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<!DOCTYPE html> <html lang="en" class="no-js"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <meta http-equiv="X-UA-Compatible" content="IE=edge"> <meta name="applicable-device" content="pc,mobile"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1"> <title>The FCC-ee vacuum system, from conceptual to prototyping | EPJ Techniques and Instrumentation | Full Text</title> <meta name="citation_abstract" content="The FCC-ee is a very challenging accelerator project from the point of view of vacuum. Apart from the sheer size of the machine, a twin-ring of 100 km circumference, the vacuum system design must be capable of dealing with the low-energy 45.6 GeV, high-current version of the machine (the Z-pole) as well as the higher energy, lower current versions. The main difficulty is related to the very much different synchrotron radiation (SR) spectra of the Z-pole vs the other energies, in particular the ttbar at 182.5 GeV. The critical energy of the SR spectrum of the Z-pole is 19.5 keV, while the ttbar exceeds 1.2 MeV. It is particularly challenging in terms of shielding the beryllium chamber in the detectors, for the Machine Detector Interface (MDI) area. We discuss the evolution of the vacuum system design for the arc sections, and some new ideas on NEG-coating, SR absorbers, and pumping system, with the aim to build prototypes soon, in the framework of the FCC Innovation Study program. The design of the vacuum hardware depends on the choices made for the magnets, and the required shielding from high-energy radiation generated by the circulating beam interacting with the residual gas and the interaction of the intense SR fans with the photon. There is also an important collaboration with the engineering integration of the vacuum system in the tunnel, particularly considering the full-energy booster injector, which is not detailed here. We also briefly describe the raytracing montecarlo modelling efforts carried out in the MDI area, and its pumping configuration."/> <meta name="journal_id" content="40485"/> <meta name="dc.title" content="The FCC-ee vacuum system, from conceptual to prototyping"/> <meta name="dc.source" content="EPJ Techniques and Instrumentation 2022 9:1"/> <meta name="dc.format" content="text/html"/> <meta name="dc.publisher" content="SpringerOpen"/> <meta name="dc.date" content="2022-11-18"/> <meta name="dc.type" content="OriginalPaper"/> <meta name="dc.language" content="En"/> <meta name="dc.copyright" content="2022 The Author(s)"/> <meta name="dc.rights" content="2022 The Author(s)"/> <meta name="dc.rightsAgent" content="reprints@biomedcentral.com"/> <meta name="dc.description" content="The FCC-ee is a very challenging accelerator project from the point of view of vacuum. Apart from the sheer size of the machine, a twin-ring of 100 km circumference, the vacuum system design must be capable of dealing with the low-energy 45.6 GeV, high-current version of the machine (the Z-pole) as well as the higher energy, lower current versions. The main difficulty is related to the very much different synchrotron radiation (SR) spectra of the Z-pole vs the other energies, in particular the ttbar at 182.5 GeV. The critical energy of the SR spectrum of the Z-pole is 19.5 keV, while the ttbar exceeds 1.2 MeV. It is particularly challenging in terms of shielding the beryllium chamber in the detectors, for the Machine Detector Interface (MDI) area. We discuss the evolution of the vacuum system design for the arc sections, and some new ideas on NEG-coating, SR absorbers, and pumping system, with the aim to build prototypes soon, in the framework of the FCC Innovation Study program. The design of the vacuum hardware depends on the choices made for the magnets, and the required shielding from high-energy radiation generated by the circulating beam interacting with the residual gas and the interaction of the intense SR fans with the photon. There is also an important collaboration with the engineering integration of the vacuum system in the tunnel, particularly considering the full-energy booster injector, which is not detailed here. We also briefly describe the raytracing montecarlo modelling efforts carried out in the MDI area, and its pumping configuration."/> <meta name="prism.issn" content="2195-7045"/> <meta name="prism.publicationName" content="EPJ Techniques and Instrumentation"/> <meta name="prism.publicationDate" content="2022-11-18"/> <meta name="prism.volume" content="9"/> <meta name="prism.number" content="1"/> <meta name="prism.section" content="OriginalPaper"/> <meta name="prism.startingPage" content="1"/> <meta name="prism.endingPage" content="9"/> <meta name="prism.copyright" content="2022 The Author(s)"/> <meta name="prism.rightsAgent" content="reprints@biomedcentral.com"/> <meta name="prism.url" content="https://epjtechniquesandinstrumentation.springeropen.com/articles/10.1140/epjti/s40485-022-00087-w"/> <meta name="prism.doi" content="doi:10.1140/epjti/s40485-022-00087-w"/> <meta name="citation_pdf_url" content="https://epjtechniquesandinstrumentation.springeropen.com/counter/pdf/10.1140/epjti/s40485-022-00087-w"/> <meta name="citation_fulltext_html_url" content="https://epjtechniquesandinstrumentation.springeropen.com/articles/10.1140/epjti/s40485-022-00087-w"/> <meta name="citation_journal_title" content="EPJ Techniques and Instrumentation"/> <meta name="citation_journal_abbrev" content="EPJ Techn Instrum"/> <meta name="citation_publisher" content="SpringerOpen"/> <meta name="citation_issn" content="2195-7045"/> <meta name="citation_title" content="The FCC-ee vacuum system, from conceptual to prototyping"/> <meta name="citation_volume" content="9"/> <meta name="citation_issue" content="1"/> <meta name="citation_publication_date" content="2022/12"/> <meta name="citation_online_date" content="2022/11/18"/> <meta name="citation_firstpage" content="1"/> <meta name="citation_lastpage" content="9"/> <meta name="citation_article_type" content="Research article"/> <meta name="citation_fulltext_world_readable" content=""/> <meta name="citation_language" content="en"/> <meta name="dc.identifier" content="doi:10.1140/epjti/s40485-022-00087-w"/> <meta name="DOI" content="10.1140/epjti/s40485-022-00087-w"/> <meta name="size" content="91379"/> <meta name="citation_doi" content="10.1140/epjti/s40485-022-00087-w"/> <meta name="citation_springer_api_url" content="http://api.springer.com/xmldata/jats?q=doi:10.1140/epjti/s40485-022-00087-w&api_key="/> <meta name="description" content="The FCC-ee is a very challenging accelerator project from the point of view of vacuum. Apart from the sheer size of the machine, a twin-ring of 100 km circumference, the vacuum system design must be capable of dealing with the low-energy 45.6 GeV, high-current version of the machine (the Z-pole) as well as the higher energy, lower current versions. The main difficulty is related to the very much different synchrotron radiation (SR) spectra of the Z-pole vs the other energies, in particular the ttbar at 182.5 GeV. The critical energy of the SR spectrum of the Z-pole is 19.5 keV, while the ttbar exceeds 1.2 MeV. It is particularly challenging in terms of shielding the beryllium chamber in the detectors, for the Machine Detector Interface (MDI) area. We discuss the evolution of the vacuum system design for the arc sections, and some new ideas on NEG-coating, SR absorbers, and pumping system, with the aim to build prototypes soon, in the framework of the FCC Innovation Study program. The design of the vacuum hardware depends on the choices made for the magnets, and the required shielding from high-energy radiation generated by the circulating beam interacting with the residual gas and the interaction of the intense SR fans with the photon. There is also an important collaboration with the engineering integration of the vacuum system in the tunnel, particularly considering the full-energy booster injector, which is not detailed here. We also briefly describe the raytracing montecarlo modelling efforts carried out in the MDI area, and its pumping configuration."/> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Kersevan, Roberto"/> <meta name="dc.subject" content="Measurement Science and Instrumentation"/> <meta name="dc.subject" content="Atomic, Molecular, Optical and Plasma Physics"/> <meta name="dc.subject" content="Spectroscopy and Microscopy"/> <meta name="dc.subject" content="Biological and Medical Physics, Biophysics"/> <meta name="dc.subject" content="Biomaterials"/> <meta name="dc.subject" content="Characterization and Evaluation of Materials"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content=" Benedikt M, Blondel A, Brunner O, Capeans Garrido M, Cerutti F, Gutleber J, Janot P, Jimenez JM, Mertens V, Milanese A, Oide K, Osborne JA, Otto T, Papaphilippou Y, Poole J, Tavian LJ, Zimmermann F. FCC-ee: the lepton collider: future circular collider conceptual design report volume 2. Future circular collider. Technical report. 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Apart from the sheer size of the machine, a twin-ring of 100 km circumference, the vacuum system design must be capable of dealing with the low-energy 45.6 GeV, high-current version of the machine (the Z-pole) as well as the higher energy, lower current versions. The main difficulty is related to the very much different synchrotron radiation (SR) spectra of the Z-pole vs the other energies, in particular the ttbar at 182.5 GeV. The critical energy of the SR spectrum of the Z-pole is 19.5 keV, while the ttbar exceeds 1.2 MeV. It is particularly challenging in terms of shielding the beryllium chamber in the detectors, for the Machine Detector Interface (MDI) area. We discuss the evolution of the vacuum system design for the arc sections, and some new ideas on NEG-coating, SR absorbers, and pumping system, with the aim to build prototypes soon, in the framework of the FCC Innovation Study program. The design of the vacuum hardware depends on the choices made for the magnets, and the required shielding from high-energy radiation generated by the circulating beam interacting with the residual gas and the interaction of the intense SR fans with the photon. There is also an important collaboration with the engineering integration of the vacuum system in the tunnel, particularly considering the full-energy booster injector, which is not detailed here. We also briefly describe the raytracing montecarlo modelling efforts carried out in the MDI area, and its pumping configuration."/> <meta property="og:image" content="https://static-content.springer.com/image/art%3A10.1140%2Fepjti%2Fs40485-022-00087-w/MediaObjects/40485_2022_87_Fig1_HTML.jpg"/> <script type="application/ld+json">{"mainEntity":{"headline":"The FCC-ee vacuum system, from conceptual to prototyping","description":"The FCC-ee is a very challenging accelerator project from the point of view of vacuum. Apart from the sheer size of the machine, a twin-ring of 100 km circumference, the vacuum system design must be capable of dealing with the low-energy 45.6 GeV, high-current version of the machine (the Z-pole) as well as the higher energy, lower current versions. The main difficulty is related to the very much different synchrotron radiation (SR) spectra of the Z-pole vs the other energies, in particular the ttbar at 182.5 GeV. The critical energy of the SR spectrum of the Z-pole is 19.5 keV, while the ttbar exceeds 1.2 MeV. It is particularly challenging in terms of shielding the beryllium chamber in the detectors, for the Machine Detector Interface (MDI) area. We discuss the evolution of the vacuum system design for the arc sections, and some new ideas on NEG-coating, SR absorbers, and pumping system, with the aim to build prototypes soon, in the framework of the FCC Innovation Study program. The design of the vacuum hardware depends on the choices made for the magnets, and the required shielding from high-energy radiation generated by the circulating beam interacting with the residual gas and the interaction of the intense SR fans with the photon. There is also an important collaboration with the engineering integration of the vacuum system in the tunnel, particularly considering the full-energy booster injector, which is not detailed here. We also briefly describe the raytracing montecarlo modelling efforts carried out in the MDI area, and its pumping configuration.","datePublished":"2022-11-18T00:00:00Z","dateModified":"2022-11-18T00:00:00Z","pageStart":"1","pageEnd":"9","license":"http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/","sameAs":"https://doi.org/10.1140/epjti/s40485-022-00087-w","keywords":["Vacuum","Pumping system","Montecarlo simulations","Synchrotron radiation","e− e+ colliders","Higgs factories","Measurement Science and Instrumentation","Atomic","Molecular","Optical and Plasma Physics","Spectroscopy and Microscopy","Biological and Medical Physics","Biophysics","Biomaterials","Characterization and Evaluation of Materials"],"image":["https://media.springernature.com/lw1200/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1140%2Fepjti%2Fs40485-022-00087-w/MediaObjects/40485_2022_87_Fig1_HTML.jpg","https://media.springernature.com/lw1200/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1140%2Fepjti%2Fs40485-022-00087-w/MediaObjects/40485_2022_87_Fig2_HTML.jpg","https://media.springernature.com/lw1200/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1140%2Fepjti%2Fs40485-022-00087-w/MediaObjects/40485_2022_87_Fig3_HTML.jpg","https://media.springernature.com/lw1200/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1140%2Fepjti%2Fs40485-022-00087-w/MediaObjects/40485_2022_87_Fig4_HTML.jpg"],"isPartOf":{"name":"EPJ Techniques and Instrumentation","issn":["2195-7045"],"volumeNumber":"9","@type":["Periodical","PublicationVolume"]},"publisher":{"name":"Springer Berlin Heidelberg","logo":{"url":"https://www.springernature.com/app-sn/public/images/logo-springernature.png","@type":"ImageObject"},"@type":"Organization"},"author":[{"name":"Roberto Kersevan","url":"http://orcid.org/0000-0001-8506-1803","affiliation":[{"name":"CERN","address":{"name":"Vacuum Surfaces and Coatings Group, Technology Department, CERN, Geneva, Switzerland","@type":"PostalAddress"},"@type":"Organization"}],"email":"roberto.kersevan@cern.ch","@type":"Person"}],"isAccessibleForFree":true,"@type":"ScholarlyArticle"},"@context":"https://schema.org","@type":"WebPage"}</script> </head> <body class="journal journal-fulltext" > <div class="ctm"></div>  <noscript> <iframe src="https://www.googletagmanager.com/ns.html?id=GTM-MRVXSHQ" height="0" width="0" style="display:none;visibility:hidden"></iframe> </noscript>  <div class="u-visually-hidden" aria-hidden="true"> <?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?><!DOCTYPE svg PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD SVG 1.1//EN" "http://www.w3.org/Graphics/SVG/1.1/DTD/svg11.dtd"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"><defs><path id="a" d="M0 .74h56.72v55.24H0z"/></defs><symbol id="icon-access" 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class="c-context-bar__title"> The FCC-ee vacuum system, from conceptual to prototyping </div> <div class="c-pdf-container"> <div class="c-pdf-download u-clear-both"> <a href="//epjtechniquesandinstrumentation.springeropen.com/counter/pdf/10.1140/epjti/s40485-022-00087-w.pdf" class="u-button u-button--full-width u-button--primary u-justify-content-space-between c-pdf-download__link" data-article-pdf="true" data-readcube-pdf-url="true" data-test="pdf-link" data-draft-ignore="true" data-track="content_download" data-track-type="article pdf download" data-track-action="download pdf" data-track-label="link" data-track-external download> <span class="c-pdf-download__text">Download PDF</span> <svg aria-hidden="true" focusable="false" width="16" height="16" class="u-icon"><use xlink:href="#icon-download"/></svg> </a> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="c-pdf-button__container u-hide-at-lg js-context-bar-sticky-point-mobile"> <div class="c-pdf-container" data-track-context="article body"> <div class="c-pdf-download u-clear-both"> <a href="//epjtechniquesandinstrumentation.springeropen.com/counter/pdf/10.1140/epjti/s40485-022-00087-w.pdf" class="u-button u-button--full-width u-button--primary u-justify-content-space-between c-pdf-download__link" data-article-pdf="true" data-readcube-pdf-url="true" data-test="pdf-link" data-draft-ignore="true" data-track="content_download" data-track-type="article pdf download" data-track-action="download pdf" data-track-label="link" data-track-external download> <span class="c-pdf-download__text">Download PDF</span> <svg aria-hidden="true" focusable="false" width="16" height="16" class="u-icon"><use xlink:href="#icon-download"/></svg> </a> </div> </div> </div> <article lang="en"> <div class="c-article-header"> <ul class="c-article-identifiers" data-test="article-identifier"> <li class="c-article-identifiers__item" data-test="article-category">Research article</li> <li class="c-article-identifiers__item"> <a href="https://www.springernature.com/gp/open-research/about/the-fundamentals-of-open-access-and-open-research" data-track="click" data-track-action="open access" data-track-label="link" class="u-color-open-access" data-test="open-access">Open access</a> </li> <li class="c-article-identifiers__item">Published: <time datetime="2022-11-18">18 November 2022</time></li> </ul> <h1 class="c-article-title" data-test="article-title" data-article-title="">The FCC-ee vacuum system, from conceptual to prototyping</h1> <ul class="c-article-author-list c-article-author-list--short" data-test="authors-list" data-component-authors-activator="authors-list"><li class="c-article-author-list__item"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Roberto-Kersevan-Aff1" data-author-popup="auth-Roberto-Kersevan-Aff1" data-author-search="Kersevan, Roberto" data-corresp-id="c1">Roberto Kersevan<svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" 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data-track-label="link">Cite this article</a> </p> <div class="c-article-metrics-bar__wrapper u-clear-both"> <ul class="c-article-metrics-bar u-list-reset"> <li class=" c-article-metrics-bar__item" data-test="access-count"> <p class="c-article-metrics-bar__count">2395 <span class="c-article-metrics-bar__label">Accesses</span></p> </li> <li class="c-article-metrics-bar__item" data-test="altmetric-score"> <p class="c-article-metrics-bar__count">1 <span class="c-article-metrics-bar__label">Altmetric</span></p> </li> <li class="c-article-metrics-bar__item"> <p class="c-article-metrics-bar__details"><a href="/articles/10.1140/epjti/s40485-022-00087-w/metrics" data-track="click" data-track-action="view metrics" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">Metrics <span class="u-visually-hidden">details</span></a></p> </li> </ul> </div> </div> <section aria-labelledby="Abs1" data-title="Abstract" lang="en"><div class="c-article-section" id="Abs1-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Abs1">Abstract</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Abs1-content"><p>The FCC-ee is a very challenging accelerator project from the point of view of vacuum. Apart from the sheer size of the machine, a twin-ring of 100 km circumference, the vacuum system design must be capable of dealing with the low-energy 45.6 GeV, high-current version of the machine (the <i>Z</i>-pole) as well as the higher energy, lower current versions. The main difficulty is related to the very much different synchrotron radiation (SR) spectra of the <i>Z</i>-pole vs the other energies, in particular the ttbar at 182.5 GeV. The critical energy of the SR spectrum of the <i>Z</i>-pole is 19.5 keV, while the ttbar exceeds 1.2 MeV. It is particularly challenging in terms of shielding the beryllium chamber in the detectors, for the Machine Detector Interface (MDI) area. We discuss the evolution of the vacuum system design for the arc sections, and some new ideas on NEG-coating, SR absorbers, and pumping system, with the aim to build prototypes soon, in the framework of the FCC Innovation Study program. The design of the vacuum hardware depends on the choices made for the magnets, and the required shielding from high-energy radiation generated by the circulating beam interacting with the residual gas and the interaction of the intense SR fans with the photon. There is also an important collaboration with the engineering integration of the vacuum system in the tunnel, particularly considering the full-energy booster injector, which is not detailed here. We also briefly describe the raytracing montecarlo modelling efforts carried out in the MDI area, and its pumping configuration.</p></div></div></section> <section data-title="Machine parameters relevant to vacuum"><div class="c-article-section" id="Sec1-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Sec1"><span class="c-article-section__title-number">1 </span>Machine parameters relevant to vacuum</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Sec1-content"><p>Since the publication of the FCC Conceptual Design Report [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1" title=" Benedikt M, Blondel A, Brunner O, Capeans Garrido M, Cerutti F, Gutleber J, Janot P, Jimenez JM, Mertens V, Milanese A, Oide K, Osborne JA, Otto T, Papaphilippou Y, Poole J, Tavian LJ, Zimmermann F. FCC-ee: the lepton collider: future circular collider conceptual design report volume 2. Future circular collider. Technical report. CERN, Geneva; 2018. https://doi.org/10.1140/epjst/e2019-900045-4 . https://cds.cern.ch/record/2651299 . " href="/articles/10.1140/epjti/s40485-022-00087-w#ref-CR1" id="ref-link-section-d107647248e360">1</a>], the layout of the FCC tunnels and access shafts have changed considerably, namely a shorter ring circumference to avoid some geological limitations has been established [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2" title=" Gutleber J. FCC baseline V1.0 and fallback scenarios. 144th FCC-ee Optics Design Meeting. & 15th FCCIS WP2.2 Meeting. https://indico.cern.ch/event/1065778/ . " href="/articles/10.1140/epjti/s40485-022-00087-w#ref-CR2" id="ref-link-section-d107647248e363">2</a>]. Throughout this paper we will refer to the machine size and geometry of ref. [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1" title=" Benedikt M, Blondel A, Brunner O, Capeans Garrido M, Cerutti F, Gutleber J, Janot P, Jimenez JM, Mertens V, Milanese A, Oide K, Osborne JA, Otto T, Papaphilippou Y, Poole J, Tavian LJ, Zimmermann F. FCC-ee: the lepton collider: future circular collider conceptual design report volume 2. Future circular collider. Technical report. CERN, Geneva; 2018. https://doi.org/10.1140/epjst/e2019-900045-4 . https://cds.cern.ch/record/2651299 . " href="/articles/10.1140/epjti/s40485-022-00087-w#ref-CR1" id="ref-link-section-d107647248e366">1</a>], as many numerical simulations have been carried out on it, and in the end the changes would not affect the vacuum environment that much. See Fig. 1 and Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="table anchor" href="/articles/10.1140/epjti/s40485-022-00087-w#Tab1">1</a> in [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1" title=" Benedikt M, Blondel A, Brunner O, Capeans Garrido M, Cerutti F, Gutleber J, Janot P, Jimenez JM, Mertens V, Milanese A, Oide K, Osborne JA, Otto T, Papaphilippou Y, Poole J, Tavian LJ, Zimmermann F. FCC-ee: the lepton collider: future circular collider conceptual design report volume 2. Future circular collider. Technical report. CERN, Geneva; 2018. https://doi.org/10.1140/epjst/e2019-900045-4 . https://cds.cern.ch/record/2651299 . " href="/articles/10.1140/epjti/s40485-022-00087-w#ref-CR1" id="ref-link-section-d107647248e372">1</a>], partly reproduced here. </p><div class="c-article-table" data-test="inline-table" data-container-section="table" id="table-1"><figure><figcaption class="c-article-table__figcaption"><b id="Tab1" data-test="table-caption">Table 1 Machine and vacuum-relevant parameters (IP: interaction point)</b></figcaption><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="table-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="view table" data-track-label="button" rel="nofollow" href="/articles/10.1140/epjti/s40485-022-00087-w/tables/1" aria-label="Full size table 1"><span>Full size table</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div><p>For electron or positron storage rings, if vacuum is concerned, the main machine parameters of interest are beam energy, current, bending radius, linear and areal synchrotron radiation (SR) power densities and photon flux. They determine, via the photon-stimulated desorption (PSD) mechanism, the amount of gas given off during operation with stored beams, <i>Q</i>. The formula relating the PSD gas load to beam energy <i>E</i> (GeV) and current <i>I</i> (mA) for SR fan generated by a magnet with local dipole radius <i>ρ</i> (m) is </p><div id="Equ1" class="c-article-equation"><div class="c-article-equation__content"><span class="mathjax-tex">$$ Q = \eta \text{(mol/ph)} \cdot F \text{(ph/s)} \cdot k, $$</span></div><div class="c-article-equation__number"> (1) </div></div><p> where <i>k</i> converts from (mol/s) to (mbar <span class="stix">⋅</span> l/s) via the ideal gas equation <span class="mathjax-tex">$PV=nRT$</span>.</p><p>At 20°C (hereafter called “room temperature”, RT) <span class="mathjax-tex">$k=4.047 \cdot 10 ^{-20}$</span> mbar <span class="stix">⋅</span> l/mol.</p><p>The photon flux <i>F</i> is given in practical units by <span class="mathjax-tex">$F=8.08\cdot 10^{17} E\text{(GeV)}\cdot I\text{(mA)}\cdot k_{F}$</span>, where <span class="mathjax-tex">$k_{F}$</span> is a factor accounting for the fraction of the photon flux spectrum above the threshold of 4 eV. This threshold (cut-off) is chosen in most vacuum studies because it is well known that PSD is mediated by the emission of photoelectrons (PE), and for most vacuum chamber materials used in accelerators there is no PE generation below 4 eV. The <span class="mathjax-tex">$k_{F}$</span> factors are shown on Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="table anchor" href="/articles/10.1140/epjti/s40485-022-00087-w#Tab2">2</a>. </p><div class="c-article-table" data-test="inline-table" data-container-section="table" id="table-2"><figure><figcaption class="c-article-table__figcaption"><b id="Tab2" data-test="table-caption">Table 2 Critical energy vs beam energy and cut-off fractions for flux and power</b></figcaption><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="table-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="view table" data-track-label="button" rel="nofollow" href="/articles/10.1140/epjti/s40485-022-00087-w/tables/2" aria-label="Full size table 2"><span>Full size table</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div><p>The photon flux <i>F</i> must also be considered to evaluate the electron-cloud (EC) effect, which must be minimized as much as possible [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1" title=" Benedikt M, Blondel A, Brunner O, Capeans Garrido M, Cerutti F, Gutleber J, Janot P, Jimenez JM, Mertens V, Milanese A, Oide K, Osborne JA, Otto T, Papaphilippou Y, Poole J, Tavian LJ, Zimmermann F. FCC-ee: the lepton collider: future circular collider conceptual design report volume 2. Future circular collider. Technical report. CERN, Geneva; 2018. https://doi.org/10.1140/epjst/e2019-900045-4 . https://cds.cern.ch/record/2651299 . " href="/articles/10.1140/epjti/s40485-022-00087-w#ref-CR1" id="ref-link-section-d107647248e1087">1</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 3" title=" Yaman F, Iadarola G, Kersevan R, Ogur S, Ohmi K, Zimmermann F, Zobov M. Mitigation of electron cloud effects in the fcc-ee collider. Technical report, CERN. 2022. https://cds.cern.ch/record/2804867 . " href="/articles/10.1140/epjti/s40485-022-00087-w#ref-CR3" id="ref-link-section-d107647248e1090">3</a>].</p><p>The SR power is given by the formula <span class="mathjax-tex">$P \text{(W)} = 88.46 \cdot I\text{(mA)} \cdot E^{4}\text{(GeV)} / \rho \text{(m)} \cdot k_{P}$</span>, where <span class="mathjax-tex">$k_{P}$</span> is a factor similar to <span class="mathjax-tex">$k_{F}$</span> but accounting for the fraction of SR power generated above the 4 eV cut-off. <span class="mathjax-tex">$k_{P}$</span> is very close to 1, except when SR is generated by weaker fringe fields or quadrupoles.</p><p>Another important parameter is the SR critical energy, given in practical units by </p><div id="Equ2" class="c-article-equation"><div class="c-article-equation__content"><span class="mathjax-tex">$$ \epsilon _{c} \text{(keV)} = 2.218 \cdot E^{3} \text{(GeV)} / \rho \text{(m)} $$</span></div><div class="c-article-equation__number"> (2) </div></div><p>Given the dependence on the cube of the beam energy, the critical energy varies by a factor of 64 between the low-energy <i>Z</i> and the high-energy <i>tt</i>.</p><p>The design of the FCC-ee must cope with the very much different spectra during the 15 years long program (see Fig. 4 in [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1" title=" Benedikt M, Blondel A, Brunner O, Capeans Garrido M, Cerutti F, Gutleber J, Janot P, Jimenez JM, Mertens V, Milanese A, Oide K, Osborne JA, Otto T, Papaphilippou Y, Poole J, Tavian LJ, Zimmermann F. FCC-ee: the lepton collider: future circular collider conceptual design report volume 2. Future circular collider. Technical report. CERN, Geneva; 2018. https://doi.org/10.1140/epjst/e2019-900045-4 . https://cds.cern.ch/record/2651299 . " href="/articles/10.1140/epjti/s40485-022-00087-w#ref-CR1" id="ref-link-section-d107647248e1298">1</a>]), starting at the <i>Z</i> and bringing the machine to its design parameters in a rather short time, of the order of 2 years. The <i>Z</i> is characterized by the largest photon flux, and therefore related PSD gas load, and it is therefore the most challenging machine to design. In addition, given its sheer size, the twin ring machine must be designed in such a way to adapt to all the future beam energy increases, from 45.6 to 182.5 GeV.</p></div></div></section><section data-title="Synchrotron radiation spectra"><div class="c-article-section" id="Sec2-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Sec2"><span class="c-article-section__title-number">2 </span>Synchrotron radiation spectra</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Sec2-content"><p>The SR photon flux spectra for the 5 beam energies are shown on Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/articles/10.1140/epjti/s40485-022-00087-w#Fig1">1</a>. </p><div class="c-article-section__figure js-c-reading-companion-figures-item" data-test="figure" data-container-section="figure" id="figure-1" data-title="Figure 1"><figure><figcaption><b id="Fig1" class="c-article-section__figure-caption" data-test="figure-caption-text">Figure 1</b></figcaption><div class="c-article-section__figure-content"><div class="c-article-section__figure-item"><a class="c-article-section__figure-link" data-test="img-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="image" data-track-action="view figure" href="/articles/10.1140/epjti/s40485-022-00087-w/figures/1" rel="nofollow"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1140%2Fepjti%2Fs40485-022-00087-w/MediaObjects/40485_2022_87_Fig1_HTML.jpg?as=webp"><img aria-describedby="Fig1" src="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1140%2Fepjti%2Fs40485-022-00087-w/MediaObjects/40485_2022_87_Fig1_HTML.jpg" alt="figure 1" loading="lazy" width="685" height="479"></picture></a></div><div class="c-article-section__figure-description" data-test="bottom-caption" id="figure-1-desc"><p>SR photon flux at nominal currents</p></div></div><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="article-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="button" data-track-action="view figure" href="/articles/10.1140/epjti/s40485-022-00087-w/figures/1" data-track-dest="link:Figure1 Full size image" aria-label="Full size image figure 1" rel="nofollow"><span>Full size image</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div><p>In the inset, the linear photon flux generated along each meter of dipole orbit at the nominal current is indicated, and the critical energy as well.</p><p>Starting with the <i>W</i> energy the fraction of photon flux generated above 100 keV, which is the Compton edge for aluminium becomes large. Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="table anchor" href="/articles/10.1140/epjti/s40485-022-00087-w#Tab3">3</a> shows the fraction of such photons, for each beam energy. </p><div class="c-article-table" data-test="inline-table" data-container-section="table" id="table-3"><figure><figcaption class="c-article-table__figcaption"><b id="Tab3" data-test="table-caption">Table 3 Percent of SR photon flux generated above 100 keV</b></figcaption><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="table-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="view table" data-track-label="button" rel="nofollow" href="/articles/10.1140/epjti/s40485-022-00087-w/tables/3" aria-label="Full size table 3"><span>Full size table</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div><p>This has important effects on the number of molecules which are generated inside the vacuum chamber, and their geometrical distribution, as the Compton-scattered electrons and photons in the bulk of the vacuum chamber material (and surrounding magnets) may go back to the vacuum chamber and generate a cascade of lower-energy photons and PEs and related PSD effects.</p><p>This had been noticed during the beam energy increase of the Phase-2 of the LEP machine [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 4" title=" Gröbner O. Experience from the LEP vacuum system. In: Workshop on VLHC. 2001. www.capp.iit.edu/workshops/epem/Transparencies/Grobner.pdf . " href="/articles/10.1140/epjti/s40485-022-00087-w#ref-CR4" id="ref-link-section-d107647248e1495">4</a>] and it is also predicted by FLUKA calculations [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 5" title=" Cerutti F. Impact of SR in lepton collider arcs. In: FCC study kick-off meeting. Geneva. 2014. https://indico.cern.ch/event/282344/contributions/1630742/ . " href="/articles/10.1140/epjti/s40485-022-00087-w#ref-CR5" id="ref-link-section-d107647248e1498">5</a>]. It is one of the reasons why the last dipoles before the interaction points have a weaker field to keep the critical energy of the SR generated along them below 100 keV, see Sect. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="section anchor" href="/articles/10.1140/epjti/s40485-022-00087-w#Sec9">9</a> below.</p></div></div></section><section data-title="Choice of materials"><div class="c-article-section" id="Sec3-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Sec3"><span class="c-article-section__title-number">3 </span>Choice of materials</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Sec3-content"><p>The vacuum chamber material of choice must have a good compromise between mechanical, thermal, and electrical properties, and material procurement and fabrication costs. Extruded aluminium has some advantages compared to copper but unfortunately it is very transparent to high energy SR photons, which would lead to detrimental effects in terms of irradiation of tunnel components [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 5" title=" Cerutti F. Impact of SR in lepton collider arcs. In: FCC study kick-off meeting. Geneva. 2014. https://indico.cern.ch/event/282344/contributions/1630742/ . " href="/articles/10.1140/epjti/s40485-022-00087-w#ref-CR5" id="ref-link-section-d107647248e1512">5</a>].</p><p>OFS-grade copper alloy has been chosen, as it is a material which has well known welding/brazing properties, good mechanical and thermal characteristics, and very good electrical conductivity.</p><p>The pumping domes, see Sect. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="section anchor" href="/articles/10.1140/epjti/s40485-022-00087-w#Sec5">5</a>, are made of 316 LN sheets and machined parts. A different copper alloy could be used to make the flanges, see Sect. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="section anchor" href="/articles/10.1140/epjti/s40485-022-00087-w#Sec6">6</a>. Bellows are made of stainless steel, with hydroformed convolutions welded to forged 316 LN stainless steel parts. RF contact fingers are made of BeCu C17410 material, a well-tested solution: their optimized geometry and placement, though, will be the subject of future tests. A permanent radiation-hard cold-sprayed bake-out system using ceramic plasma coating techniques and metallic cold-spray coating is proposed and will be tested by the CERN vacuum group [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 6" title=" Garion C. CERN, personal communication. " href="/articles/10.1140/epjti/s40485-022-00087-w#ref-CR6" id="ref-link-section-d107647248e1527">6</a>]. For the SR absorbers, see Sect. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="section anchor" href="/articles/10.1140/epjti/s40485-022-00087-w#Sec5">5</a>, the material will be copper alloy. What technology will be used to join them to the vacuum chambers will be determined by prototyping and testing, they have to withstand a very large surface power density at the tt energy, due to the extremely small vertical divergence of the SR fan, less than 3 microradians above and below the plane of the orbit contain 95% of the SR dipole power [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 7" title=" Kersevan R. FCC-ee beam vacuum challenges, concepts and future R&D plans. In: FCC week. 2019. https://indico.cern.ch/event/995850/contributions/3449896/ . " href="/articles/10.1140/epjti/s40485-022-00087-w#ref-CR7" id="ref-link-section-d107647248e1533">7</a>].</p></div></div></section><section data-title="Gas loads"><div class="c-article-section" id="Sec4-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Sec4"><span class="c-article-section__title-number">4 </span>Gas loads</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Sec4-content"><p>An estimate of the PSD gas load can be obtained using Eq. (<a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="equation anchor" href="/articles/10.1140/epjti/s40485-022-00087-w#Equ1">1</a>) and the linear photon flux <span class="mathjax-tex">$F'$</span> (in ph/s/m) shown on the inset of Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/articles/10.1140/epjti/s40485-022-00087-w#Fig1">1</a>, assuming an average PSD molecular yield of 10<sup>−6</sup> mol/ph, a value which is usually obtained after an integrated beam dose close to 1000 A <span class="stix">⋅</span> h [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 8" title=" Suetsugu Y. Experience with the vacuum system of SuperKEKB. In: FCC week. 2021. https://indico.cern.ch/event/995850/contributions/4426079/ . " href="/articles/10.1140/epjti/s40485-022-00087-w#ref-CR8" id="ref-link-section-d107647248e1574">8</a>]. <span class="mathjax-tex">$Q'$</span> is the corresponding linear gas load density in mbar <span class="stix">⋅</span> l/s/m.</p><p>Clearly, the energies above the <i>Z</i> will profit from the pre-conditioning at the very large photon flux of the <i>Z</i>, except for any new chambers which will be installed during energy upgrades. This may be the case for the areas in the long straight sections, as many RF cavities will have to be installed to account for the SR energy loss and reduce the energy sawtooth effect which would be detrimental for the experiments [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 9" title=" Wenninger J. FCC-ee CM energy: impact of the RF system. In: FCC-ee polarization workshop. 2017. https://indico.cern.ch/event/669194/ . " href="/articles/10.1140/epjti/s40485-022-00087-w#ref-CR9" id="ref-link-section-d107647248e1609">9</a>]. Along the arcs there will be no need to replace the vacuum chambers as the energy of the beams will be increased.</p><p>For the different machines, the linear outgassing yields <span class="mathjax-tex">$Q'$</span> are shown on Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="table anchor" href="/articles/10.1140/epjti/s40485-022-00087-w#Tab4">4</a>. </p><div class="c-article-table" data-test="inline-table" data-container-section="table" id="table-4"><figure><figcaption class="c-article-table__figcaption"><b id="Tab4" data-test="table-caption">Table 4 Linear PSD outgassing yields</b></figcaption><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="table-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="view table" data-track-label="button" rel="nofollow" href="/articles/10.1140/epjti/s40485-022-00087-w/tables/4" aria-label="Full size table 4"><span>Full size table</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div><p>Here we assume that there will be no noticeable additional gas load coming from effects such as the electron cloud (EC). EC studies for existing machines [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 3" title=" Yaman F, Iadarola G, Kersevan R, Ogur S, Ohmi K, Zimmermann F, Zobov M. Mitigation of electron cloud effects in the fcc-ee collider. Technical report, CERN. 2022. https://cds.cern.ch/record/2804867 . " href="/articles/10.1140/epjti/s40485-022-00087-w#ref-CR3" id="ref-link-section-d107647248e1781">3</a>] show that there are mitigation measures that can be taken against it, such as amorphous carbon coating, surface texturing (e.g. laser ablation techniques), and more, see Sect. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="section anchor" href="/articles/10.1140/epjti/s40485-022-00087-w#Sec10">10</a>.</p></div></div></section><section data-title="Vacuum chamber geometry"><div class="c-article-section" id="Sec5-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Sec5"><span class="c-article-section__title-number">5 </span>Vacuum chamber geometry</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Sec5-content"><p>The cross-section of the chamber fits all the arc magnets’ pole design [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 10" title=" Bauche J. Design of the FCC-ee collider magnets. In: FCC week. 2021. https://indico.cern.ch/event/995850/timetable/ . " href="/articles/10.1140/epjti/s40485-022-00087-w#ref-CR10" id="ref-link-section-d107647248e1795">10</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 11" title=" Kersevan R. Arc vacuum system and synchrotron radiation. In: FCC week. 2021. https://indico.cern.ch/event/995850/contributions/4404304/ . " href="/articles/10.1140/epjti/s40485-022-00087-w#ref-CR11" id="ref-link-section-d107647248e1798">11</a>]. It implements the SuperKEKB concept, a circular tube with two “winglets” in the plane of the orbit. The circle has an internal diameter of 70 mm, compared to the 90 mm of SuperKEKB [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 7" title=" Kersevan R. FCC-ee beam vacuum challenges, concepts and future R&D plans. In: FCC week. 2019. https://indico.cern.ch/event/995850/contributions/3449896/ . " href="/articles/10.1140/epjti/s40485-022-00087-w#ref-CR7" id="ref-link-section-d107647248e1801">7</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 8" title=" Suetsugu Y. Experience with the vacuum system of SuperKEKB. In: FCC week. 2021. https://indico.cern.ch/event/995850/contributions/4426079/ . " href="/articles/10.1140/epjti/s40485-022-00087-w#ref-CR8" id="ref-link-section-d107647248e1804">8</a>]. The chamber cross section can be extruded, avoiding longitudinal welds, with a slightly larger thickness in the area of the winglets to help relieve an area of high mechanical stress due to chamber forming [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 6" title=" Garion C. CERN, personal communication. " href="/articles/10.1140/epjti/s40485-022-00087-w#ref-CR6" id="ref-link-section-d107647248e1807">6</a>]. Discrete photon absorbers are placed at a variable distance to intercept all the primary SR fan from the arc dipoles and quadrupoles [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 7" title=" Kersevan R. FCC-ee beam vacuum challenges, concepts and future R&D plans. In: FCC week. 2019. https://indico.cern.ch/event/995850/contributions/3449896/ . " href="/articles/10.1140/epjti/s40485-022-00087-w#ref-CR7" id="ref-link-section-d107647248e1811">7</a>]. Figure <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/articles/10.1140/epjti/s40485-022-00087-w#Fig2">2</a> illustrates the concept, with one SR absorber having an inclined surface to reduce the SR power density to manageable levels [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 7" title=" Kersevan R. FCC-ee beam vacuum challenges, concepts and future R&D plans. In: FCC week. 2019. https://indico.cern.ch/event/995850/contributions/3449896/ . " href="/articles/10.1140/epjti/s40485-022-00087-w#ref-CR7" id="ref-link-section-d107647248e1817">7</a>], around 40 W/mm<sup>2</sup> for the <i>Z</i> energy machine, with an absorber inclination of 45°. A vertical absorber would receive a power density higher by a factor of 1.4. Preliminary calculations, not detailed here, show that it would be advisable to remain near 40 W/mm<sup>2</sup>, on considerations of the temperature of the copper at the cooling channels. </p><div class="c-article-section__figure js-c-reading-companion-figures-item" data-test="figure" data-container-section="figure" id="figure-2" data-title="Figure 2"><figure><figcaption><b id="Fig2" class="c-article-section__figure-caption" data-test="figure-caption-text">Figure 2</b></figcaption><div class="c-article-section__figure-content"><div class="c-article-section__figure-item"><a class="c-article-section__figure-link" data-test="img-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="image" data-track-action="view figure" href="/articles/10.1140/epjti/s40485-022-00087-w/figures/2" rel="nofollow"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1140%2Fepjti%2Fs40485-022-00087-w/MediaObjects/40485_2022_87_Fig2_HTML.jpg?as=webp"><img aria-describedby="Fig2" src="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1140%2Fepjti%2Fs40485-022-00087-w/MediaObjects/40485_2022_87_Fig2_HTML.jpg" alt="figure 2" loading="lazy" width="685" height="374"></picture></a></div><div class="c-article-section__figure-description" data-test="bottom-caption" id="figure-2-desc"><p>Vacuum chamber cross section with one SR absorber. The circular part is 70 mm internal diameter and the horizontal width in the plane of the orbit is 115 mm</p></div></div><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="article-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="button" data-track-action="view figure" href="/articles/10.1140/epjti/s40485-022-00087-w/figures/2" data-track-dest="link:Figure2 Full size image" aria-label="Full size image figure 2" rel="nofollow"><span>Full size image</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div></div></div></section><section data-title="Pumping system"><div class="c-article-section" id="Sec6-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Sec6"><span class="c-article-section__title-number">6 </span>Pumping system</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Sec6-content"><p>NEG-coating has been chosen as the main pumping mechanism, mainly because it guarantees low PSD yield and low secondary electron yield (SEY) as well. Additional pumping for non-getterable gases is given by lumped pumps. NEG-coating is a mature technology, with more than 20 years of implementation on lepton machines with high PSD effects [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 12" title=" Costa Pinto P. History and potential of Non-Evaporable Getter (NEG) technology. Workshop on Advanced Materials and Surfaces. Geneva: CERN. https://indico.cern.ch/event/229108/ . " href="/articles/10.1140/epjti/s40485-022-00087-w#ref-CR12" id="ref-link-section-d107647248e1854">12</a>]. Additional pumping is obtained by installing lumped pumps, either NEG or ion-pumps, near some of the SR absorbers along the arcs [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 7" title=" Kersevan R. FCC-ee beam vacuum challenges, concepts and future R&D plans. In: FCC week. 2019. https://indico.cern.ch/event/995850/contributions/3449896/ . " href="/articles/10.1140/epjti/s40485-022-00087-w#ref-CR7" id="ref-link-section-d107647248e1857">7</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 11" title=" Kersevan R. Arc vacuum system and synchrotron radiation. In: FCC week. 2021. https://indico.cern.ch/event/995850/contributions/4404304/ . " href="/articles/10.1140/epjti/s40485-022-00087-w#ref-CR11" id="ref-link-section-d107647248e1860">11</a>]. Their exact type, number, and location is yet to be determined, and a cost-benefit analysis will have to be carried out.</p></div></div></section><section data-title="Montecarlo simulations"><div class="c-article-section" id="Sec7-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Sec7"><span class="c-article-section__title-number">7 </span>Montecarlo simulations</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Sec7-content"><p>Extensive modelling using raytracing montecarlo codes SYNRAD+ and Molflow+ has been carried out. Both codes can import the vacuum chamber geometry models from CAD programs. SYNRAD+ calculates the SR fan in the dipole approximation, i.e. no interference effects, using the orbits imported from lattice codes such as MADX. It then generates a mapping of the SR irradiation on all surfaces, which can be converted into PSD gas desorption at a chosen time (beam dose), using Eq. (<a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="equation anchor" href="/articles/10.1140/epjti/s40485-022-00087-w#Equ1">1</a>) Molflow+ imports the SYNRAD+ file and runs the molecular flow simulation [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 13" title=" Ady M, Kersevan R. Recent developments of Monte-Carlo codes MolFlow+ and SynRad+. 10th Int. Particle Accelerator Conf. Melbourne, Australia. https://doi.org/10.18429/JACoW-IPAC2019-TUPMP037 . " href="/articles/10.1140/epjti/s40485-022-00087-w#ref-CR13" id="ref-link-section-d107647248e1874">13</a>].</p></div></div></section><section data-title="Arcs"><div class="c-article-section" id="Sec8-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Sec8"><span class="c-article-section__title-number">8 </span>Arcs</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Sec8-content"><p>We have modelled both rings with and without SR absorbers: the conditioning time with absorbers is shorter than that without because the absorbers concentrate on a short length, typically 150 mm, the SR flux that would otherwise hit 5.6 m on average along the arcs. It is well documented in literature the fact that PSD outgassing rate <span class="mathjax-tex">$Q''$</span> (in mbar <span class="stix">⋅</span> l/s/cm<sup>2</sup>) scales as a power function of the accumulated SR photon flux density <span class="mathjax-tex">$F''$</span> (in ph/s/cm<sup>2</sup>), like <span class="mathjax-tex">$Q'' \approx A \cdot {F''} ^{-\alpha}$</span>, where <i>α</i> is typically <span class="mathjax-tex">$0.5< \alpha <0.8$</span> [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 14" title=" Malyshev O. Beam induced desorption. In: CERN accelerator school vacuum for particle accelerators. Glumslöv, Sweden. 2017. https://indico.cern.ch/event/565314/timetable/ . " href="/articles/10.1140/epjti/s40485-022-00087-w#ref-CR14" id="ref-link-section-d107647248e2013">14</a>], and <i>A</i> is a unit conversion factor. Concentrating the SR photon flux density by a factor of between 35 and 40 (depending on the location along the arc), the conditioning time shortens by an average factor of 8.5 with respect to the case when the photon flux is distributed along the external side of the chamber, like LEP did. This speed up is important as it allows a faster conditioning of the machine at the <i>Z</i> energy, as mentioned at the end of Sect. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="section anchor" href="/articles/10.1140/epjti/s40485-022-00087-w#Sec1">1</a>. The advantage of implementing NEG-coating along all chambers has been demonstrated too [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 7" title=" Kersevan R. FCC-ee beam vacuum challenges, concepts and future R&D plans. In: FCC week. 2019. https://indico.cern.ch/event/995850/contributions/3449896/ . " href="/articles/10.1140/epjti/s40485-022-00087-w#ref-CR7" id="ref-link-section-d107647248e2026">7</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 11" title=" Kersevan R. Arc vacuum system and synchrotron radiation. In: FCC week. 2021. https://indico.cern.ch/event/995850/contributions/4404304/ . " href="/articles/10.1140/epjti/s40485-022-00087-w#ref-CR11" id="ref-link-section-d107647248e2029">11</a>].</p></div></div></section><section data-title="Machine Detector Interface (MDI) area"><div class="c-article-section" id="Sec9-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Sec9"><span class="c-article-section__title-number">9 </span>Machine Detector Interface (MDI) area</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Sec9-content"><p>Combined raytracing montecarlo simulations have been carried out for the MDI regions as well. A new design of the interaction region chamber, which now removes the need for high-order-mode-absorbing ferrites has been implemented in SYNRAD+, and then in Molflow+, calculating the number of photons reaching the beryllium chamber, and their spectra [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 15" title=" Kersevan R. Synchrotron radiation simulations in the IR. FCC-ee MDI meeting #34 and FCCIS WP2.3 meeting #5. https://indico.cern.ch/event/1071912/ . " href="/articles/10.1140/epjti/s40485-022-00087-w#ref-CR15" id="ref-link-section-d107647248e2040">15</a>]. The last 600 m upstream of the interaction point (IP) are equipped with SR photon absorbers on both sides of the vacuum chamber, due to the anti-bending in that area, in order to decrease the photon flux scattered towards the IP. Lumped NEG pumps are located near some of these absorbers, and a low average pressure can be obtained (in the low 10<sup>−10</sup> mbar range), so that the interaction of the incoming stored beam and the residual gas can be minimised (bremsstrahlung). FLUKA simulations having these pressure profiles as input for the gas distribution are under development now [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 16" title=" Humann B. Synchrotron radiation studies for the FCC-ee arc with FLUKA. In: FCC week. 2021. https://indico.cern.ch/event/995850/contributions/4405383/ . " href="/articles/10.1140/epjti/s40485-022-00087-w#ref-CR16" id="ref-link-section-d107647248e2045">16</a>], first for the arc and then for the MDI region as well.</p></div></div></section><section data-title="Future work"><div class="c-article-section" id="Sec10-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Sec10"><span class="c-article-section__title-number">10 </span>Future work</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Sec10-content"><p>The design of many vacuum components such as vacuum chamber extrusion, SR absorbers, low-loss, low-impedance RF contact fingers with rectangular bellows, shape-memory alloy-based oval flanges, pumping ports, beam-position monitor blocks is underway: prototypes will be fabricated and tested during the remainder of the FCC IS study program.</p><p>We plan to test the vacuum chamber and photon absorbers behaviour using SR at the BESTEX beamline at the KARA light source [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 17" title=" Gonzalez LA et al.. Commissioning of a beam screen test bench experiment with a future circular hadron collider type synchrotron radiation beam. Phys Rev Accel Beams. 2019;22:083201. https://journals.aps.org/prab/pdf/10.1103/PhysRevAccelBeams.22.083201 . " href="/articles/10.1140/epjti/s40485-022-00087-w#ref-CR17" id="ref-link-section-d107647248e2059">17</a>], on 2 m-long prototypes. As BESTEX is not capable to reproduce the high SR power density of FCC-ee the SR absorbers will need to be tested from the point of view of their thermal behaviour using an appropriate source, e.g., an electron beam device.</p><p>Preliminary design of bellows assemblies with RF contact fingers has also been carried out, see Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/articles/10.1140/epjti/s40485-022-00087-w#Fig3">3</a>. </p><div class="c-article-section__figure js-c-reading-companion-figures-item" data-test="figure" data-container-section="figure" id="figure-3" data-title="Figure 3"><figure><figcaption><b id="Fig3" class="c-article-section__figure-caption" data-test="figure-caption-text">Figure 3</b></figcaption><div class="c-article-section__figure-content"><div class="c-article-section__figure-item"><a class="c-article-section__figure-link" data-test="img-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="image" data-track-action="view figure" href="/articles/10.1140/epjti/s40485-022-00087-w/figures/3" rel="nofollow"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1140%2Fepjti%2Fs40485-022-00087-w/MediaObjects/40485_2022_87_Fig3_HTML.jpg?as=webp"><img aria-describedby="Fig3" src="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1140%2Fepjti%2Fs40485-022-00087-w/MediaObjects/40485_2022_87_Fig3_HTML.jpg" alt="figure 3" loading="lazy" width="685" height="310"></picture></a></div><div class="c-article-section__figure-description" data-test="bottom-caption" id="figure-3-desc"><p>Interconnection comb-type RF finger design, with details</p></div></div><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="article-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="button" data-track-action="view figure" href="/articles/10.1140/epjti/s40485-022-00087-w/figures/3" data-track-dest="link:Figure3 Full size image" aria-label="Full size image figure 3" rel="nofollow"><span>Full size image</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div><p>A thermo-mechanical analysis of the behaviour of the SR absorbers has been carried out, to determine the position and number the cooling holes in the body of the absorbers [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 19" title=" Morrone M. Preliminary thermo-mechanical analysis of the FCC-ee. Unpublished internal CERN technical note, available upon request. " href="/articles/10.1140/epjti/s40485-022-00087-w#ref-CR19" id="ref-link-section-d107647248e2088">19</a>].</p><p>Prototypes of shape memory alloy (SMA)– based vacuum flanges are also being developed [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 18" title=" Niccoli F et al.. NiTi shape memory alloy pipe couplers for ultrahigh vacuum systems: development and implementation. Smart Mater Struct. 2022;31:065014. " href="/articles/10.1140/epjti/s40485-022-00087-w#ref-CR18" id="ref-link-section-d107647248e2095">18</a>], as shown on Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/articles/10.1140/epjti/s40485-022-00087-w#Fig4">4</a>. </p><div class="c-article-section__figure js-c-reading-companion-figures-item" data-test="figure" data-container-section="figure" id="figure-4" data-title="Figure 4"><figure><figcaption><b id="Fig4" class="c-article-section__figure-caption" data-test="figure-caption-text">Figure 4</b></figcaption><div class="c-article-section__figure-content"><div class="c-article-section__figure-item"><a class="c-article-section__figure-link" data-test="img-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="image" data-track-action="view figure" href="/articles/10.1140/epjti/s40485-022-00087-w/figures/4" rel="nofollow"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1140%2Fepjti%2Fs40485-022-00087-w/MediaObjects/40485_2022_87_Fig4_HTML.jpg?as=webp"><img aria-describedby="Fig4" src="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1140%2Fepjti%2Fs40485-022-00087-w/MediaObjects/40485_2022_87_Fig4_HTML.jpg" alt="figure 4" loading="lazy" width="685" height="659"></picture></a></div><div class="c-article-section__figure-description" data-test="bottom-caption" id="figure-4-desc"><p>Concept of a SMA-based vacuum flange, with integrated additive manufacturing beam-position block (on the left, 4× BPM buttons at 45° not drawn)</p></div></div><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="article-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="button" data-track-action="view figure" href="/articles/10.1140/epjti/s40485-022-00087-w/figures/4" data-track-dest="link:Figure4 Full size image" aria-label="Full size image figure 4" rel="nofollow"><span>Full size image</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div><p>We have also identified the ideal length of the arc vacuum chambers compatible with the design of the magnets, to minimize the number of flanges: 12 meters seems to be feasible also in terms of NEG-coating deposition, which would be carried out in a horizontal position by applying new technology developed for the HL-LHC program at CERN [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 20" title=" Costa Pinto P. In-situ amorphous carbon coating of the beam screen of LHC’s standalone magnets. In: Proceedings of the 11th international particle accelerator conference IPAC’20. Caen, France. 2020. " href="/articles/10.1140/epjti/s40485-022-00087-w#ref-CR20" id="ref-link-section-d107647248e2121">20</a>]. Prototyping of this configuration will be carried out as soon as chambers will be available. There is also a parallel activity of building a test section of the arc, approximatively 25 m long, simulating the tunnel environment, so that tunnel integrations studies can be carried out on mock-ups.</p></div></div></section> <section data-title="Availability of data and materials"><div class="c-article-section" id="availability-of-data-and-materials-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="availability-of-data-and-materials">Availability of data and materials</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="availability-of-data-and-materials-content"> <p>Data available upon request from the author. The montecarlo simulation codes Molflow+ and SYNRAD+ are available for download from <a href="https://molflow.web.cern.ch">https://molflow.web.cern.ch</a>.</p> </div></div></section><section data-title="Abbreviations"><div class="c-article-section" id="abbreviations-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="abbreviations">Abbreviations</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="abbreviations-content"><dl class="c-abbreviation_list"><dt class="c-abbreviation_list__term u-text-bold u-float-left u-pr-16" style="min-width:50px;"><dfn>FCC:</dfn></dt><dd class="c-abbreviation_list__description u-mb-24"> <p>Future Circular Collider</p> </dd><dt class="c-abbreviation_list__term u-text-bold u-float-left u-pr-16" style="min-width:50px;"><dfn>MDI:</dfn></dt><dd class="c-abbreviation_list__description u-mb-24"> <p>Machine Detector Interface</p> </dd><dt class="c-abbreviation_list__term u-text-bold u-float-left u-pr-16" style="min-width:50px;"><dfn>SR:</dfn></dt><dd class="c-abbreviation_list__description u-mb-24"> <p>Synchrotron Radiation</p> </dd><dt class="c-abbreviation_list__term u-text-bold u-float-left u-pr-16" style="min-width:50px;"><dfn>PSD:</dfn></dt><dd class="c-abbreviation_list__description u-mb-24"> <p>Photon Stimulated Desorption</p> </dd><dt class="c-abbreviation_list__term u-text-bold u-float-left u-pr-16" style="min-width:50px;"><dfn>EC:</dfn></dt><dd class="c-abbreviation_list__description u-mb-24"> <p>Electron Cloud</p> </dd><dt class="c-abbreviation_list__term u-text-bold u-float-left u-pr-16" style="min-width:50px;"><dfn>PE:</dfn></dt><dd class="c-abbreviation_list__description u-mb-24"> <p>Photoelectrons</p> </dd><dt class="c-abbreviation_list__term u-text-bold u-float-left u-pr-16" style="min-width:50px;"><dfn>OFS:</dfn></dt><dd class="c-abbreviation_list__description u-mb-24"> <p>Oxygen-free</p> </dd><dt class="c-abbreviation_list__term u-text-bold u-float-left u-pr-16" style="min-width:50px;"><dfn>RF:</dfn></dt><dd class="c-abbreviation_list__description u-mb-24"> <p>Radiofrequency</p> </dd><dt class="c-abbreviation_list__term u-text-bold u-float-left u-pr-16" style="min-width:50px;"><dfn>SEY:</dfn></dt><dd class="c-abbreviation_list__description u-mb-24"> <p>Secondary Electron yield</p> </dd><dt class="c-abbreviation_list__term u-text-bold u-float-left u-pr-16" style="min-width:50px;"><dfn>NEG:</dfn></dt><dd class="c-abbreviation_list__description u-mb-24"> <p>Non-evaporable getter</p> </dd><dt class="c-abbreviation_list__term u-text-bold u-float-left u-pr-16" style="min-width:50px;"><dfn>IP:</dfn></dt><dd class="c-abbreviation_list__description u-mb-24"> <p>interaction point</p> </dd><dt class="c-abbreviation_list__term u-text-bold u-float-left u-pr-16" style="min-width:50px;"><dfn>SMA:</dfn></dt><dd class="c-abbreviation_list__description u-mb-24"> <p>shape memory alloy</p> </dd></dl></div></div></section><div id="MagazineFulltextArticleBodySuffix"><section aria-labelledby="Bib1" data-title="References"><div class="c-article-section" id="Bib1-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Bib1">References</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Bib1-content"><div data-container-section="references"><ol class="c-article-references" data-track-component="outbound reference" data-track-context="references section"><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="1."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR1"> Benedikt M, Blondel A, Brunner O, Capeans Garrido M, Cerutti F, Gutleber J, Janot P, Jimenez JM, Mertens V, Milanese A, Oide K, Osborne JA, Otto T, Papaphilippou Y, Poole J, Tavian LJ, Zimmermann F. 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Caen, France. 2020. </p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 20" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=In-situ%20amorphous%20carbon%20coating%20of%20the%20beam%20screen%20of%20LHC%E2%80%99s%20standalone%20magnets&publication_year=2020&author=Costa%20Pinto%2CP"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li></ol><p class="c-article-references__download u-hide-print"><a data-track="click" data-track-action="download citation references" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow" href="https://citation-needed.springer.com/v2/references/10.1140/epjti/s40485-022-00087-w?format=refman&flavour=references">Download references<svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-download-medium"></use></svg></a></p></div></div></div></section></div><section data-title="Acknowledgements"><div class="c-article-section" id="Ack1-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Ack1">Acknowledgements</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Ack1-content"><p>The author wishes to thank his colleagues F. Santangelo and S. Rorison for providing Figs. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/articles/10.1140/epjti/s40485-022-00087-w#Fig2">2</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/articles/10.1140/epjti/s40485-022-00087-w#Fig4">4</a> and <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/articles/10.1140/epjti/s40485-022-00087-w#Fig3">3</a>; M. Morrone and C. Garion for fruitful discussions, thermal calculations, and mechanical design guidelines; M. Ady for paper editing and reviewing the manuscript.</p></div></div></section><section data-title="Funding"><div class="c-article-section" id="Fun-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Fun">Funding</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Fun-content"><p>This research was funded by FCCIS – The Future Circular Collider Innovation Study. This INFRADEV Research and Innovation Action project receives funding from the European Union’s H2020 Framework Programme under grant agreement no. 951754.</p></div></div></section><section aria-labelledby="author-information" data-title="Author information"><div class="c-article-section" id="author-information-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="author-information">Author information</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="author-information-content"><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="affiliations">Authors and Affiliations</h3><ol class="c-article-author-affiliation__list"><li id="Aff1"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">Vacuum Surfaces and Coatings Group, Technology Department, CERN, Geneva, Switzerland</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Roberto Kersevan</p></li></ol><div class="u-js-hide u-hide-print" data-test="author-info"><span class="c-article__sub-heading">Authors</span><ol class="c-article-authors-search u-list-reset"><li id="auth-Roberto-Kersevan-Aff1"><span class="c-article-authors-search__title u-h3 js-search-name">Roberto Kersevan</span><div class="c-article-authors-search__list"><div class="c-article-authors-search__item c-article-authors-search__list-item--left"><a href="https://www.biomedcentral.com/search?query=author%23Roberto%20Kersevan" class="c-article-button" data-track="click" data-track-action="author link - publication" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">View author publications</a></div><div class="c-article-authors-search__item c-article-authors-search__list-item--right"><p class="search-in-title-js c-article-authors-search__text">You can also search for this author in <span class="c-article-identifiers"><a class="c-article-identifiers__item" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=search&term=Roberto%20Kersevan" data-track="click" data-track-action="author link - pubmed" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">PubMed</a><span class="u-hide"> </span><a class="c-article-identifiers__item" href="http://scholar.google.co.uk/scholar?as_q=&num=10&btnG=Search+Scholar&as_epq=&as_oq=&as_eq=&as_occt=any&as_sauthors=%22Roberto%20Kersevan%22&as_publication=&as_ylo=&as_yhi=&as_allsubj=all&hl=en" data-track="click" data-track-action="author link - scholar" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">Google Scholar</a></span></p></div></div></li></ol></div><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="contributions">Contributions</h3><p>RK was the sole contributor to all sections of the paper. The author read and approved the final manuscript.</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="corresponding-author">Corresponding author</h3><p id="corresponding-author-list">Correspondence to <a id="corresp-c1" href="mailto:roberto.kersevan@cern.ch">Roberto Kersevan</a>.</p></div></div></section><section data-title="Ethics declarations"><div class="c-article-section" id="ethics-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="ethics">Ethics declarations</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="ethics-content"> <h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="FPar1">Ethics approval and consent to participate</h3> <p>Not applicable.</p> <h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="FPar2">Consent for publication</h3> <p>The author declares that he has obtained the consent from his institution to publish the article.</p> <h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="FPar3">Competing interests</h3> <p>The author declares no competing interests.</p> </div></div></section><section data-title="Rights and permissions"><div class="c-article-section" id="rightslink-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="rightslink">Rights and permissions</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="rightslink-content"> <p><b>Open Access</b> This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. 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c-article-share-box__additional-info"> Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative </p></div></div><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading">Keywords</h3><ul class="c-article-subject-list"><li class="c-article-subject-list__subject"><span><a href="/search?query=Vacuum&facet-discipline="Physics"" data-track="click" data-track-action="view keyword" data-track-label="link">Vacuum</a></span></li><li class="c-article-subject-list__subject"><span><a href="/search?query=Pumping%20system&facet-discipline="Physics"" data-track="click" data-track-action="view keyword" data-track-label="link">Pumping system</a></span></li><li class="c-article-subject-list__subject"><span><a href="/search?query=Montecarlo%20simulations&facet-discipline="Physics"" data-track="click" data-track-action="view keyword" data-track-label="link">Montecarlo simulations</a></span></li><li class="c-article-subject-list__subject"><span><a href="/search?query=Synchrotron%20radiation&facet-discipline="Physics"" 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