content="article" />  <meta name="twitter:card" content="summary_large_image" /> <meta name="twitter:title" content="Welcome to Encyclopaedia Iranica" /> <meta name="twitter:description" content="The Encyclopaedia Iranica is a comprehensive research tool dedicated to the study of Iranian civilization in the Middle East, the Caucasus, Central Asia, and the Indian subcontinent" /> <meta name="twitter:image:src" content="https://iranicaonline.org/webroot/uploads/images/og/vol-16.jpg" /> <meta name="twitter:creator" content="Encyclopaedia Iranica Foundation" /> <meta name="twitter:site" content="https://iranicaonline.org" /> <meta name="twitter:domain" content="iranicaonline.org" />  <link rel="shortcut icon" href="https://iranicaonline.org/favicon.ico" /> <link rel="icon" href="https://iranicaonline.org/favicon.ico" /> <link rel="apple-touch-icon-precomposed" href="https://iranicaonline.org/apple-touch-icon-precomposed.png" />  <script src="/js/jquery-1.3.2.min.js" type="text/javascript" charset="utf-8"></script> <script src="/js/jquery-ui-1.7.2.custom.min.js" type="text/javascript" charset="utf-8"></script> <script src="/js/global.js" type="text/javascript" charset="utf-8"></script>  <script type="text/javascript" src="/js/article_index.js"></script> </head> <body> <div id="ornament"> <div id="wrap"> <div id="navigation-sidebar">  <div style="width: 93px; height: 142px; margin-bottom: 20px; margin-left: 12px;" alt="Iranica Logo" border="0" /><a href="/"> <svg enable-background="new 0 0 93 142" version="1.1" viewBox="0 0 93 142" xml:space="preserve" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"> <style type="text/css">.st0{fill:#4A5C6B;}.st1{fill:#B7D1E3;}</style> <path class="st0" d="m46.5 142c-0.8 0-1.6-0.4-2-1.1v-0.1c-0.3-0.5-0.9-1.5-1.1-3.4v-0.4c-0.1-2.5-0.3-4-0.5-4.7 0-0.1-0.1-0.2-0.2-0.3-0.2-0.3-0.5-0.7-0.7-1l-0.1-0.1c-0.7-0.9-1.4-1.9-1.9-3.2-0.1-0.3-0.4-0.6-0.7-0.8-0.2-0.2-0.6-0.4-0.8-0.5h-0.1c-0.5-0.3-1.2-0.7-1.8-1.2-2.6-1.9-4.8-7-4.9-8.9v-0.1c0-0.2 0-0.4 0.1-0.6 0-0.1 0.1-0.3 0.2-0.5 0.2-0.5 0.2-1-0.1-1.5-0.2-0.5-0.7-0.8-1.2-0.9-5.4-1.2-9.2-4-11.5-8.3-1.7-3.2-1.9-7.4-0.5-11.3 0.2-0.7 0-1.4-0.5-1.8-0.3-0.3-0.7-0.4-1.1-0.4-0.3 0-0.5 0.1-0.8 0.2-1.1 0.5-2.2 0.8-3.2 0.8-2.1 0-4.1-1.2-5.3-3.2 0 0 0-0.1-0.1-0.1-0.1-0.1-0.1-0.1-0.1-0.2v-0.1c-0.6-1.7-0.4-3.4 0.6-4.9 0.6-0.9 1.6-1.7 2.7-2.3 0.6-0.3 1-1 0.9-1.7s-0.6-1.3-1.3-1.4h-0.1c-0.3-0.1-0.6-0.2-1-0.2-0.5 0-0.9 0.1-1.6 0.4l-0.3 0.1c-0.9 0.3-2 0.7-3.5 0.7-0.6 0-1.3-0.1-1.9-0.2-0.1 0-0.2-0.1-0.4-0.1-1-0.6-1.7-1.6-1.7-2.7 0-1.4 1.2-2.5 2.3-3 0.1-0.1 0.3-0.1 0.4-0.2 0.4-0.3 1.4-1.4 1.7-3.9 0.1-1.3 0.2-2.3 0.3-3.3v-0.2c0.3-2.8 0.5-5.5 1.7-8.7 1.6-4.3 5.4-10.3 8-12.7 0.8-0.7 1-1 1.3-1.7v-0.1-0.1c0.2-0.5 0.6-1.5 1.7-3.1 3-4.4 7.1-6 13.1-7.3 0.7-0.1 1.2-0.7 1.3-1.4s-0.2-1.4-0.8-1.8c-0.1-0.1-0.3-0.2-0.5-0.4-0.5-0.5-0.8-1.3-0.7-2.1 0.2-1.8 3.5-5.6 6.5-8.3 0.2-0.2 0.4-0.5 0.5-0.7 0.8-2.3 2-4.7 3.4-6.6 0.1-0.2 0.3-0.3 0.4-0.5 0.1-0.1 0.2-0.2 0.3-0.4 1-1.2 1.5-1.9 1.7-3.1 0.3-0.5 0.4-0.9 0.4-1.3 0-0.3 0.1-0.5 0.1-0.7v-0.2c0.1-1.1 0.2-1.4 0.3-1.8 0.3-0.8 0.9-1.6 1.6-2 0.5-0.3 1-0.4 1.4-0.4h0.1c0.5 0 1 0.2 1.4 0.4h0.1c0.7 0.4 1.2 1.1 1.5 1.9 0.1 0.4 0.2 0.9 0.4 2 0 0.2 0.1 0.4 0.1 0.6 0 0.5 0 0.9 0.1 1.5 0.2 1.2 0.8 2 1.7 3.2l0.3 0.3c0.2 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.5 1.4 1.9 2.6 4.3 3.4 6.6 0.1 0.3 0.3 0.5 0.5 0.7 3.1 2.7 6.3 6.5 6.5 8.3 0.1 0.8-0.2 1.6-0.7 2.1-0.2 0.1-0.3 0.3-0.4 0.4-0.6 0.4-0.9 1.1-0.8 1.8s0.7 1.2 1.3 1.4c8 1.7 10.9 3.9 13.1 7.3 0.9 1.3 1.3 2.3 1.6 2.9l0.1 0.2c0.3 0.9 0.6 1.1 1.4 1.9 2.6 2.5 6.4 8.4 8 12.7 1.2 3.2 1.4 5.7 1.7 8.7v0.1c0 0.4 0.1 0.8 0.1 1.2 0.1 0.7 0.1 1.3 0.2 2.1 0.3 2.3 1.1 3.3 1.4 3.6 0.2 0.2 0.4 0.4 0.7 0.5 0.9 0.4 2.3 1.5 2.3 3 0 1.1-0.7 2.1-1.8 2.5-0.1 0-0.3 0.1-0.3 0.1-0.7 0.1-1.3 0.2-2 0.2-1.5 0-2.6-0.4-3.6-0.7l-0.1-0.1c-0.6-0.2-1-0.4-1.6-0.4-0.4 0-0.9 0.1-1.3 0.2-0.6 0.2-1.1 0.8-1.1 1.5-0.1 0.7 0.3 1.3 0.9 1.6 1.1 0.6 2.1 1.5 2.7 2.4 1 1.4 1.2 3.2 0.6 4.9v0.1c0 0.1-0.1 0.2-0.1 0.2s0 0.1-0.1 0.1c-1.2 2.1-3.1 3.2-5.3 3.2-1 0-2.1-0.3-3.2-0.8-0.2-0.1-0.5-0.2-0.8-0.2-0.4 0-0.8 0.1-1.1 0.4-0.5 0.5-0.7 1.2-0.5 1.8 1.3 3.9 1.1 8-0.5 11.3-2.2 4.3-6.1 7.1-11.5 8.3-0.5 0.1-0.9 0.4-1.2 0.9-0.2 0.5-0.3 1 0 1.5 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.4 0.2 0.5 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.4 0 0.6v0.1c-0.1 1.9-2.3 7.1-4.9 8.9l-1.8 1.2c-0.3 0.2-0.7 0.4-1 0.7-0.3 0.2-0.5 0.5-0.6 0.7-0.5 1.3-1.2 2.3-1.9 3.3-0.2 0.3-0.6 0.7-0.7 1-0.1 0.1-0.1 0.2-0.2 0.3-0.2 0.6-0.4 2.2-0.5 4.7v0.3 0.1c0 0.1-0.2 2.1-1.1 3.4 0 0 0 0.1-0.1 0.1-0.3 0.8-1 1.2-1.9 1.2z"/> <path class="st1" d="m89.8 75.1c-0.3-0.1-3-1.3-3.5-6.1s-0.4-7.7-1.9-11.6-5-9.6-7.4-11.8-1.3-2.3-3.4-5.4-4.6-5.2-14.9-6.9c-4.2-0.7-5.2-0.6-4.7-2.1s2.8-5.2 4.1-5.3 2 1 2.4 0.4c0.5-0.5-4.3-6.1-6.5-7.6-0.6-2.4-2-5.2-3.3-7s-2.6-3-2.9-5.2-0.4-3.3-0.6-3.6c-0.1-0.3-0.4-0.6-0.7-0.7-0.3 0.1-0.6 0.4-0.7 0.7s-0.2 1.4-0.6 3.6c-0.3 2.2-1.5 3.4-2.9 5.2s-2.8 4.5-3.3 7c-2.2 1.4-7.1 7.1-6.5 7.6 0.5 0.5 1.1-0.5 2.4-0.4s3.6 3.8 4.1 5.3-0.4 1.4-4.7 2.1c-10.2 1.6-12.8 3.8-14.9 6.9s-1 3.2-3.4 5.4-5.9 7.9-7.4 11.8-1.3 6.8-1.9 11.6-3.2 6-3.5 6.1-1.2 0.8-0.6 1.1c4.1 0.8 4.7-1.9 8.6-0.7 3.9 1.1 4.4 5.1 4.3 6.5-2.1 0-6.9 2.1-5.6 5.4 1.9 3.2 5.1 2.2 7.4 0 2.2-2.2 0.6-7-0.5-10.4s-1.7-6.9-1.3-10.4 3.5-8.1 5.7-12.9 0.6-7.8 0.4-8c-0.1-0.3-1.2-1.3 1.2-4.6 5.4-5.4 15.3-5.6 15.9-5.6s1.5 0.4 0.9 1.7c-2.8 4.2-7.4 4.4-8.4 4.5-1 0.2-0.8 0.7-0.7 2.3 0.1 1.7-1.3 4.7-3.6 7.2s-6.6 10.3-7.3 14.4 0.8 13.1 1.4 13.1 0.5-2.1 0.6-2.9 0.8-7.2 2.9-7.8 2.6 0.1 4.5 1.7c2.8 2 5.6 0.2 6.1-0.1 0.4-0.3 2.9-0.7 3.2-0.5s1.3 0.7 1.5 0.8 0.3 0.5 0.1 0.8c-0.4 0.4-3 2.7-3.6 4.2-3.2 0.1-5 1.4-6 3.7-4.6 1.3-4.3 5.8-4.2 8.4-5 2.7-7.8 10.4-4.9 16.1s8.6 6.9 10.3 7.2c1.4 0.3 2.4-0.2 3.5 0.5 1.6 1.4 5.7 2.1 7.8 2 0.3 2.1 1.2 2.8 1.6 3.1 0.3 0.3 0.2 1-0.3 1-0.4 0.1-1.6 1.1-1.7 1.3s0.1 0.4-1.7 0.6c-3.6 0.3-5.6-2.1-5.9-2.4s-0.6-1-0.7-0.5c0.1 1.3 2 5.8 3.9 7.1s3.6 2 4.1 3.3c0.6 2 2.2 3.4 2.8 4.7s0.8 4.8 0.8 6.1c0 0.8 0.4 2 0.8 2.3h0.1s0 0 0.1 0c0.3-0.2 0.7-1.5 0.8-2.3 0.1-1.3 0.2-4.8 0.8-6.1s2.2-2.7 2.8-4.7c0.4-1.3 2.2-1.9 4.1-3.3s3.9-5.8 3.9-7.1c-0.1-0.4-0.4 0.2-0.7 0.5s-2.3 2.7-5.9 2.4c-1.8-0.2-1.6-0.3-1.7-0.6s-1.3-1.3-1.7-1.3c-0.4-0.1-0.6-0.7-0.3-1s1.2-1 1.5-3.1c2.1 0.1 6.2-0.6 7.8-2 1.1-0.7 2.1-0.2 3.5-0.5 1.7-0.3 7.4-1.5 10.3-7.2s0.1-13.3-4.9-16.1c0.1-2.6 0.4-7.1-4.2-8.4-1-2.3-2.8-3.6-6-3.7-0.7-1.4-3.2-3.7-3.6-4.2-0.3-0.3-0.2-0.7 0.1-0.8s1.2-0.7 1.5-0.8c0.3-0.2 2.8 0.3 3.2 0.5 0.4 0.3 3.3 2.1 6.1 0.1 1.9-1.6 2.4-2.2 4.5-1.7s2.9 6.9 2.9 7.8c0.1 0.8 0 2.9 0.6 2.9s2-9 1.4-13.1-5-11.9-7.3-14.4-3.7-5.6-3.6-7.2c0.1-1.7 0.3-2.2-0.7-2.3-1-0.2-5.6-0.3-8.4-4.5-0.7-1.3 0.3-1.7 0.9-1.7s10.6 0.2 15.9 5.6c2.4 3.3 1.3 4.3 1.2 4.6s-1.7 3.2 0.4 8 5.3 9.4 5.7 12.9-0.2 7-1.3 10.4-2.8 8.2-0.5 10.4c2.2 2.2 5.5 3.2 7.4 0 1.2-3.3-3.6-5.4-5.6-5.4-0.1-1.4 0.4-5.4 4.3-6.5s4.5 1.5 8.6 0.7c0.5-0.2-0.4-1-0.7-1.1m-50.7-10.8c-1-3.1-5.5-5.5-6.1-6s0.6-2 1-3.3c0.4-1.4 1.3-6.6 1.2-8.3-0.1-1 1-1.4 1.9-1.9 0.8-0.4 4.6-3.8 5.4-6.8 0.1-0.5 0.5-0.3 1.2 0.5s1.9 2.3 1.2 3.7c-0.4 0.9-2 1.6-4.2 3-2.3 1.3-5.1 4.2-3.2 9.5 2 5.4 5.4 8 6.1 9.3s1.6 3.3 0.3 4.1-1.6 0.8-1.8 0.7c-0.7-0.2-2.1-1.4-3-4.5m7.5-33.8c0.3 0.2 1.7 1.2 1.7 2.4 0 1.5-1.3 2.4-1.7 2.7-0.3-0.2-1.7-1.2-1.7-2.7 0-1.2 1.3-2.2 1.7-2.4m0 30.1c-0.1 0-0.3-0.1-0.4-0.2-0.2-0.2-0.4-0.6-1.8-2.3s-2.2-3.7-1.9-5 1.8-1.7 2.6-1.4c0.7 0.2 1.2 1 1.4 1.2v0.1-0.1c0.2-0.2 0.7-1 1.4-1.2 0.9-0.3 2.4 0.1 2.6 1.4 0.3 1.3-0.6 3.3-1.9 5-1.4 1.7-1.6 2.1-1.8 2.3 0 0.1-0.1 0.2-0.2 0.2m-1.4 49.2c-0.3 0.4-3.2 1.2-7.1-0.4-3.9-1.7-8.1-5.4-8.1-6.8-0.1-1.3 1.3-2.2 2.5-2.2s4.7 2.8 5.5 3.7 4.6 3.7 5.6 4.4c1.2 0.7 1.9 0.9 1.6 1.3m17.9-7.2c-0.1 1.3-4.2 5.1-8.1 6.8s-6.8 0.8-7.1 0.4 0.4-0.6 1.5-1.3 4.8-3.5 5.6-4.4 4.3-3.7 5.5-3.7c1.3 0.1 2.7 0.9 2.6 2.2m-4.6-17.8c1.9 3.5 1.8 7.7 0.3 9.6s-3.5 2.4-5.9 3c0.4 4.7-1.3 6.2-3.2 8.6-1.5 1.9-2.6 1.9-3.1 1.8h-0.1-0.1c-0.4 0.1-1.5 0-3.1-1.8-2-2.3-3.7-3.8-3.2-8.6-2.3-0.5-4.4-1.1-5.9-3s-1.5-6.1 0.3-9.6c1.9-3.5 4.9-6.6 5.9-6.8 0-1.7 0.1-5.1 1.9-5.4 0.8-0.1 1.7 0.7 2.1 3.5 0.4 2.7 0.4 4.7-0.7 5.8-1.2 1.1-1.7 1.3-2.6 1.1-0.3 1-1.2 3-3.8 3.1 0 1.8-0.3 5.9 4.3 6.9 0.2 1.3 0.6 3.6 1.9 6.2 1.2 2.5 1.9 5 3 5.2h0.1s0 0 0.1 0c1.2-0.2 1.8-2.6 3-5.2 1.3-2.7 1.6-5 1.9-6.2 4.6-1 4.3-5.1 4.2-6.8-2.6-0.2-3.5-2.1-3.8-3.1-0.9 0.2-1.4 0-2.6-1.1s-1.2-3.1-0.7-5.8c0.4-2.7 1.3-3.5 2.1-3.5 1.9 0.2 1.9 3.7 1.9 5.4 0.9 0.2 4 3.2 5.8 6.7m-2.4-40.1c0.8 0.4 1.9 0.9 1.9 1.9-0.1 1.7 0.7 6.9 1.2 8.3 0.4 1.4 1.5 2.8 1 3.3-0.6 0.5-5.1 2.9-6.1 6s-2.3 4.4-2.9 4.5c-0.2 0.1-0.4 0.1-1.8-0.7-1.3-0.8-0.4-2.8 0.3-4.1s4.1-3.9 6.1-9.3-0.9-8.2-3.2-9.5-3.8-2.1-4.2-3c-0.7-1.3 0.6-2.8 1.2-3.7 0.7-0.8 1.1-1.1 1.2-0.5 0.7 3 4.5 6.4 5.3 6.8m-3.9-13.7c-0.6 0.1-1.1-2.2-1.2-2.6s-1.2-2.7-2-3.5-1.6-1-2.3-1.1c-0.8 0-1.6 0.3-2.3 1.1-0.8 0.8-1.9 3.1-2 3.5s-0.6 2.7-1.2 2.6-1.9-2.3-2.1-3.6c-0.3-1.3-1.3-2.1-1.4-2.7-0.2-0.5 0.1-0.7 2.9-2.2 2.8-1.4 3.8-4.1 4-4.6s1.5-1.7 2.4-1.8c0.9 0.1 2.2 1.3 2.4 1.8s1.2 3.2 4 4.6 3 1.6 2.9 2.2c-0.2 0.5-1.2 1.4-1.4 2.7-0.9 1.3-2.1 3.5-2.7 3.6"/> </svg> </a></div> <img src="/img/article-table-of-contents.gif" width="120" height="68" alt="table of contents" border="0" class="table-of-contents" /> <ul class="clearfix"> <li class=""><a href="/articles/index/Ab">Ab</a></li> <li class=""><a href="/articles/index/Ac">Ac</a></li> <li class="end "><a href="/articles/index/Am">Am</a></li> <li class=""><a href="/articles/index/As">As</a></li> <li class=""><a href="/articles/index/B">B</a></li> <li class="end "><a href="/articles/index/C">C</a></li> <li class=""><a href="/articles/index/D">D</a></li> <li class=""><a href="/articles/index/E">E</a></li> <li class="end "><a href="/articles/index/F">F</a></li> <li class=""><a href="/articles/index/G">G</a></li> <li class=""><a href="/articles/index/H">H</a></li> <li class="end here"><a href="/articles/index/I">I</a></li> <li class=""><a href="/articles/index/J">J</a></li> <li class=""><a href="/articles/index/K">K</a></li> <li class="end "><a href="/articles/index/L">L</a></li> <li class=""><a href="/articles/index/M">M</a></li> <li class=""><a href="/articles/index/N">N</a></li> <li class="end "><a href="/articles/index/O">O</a></li> <li class=""><a href="/articles/index/P">P</a></li> <li class=""><a href="/articles/index/Q">Q</a></li> <li class="end "><a href="/articles/index/R">R</a></li> <li class=""><a href="/articles/index/S">S</a></li> <li class=""><a href="/articles/index/T">T</a></li> <li class="end "><a href="/articles/index/U">U</a></li> <li class=""><a href="/articles/index/V">V</a></li> <li class=""><a href="/articles/index/W">W</a></li> <li class="end "><a href="/articles/index/X">X</a></li> <li class=""><a href="/articles/index/Y">Y</a></li> <li class=""><a href="/articles/index/Z">Z</a></li> <li class="blank end"> </li> </ul> <div id="additional-links"> <a href="/pages/resources"><img src="/img/navigation-sidebar-resources.gif" width="120" height="33" alt="Chronology" border="0" /></a> <a href="/pages/citing-iranica"><img src="/img/navigation-sidebar-citing-iranica.gif" width="120" height="30" alt="Citing Iranica" border="0" /></a> <a href="/pages/authors"><img src="/img/navigation-sidebar-authors.gif" width="120" height="30" alt="Authors" border="0" class="authors" /></a> <a href="/events/"><img src="/img/navigation-sidebar-events.gif" width="120" height="64" alt="" border="0" /></a> </div> </div> <div id="main"> <div id="header">  <div style="width: 100%; height: auto; background-color: none; margin: 30px 0 15px; padding: 0; float: left; display: block;"><div style="width: 50%;"><a href="/"> <svg version="1.1" id="Layer_1" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" x="0" y="0" viewBox="0 0 300 29.8" xml:space="preserve"><style>.st0{fill:#122634}</style><g id="Mrs_Eaves_XL"><path class="st0" d="M0 21.8c3 0 3.4-.6 3.4-4.2V5.8C3.4 2.2 3 1.6 0 1.6V.9h16.5l.3 4.8H16l-.1-.7c-.5-1.8-.9-2.7-4.2-2.7H6.5v8.1h1.7c3.6 0 4.2-.4 4.2-3.4h.8v8.2h-.8c0-3-.6-3.4-4.2-3.4H6.5V17c0 3.6.4 4.1 3.4 4.1h3c3.3 0 3.7-.9 4.2-2.8l.2-.7h.7l-.3 4.9H0v-.7zM30.2 22.6v-.7c2.4 0 2.9-.6 2.9-4.2v-4.9c0-3.1-1.5-4.5-3.8-4.5-2.2 0-5 2.1-5 4.9v4.4c0 3.6.5 4.2 2.9 4.2v.7h-8.6v-.7c2.4 0 2.9-.6 2.9-4.2v-5.4c0-3.6-.4-4.2-2.9-4.2v-.7l5-.8c.2.5.7 2.2.7 3.4 1.1-1.6 3.5-3.3 6-3.3 3.6 0 5.6 2.4 5.6 6.2v4.9c0 3.6.5 4.2 2.9 4.2v.7h-8.6zM46.3 23c-5 0-7.5-3.5-7.5-7.9 0-5.2 3.9-8.6 7.7-8.6 3.5 0 5.4 1.6 5.4 3.1 0 .6-.4 1.7-1.7 1.7-.8 0-1.5-.7-1.5-1.6 0-1.3-1.2-2-2.2-2-2.7 0-4.6 3.2-4.6 7.4 0 3.6 1.6 6.3 5.4 6.3 1.4 0 3.2-.8 4.6-2.1l.8.9C51.1 22 48.8 23 46.3 23z"/><path class="st0" d="M66.5 10.1l-7.2 17c-1 2.3-2 2.7-2.9 2.7-.6 0-1.3-.4-1.3-1.4 0-.6.5-1.1 1.1-1.4 1.2-.5 2.3-1.3 3-3.2l.6-1.5L54.3 10c-.8-1.9-1.7-2.4-3.2-2.4v-.7H59v.7c-1.8 0-2.5.5-1.7 2.4l3.8 8.8 3.8-8.8c.8-1.9.1-2.4-1.6-2.4v-.7h6.4v.7c-1.1.1-2.4.5-3.2 2.5zM76 23c-5 0-7.5-3.5-7.5-7.9 0-5.2 3.9-8.6 7.7-8.6 3.5 0 5.4 1.6 5.4 3.1 0 .6-.4 1.7-1.7 1.7-.8 0-1.5-.7-1.5-1.6 0-1.3-1.2-2-2.2-2-2.7 0-4.6 3.2-4.6 7.4 0 3.6 1.6 6.3 5.4 6.3 1.4 0 3.2-.8 4.6-2.1l.8.9C80.8 22 78.4 23 76 23zM82.5 22.6v-.7c2.2 0 2.8-.6 2.8-4.2V5.8c0-3.6-.4-4.2-2.9-4.2V.9l5.7-.9v17.6c0 3.6.5 4.2 2.8 4.2v.7l-8.4.1zM99.7 23.2c-4.8 0-8.5-3.8-8.5-8.4s3.7-8.4 8.5-8.4 8.5 3.8 8.5 8.4-3.8 8.4-8.5 8.4zm0-15.5c-3.6 0-5.4 3.2-5.4 7.1s1.8 7.1 5.4 7.1 5.4-3.1 5.4-7.1c0-3.9-1.8-7.1-5.4-7.1zM119.5 23c-2.1 0-4-1-5.3-2.9v4.4c0 3.6.5 4.2 2.9 4.2v.7h-8.7v-.7c2.4 0 2.9-.6 2.9-4.2V12.3c0-3.6-.4-4.2-2.9-4.2v-.8l5-.8c.2.4.7 2 .7 2.8 1.4-1.8 3.3-2.8 5.3-2.8 4.4 0 7.5 3.6 7.5 8.3 0 4.5-3.1 8.2-7.4 8.2zm-.7-15c-1.8 0-3.9 1.4-4.7 3.6v6.2c.8 2.2 2.9 3.6 4.7 3.6 3.4 0 5-3.1 5-6.7s-1.6-6.7-5-6.7zM145.6 6.5c3.7 0 6.5 2.5 6.5 5.7 0 .6-.1.9-.2 1.4H141c0 .3-.1.6-.1 1 0 3.3 1.2 6.7 5.8 6.7 2 0 3.9-1 5.1-2.1l.7.9c-1.4 1.5-3.9 2.8-6.9 2.8-2.8 0-5-1.3-6.4-3.4-1.9 1.7-4.1 3.3-6.9 3.3-2.6 0-4.1-1.6-4.1-3.8 0-3.5 4.4-5.4 9.7-6.2v-1.1c0-2.6-.7-4.1-3-4.1-1.4 0-3 .8-3 2.1 0 .8-.6 1.4-1.3 1.4-.8 0-1.4-.6-1.4-1.4 0-1.8 3-3.4 5.9-3.4 2.8 0 4.3.9 5 2.4 1.5-1.3 3.5-2.2 5.5-2.2zm-14.4 12.3c0 1.5.8 2.4 2.3 2.4.8 0 2.7-.2 5.2-2.7-.5-1.1-.8-2.4-.8-3.8V14c-4.4.9-6.7 2.6-6.7 4.8zM145.6 8c-2 0-3.8 1.4-4.5 4.3h8c0-.3.1-.6.1-1 .1-1.9-1.4-3.3-3.6-3.3zM167.3 22.9c-.2-.4-.6-1.8-.7-2.7-1.4 1.8-3.3 2.8-5.4 2.8-4.4 0-7.5-3.6-7.5-8.3 0-4.6 3.1-8.3 7.5-8.3 2.1 0 4 1 5.4 2.9V5.8c0-3.6-.4-4.2-2.9-4.2V.9l5.7-.9v17.1c0 3.6.4 4.2 2.9 4.2v.7l-5 .9zm-.8-11.2c-.8-2.2-2.8-3.6-4.7-3.6-3.4 0-5 3.1-5 6.7s1.6 6.7 5 6.7c1.9 0 3.9-1.4 4.7-3.6v-6.2zM172.3 22.6v-.7c2.4 0 2.9-.6 2.9-4.2v-5.4c0-3.6-.4-4.2-2.9-4.2v-.8l5.8-.8v11.1c0 3.6.5 4.2 2.9 4.2v.7l-8.7.1zm5.8-20.3c0 .9-.8 1.7-1.7 1.7s-1.7-.8-1.7-1.7.8-1.7 1.7-1.7 1.7.8 1.7 1.7zM193.7 22.8c-1.7 0-2.3-1-2.5-2.4-2 1.8-3.9 2.5-5.6 2.5-2.6 0-4.1-1.6-4.1-3.8 0-3.5 4.4-5.4 9.7-6.2v-1.1c0-2.6-.7-4.1-3-4.1-1.4 0-3 .8-3 2.1 0 .8-.6 1.4-1.3 1.4-.8 0-1.4-.6-1.4-1.4 0-1.8 3-3.4 5.9-3.4 4.3 0 5.6 2.2 5.6 5.3v8c0 1 .3 1.6.9 1.6.4 0 .9-.3 1.2-.6l.5.7c-.8 1.1-1.9 1.4-2.9 1.4zm-2.6-8.8c-4.4.9-6.7 2.6-6.7 4.8 0 1.5.8 2.4 2.3 2.4.9 0 2.5-.3 4.4-2V14zM202.3 21.8c3 0 3.4-.6 3.4-4.2V5.8c0-3.6-.4-4.2-3.4-4.2V.9h9.9v.8c-3 0-3.4.6-3.4 4.2v11.8c0 3.6.4 4.2 3.4 4.2v.8h-9.9v-.9zM224.5 11c-.8 0-1.3-.6-1.3-1.4 0-.8-.4-1.5-1.5-1.5s-3.5 2-3.5 5.4v4.2c0 3.6.5 4.2 2.9 4.2v.7h-8.7v-.7c2.4 0 2.9-.6 2.9-4.2v-5.4c0-3.6-.4-4.2-2.9-4.2v-.8l5-.8c.2.4.7 2.1.7 3.4.8-1.9 2.8-3.3 4.6-3.3 2.5 0 3.3 1.7 3.3 2.7.1.8-.3 1.7-1.5 1.7zM238.4 22.8c-1.7 0-2.3-1-2.5-2.4-2 1.8-3.9 2.5-5.6 2.5-2.6 0-4.1-1.6-4.1-3.8 0-3.5 4.4-5.4 9.7-6.2v-1.1c0-2.6-.7-4.1-3-4.1-1.4 0-3 .8-3 2.1 0 .8-.6 1.4-1.3 1.4-.8 0-1.4-.6-1.4-1.4 0-1.8 3-3.4 5.9-3.4 4.3 0 5.6 2.2 5.6 5.3v8c0 1 .3 1.6.9 1.6.4 0 .9-.3 1.2-.6l.6.7c-.9 1.1-2 1.4-3 1.4zm-2.6-8.8c-4.4.9-6.7 2.6-6.7 4.8 0 1.5.8 2.4 2.3 2.4.9 0 2.5-.3 4.4-2V14z"/><path class="st0" d="M252.9 22.6v-.7c2.4 0 2.9-.6 2.9-4.2v-4.9c0-3.1-1.4-4.5-3.8-4.5-2.2 0-5 2.1-5 4.9v4.4c0 3.6.5 4.2 2.9 4.2v.7h-8.6v-.7c2.4 0 2.9-.6 2.9-4.2v-5.4c0-3.6-.4-4.2-2.9-4.2v-.7l5-.8c.3.5.7 2.2.7 3.4 1.1-1.6 3.5-3.3 6-3.3 3.7 0 5.6 2.4 5.6 6.2v4.9c0 3.6.5 4.2 2.9 4.2v.7h-8.6z"/><path class="st0" d="M261.2 22.6v-.7c2.4 0 2.9-.6 2.9-4.2v-5.4c0-3.6-.4-4.2-2.9-4.2v-.8l5.8-.8v11.1c0 3.6.5 4.2 2.9 4.2v.7l-8.7.1zM267 2.3c0 .9-.8 1.7-1.7 1.7s-1.7-.8-1.7-1.7.8-1.7 1.7-1.7c1 0 1.7.8 1.7 1.7zM277.7 23c-5 0-7.5-3.5-7.5-7.9 0-5.2 4-8.6 7.7-8.6 3.5 0 5.4 1.6 5.4 3.1 0 .6-.4 1.7-1.7 1.7-.8 0-1.5-.7-1.5-1.6 0-1.3-1.2-2-2.2-2-2.7 0-4.6 3.2-4.6 7.4 0 3.6 1.5 6.3 5.4 6.3 1.4 0 3.2-.8 4.6-2.1l.8.9c-1.6 1.8-4 2.8-6.4 2.8zM297.1 22.8c-1.7 0-2.3-1-2.5-2.4-2 1.8-3.9 2.5-5.6 2.5-2.6 0-4.1-1.6-4.1-3.8 0-3.5 4.4-5.4 9.7-6.2v-1.1c0-2.6-.7-4.1-3-4.1-1.5 0-3 .8-3 2.1 0 .8-.6 1.4-1.3 1.4-.8 0-1.4-.6-1.4-1.4 0-1.8 3-3.4 5.9-3.4 4.3 0 5.6 2.2 5.6 5.3v8c0 1 .3 1.6.9 1.6.4 0 .9-.3 1.2-.6l.5.7c-.8 1.1-1.9 1.4-2.9 1.4zm-2.6-8.8c-4.4.9-6.7 2.6-6.7 4.8 0 1.5.8 2.4 2.3 2.4.9 0 2.5-.3 4.4-2V14z"/></g></svg> </a></div></div> <div id="search-bar">  <script type="text/javascript" src="/js/jquery.autocomplete.m2.js"></script><script type="text/javascript" src="/js/autocompleteAction.js"></script><link rel="stylesheet" href="/css/jquery.autocomplete.css" type="text/css" media="screen" charset="utf-8" />  <form name="search-form" id="search-form" action="/articles/searchRedirect" method="post"> <input type="text" name="data[Search][s]" id="search" value="Search Iranica"> <input type="image" src="/img/bttn-search.gif" name="go" id="autoComplete" value="search" /> <input type="hidden" name="is_advanced" id="is_advanced" value="0" class="styled" /> <a href="#" id="advanced-search-link">Advanced Search</a> </form> <ul> <li><a href="/pages/about/">About</a></li> <li><a href="/pages/support-and-donations/">Support & Donations</a></li> <li><a href="/pages/printed-volumes/">Printed Volumes</a></li> <li><a href="/pages/about/contact-us/">Contact</a></li> </ul> <div id="advanced-search" style="display:none;"> <h3 class="advanced-search-title"> Advanced Search </h3> <div class="button" id="advanced-search-cancel-button"> <a href="#">CANCEL</a> </div> <form name="advanced-search-form" id="advanced-search-form" action="/articles/searchRedirect" method="post" enctype="multipart/form-data"> <div class="row"> <label>Keywords</label> <div class="element"> <input type="text" name="data[Search][keywords]" id="adv-keywords" value="" class="rounded" /> </div> </div> <div class="row"> <label>Title</label> <div class="element"> <input type="text" name="data[Search][title]" id="adv-title" value="" class="rounded" /> </div> </div> <div class="row"> <label>Author</label> <div class="element"> <input type="text" name="data[Search][author]" id="adv-author" value="" class="rounded" /> </div> </div> <div class="row"> <label>Topic</label> <div class="element"> <select id="adv-topic" name="data[Search][topic]" size="1" class="styled"> <option value="">select a topic...</option> <option value="17">Archaeology </option> <option value="18">Architecture </option> <option value="19">Arts and Crafts </option> <option value="20">Biographies </option> <option value="21">Central Asia </option> <option value="22">Caucasus </option> <option value="23">Education </option> <option value="24">Ethnic Groups </option> <option value="25">Flora and Fauna </option> <option value="26">Folklore </option> <option value="27">Foreign Relations </option> <option value="28">Geography </option> <option value="29">History, Pre-Islamic </option> <option value="30">History, Medieval </option> <option value="31">History, Safavid </option> <option value="32">History, Qajar </option> <option value="33">History, Modern </option> <option value="34">Indian Subcontinent </option> <option value="35">Journalism </option> <option value="36">Linguistics </option> <option value="37">Literature, Pre-Islamic </option> <option value="38">Literature, Pre-Modern </option> <option value="39">Literature, Modern </option> <option value="40">Material Culture </option> <option value="41">Music </option> <option value="42">Religion-Pre-Islam </option> <option value="43">Religion-Islam </option> <option value="44">Religion-Other </option> <option value="45">Sciences </option> <option value="46">Social Sciences </option> <option value="16">Afghanistan </option> </select> </div> </div> <div class="row"> <label>Tags</label> <div class="element"> <input type="text" name="data[Search][tags]" id="adv-tags" value="" class="rounded" /> </div> </div> <div class="row submit"> <input type="image" src="/img/bttn-adv-search.gif" name="submit" value="1" /> </div> <input type="hidden" name="is_advanced" id="is_advanced" value="1" class="styled" /> </form> </div> </div> </div> <div id="content-wrap" class="clearfix">  <div id="search-results" class="clearfix"> <h1>Table of Contents</h1> <div class="pagination"> <ul class="per-page"> <li>VIEW PER PAGE:</li> <li ><a href="/articles/index/I/limit:10" rel="nofollow">10</a></li> <li ><a href="/articles/index/I/limit:20" rel="nofollow">20</a></li> <li ><a href="/articles/index/I/limit:50" rel="nofollow">50</a></li> <li class="here"><a href="/articles/index/I/limit:1000">ALL</a></li> </ul> <ul class="pages"> <li><span class="current">1</span></li><li><span><a href="/articles/index/I/limit:1000/page:2" rel="nofollow">2</a></span></li><li><span><a href="/articles/index/I/limit:1000/page:3" rel="nofollow">3</a></span></li><li><span><a href="/articles/index/I/limit:1000/page:4" rel="nofollow">4</a></span></li> <li class="more"><a href="/articles/index/I/limit:1000/page:4" rel="nofollow">Â </a></li> </ul> SHOWING 1-100 of 306</div> <ul class="search-results"> <li class="odd"> <h2><a href="/articles/ibex-persian">IBEX, PERSIAN</span></a></h2> <h3>Eskandar Firouz, D. T. Potts</h3> <p><p>Capra aegagrus, also called Persian Wild Goat, in Persian <em>pāzan</em>. It is regarded as the ancestor of the domestic goat. Formerly it was numerous, found in almost all of Persia’s mountainous areas with rugged cliffs.</p></p> <small><em>This Article Has Images/Tables.</em></small> </li> <li > <h2><a href="/articles/id-e-fetr">ʿID-E FEṬR</span></a></h2> <h3>cross-reference</h3> <p><p>See <a href="/articles/fasting">FASTING</a>.</p></p> </li> <li class="odd"> <h2><a href="/articles/id-e-gadir">ʿID-E ḠADIR</span></a></h2> <h3>cross-reference</h3> <p><p>See <span><a href="/articles/gadir-komm-">ḠADĪR ḴOMM</a></span>.</p></p> </li> <li > <h2><a href="/articles/id-e-mehregan">ʿID-E MEHREGĀN</span></a></h2> <h3>cross-reference</h3> <p><p>See MEHREGĀN.</p></p> </li> <li class="odd"> <h2><a href="/articles/id-e-nima-ye-saban">ʿID-E NIMA-YE ŠAʿBĀN</span></a></h2> <h3>Cross-Reference</h3> <p><p>See <a href="/articles/islam-in-iran-vii-the-concept-of-mahdi-in-twelver-shiism">Islam In Iran vii</a>.</p></p> </li> <li > <h2><a href="/articles/id-e-nowruz">ʿID-E NOWRUZ</span></a></h2> <h3>cross-reference</h3> <p><p>See <a href="/articles/nowruz-index">NOWRUZ</a>.</p></p> </li> <li class="odd"> <h2><a href="/articles/id-e-qorban">ʿID-E QORBĀN</span></a></h2> <h3>cross-reference</h3> <p><p>See PILGRIMAGE, forthcoming online.</p></p> </li> <li > <h2><a href="/articles/ida">IDA</span></a></h2> <h3>Inna N. Medvedskaya</h3> <p><p>a land and a city, part of Inner Zamua, located in the area of the southwest shore of Lake Urmia, mentioned in Neo-Assyrian sources dating to the 9th century BCE.</p></p> </li> <li class="odd"> <h2><a href="/articles/ideh">IḎEH</span></a></h2> <h3>Kaveh Ehsani</h3> <p><p>town and county in northeast Khuzestan Province. Iḏa is located 20 km east of the Kārun River, in a small oval shaped valley, flanked by part of the Zagros range.</p></p> </li> <li > <h2><a href="/articles/ideographic-writing">IDEOGRAPHIC WRITING</span></a></h2> <h3>N. Sims-Williams, D. Testen</h3> <p><p>the representation of language by means of “ideograms,” that is, symbols representing “ideas,” rather than (or usually side by side with) symbols which represent sounds. i. Terminology and conventions. ii. Ideographic writing in the Ancient Near East.</p></p> </li> <li class="odd"> <h2><a href="/articles/igdir">IGDIR</span></a></h2> <h3>Pierre Oberling</h3> <p><p>a Turkic tribe in Persia and Anatolia. It was one of the 24 original Oghuz tribes.  Like other tribes that migrated to the Middle East in Saljuqid times, it has become widely scattered.</p></p> </li> <li > <h2><a href="/articles/ignatius-of-jesus">IGNATIUS OF JESUS</span></a></h2> <h3>Paola Orsatti</h3> <p><p>(Ignazio di Gesù, 1596-1667), an Italian missionary in Persia and a scholar of the Persian language, renowned mainly for his studies on religion and on the customs of the Mandaeans.</p></p> </li> <li class="odd"> <h2><a href="/articles/iham">IHĀM</span></a></h2> <h3>N. Chalisova</h3> <p><p>literally meaning “making one suppose,” a term applied to a rhetorical figure (<em>badiʿ</em>), a kind of play on words based on a single word with a double meaning.</p></p> </li> <li > <h2><a href="/articles/ijel">IJEL</span></a></h2> <h3>John Woods</h3> <p><p>Timurid prince (1394-1415), the fourth son of Mirān&scaron;āh b. Timur. Was named by the conqueror after one of his ancestors.</p></p> </li> <li class="odd"> <h2><a href="/articles/iji-azod-al-din">IJI, ʿAŻOD-AL-DIN</span></a></h2> <h3>Cross-Reference</h3> <p><p>See <a href="/articles/azod-al-din-iji">ʿAŻOD-AL-DIN IJI</a>.</p></p> </li> <li > <h2><a href="/articles/il-tribe">IL</span></a></h2> <h3>Cross-Reference</h3> <p><p class="p1">“tribe.” For the other Persian terms that also are used and an overview of tribal groups, see <a href="/articles/asayer-tribes">ʿA&Scaron;ĀYER</a>.</p></p> </li> <li class="odd"> <h2><a href="/articles/il-arslan">IL-ARSLĀN</span></a></h2> <h3>C. Edmund Bosworth</h3> <p><p>Chorasmian king of the line of Anu&scaron;tegin Ḡarčaʾi (r. 1156-72). He was the son and successor of ʿAlāʾ-Din Atsïz b. Moḥammad, , who had skillfully preserved the autonomy of Chorasmia.</p></p> </li> <li > <h2><a href="/articles/il-khanids-index">IL-KHANIDS</span></a></h2> <h3>Multiple Authors</h3> <p><p>the Mongol dynasty in Persia and the surrounding countries, from about 1260 until about 1335. The dynasty was founded by Holāgu/Hülegü Khan, the grandson of Čengiz Khan.</p></p> </li> <li class="odd"> <h2><a href="/articles/il-khanids-i-dynastic-history">IL-KHANIDS i. DYNASTIC HISTORY</span></a></h2> <h3>REUVEN AMITAI</h3> <p><p>The first part of this entry will be a short survey of the reigns of the various Il-khans. The second part will review some of the salient characteristics and institutions of the state they ruled.</p></p> </li> <li > <h2><a href="/articles/il-khanids-ii-architecture">IL-KHANIDS ii. Architecture</span></a></h2> <h3>Sheila S. Blair</h3> <p><p>The architecture produced during the period of Il-khanid rule in Persia and Iraq is notable for its mammoth size, soaring height, sparkling color, and ingenious methods of covering space.</p></p> <small><em>This Article Has Images/Tables.</em></small> </li> <li class="odd"> <h2><a href="/articles/il-khanids-iii-book-illustration">IL-KHANIDS iii. Book Illustration</span></a></h2> <h3>Stefano Carboni</h3> <p><p>The Il-khanid period (ca. 1260-ca. 1335) is no doubt the historical moment during which the art of painting, in particular in illustrated manuscripts, witnessed a dramatic increase in number, subject matter, artistic output, and patronage. The late 13th century and especially the first quarter of the 14th can be regarded as perhaps the most important formative period in the history of Persian painting, an epoch of great changes.</p></p> <small><em>This Article Has Images/Tables.</em></small> </li> <li > <h2><a href="/articles/il-khanids-iv-ceramics">IL-KHANIDS iv. Ceramics</span></a></h2> <h3>Peter Morgan</h3> <p><p>This entry deals with glazed wares and tiles of the so-called “Sultanabad” (Solṭānābād) group, lajvardina (< Pers. <em>lājvard</em> “lapis lazuli”) wares, and luster wares produced in the Il-khanid period. The period extends from the fall of Baghdad in 1258 to the last dated luster tiles made in 1339.</p></p> <small><em>This Article Has Images/Tables.</em></small> </li> <li class="odd"> <h2><a href="/articles/ilak-khanids">ILAK-KHANIDS</span></a></h2> <h3>Michal Biran</h3> <p><p>(or Qara-khanids), the first Muslim Turkic dynasty that ruled in Central Asia from the Tarim basin to the Oxus river, from the mid-late 10th century until the beginning of the 13th.</p></p> </li> <li > <h2><a href="/articles/ilam-parent">ILĀM</span></a></h2> <h3>Multiple Author</h3> <p><p>a province, sub-province, and town in western Iran.</p></p> </li> <li class="odd"> <h2><a href="/articles/ilam-i">ILĀM i. GEOGRAPHY</span></a></h2> <h3>M. Rezazadeh Shafarudi</h3> <p><p>Until the mid-1930s Ilam was known as the Po&scaron;tkuh of Lorestān as opposed to the Pi&scaron;kuh of Lorestān, which was located in the eastern part of the region. Since the Ṣafavid era Lorestān had been administered under the wālis (governors-general), who came from the chieftains of Lor-e Kuček tribes.</p></p> <small><em>This Article Has Images/Tables.</em></small> </li> <li > <h2><a href="/articles/ilam-ii-crossref">ILĀM ii. History</span></a></h2> <h3>Cross-Reference</h3> <p><p>See LORESTĀN ii.</p></p> </li> <li class="odd"> <h2><a href="/articles/ilam-iii">ILĀM iii. POPULATION </span></a></h2> <h3>Habibollah Zanjani</h3> <p><p>According to the first national census of 1956, the present province (<em>ostān</em>) of Ilām used to be a sub-province (<em>&scaron;ahrestān</em>) of the province of Kermān&scaron;āhān.</p></p> </li> <li > <h2><a href="/articles/ilaq">ILĀQ</span></a></h2> <h3>Boris A. Litvinsky</h3> <p><p>medieval name of an area in what is now Uzbekistan, to the south of Tashkent along the middle reaches of the Syr Darya (Jaxartes) river.</p></p> </li> <li class="odd"> <h2><a href="/articles/ilaqi-saraf-al-zaman">ILĀQI, SAYYED ŠARAF-AL-ZAMĀN</span></a></h2> <h3>Lutz Richter-Bernburg</h3> <p><p>follower of Avicenna and author in medicine, science, and philosophy (d. 1141).</p></p> </li> <li > <h2><a href="/articles/ilbars-khan">ILBĀRS KHAN</span></a></h2> <h3>Yuri Bregel</h3> <p><p>name of two rulers of Ḵᵛārazm in the 16th and 18th centuries: (1) Ilbārs Khan b. Buräkä (or Bürgä), from the ʿArab-&scaron;āhi (q.v.) branch of the Jochids, was the founder of the dynasty which ruled Ḵᵛārazm from 1511 to the end of the 17th century.</p></p> </li> <li class="odd"> <h2><a href="/articles/ilci">ILČI</span></a></h2> <h3>cross-reference</h3> <p><p>See <a href="/articles/elci">ELČI</a>.</p></p> </li> <li > <h2><a href="/articles/ildegozids">ILDEGOZIDS</span></a></h2> <h3>cross-reference</h3> <p><p>See <a href="/articles/atabakan-e-adarbayjan">ATĀBAKĀN-E ĀḎARBĀYJĀN</a>.</p></p> </li> <li class="odd"> <h2><a href="/articles/iledong">ILEDONG</span></a></h2> <h3>Mauro Maggi</h3> <p><p>site in Central Asia of uncertain location, source of a number of Khotanese fragments.</p></p> </li> <li > <h2><a href="/articles/illuminationism">ILLUMINATIONISM</span></a></h2> <h3>Hossein Ziai</h3> <p><p>or Illuminationist philosophy, first introduced in the 12th century as a complete, reconstructed system distinct both from the Peripatetic philosophy  of Avicenna and from theological philosophy.</p></p> </li> <li class="odd"> <h2><a href="/articles/imamiya_cr">IMĀMIYA</span></a></h2> <h3>Cross-reference</h3> <p><p>In history and theology, see: <a href="/articles/shiite-doctrine">SHIʿITE DOCTRINE</a>. In the clergy, see: <a href="/articles/shiite-doctrine-ii-hierarchy-emamiya">SHIʿITE DOCTRINE ii. Hierarchy in the Imamiyya</a>. See also: <a href="/articles/ismailism-xvii-the-imamate-in-ismailism">ISMAʿILISM xvii. The imamate in Ismaʿilism</a>.</p></p> </li> <li > <h2><a href="/articles/imams-shiism-crossref">IMAMS IN TWELVER SHIʿA ISLAM</span></a></h2> <h3>Cross-Reference</h3> <p><p>1st Imam:  see <a href="/articles/ali-b-abi-taleb">ʿALI B. ABI ṬĀLEB</a>. </p> <p>2nd Imam: see <a href="/articles/hasan-b-ali">ḤASAN B. ʿALI B. ABI ṬĀLEB</a>.</p> <p>3rd Imam: see <a href="/articles/hosayn-b-ali">ḤOSAYN B. ʿALI B. ABI ṬĀLEB</a>.</p> <p>4th Imam: see <a href="/articles/ali-b-hosayn-b-ali">ʿALI B. AL-ḤOSAYN B. ʿALI B. ABI ṬĀLEB</a>.</p> <p>5th Imam: Moḥammad al-Bāqer (forthcoming).</p> <p>6th Imam: see <a href="/articles/jafar-al-sadeq">JAʿFAR AL-ṢĀDEQ</a>. </p> <p>7th Imam: Musā al-Kāẓem (forthcoming).</p> <p>8th Imam: see <a href="/articles/ali-al-reza">ʿALI AL-REŻĀ</a>.</p> <p>9th Imam: Mohammad al-Taqiy (forthcoming).</p> <p>10th Imam: see <a href="/articles/ali-al-hadi-abul-hasan-b">ʿALI AL-HĀDI</a>.</p> <p>11th Imam: see <a href="/articles/askari-abu-mohammad-hasan-b">ʿASKARI, ABU MOḤAMMAD ḤASAN B. ʿALI</a>.</p> <p>12th Imam: see <a href="/articles/mahdi">MAHDI</a>.</p></p> </li> <li class="odd"> <h2><a href="/articles/immortals">IMMORTALS</span></a></h2> <h3>Rüdiger Schmitt</h3> <p><p>(Gk. <em>athánatoi</em>), name of a corps of 10,000 Persian élite infantry soldiers in Herodotus, in connection with Xerxes’ campaign against Greece in 480–479 BCE.</p></p> </li> <li > <h2><a href="/articles/inalu">INĀLU</span></a></h2> <h3>cross-reference</h3> <p><p>See <a href="/articles/kamsa">ḴAMSA</a>.</p></p> </li> <li class="odd"> <h2><a href="/articles/inanc-katun">ÏNĀNČ ḴĀTUN</span></a></h2> <h3>C. Edmund Bosworth</h3> <p><p>wife of the Atābeg Jahān-Pahlavān Moḥammad (r. 1175-86), the Eldigüzid (or Ildegizid) ruler in Arrān, most of Azerbaijan, and then Jebāl.</p></p> </li> <li > <h2><a href="/articles/incest-and-inbreeding">INCEST AND INBREEDING</span></a></h2> <h3>Geert Jan Van Gelder</h3> <p><p>Incest and inbreeding are two different but related aspects of marriage and human reproduction.</p></p> </li> <li class="odd"> <h2><a href="/articles/india">INDIA</span></a></h2> <h3>Multiple Authors</h3> <p><p>This series of entries covers Indian history and its relations with Iran.</p></p> </li> <li > <h2><a href="/articles/india-i-introduction">INDIA i. Introduction</span></a></h2> <h3>Christopher J. Brunner</h3> <p><p>This entry presents a series of survey articles on selected areas of interaction and mutual influence between the two culture areas, including overviews of the enormous body of literature produced in India in the Persian language.</p></p> </li> <li class="odd"> <h2><a href="/articles/india-ii-historical-geography">INDIA ii. Historical Geography</span></a></h2> <h3>Pierfrancesco Callieri</h3> <p><p>The geographical borders between the Iranian plateau and the Indian subcontinent are well defined by features, such as mountain ranges, which represent the western limits of the Indus River valley.</p></p> </li> <li > <h2><a href="/articles/india-iii-relations-achaemenid-period">INDIA iii. RELATIONS: ACHAEMENID PERIOD</span></a></h2> <h3>Pierfrancesco Callieri</h3> <p><p>The conquest by Darius I of the territories of the Indian subcontinent west of the Indus for the first time created a clear relationship between India and Iran.</p></p> </li> <li class="odd"> <h2><a href="/articles/india-iv-relations">INDIA iv. RELATIONS: SELEUCID, PARTHIAN, SASANIAN PERIODS</span></a></h2> <h3>Pierfrancesco Callieri</h3> <p><p>Seleucus I (d. 281 BCE) led an expedition to India (Matelli, 1987) ca. 305 B.C.E. It ended, however, with the cession of  territories to a new Indian king, Candragupta Maurya.</p></p> </li> <li > <h2><a href="/articles/india-v-relations-medieval-period-to-the-13th-century">INDIA v. RELATIONS: MEDIEVAL PERIOD TO THE 13TH CENTURY</span></a></h2> <h3>C. Edmund Bosworth</h3> <p><p>The first political and military footholds of the Muslims in the subcontinent proper were in Sind, and at Multan in the middle Indus valley, secured in the early 8th century.</p></p> </li> <li class="odd"> <h2><a href="/articles/india-vi-relations-from-the-13th-to-the-18th-centuries">INDIA vi. Political and Cultural Relations (13th-18th centuries)</span></a></h2> <h3>Richard M. Eaton</h3> <p><p>Relations between peoples of the Iranian plateau and India were extensive and uninterrupted between the 13th and 18th centuries. Migration, commerce, and politics all led to a range of cross-regional influences.</p></p> </li> <li > <h2><a href="/articles/india-vii-relations-the-afsharid-and-zand-periods">INDIA vii. RELATIONS: THE AFSHARID AND ZAND PERIODS</span></a></h2> <h3>Mansour Bonakdarian</h3> <p><p> The invasion of the Persian capital (Isfahan) by Ḡilzai Afghan forces in 1722 and the collapse of Safavid central authority had a marked impact on Indo-Persian relations,</p></p> </li> <li class="odd"> <h2><a href="/articles/india-viii-relations-qajar-period-the-19th-century">INDIA viii. RELATIONS: QAJAR PERIOD, THE 19TH CENTURY</span></a></h2> <h3>Mansour Bonakdarian</h3> <p><p> By the time of Āqā Moḥammad Khan’s founding of the Qajar dynasty in 1796, Persia’s diplomatic relations with the Mughal empire and other territories in the Indian subcontinent were gradually passing under the supervision of British authorities in India.</p></p> </li> <li > <h2><a href="/articles/india-ix-relations-qajar-period-early-20th-century">INDIA ix. RELATIONS: QAJAR PERIOD, EARLY 20TH CENTURY</span></a></h2> <h3>Mansour Bonakdarian</h3> <p><p>The contributions made by various non-Iranian individuals and groups to the constitutional/ nationalist cause in Persia have long been acknowledged in the historiography of the revolution.</p></p> </li> <li class="odd"> <h2><a href="/articles/india-x-relations-pahlavi-period">INDIA x. RELATIONS: PAHLAVI PERIOD</span></a></h2> <h3>Cross-Reference</h3> <p><p>Iranian-Indian relations during the Pahlavi period will be discussed in a future online entry.</p></p> </li> <li > <h2><a href="/articles/india-xi-relations-islamic-republic">INDIA xi. RELATIONS: ISLAMIC REPUBLIC</span></a></h2> <h3>Cross-Reference</h3> <p><p>See Supplement.</p></p> </li> <li class="odd"> <h2><a href="/articles/india-xii-islamic-dynasties-of-india">INDIA xii. ISLAMIC DYNASTIES OF</span></a></h2> <h3>Cross-Reference</h3> <p><p>See under individual dynasties.</p></p> </li> <li > <h2><a href="/articles/india-xiii-indo-iranian-commercial-relations">INDIA xiii. INDO-IRANIAN COMMERCIAL RELATIONS</span></a></h2> <h3>Scott C. Levi</h3> <p><p>Indo-Persian commercial relations were mediated by merchants originating from India, Persia, Afghanistan, and later Europe. Ethnic minority groups, such as Armenians and Jews, also played an important role in Persia’s international commercial relations.</p></p> <small><em>This Article Has Images/Tables.</em></small> </li> <li class="odd"> <h2><a href="/articles/india-xiv-persian-literature-in-india">INDIA xiv. Persian Literature</span></a></h2> <h3>Mario Casari</h3> <p><p>The amount of Persian literature composed in the Indian subcontinent up to the 19th century is larger than that produced in Iran proper during the same period.</p></p> </li> <li > <h2><a href="/articles/india-xv-persian-correspondence-literature">INDIA xv. Persian Correspondence Literature</span></a></h2> <h3>cross-reference</h3> <p><p>See <a href="/articles/correspondence-iv">CORRESPONDENCE iv</a>.</p></p> </li> <li class="odd"> <h2><a href="/articles/india-xvi-indo-persian-historiography">INDIA xvi. INDO-PERSIAN HISTORIOGRAPHY</span></a></h2> <h3>Stephen F. Dale</h3> <p><p>Historical works in Persian began to appear in India in the era of the Delhi Sultanate during the late 13th to 14th centuries.</p></p> </li> <li > <h2><a href="/articles/india-xvii-persian-press-in-india">INDIA xvii. PERSIAN PRESS IN</span></a></h2> <h3>cross-reference</h3> <p><p>See <a href="/articles/india-viii-relations-qajar-period-the-19th-century">INDIA viii</a> and <a href="/articles/india-ix-relations-qajar-period-early-20th-century">INDIA ix</a>. See also <a href="/articles/constitutional-revolution-vi">CONSTITUTIONAL REVOLUTION vi</a> and <a href="/articles/habl-al-matin">ḤABL AL-MATIN</a><em>.</em></p></p> </li> <li class="odd"> <h2><a href="/articles/india-xviii-persian-elements-in-indian-languages">INDIA xviii. PERSIAN ELEMENTS IN INDIAN LANGUAGES</span></a></h2> <h3>Christopher Shackle</h3> <p><p>Some Persian elements are present in most of the modern languages of the subcontinent of South Asia, as a consequence of the prolonged cultivation of Persian associated with pre-modern Indo-Muslim culture.</p></p> </li> <li > <h2><a href="/articles/india-xix-indian-literary-influences-on-persian-literature">INDIA xix. INDIAN LITERARY INFLUENCES ON PERSIAN LITERATURE</span></a></h2> <h3>Cross-Reference</h3> <p><p>Iranian-Indian literary influences on Persian literature will be discussed in a future online entry.</p></p> </li> <li class="odd"> <h2><a href="/articles/india-xx-persian-influences-on-indian-painting">INDIA xx. PERSIAN INFLUENCES ON INDIAN PAINTING</span></a></h2> <h3>Barbara Schmitz</h3> <p><p>Between about 1300 and 1600, Persian painting styles had a sustained impact on the Indian art at the Sultanate and Mughal courts as well as on Hindu painting styles. </p></p> <small><em>This Article Has Images/Tables.</em></small> </li> <li > <h2><a href="/articles/india-xxi-indian-influences-on-persian-painting">INDIA xxi. INDIAN INFLUENCES ON PERSIAN PAINTING</span></a></h2> <h3>Barbara Schmitz</h3> <p><p>During the 17th century, the flow of artistic influences between Persia and India reversed. Paintings and drawings in the developed Mughal style of the first quarter of the century were imported to the courts and bazaars of Isfahan.</p></p> <small><em>This Article Has Images/Tables.</em></small> </li> <li class="odd"> <h2><a href="/articles/india-xxii-persian-influence-on-indian-architecture">INDIA xxii. PERSIAN INFLUENCE ON INDIAN ARCHITECTURE</span></a></h2> <h3>cross-reference</h3> <p><p>See <a href="/articles/deccan">DECCAN ii</a>; <a href="/articles/delhi-sultanate">DELHI SULTANATE ii</a>; <a href="/articles/garden-iii">GARDEN iii</a>; <a href="/articles/hyderabad">HYDERABAD ii</a>.</p></p> </li> <li > <h2><a href="/articles/india-xxiii-indian-influence-on-persian-cinema">INDIA xxiii. INDIAN INFLUENCE ON PERSIAN CINEMA</span></a></h2> <h3>cross-reference</h3> <p><p>See x, above.</p></p> </li> <li class="odd"> <h2><a href="/articles/india-xxiv-persian-calligraphy-in-india">INDIA xxiv. PERSIAN CALLIGRAPHY IN</span></a></h2> <h3>Cross-Reference</h3> <p><p>Forthcoming.</p></p> </li> <li > <h2><a href="/articles/india-xxv-mutual-mystical-influences">INDIA xxv. MUTUAL MYSTICAL INFLUENCES</span></a></h2> <h3>cross-reference</h3> <p><p>See under SUFISM.</p></p> </li> <li class="odd"> <h2><a href="/articles/india-xxvi-mutual-musical-influences">INDIA xxvi. MUTUAL MUSICAL INFLUENCES</span></a></h2> <h3>cross-reference</h3> <p><p>  See under MUSIC.</p></p> </li> <li > <h2><a href="/articles/india-xxvii-mutual-scientific-influences">INDIA xxvii. MUTUAL SCIENTIFIC INFLUENCES</span></a></h2> <h3>cross-reference</h3> <p><p>See under SCIENCE.</p></p> </li> <li class="odd"> <h2><a href="/articles/india-xxviii-iranian-immigrants-in-india">INDIA xxviii. IRANIAN IMMIGRANTS IN INDIA</span></a></h2> <h3>Masashi Haneda</h3> <p><p>Although emigration from the Iranian plateau to the Indian subcontinent is not a phenomenon specific to any particular period, the trend does seem to have grown after the foundation of Muslim governments on the subcontinent.</p></p> </li> <li > <h2><a href="/articles/india-xxix-shiites-in-india">INDIA xxix. SHIʿITE COMMUNITIES IN</span></a></h2> <h3>Cross-Reference</h3> <p><p>See <a href="/articles/conversion-iii">CONVERSION iii. TO IMAMI SHI'ISM IN INDIA</a>.</p></p> </li> <li class="odd"> <h2><a href="/articles/india-xxx-indian-merchants-in-central-asia-and-iran">INDIA xxx. INDIAN MERCHANTS IN CENTRAL ASIA AND IRAN</span></a></h2> <h3>Scott C. Levi</h3> <p><p>The Indian merchant diaspora in Central Asia and Persia emerged in the mid-16th century and remained active for over four centuries.</p></p> </li> <li > <h2><a href="/articles/india-xxxi-indian-merchants-in-19th-century-afghanistan">INDIA xxxi. INDIAN MERCHANTS IN 19TH-CENTURY AFGHANISTAN</span></a></h2> <h3>Shah Mahmoud Hanifi</h3> <p><p>Indian communities in Afghanistan performed an array of commercial functions in both the private and state sectors that served to integrate the Afghan economy and link it to surrounding markets in Central and South Asia.</p></p> </li> <li class="odd"> <h2><a href="/articles/india-xxxii-parsees-of-india">INDIA xxxii. PARSI COMMUNITIES</span></a></h2> <h3>Cross-Reference</h3> <p><p> See <a href="/articles/parsi-communities-i-early-history">PARSI COMMUNITIES i.</a> and <a href="/articles/parsi-communities-ii-in-calcutta">PARSI COMMUNITIES ii</a>.</p></p> </li> <li > <h2><a href="/articles/india-xxxiii-indo-muslim-physicians">INDIA xxxiii. INDO-MUSLIM PHYSICIANS</span></a></h2> <h3>Fabrizio Speziale</h3> <p><p>Medicine constitutes the scientific field on which the largest corpus of works has been composed in Muslim India.</p></p> </li> <li class="odd"> <h2><a href="/articles/indian-ocean">INDIAN OCEAN</span></a></h2> <h3>D. T. Potts</h3> <p><p>This entry will deal with the role of Indian Ocean in international trade in the following periods:</p> <p>i. Pre-Islamic period. ii. <em>Islamic Period</em>. See Supplement.</p></p> </li> <li > <h2><a href="/articles/indigo">INDIGO</span></a></h2> <h3>Carol Bier</h3> <p><p>(Pers. <em>nil</em>), the common name of a broad genus, Indigofera, with numerous species. Many tribal groups in Persia have relied on the use of indigo to achieve a stable blue color for the wool of carpets and kilims.</p></p> </li> <li class="odd"> <h2><a href="/articles/indo-european-telegraph-company">INDO-EUROPEAN TELEGRAPH COMPANY</span></a></h2> <h3>Michael Rubin</h3> <p><p>(IETC), a telegraph company that controlled telegraph wires between Tehran and the Russian border and onward through Russia and Germany to London.</p></p> </li> <li > <h2><a href="/articles/indo-european-telegraph-department">INDO-EUROPEAN TELEGRAPH DEPARTMENT</span></a></h2> <h3>Michael Rubin</h3> <p><p>(IETD), a branch of the British Government of India, based in London, which managed a series of telegraph lines in Iran.</p></p> </li> <li class="odd"> <h2><a href="/articles/indo-greek-dynasty">INDO-GREEK DYNASTY</span></a></h2> <h3>Osmund Bopearachchi</h3> <p><p>Greco-Bactrian kings who ruled over the region south of the Hindu Kush in the second and first century B.C.E.</p></p> </li> <li > <h2><a href="/articles/indo-iranian-frontier-languages-and-the-influence-of-persian">INDO-IRANIAN FRONTIER LANGUAGES</span></a></h2> <h3>Elena Bashir</h3> <p><p>This article surveys Indo-Iranian frontier languages the territory of present-day Pakistan, which have been under the cultural and linguistic influence of successive stages of the Persian language since the time of the Achaemenid Empire.</p></p> </li> <li class="odd"> <h2><a href="/articles/indo-iranian-languages">INDO-IRANIAN LANGUAGES</span></a></h2> <h3>cross-reference</h3> <p><p>See <a href="/articles/iran-vi-iranian-languages-and-scripts">IRAN vi. IRANIAN LANGUAGES AND SCRIPTS</a>.</p></p> </li> <li > <h2><a href="/articles/indo-iranian-religion">INDO-IRANIAN RELIGION</span></a></h2> <h3>Gherardo Gnoli</h3> <p><p>Indo-Iranian comparative studies enable us to distinguish a fund of religious concepts, beliefs, and practices that are common to ancient Iran and ancient India.</p></p> </li> <li class="odd"> <h2><a href="/articles/indo-parthian-dynasty-1">INDO-PARTHIAN DYNASTY</span></a></h2> <h3>Christine Fröhlich</h3> <p><p>While maritime disturbances were known to have driven merchants to use the caravan routes, during the periods of Mughal-Safavid rivalry over Kandahar merchants would temporarily favor the more predictable maritime routes.</p></p> <small><em>This Article Has Images/Tables.</em></small> </li> <li > <h2><a href="/articles/indo-persian-literature-crossref">INDO-PERSIAN LITERATURE</span></a></h2> <h3>Cross-Reference</h3> <p><p class="p1">For Indo-Persian poetry and other literature,  see <a href="/articles/india-xiv-persian-literature-in-india">INDIA xiv. Persian Literature</a>.</p></p> </li> <li class="odd"> <h2><a href="/articles/indo-scythian-dynasty-1">INDO-SCYTHIAN DYNASTY</span></a></h2> <h3>R. C. Senior</h3> <p><p>from Maues, the first (Indo-)Scythian king of India (ca. 120-85 BCE) to the mid-1st century CE. When precisely Maues arrived in India is uncertain, but the expulsion of the Scythian (Saka/Sai) peoples from Central Asia is referred to in the Han Shu.</p></p> <small><em>This Article Has Images/Tables.</em></small> </li> <li > <h2><a href="/articles/indra">INDRA</span></a></h2> <h3>W. W. Malandra</h3> <p><p>the name of a minor demon (<em>daēwa</em>) in the Avesta, In sharp contrast to the Indra of the Ṛgveda [RV], the most celebrated god (<em>devá</em>) of the Vedic pantheon.</p></p> </li> <li class="odd"> <h2><a href="/articles/indus-river">INDUS RIVER</span></a></h2> <h3>cross-reference</h3> <p><p>See <a href="/articles/india-ii-historical-geography">INDIA ii</a>.</p></p> </li> <li > <h2><a href="/articles/industrialization-1">INDUSTRIALIZATION</span></a></h2> <h3>Multiple Authors</h3> <p><p>: the foundation and development of modern industries in 20th-century Iran. Although generally characterized as an oil economy, Iran has a relatively rich history of industrialization going back to the early 20th century.</p></p> </li> <li class="odd"> <h2><a href="/articles/industrialization-i">INDUSTRIALIZATION i. The Reza Shah Period And Its Aftermath, 1925-53</span></a></h2> <h3>Hassan Hakimian</h3> <p><p>Archaic and underdeveloped infrastructure as well as a low level of human resources were limiting factors; however, changes after the 1920s, paved the way for the emergence of Iran’s nascent industrial sector from the 1930s onwards.</p></p> <small><em>This Article Has Images/Tables.</em></small> </li> <li > <h2><a href="/articles/industrialization-ii">INDUSTRIALIZATION ii. The Mohammad Reza Shah Period, 1953-79</span></a></h2> <h3>M. Karshenas and H. Hakimian</h3> <p><p>Public sector investment in this period started from a very slender base but soon witnessed an annual growth rate of 25 percent in real terms; more than 68 percent of government investment went into economic infrastructure.</p></p> <small><em>This Article Has Images/Tables.</em></small> </li> <li class="odd"> <h2><a href="/articles/industrialization-3">INDUSTRIALIZATION iii. The Post-Revolutionary Period, 1979-2000</span></a></h2> <h3>Parvin Alizadeh</h3> <p><p>Available evidence indicates that the share of the manufacturing sector in the economy declined after the Revolution; it was around 19-20 percent of non-oil GDP by 1977 but dropped to about 15 percent by 1990. </p></p> <small><em>This Article Has Images/Tables.</em></small> </li> <li > <h2><a href="/articles/industry-traditional">INDUSTRY, TRADITIONAL</span></a></h2> <h3>cross-reference</h3> <p><p>See <a href="/articles/crafts-">CRAFTS</a>.</p></p> </li> <li class="odd"> <h2><a href="/articles/influenza">INFLUENZA</span></a></h2> <h3>A. A. Afkhami</h3> <p><p>In Persia, the first established evidence of influenza’s visitation dates back to the summer of 1833, when it erupted with great virulence in Tehran.</p></p> </li> <li > <h2><a href="/articles/inheritance">INHERITANCE</span></a></h2> <h3>Multiple Authors</h3> <p><p>i. Sasanian period. ii. Islamic period.</p></p> </li> <li class="odd"> <h2><a href="/articles/inheritance-i">INHERITANCE i. SASANIAN PERIOD</span></a></h2> <h3>Maria Macuch</h3> <p><p>Our main source on jurisprudence during the Sasanian period is the Lawbook <em>Hazār dādestān</em> “One Thousand Judgements” of the 7th century.</p></p> </li> <li > <h2><a href="/articles/inheritance-ii">INHERITANCE ii. ISLAMIC PERIOD</span></a></h2> <h3>Agostino Cilardo</h3> <p><p>In the pre-Islamic period, the Arab family was socially and politically composed of males (<em>ʿaṣaba</em>), namely those who were able to fight and defend the common property.</p></p> </li> <li class="odd"> <h2><a href="/articles/inju">INJU</span></a></h2> <h3>Cross-Reference</h3> <p><p>See ḴĀLEṢA.</p></p> </li> <li > <h2><a href="/articles/inju-dynasty">INJU DYNASTY</span></a></h2> <h3>John Limbert</h3> <p><p>(ca. 1325-53), one of the minor dynasties that controlled Persia following the collapse of the Il-Khanid state.</p></p> </li> <li class="odd"> <h2><a href="/articles/inostrantsev">INOSTRANTSEV, KONSTANTIN ALEXANDROVICH</span></a></h2> <h3>Aliy I. Kolesnikov</h3> <p><p>(1876-1941), Russian orientalist and historian of culture, best known abroad as the author of S<em>asanidskie et’udy</em> (<em>Etudes sassanides</em>).</p></p> </li> <li > <h2><a href="/articles/inscriptions">INSCRIPTIONS</span></a></h2> <h3>cross-reference</h3> <p><p>See <a href="/articles/epigraphy-index">EPIGRAPHY</a>.</p></p> </li> </ul> <div class="pagination"> <ul class="per-page"> <li>VIEW PER PAGE:</li> <li ><a href="/articles/index/I/limit:10" rel="nofollow">10</a></li> <li ><a href="/articles/index/I/limit:20" rel="nofollow">20</a></li> <li ><a href="/articles/index/I/limit:50" rel="nofollow">50</a></li> <li class="here"><a href="/articles/index/I/limit:1000">ALL</a></li> </ul> <ul class="pages"> <li><span class="current">1</span></li><li><span><a href="/articles/index/I/limit:1000/page:2" rel="nofollow">2</a></span></li><li><span><a href="/articles/index/I/limit:1000/page:3" rel="nofollow">3</a></span></li><li><span><a href="/articles/index/I/limit:1000/page:4" rel="nofollow">4</a></span></li> <li class="more"><a href="/articles/index/I/limit:1000/page:4" rel="nofollow">Â </a></li> </ul> SHOWING 1-100 of 306</div> </div> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="copy">©2024 Encyclopædia Iranica Foundation, Inc. All Rights Reserved.</div> <div class="issn">ISSN 2330-4804</div> </div> </div> </div> </div>  <div id="overlay_background" style="display:none;"></div>   <script async src="https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtag/js?id=G-523W72WFKF"></script> <script> window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; function gtag(){dataLayer.push(arguments);} gtag('js', new Date()); gtag('config', 'G-523W72WFKF'); </script> </body> </html>