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<!DOCTYPE html> <html lang="en" dir="ltr" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"> <head prefix="og: http://ogp.me/ns# article: http://ogp.me/ns/article# book: http://ogp.me/ns/book#" >  <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//cdn.jsdelivr.net" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//cdn.foxycart.com" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//scholar.google.com" /> <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8" /> <meta name="Generator" content="Drupal 7 (http://drupal.org)" /> <link rel="canonical" href="https://ar.iiarjournals.org/content/45/2/511" /> <link rel="alternate" type="application/pdf" title="Full Text (PDF)" href="/content/45/2/511.full.pdf" /> <link rel="alternate" type="text/plain" title="Full Text (Plain)" href="/content/45/2/511.full.txt" /> <link rel="alternate" type="application/vnd.ms-powerpoint" title="Powerpoint" href="/content/45/2/511.ppt" /> <meta name="issue_cover_image" content="https://ar.iiarjournals.org/sites/default/files/highwire/anticanres/45/2.cover-source.jpg" /> <meta name="type" content="article" /> <meta name="category" content="research-article" /> <meta name="HW.identifier" content="/anticanres/45/2/511.atom" /> <meta name="HW.pisa" content="anticanres;45/2/511" /> <meta name="DC.Format" content="text/html" /> <meta name="DC.Language" content="en" /> <meta name="DC.Title" content="Pterostilbene Suppressed Cell Viability, Induced Apoptosis and Autophagy of Cisplatin-resistant Gastric Cancer Cells" /> <meta name="DC.Identifier" content="10.21873/anticanres.17440" /> <meta name="DC.Date" content="2025-02-01" /> <meta name="DC.Publisher" content="International Institute of Anticancer Research" /> <meta name="DC.Rights" content="Copyright © 2025 International Institute of Anticancer Research (Dr. George J. Delinasios), All rights reserved.. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY-NC-ND) 4.0 international license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0)." /> <meta name="DC.AccessRights" content="open-access" /> <meta name="DC.Description" content="Background/Aim: Gastric cancer (GC) is one of the most common cancers worldwide. Cisplatin is a key therapeutic agent for treating GC. Currently, the resistance of GC cells to cisplatin remains a major concern. Pterostilbene (PTS) is a natural phytochemical found in blueberry and grape. The anti-cisplatin-resistant GC effects and pharmacological mechanisms of PTS are unknown. Materials and Methods: We investigated the anticancer activity of PTS in cisplatin-resistant GC cells and explored its pharmacological mechanisms of action via cell viability assay, cell confluence assay, terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labeling (TUNEL) staining, acridine orange (AO) staining, monodansylcadaverine (MDC) staining, caspase-9/-3 activity assay, and RNA sequencing (RNA-Seq) analysis. Results: Our results showed that PTS inhibited cell viability and cell confluence of cisplatin-resistant GC cells using the CCK-8 assay and the IncuCyte S3 ZOOM System. The TUNEL assay showed that PTS promoted apoptosis in cisplatin-resistant GC cells. PTS induced apoptosis by increasing caspase-9 and caspase-3 activity. PTS promoted cell autophagy by increasing vacuole formation and acidic vesicular organelles using MDC and AO staining. We also observed an increase in the expression of LC3B in PTS-treated cisplatin-resistant GC cells. RNA-Seq analysis demonstrated that PTS induced apoptosis and autophagy in cisplatin-resistant GC cells by decreasing the expression of ATM/ATR, HIF-1, PI3K, RB1CC, TBK1, and mitochondria-related genes. Conclusion: Our results suggested that PTS is a promising phytochemical for GC therapy, particularly against cisplatin resistance." /> <meta name="DC.Contributor" content="CHIEN-JUNG HUANG" /> <meta name="DC.Contributor" content="PO-CHUEN SHIEH" /> <meta name="DC.Contributor" content="JAI-SING YANG" /> <meta name="DC.Contributor" content="YI-CHIA LI" /> <meta name="DC.Contributor" content="YU-JEN CHIU" /> <meta name="DC.Contributor" content="DA-TIAN BAU" /> <meta name="DC.Contributor" content="CHIH-HSIN HUNG" /> <meta name="article:published_time" content="2025-02-01" /> <meta name="article:section" content="Experimental Studies" /> <meta name="citation_title" content="Pterostilbene Suppressed Cell Viability, Induced Apoptosis and Autophagy of Cisplatin-resistant Gastric Cancer Cells" /> <meta name="citation_abstract" lang="en" content="<p>Background/Aim: Gastric cancer (GC) is one of the most common cancers worldwide. Cisplatin is a key therapeutic agent for treating GC. Currently, the resistance of GC cells to cisplatin remains a major concern. Pterostilbene (PTS) is a natural phytochemical found in blueberry and grape. The anti-cisplatin-resistant GC effects and pharmacological mechanisms of PTS are unknown. Materials and Methods: We investigated the anticancer activity of PTS in cisplatin-resistant GC cells and explored its pharmacological mechanisms of action via cell viability assay, cell confluence assay, terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labeling (TUNEL) staining, acridine orange (AO) staining, monodansylcadaverine (MDC) staining, caspase-9/-3 activity assay, and RNA sequencing (RNA-Seq) analysis. Results: Our results showed that PTS inhibited cell viability and cell confluence of cisplatin-resistant GC cells using the CCK-8 assay and the IncuCyte S3 ZOOM System. The TUNEL assay showed that PTS promoted apoptosis in cisplatin-resistant GC cells. PTS induced apoptosis by increasing caspase-9 and caspase-3 activity. PTS promoted cell autophagy by increasing vacuole formation and acidic vesicular organelles using MDC and AO staining. We also observed an increase in the expression of LC3B in PTS-treated cisplatin-resistant GC cells. RNA-Seq analysis demonstrated that PTS induced apoptosis and autophagy in cisplatin-resistant GC cells by decreasing the expression of ATM/ATR, HIF-1, PI3K, RB1CC, TBK1, and mitochondria-related genes. Conclusion: Our results suggested that PTS is a promising phytochemical for GC therapy, particularly against cisplatin resistance.</p>" /> <meta name="citation_journal_title" content="Anticancer Research" /> <meta name="citation_publisher" content="International Institute of Anticancer Research" /> <meta name="citation_publication_date" content="2025/02/01" /> <meta name="citation_mjid" content="anticanres;45/2/511" /> <meta name="citation_id" content="45/2/511" /> <meta name="citation_public_url" content="https://ar.iiarjournals.org/content/45/2/511" /> <meta name="citation_abstract_html_url" content="https://ar.iiarjournals.org/content/45/2/511.abstract" /> <meta name="citation_full_html_url" content="https://ar.iiarjournals.org/content/45/2/511.full" /> <meta name="citation_pdf_url" content="https://ar.iiarjournals.org/content/anticanres/45/2/511.full.pdf" /> <meta name="citation_issn" content="0250-7005" /> <meta name="citation_issn" content="1791-7530" /> <meta name="citation_doi" content="10.21873/anticanres.17440" /> <meta name="citation_pmid" content="39890184" /> <meta name="citation_volume" content="45" /> <meta name="citation_issue" content="2" /> <meta name="citation_article_type" content="Research Article" /> <meta name="citation_section" content="Experimental Studies" /> <meta name="citation_firstpage" content="511" /> <meta name="citation_lastpage" content="523" /> <meta name="citation_access" content="all" /> <meta name="citation_author" content="CHIEN-JUNG HUANG" /> <meta name="citation_author_institution" content="Department of Chemical Engineering and Institute of Biotechnology and Chemical Engineering, I-Shou University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan, R.O.C." /> <meta name="citation_author_institution" content="Department of Pharmacy, Tajen University, Pingtung, Taiwan, R.O.C." /> <meta name="citation_author" content="PO-CHUEN SHIEH" /> <meta name="citation_author_institution" content="Department of Pharmacy, Tajen University, Pingtung, Taiwan, R.O.C." /> <meta name="citation_author" content="JAI-SING YANG" /> <meta name="citation_author_institution" content="Department of Medical Research, China Medical University Hospital, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan, R.O.C." /> <meta name="citation_author" content="YI-CHIA LI" /> <meta name="citation_author_institution" content="Department of Pharmacy, Tajen University, Pingtung, Taiwan, R.O.C." /> <meta name="citation_author" content="YU-JEN CHIU" /> <meta name="citation_author_institution" content="Division of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Department of Surgery, Taipei Veterans General Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan, R.O.C." /> <meta name="citation_author_institution" content="Department of Surgery, School of Medicine, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei, Taiwan, R.O.C." /> <meta name="citation_author" content="DA-TIAN BAU" /> <meta name="citation_author_institution" content="Graduate Institute of Biomedical Sciences, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan, R.O.C." /> <meta name="citation_author_institution" content="Terry Fox Cancer Research Laboratory, Department of Medical Research, China Medical University Hospital, Taichung, Taiwan, R.O.C." /> <meta name="citation_author_institution" content="Department of Bioinformatics and Medical Engineering, Asia University, Taichung, Taiwan, R.O.C." /> <meta name="citation_author_email" content="013280@tool.caaumed.org.tw" /> <meta name="citation_author" content="CHIH-HSIN HUNG" /> <meta name="citation_author_institution" content="Department of Chemical Engineering and Institute of Biotechnology and Chemical Engineering, I-Shou University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan, R.O.C." /> <meta name="citation_author_email" content="chhung@isu.edu.tw" /> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=BMC Pharmacol Toxicol;citation_author=S. 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Chen;citation_author=SY. Wang;citation_author=JA. Lin;citation_author=GC. Yen;citation_title=Pterostilbene enhances cytotoxicity and chemosensitivity in human pancreatic cancer cells;citation_pages=709;citation_volume=10;citation_year=2020;citation_issue=5;citation_pmid=32375296;citation_doi=10.3390/biom10050709" /> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Oral Oncol;citation_author=CP. Ko;citation_author=CW. Lin;citation_author=MK. Chen;citation_author=SF. Yang;citation_author=HL. Chiou;citation_author=MJ. Hsieh;citation_title=Pterostilbene induce autophagy on human oral cancer cells through modulation of Akt and mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway;citation_pages=593-601;citation_volume=51;citation_year=2015;citation_issue=6;citation_pmid=25883032;citation_doi=10.1016/j.oraloncology.2015.03.007" /> <meta name="citation_fulltext_world_readable" content="" /> <meta name="twitter:title" content="Pterostilbene Suppressed Cell Viability, Induced Apoptosis and Autophagy of Cisplatin-resistant Gastric Cancer Cells" /> <meta name="twitter:card" content="summary_large_image" /> <meta name="twitter:image" content="https://ar.iiarjournals.org/sites/default/files/highwire/anticanres/45/2.cover-source.jpg" /> <meta name="twitter:description" content="Background/Aim: Gastric cancer (GC) is one of the most common cancers worldwide. Cisplatin is a key therapeutic agent for treating GC. Currently, the resistance of GC cells to cisplatin remains a major concern. Pterostilbene (PTS) is a natural phytochemical found in blueberry and grape. The anti-cisplatin-resistant GC effects and pharmacological mechanisms of PTS are unknown. Materials and Methods: We investigated the anticancer activity of PTS in cisplatin-resistant GC cells and explored its pharmacological mechanisms of action via cell viability assay, cell confluence assay, terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labeling (TUNEL) staining, acridine orange (AO) staining, monodansylcadaverine (MDC) staining, caspase-9/-3 activity assay, and RNA sequencing (RNA-Seq) analysis. Results: Our results showed that PTS inhibited cell viability and cell confluence of cisplatin-resistant GC cells using the CCK-8 assay and the IncuCyte S3 ZOOM System. The TUNEL assay showed that PTS promoted apoptosis in cisplatin-resistant GC cells. PTS induced apoptosis by increasing caspase-9 and caspase-3 activity. PTS promoted cell autophagy by increasing vacuole formation and acidic vesicular organelles using MDC and AO staining. We also observed an increase in the expression of LC3B in PTS-treated cisplatin-resistant GC cells. RNA-Seq analysis demonstrated that PTS induced apoptosis and autophagy in cisplatin-resistant GC cells by decreasing the expression of ATM/ATR, HIF-1, PI3K, RB1CC, TBK1, and mitochondria-related genes. Conclusion: Our results suggested that PTS is a promising phytochemical for GC therapy, particularly against cisplatin resistance." /> <meta name="og-title" property="og:title" content="Pterostilbene Suppressed Cell Viability, Induced Apoptosis and Autophagy of Cisplatin-resistant Gastric Cancer Cells" /> <meta name="og-url" property="og:url" content="https://ar.iiarjournals.org/content/45/2/511" /> <meta name="og-site-name" property="og:site_name" content="Anticancer Research" /> <meta name="og-description" property="og:description" content="Background/Aim: Gastric cancer (GC) is one of the most common cancers worldwide. Cisplatin is a key therapeutic agent for treating GC. Currently, the resistance of GC cells to cisplatin remains a major concern. Pterostilbene (PTS) is a natural phytochemical found in blueberry and grape. The anti-cisplatin-resistant GC effects and pharmacological mechanisms of PTS are unknown. Materials and Methods: We investigated the anticancer activity of PTS in cisplatin-resistant GC cells and explored its pharmacological mechanisms of action via cell viability assay, cell confluence assay, terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labeling (TUNEL) staining, acridine orange (AO) staining, monodansylcadaverine (MDC) staining, caspase-9/-3 activity assay, and RNA sequencing (RNA-Seq) analysis. Results: Our results showed that PTS inhibited cell viability and cell confluence of cisplatin-resistant GC cells using the CCK-8 assay and the IncuCyte S3 ZOOM System. The TUNEL assay showed that PTS promoted apoptosis in cisplatin-resistant GC cells. PTS induced apoptosis by increasing caspase-9 and caspase-3 activity. PTS promoted cell autophagy by increasing vacuole formation and acidic vesicular organelles using MDC and AO staining. We also observed an increase in the expression of LC3B in PTS-treated cisplatin-resistant GC cells. RNA-Seq analysis demonstrated that PTS induced apoptosis and autophagy in cisplatin-resistant GC cells by decreasing the expression of ATM/ATR, HIF-1, PI3K, RB1CC, TBK1, and mitochondria-related genes. Conclusion: Our results suggested that PTS is a promising phytochemical for GC therapy, particularly against cisplatin resistance." /> <meta name="og-type" property="og:type" content="article" /> <meta name="og-image" property="og:image" content="https://ar.iiarjournals.org/sites/default/files/highwire/anticanres/45/2.cover-source.jpg" /> <link rel="shortlink" href="/node/83134" /> <link rel="shortcut icon" href="https://ar.iiarjournals.org/sites/default/files/images/favicon.ico" type="image/vnd.microsoft.icon" /> <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1" /> <title>Pterostilbene Suppressed Cell Viability, Induced Apoptosis and Autophagy of Cisplatin-resistant Gastric Cancer Cells | Anticancer Research</title> <link type="text/css" rel="stylesheet" href="/sites/default/files/advagg_css/css__QEy_BpbtMcsqv3xURK855GSs2fFjOibU10yA758Mn4c__NucWi_bEk5E3BNVDtTt2nhiPtE1A5I24YwRDQ2fojJ0__FTZ25lEcrtnzSW3JzKpn0j1z_ccWiSdhuJwjpWHa4ec.css" media="all" /> <link 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</div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div id="zone-header" class="zone zone-header clearfix container-30"> </div> </header> <section id="section-content" class="section section-content"> <div id="zone-content" class="zone zone-content clearfix container-30"> <div class="grid-28 suffix-1 prefix-1 region region-content" id="region-content"> <div class="region-inner region-content-inner"> <a id="main-content"></a> <div class="block block-system block-main block-system-main odd block-without-title" id="block-system-main"> <div class="block-inner clearfix"> <div class="content clearfix"> <div class="panel-display panels-960-layout jcore-2col-layout" > <div class="panel-row-wrapper panel-row-first clearfix"> <div class="top-wrapper"> <div class="panel-panel panel-region-top"> <div class="inside"><div class="panel-pane pane-highwire-article-citation" > <div class="pane-content"> <div class="highwire-article-citation highwire-citation-type-highwire-article node83134--5" data-node-nid="83134" id="top-node-83134--61573805823" data-pisa="anticanres;45/2/511" data-pisa-master="anticanres;45/2/511" data-apath="/anticanres/45/2/511.atom" data-hw-author-tooltip-instance="highwire_author_tooltip"><div class="highwire-cite highwire-cite-highwire-article highwire-citation-jcore-article-title-complete clearfix has-author-tooltip highwire-citation-highwire-article-top-a"> <div class="highwire-cite-overline"><span class="highwire-cite-metadata-article-type highwire-cite-metadata">Research Article</span><span class="separator-pipe"></span><span class="highwire-cite-metadata-art-cat highwire-cite-metadata"><span class="wrapper">Experimental Studies</span></span></div> <div class="highwire-cite-access"><span class="highwire-citation-access"><i class="highwire-access-icon highwire-access-icon-open-access open-access hw-icon-open-access" title="Open Access" aria-hidden="true"></i><span class="element-invisible highwire-access-icon highwire-access-icon-open-access" style="">Open Access</span></span></div> <h1 class="highwire-cite-title" id="page-title">Pterostilbene Suppressed Cell Viability, Induced Apoptosis and Autophagy of Cisplatin-resistant Gastric Cancer Cells</h1> <div class="highwire-cite-authors"><span class="highwire-citation-authors"><span class="highwire-citation-author first" data-delta="0">CHIEN-JUNG HUANG</span>, <span class="highwire-citation-author" data-delta="1">PO-CHUEN SHIEH</span>, <span class="highwire-citation-author" data-delta="2">JAI-SING YANG</span>, <span class="highwire-citation-author" data-delta="3">YI-CHIA LI</span>, <span class="highwire-citation-author" data-delta="4">YU-JEN CHIU</span>, <span class="highwire-citation-author" data-delta="5">DA-TIAN BAU</span> and <span class="highwire-citation-author" data-delta="6">CHIH-HSIN HUNG</span></span></div> <div class="highwire-cite-metadata"><span class="highwire-cite-metadata-journal highwire-cite-metadata">Anticancer Research </span><span class="highwire-cite-metadata-date highwire-cite-metadata">February 2025, </span><span class="highwire-cite-metadata-volume highwire-cite-metadata">45 </span><span class="highwire-cite-metadata-issue highwire-cite-metadata">(2) </span><span class="highwire-cite-metadata-pages highwire-cite-metadata">511-523; </span><span class="highwire-cite-metadata-doi highwire-cite-metadata">DOI: https://doi.org/10.21873/anticanres.17440 </span></div> <div class="highwire-cite-extras"><span class="highwire-foxycart-add-to-cart-ahah highwire-foxycart-add-to-cart-ahah" data-text="Add to Cart (%short-price)" data-apath="/anticanres/45/2/511.atom" data-type="link" data-font-icon="" data-parent-id="83103"></span></div> </div> <div id="hw-article-author-popups-top-node-83134--61573805823" style="display: none;"><div class="author-tooltip-0"><div class="author-tooltip-name">CHIEN-JUNG HUANG </div><div class="author-tooltip-affiliation"><span class="author-tooltip-text"><div class='author-affiliation'><span class='nlm-sup'>1</span>Department of Chemical Engineering and Institute of Biotechnology and Chemical Engineering, I-Shou University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan, R.O.C.</div><div class='author-affiliation'><span class='nlm-sup'>2</span>Department of Pharmacy, Tajen University, Pingtung, Taiwan, R.O.C.</div></span></div><ul class="author-tooltip-find-more"><li class="author-tooltip-gs-link first"><a href="/lookup/google-scholar?link_type=googlescholar&gs_type=author&author%5B0%5D=CHIEN-JUNG%2BHUANG%2B" target="_blank" class="" data-icon-position="" data-hide-link-title="0">Find this author on Google Scholar</a></li><li class="author-tooltip-pubmed-link"><a href="/lookup/external-ref?access_num=HUANG%20C&link_type=AUTHORSEARCH" target="_blank" class="" data-icon-position="" data-hide-link-title="0">Find this author on PubMed</a></li><li class="author-site-search-link last"><a href="/search/author1%3ACHIEN-JUNG%2BHUANG%2B" rel="nofollow" class="" data-icon-position="" data-hide-link-title="0">Search for this author on this site</a></li></ul></div><div class="author-tooltip-1"><div class="author-tooltip-name">PO-CHUEN SHIEH </div><div class="author-tooltip-affiliation"><span class="author-tooltip-text"><div class='author-affiliation'><span class='nlm-sup'>2</span>Department of Pharmacy, Tajen University, Pingtung, Taiwan, R.O.C.</div></span></div><ul class="author-tooltip-find-more"><li class="author-tooltip-gs-link first"><a href="/lookup/google-scholar?link_type=googlescholar&gs_type=author&author%5B0%5D=PO-CHUEN%2BSHIEH%2B" target="_blank" class="" data-icon-position="" data-hide-link-title="0">Find this author on Google Scholar</a></li><li class="author-tooltip-pubmed-link"><a href="/lookup/external-ref?access_num=SHIEH%20P&link_type=AUTHORSEARCH" target="_blank" class="" data-icon-position="" data-hide-link-title="0">Find this author on PubMed</a></li><li class="author-site-search-link last"><a href="/search/author1%3APO-CHUEN%2BSHIEH%2B" rel="nofollow" class="" data-icon-position="" data-hide-link-title="0">Search for this author on this site</a></li></ul></div><div class="author-tooltip-2"><div class="author-tooltip-name">JAI-SING YANG </div><div class="author-tooltip-affiliation"><span class="author-tooltip-text"><div class='author-affiliation'><span class='nlm-sup'>3</span>Department of Medical Research, China Medical University Hospital, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan, R.O.C.</div></span></div><ul class="author-tooltip-find-more"><li class="author-tooltip-gs-link first"><a href="/lookup/google-scholar?link_type=googlescholar&gs_type=author&author%5B0%5D=JAI-SING%2BYANG%2B" target="_blank" class="" data-icon-position="" data-hide-link-title="0">Find this author on Google Scholar</a></li><li class="author-tooltip-pubmed-link"><a href="/lookup/external-ref?access_num=YANG%20J&link_type=AUTHORSEARCH" target="_blank" class="" data-icon-position="" data-hide-link-title="0">Find this author on PubMed</a></li><li class="author-site-search-link last"><a href="/search/author1%3AJAI-SING%2BYANG%2B" rel="nofollow" class="" data-icon-position="" data-hide-link-title="0">Search for this author on this site</a></li></ul></div><div class="author-tooltip-3"><div class="author-tooltip-name">YI-CHIA LI </div><div class="author-tooltip-affiliation"><span class="author-tooltip-text"><div class='author-affiliation'><span class='nlm-sup'>2</span>Department of Pharmacy, Tajen University, Pingtung, Taiwan, R.O.C.</div></span></div><ul class="author-tooltip-find-more"><li class="author-tooltip-gs-link first"><a href="/lookup/google-scholar?link_type=googlescholar&gs_type=author&author%5B0%5D=YI-CHIA%2BLI%2B" target="_blank" class="" data-icon-position="" data-hide-link-title="0">Find this author on Google Scholar</a></li><li class="author-tooltip-pubmed-link"><a href="/lookup/external-ref?access_num=LI%20Y&link_type=AUTHORSEARCH" target="_blank" class="" data-icon-position="" data-hide-link-title="0">Find this author on PubMed</a></li><li class="author-site-search-link last"><a href="/search/author1%3AYI-CHIA%2BLI%2B" rel="nofollow" class="" data-icon-position="" data-hide-link-title="0">Search for this author on this site</a></li></ul></div><div class="author-tooltip-4"><div class="author-tooltip-name"> YU-JEN CHIU </div><div class="author-tooltip-affiliation"><span class="author-tooltip-text"><div class='author-affiliation'><span class='nlm-sup'>4</span>Division of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Department of Surgery, Taipei Veterans General Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan, R.O.C.</div><div class='author-affiliation'><span class='nlm-sup'>5</span>Department of Surgery, School of Medicine, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei, Taiwan, R.O.C.</div></span></div><ul class="author-tooltip-find-more"><li class="author-tooltip-gs-link first"><a href="/lookup/google-scholar?link_type=googlescholar&gs_type=author&author%5B0%5D=%2BYU-JEN%2BCHIU%2B" target="_blank" class="" data-icon-position="" data-hide-link-title="0">Find this author on Google Scholar</a></li><li class="author-tooltip-pubmed-link"><a href="/lookup/external-ref?access_num=CHIU%20Y&link_type=AUTHORSEARCH" target="_blank" class="" data-icon-position="" data-hide-link-title="0">Find this author on PubMed</a></li><li class="author-site-search-link last"><a href="/search/author1%3A%2BYU-JEN%2BCHIU%2B" rel="nofollow" class="" data-icon-position="" data-hide-link-title="0">Search for this author on this site</a></li></ul></div><div class="author-tooltip-5"><div class="author-tooltip-name">DA-TIAN BAU </div><div class="author-tooltip-affiliation"><span class="author-tooltip-text"><div class='author-affiliation'><span class='nlm-sup'>6</span>Graduate Institute of Biomedical Sciences, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan, R.O.C.</div><div class='author-affiliation'><span class='nlm-sup'>7</span>Terry Fox Cancer Research Laboratory, Department of Medical Research, China Medical University Hospital, Taichung, Taiwan, R.O.C.</div><div class='author-affiliation'><span class='nlm-sup'>8</span>Department of Bioinformatics and Medical Engineering, Asia University, Taichung, Taiwan, R.O.C.</div></span></div><ul class="author-tooltip-find-more"><li class="author-tooltip-gs-link first"><a href="/lookup/google-scholar?link_type=googlescholar&gs_type=author&author%5B0%5D=DA-TIAN%2BBAU%2B" target="_blank" class="" data-icon-position="" data-hide-link-title="0">Find this author on Google Scholar</a></li><li class="author-tooltip-pubmed-link"><a href="/lookup/external-ref?access_num=BAU%20D&link_type=AUTHORSEARCH" target="_blank" class="" data-icon-position="" data-hide-link-title="0">Find this author on PubMed</a></li><li class="author-site-search-link"><a href="/search/author1%3ADA-TIAN%2BBAU%2B" rel="nofollow" class="" data-icon-position="" data-hide-link-title="0">Search for this author on this site</a></li><li class="author-corresp-email-link last"><span>For correspondence: <a href="mailto:013280@tool.caaumed.org.tw" class="" data-icon-position="" data-hide-link-title="0">013280@tool.caaumed.org.tw</a></span></li></ul></div><div class="author-tooltip-6"><div class="author-tooltip-name">CHIH-HSIN HUNG </div><div class="author-tooltip-affiliation"><span class="author-tooltip-text"><div class='author-affiliation'><span class='nlm-sup'>1</span>Department of Chemical Engineering and Institute of Biotechnology and Chemical Engineering, I-Shou University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan, R.O.C.</div></span></div><ul class="author-tooltip-find-more"><li class="author-tooltip-gs-link first"><a href="/lookup/google-scholar?link_type=googlescholar&gs_type=author&author%5B0%5D=CHIH-HSIN%2BHUNG%2B" target="_blank" class="" data-icon-position="" data-hide-link-title="0">Find this author on Google Scholar</a></li><li class="author-tooltip-pubmed-link"><a href="/lookup/external-ref?access_num=HUNG%20C&link_type=AUTHORSEARCH" target="_blank" class="" data-icon-position="" 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class="panel-panel panel-col"> <div><div class="panel-pane pane-highwire-markup" > <div class="pane-content"> <div class="highwire-markup"><div xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" data-highwire-cite-ref-tooltip-instance="highwire_reflinks_tooltip" class="content-block-markup" xmlns:xhtml="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"><div class="article fulltext-view "><span class="highwire-journal-article-marker-start"></span><div class="section abstract" id="abstract-1"><h2>Abstract</h2><p id="p-4">Background/Aim: Gastric cancer (GC) is one of the most common cancers worldwide. Cisplatin is a key therapeutic agent for treating GC. Currently, the resistance of GC cells to cisplatin remains a major concern. Pterostilbene (PTS) is a natural phytochemical found in blueberry and grape. The anti-cisplatin-resistant GC effects and pharmacological mechanisms of PTS are unknown. Materials and Methods: We investigated the anticancer activity of PTS in cisplatin-resistant GC cells and explored its pharmacological mechanisms of action via cell viability assay, cell confluence assay, terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labeling (TUNEL) staining, acridine orange (AO) staining, monodansylcadaverine (MDC) staining, caspase-9/-3 activity assay, and RNA sequencing (RNA-Seq) analysis. Results: Our results showed that PTS inhibited cell viability and cell confluence of cisplatin-resistant GC cells using the CCK-8 assay and the IncuCyte S3 ZOOM System. The TUNEL assay showed that PTS promoted apoptosis in cisplatin-resistant GC cells. PTS induced apoptosis by increasing caspase-9 and caspase-3 activity. PTS promoted cell autophagy by increasing vacuole formation and acidic vesicular organelles using MDC and AO staining. We also observed an increase in the expression of LC3B in PTS-treated cisplatin-resistant GC cells. RNA-Seq analysis demonstrated that PTS induced apoptosis and autophagy in cisplatin-resistant GC cells by decreasing the expression of ATM/ATR, HIF-1, PI3K, RB1CC, TBK1, and mitochondria-related genes. Conclusion: Our results suggested that PTS is a promising phytochemical for GC therapy, particularly against cisplatin resistance.</p></div><span class="kwd-group-title">Key Words:</span><ul class="kwd-group"><li class="kwd"><a href="/keyword/rna-sequencing" class="hw-term hw-article-keyword hw-article-keyword-rna-sequencing" rel="nofollow">RNA sequencing</a></li><li class="kwd"><a href="/keyword/gastric-cancer" class="hw-term hw-article-keyword hw-article-keyword-gastric-cancer" rel="nofollow">gastric cancer</a></li><li class="kwd"><a href="/keyword/cisplatin-resistant" class="hw-term hw-article-keyword hw-article-keyword-cisplatin-resistant" rel="nofollow">cisplatin-resistant</a></li><li class="kwd"><a href="/keyword/apoptosis" class="hw-term hw-article-keyword hw-article-keyword-apoptosis" rel="nofollow">apoptosis</a></li><li class="kwd"><a href="/keyword/autophagy" class="hw-term hw-article-keyword hw-article-keyword-autophagy" rel="nofollow">autophagy</a></li></ul><p id="p-5">Gastric cancer (GC) is the 4<sup>th</sup> most common cancer worldwide (<a id="xref-ref-1-1" class="xref-bibr" href="#ref-1">1</a>). In Taiwan, the 2023 annual report by the Ministry of Health and Welfare (MOHW) stated that GC is the 8<sup>th</sup> leading cause of cancer-associated mortality, and the mortality rate of GC was 10.0 per 100,000 in the population (MOHW: <a href="https://www.mohw.gov.tw/cp-16-79055-1.html">https://www.mohw.gov.tw/cp-16-79055-1.html</a>). (<a id="xref-ref-2-1" class="xref-bibr" href="#ref-2">2</a>). Cisplatin is the first-line chemotherapy agent for treating GC (<a id="xref-ref-2-2" class="xref-bibr" href="#ref-2">2</a>). Moreover, it has been used for the treatment of testicular, ovarian, and lung cancers (<a id="xref-ref-3-1" class="xref-bibr" href="#ref-3">3</a>, <a id="xref-ref-4-1" class="xref-bibr" href="#ref-4">4</a>) and in combination therapy for metastatic cervical, head and neck, prostate, and urinary bladder cancers (<a id="xref-ref-4-2" class="xref-bibr" href="#ref-4">4</a>-<a id="xref-ref-7-1" class="xref-bibr" href="#ref-7">7</a>). In clinical therapy, cisplatin combined with target therapeutic agents, such as cetuximab, capecitabine, trastuzumab, and sunitinib has been used to treat GC (<a id="xref-ref-3-2" class="xref-bibr" href="#ref-3">3</a>). Additionally, cisplatin has been the most effective chemotherapy agent for more than 40 years (<a id="xref-ref-4-3" class="xref-bibr" href="#ref-4">4</a>).</p><p id="p-6">The mechanism of action of cisplatin involves a DNA-mediated attack on DNA; the N7 atoms of guanine and adenine are located in the major groove of the double helix. This inhibits DNA transcription and replication, ultimately causing apoptotic and autophagic cell death (<a id="xref-ref-8-1" class="xref-bibr" href="#ref-8">8</a>, <a id="xref-ref-9-1" class="xref-bibr" href="#ref-9">9</a>). The mechanisms of cisplatin resistance include: (i) decreased drug accumulation in cancer cells <em>via</em> multiple drug resistance (MDR) (<a id="xref-ref-10-1" class="xref-bibr" href="#ref-10">10</a>-<a id="xref-ref-12-1" class="xref-bibr" href="#ref-12">12</a>). (ii) Inactivation (<a id="xref-ref-13-1" class="xref-bibr" href="#ref-13">13</a>, <a id="xref-ref-14-1" class="xref-bibr" href="#ref-14">14</a>). (iii) Enhanced DNA repair following DNA damage (<a id="xref-ref-8-2" class="xref-bibr" href="#ref-8">8</a>, <a id="xref-ref-15-1" class="xref-bibr" href="#ref-15">15</a>). However, chemoresistance is a major factor contributing to the limited effectiveness of chemotherapeutic strategies for cancer (<a id="xref-ref-3-3" class="xref-bibr" href="#ref-3">3</a>, <a id="xref-ref-16-1" class="xref-bibr" href="#ref-16">16</a>).</p><p id="p-7">Trans-3,5-dimethoxy-40-hydroxystilbene (PTS) is a dimethyl ether analog (stilbenoid-related chemical compound) of resveratrol found in <em>Pterocarpus marsupium</em>, Vitis, and blueberries (<a id="xref-ref-17-1" class="xref-bibr" href="#ref-17">17</a>-<a id="xref-ref-19-1" class="xref-bibr" href="#ref-19">19</a>). Furthermore, PTS has anti-fibrotic effects (<a id="xref-ref-20-1" class="xref-bibr" href="#ref-20">20</a>), as well as neurological disorder (<a id="xref-ref-21-1" class="xref-bibr" href="#ref-21">21</a>, <a id="xref-ref-22-1" class="xref-bibr" href="#ref-22">22</a>), antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer activities (<a id="xref-ref-17-2" class="xref-bibr" href="#ref-17">17</a>, <a id="xref-ref-23-1" class="xref-bibr" href="#ref-23">23</a>, <a id="xref-ref-24-1" class="xref-bibr" href="#ref-24">24</a>). We demonstrated that PTS suppresses multidrug resistance protein 1 (MDR1) and triggers autophagic and apoptotic cell death in cisplatin-resistant human oral cancer CAR cells (<a id="xref-ref-25-1" class="xref-bibr" href="#ref-25">25</a>). Additionally, Chen <em>et al</em>. demonstrated that PTS sensitizes cisplatin-resistant human bladder cancer cells (<a id="xref-ref-26-1" class="xref-bibr" href="#ref-26">26</a>). However, the anticancer effects of PTS on cisplatin-resistant GC cells and the underlying mechanisms of action remain unclear. This study aimed to clarify the anticancer effects and possible regulatory pathways of PTS in cisplatin-resistant GC cells.</p><div class="section materials-methods" id="sec-1"><h2 class="">Materials and Methods</h2><p id="p-8"><em>Chemicals and reagents</em>. DMEM/F12 medium, L-glutamine, penicillin, streptomycin, and 0.25% trypsin-ethylenediami-netetraacetic acid (EDTA) were obtained from Thermo Fisher Scientific (Waltham, MA, USA). The Cell Counting Kit-8 (CCK-8), CDDP, dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), and paraformaldehyde were obtained from Sigma-Aldrich (Merck KGaA, Darmstadt, Germany).</p><p id="p-9"><em>Cell culture</em>. Human AGS GC cells were obtained from the Bioresource Collection and Research Center (BCRC) the Food Industry Research and Development Institute (FIRDI). Cells were cultured in 75-cm<sup>2</sup> tissue culture flasks in DMEM/F12 medium supplemented with 2 mM L-glutamine, 10% fetal bovine serum (FBS), 100 U/ml penicillin and 100 μg/ml streptomycin at 37°C with 5% CO<sub>2</sub>. Cisplatin-resistant GC cells were established according to the following protocol as we previously published (<a id="xref-ref-27-1" class="xref-bibr" href="#ref-27">27</a>, <a id="xref-ref-28-1" class="xref-bibr" href="#ref-28">28</a>). Parental AGS cells were exposed to an initial concentration of cisplatin (0.2 μg/ml) at 37°C and surviving cells were cultured to 90% confluence for four passages (4 weeks). Surviving cells were exposed to cisplatin (0.5 μg/ml) for four passages (4 weeks), cisplatin (1 μg/ml) for four passages (4 weeks), and then cisplatin (5 μg/ml) for four passages (4 weeks). Finally, surviving cells were exposed to 10 μg/ml of cisplatin, the clinically relevant plasma concentration, for four passages (4 weeks). The surviving resistant cells were named cisplatin-resistant GC cells.</p><p id="p-10"><em>Cell viability assay</em>. Cisplatin-resistant GC cells were seeded into 246 well plates (2.5×10<sup>5</sup> cells/well) and treated with PTS at 0, 25, 50, 75, and 100 μM, caspase inhibitor (z-VAD-fmk; 10 μM), 3-MA (10 mM). Cells were incubated for 24 and/or 48 h with each treatment at 37°C with 5% CO<sub>2</sub>. Cell Counting Kit-8 (CCK-8) was used to assess cell viability (<a id="xref-ref-29-1" class="xref-bibr" href="#ref-29">29</a>, <a id="xref-ref-30-1" class="xref-bibr" href="#ref-30">30</a>) based on the manufacturer’s protocol.</p><p id="p-11"><em>Cell confluence assay</em>. The cell confluence assay was conducted using the IncuCyte S3 ZOOM System (Essen BioScience, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC). Cisplatin-resistant GC cells were seeded (1×10<sup>4</sup> cells/well) in 96 well plate containing PTS (75 μM) or DMSO. The cells were incubated at 37°C for 48 h. Cells were visualized and photographed every 2 h (<a id="xref-ref-27-2" class="xref-bibr" href="#ref-27">27</a>, <a id="xref-ref-31-1" class="xref-bibr" href="#ref-31">31</a>).</p><p id="p-12"><em>TUNEL staining and LC3B-RFP staining</em>. For detected apoptotic cells, cisplatin-resistant GC cells were seeded (1×10<sup>4</sup> cells/ml) into 96 well plates and treated with PTS (75 μM) for 24 h at 37°C with 5% CO<sub>2</sub>. After treatment, cells were harvested and fixed with absolute ethanol at room temperature for 10 min. DNA breaks were detected using an <em>In Situ</em> Cell Death Detection Kit (TUNEL kit) and fluorescein (Roche Diagnostics GmbH, Sandhofer, Mannheim, Germany), according to the manufacturer’s protocol. Afterwards, we stained the cell nuclei with DAPI (1 μg/ml) and propidium Iodide (PI) solution (1 μg/ml) for 20 min. To detect autophagic cells, cisplatin-resistant GC cells were treated with PTS (75 μM) for 24 h and stained with LC3B-RFP for 20 min at room temperature. Stained cells were visualized using an ImageXpress Micro Confocal microscope (Molecular Devices, San Jose, CA), as previously described (<a id="xref-ref-32-1" class="xref-bibr" href="#ref-32">32</a>, <a id="xref-ref-33-1" class="xref-bibr" href="#ref-33">33</a>).</p><p id="p-13"><em>Acridine orange (AO) and monodansylcadaverine (MDC) staining</em>. For detection of autophagic cells, cisplatin-resistant GC cells were seeded (2.5×10<sup>5</sup> cells/ml) into 24 well plates and treated with PTS (75 μM) for 24 h at 37°C with 5% CO<sub>2</sub>. Cells were harvested using trypsin-EDTA. Cells were fixed in 4% paraformaldehyde on ice for 15 min and then stained with acridine orange (AO) (1 μg/ml), Monodansylcadaverine (MDC) (100 μM) for 20 min at room temperature. Following washing twice with phosphate buffered saline (PBS), cells were re-suspended in 100 μl and stain with 2 μl Hoechst 33342 (10 μg/ml) for 5 min. Subsequently, 30 μl cell suspension was loaded into a 2-chamber slide (NC-Slide A2; ChemoMetec A/S, Gydevang, Lillerød, Denmark), and analysis by NucleoCounter NC-3000 cytometer. All samples were analyzed using the NucleoView NC 3000 software (version 1.4; ChemoMetec A/S).</p><p id="p-14"><em>Caspase-9 and -3 activity assay</em>. For measuring the caspase-3 and caspase-9 activities, cisplatin-resistant GC cells were seeded (5×10<sup>6</sup> cells/ml) into 6 well plates and treated with PTS (0, 25, 50, 75 and 100 μM) for 24 h at 37°C with 5% CO<sub>2</sub>. Cells were lysed in lysis buffer [50 mM Tris-HCl (pH 7.4), 1 mM EDTA, 10 mM EGTA, 10 mM digitonin and 2 mM DTT] and about 50 μg of cytosol proteins were incubated with caspase-3 and caspase-9-specific substrates [Ac-DEVD-pNA and Ac-IETD-pNA (R&D Systems, Minneapolis, MN, USA)] for 1 h at 37°C. Caspase activity was determined by measuring OD405 as previously published (<a id="xref-ref-34-1" class="xref-bibr" href="#ref-34">34</a>-<a id="xref-ref-36-1" class="xref-bibr" href="#ref-36">36</a>).</p><p id="p-15"><em>RNA sequencing (RNA-Seq) analysis</em>. To evaluate the possible regulatory pathways in PTS-treated cisplatin-resistant GC cells, we performed RNA-Seq analysis. Cisplatin-resistant GC cells were seeded (5×10<sup>6</sup> cells) into 75-cm<sup>2</sup> tissue culture flasks and treated with PTS (75 μM) for 12 h at 37°C with 5% CO<sub>2</sub>. Total RNA extraction, quantification, and sequencing were performed carefully under the protocol of Illumina’s official base-calling program (<a id="xref-ref-37-1" class="xref-bibr" href="#ref-37">37</a>). To convert the BCL files from all Illumina sequencing platforms into FASTQ reads, bcl2fastq conversion software v2.20. raw sequencing data were used to eliminate the adapters. The default parameters for transcriptome alignment were set using HISAT2. For differential mRNA analysis, we used StringTie (v2.1.3) and DEseq2 (v1.28.1) for genome bias detection/correction and Welgene Biotech’s in-house pipeline. Functional enrichment assays were performed using clusterProfiler v3.6. During the process of analysis, genes with <em>p</em>-value ≤0.05 or ≥2-fold changes were considered significantly differentially expressed. IPA software was used to create the corresponding SNP networks (<a id="xref-ref-31-2" class="xref-bibr" href="#ref-31">31</a>, <a id="xref-ref-37-2" class="xref-bibr" href="#ref-37">37</a>, <a id="xref-ref-38-1" class="xref-bibr" href="#ref-38">38</a>).</p><p id="p-16"><em>Statistical analysis</em>. Data are presented as the mean±standard deviation (SD) (n=3). Comparisons among multiple groups were analyzed using one-way ANOVA, followed by Dunnett’s or Tukey’s post hoc tests. Statistical analyses were performed using the SPSS software (version 16.0; SPSS, Inc., Armonk, NY, USA). Statistical significance was set at <em>p</em><0.001 to indicate a statistically significant difference.</p></div><div class="section results" id="sec-2"><h2 class="">Results</h2><p id="p-17"><em>PTS inhibits the cell growth of cisplatin-resistant GC cells</em>. We used CCK-8 assay to evaluate the effect of PTS on cisplatin-resistant GC cells <em>in vitro</em>. The results showed that cell variability was significantly inhibited by PTS compared to that in the control group at 24 and 48 h (<a id="xref-fig-1-1" class="xref-fig" href="#F1">Figure 1A</a>). The inhibitory effects were concentration- and time-dependent. PTS inhibited cisplatin-resistant GC cells for 24 and 48 h with half-maximal inhibitory concentrations (IC<sub>50</sub>s) values of 78.23±4.36 and 48.63±4.98 μM, respectively. To further evaluate the effects of PTS on the confluence of cisplatin-resistant GC cells, we used the IncuCyte S3 ZOOM system. Compared to the control group, morphological and cell confluence alterations were induced by PTS treatment, such as decreased cell number, cell shrinkage, nuclear fragmentation and condensation, and cell death (<a id="xref-fig-1-2" class="xref-fig" href="#F1">Figure 1B</a>). Our results suggest that PTS inhibits cell growth through cell death.</p><div id="F1" class="fig pos-float odd"><div class="highwire-figure"><div class="fig-inline-img-wrapper"><div class="fig-inline-img"><a href="https://ar.iiarjournals.org/content/anticanres/45/2/511/F1.large.jpg?width=800&height=600&carousel=1" title="Effects of PTS on the cell viability (A) and cell confluence (B) in cisplatin-resistant GC cells. The cisplatin-resistant GC cells were treated to 0, 25, 50, 75 and 100 μM of PTS for 24 and 48 h. The viability of cisplatin-resistant GC cells as determined by the CCD-8 assay. Values are presented as the mean±SD of three independent experiments. ***p" class="highwire-fragment fragment-images colorbox-load" rel="gallery-fragment-images-343087649" data-figure-caption="<div class="highwire-markup">Effects of PTS on the cell viability (A) and cell confluence (B) in cisplatin-resistant GC cells. The cisplatin-resistant GC cells were treated to 0, 25, 50, 75 and 100 μM of PTS for 24 and 48 h. The viability of cisplatin-resistant GC cells as determined by the CCD-8 assay. Values are presented as the mean±SD of three independent experiments. ***p<0.001 vs. untreated control. (B) For cell confluence, cisplatin-resistant GC cells were treated to 0 and 75 μM of PTS over a 48-h period and cell confluence was assessed every 2 h. Cell confluence was determined and analyzed using the IncuCyte S3 ZOOM system instrument at 2 h intervals over the 48-h period. PTS: Pterostilbene; GC: gastric cancer; SD: standard deviation.</div>" data-icon-position="" data-hide-link-title="0"><span class="hw-responsive-img"><img class="highwire-fragment fragment-image lazyload" alt="Figure 1." src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAAAAAP///yH5BAEAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAIBRAA7" data-src="https://ar.iiarjournals.org/content/anticanres/45/2/511/F1.medium.gif" width="440" height="390"/><noscript><img class="highwire-fragment fragment-image" alt="Figure 1." src="https://ar.iiarjournals.org/content/anticanres/45/2/511/F1.medium.gif" width="440" height="390"/></noscript></span></a></div></div><ul class="highwire-figure-links inline"><li class="download-fig first"><a href="https://ar.iiarjournals.org/content/anticanres/45/2/511/F1.large.jpg?download=true" class="highwire-figure-link highwire-figure-link-download" title="Download Figure 1." data-icon-position="" data-hide-link-title="0">Download figure</a></li><li class="new-tab"><a href="https://ar.iiarjournals.org/content/anticanres/45/2/511/F1.large.jpg" class="highwire-figure-link highwire-figure-link-newtab" target="_blank" data-icon-position="" data-hide-link-title="0">Open in new tab</a></li><li class="download-ppt last"><a href="/highwire/powerpoint/83181" class="highwire-figure-link highwire-figure-link-ppt" data-icon-position="" data-hide-link-title="0">Download powerpoint</a></li></ul></div><div class="fig-caption" xmlns:xhtml="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"><span class="fig-label">Figure 1.</span> <p id="p-18" class="first-child">Effects of PTS on the cell viability (A) and cell confluence (B) in cisplatin-resistant GC cells. The cisplatin-resistant GC cells were treated to 0, 25, 50, 75 and 100 μM of PTS for 24 and 48 h. The viability of cisplatin-resistant GC cells as determined by the CCD-8 assay. Values are presented as the mean±SD of three independent experiments. ***p<0.001 vs. untreated control. (B) For cell confluence, cisplatin-resistant GC cells were treated to 0 and 75 μM of PTS over a 48-h period and cell confluence was assessed every 2 h. Cell confluence was determined and analyzed using the IncuCyte S3 ZOOM system instrument at 2 h intervals over the 48-h period. PTS: Pterostilbene; GC: gastric cancer; SD: standard deviation.</p><div class="sb-div caption-clear"></div></div></div><p id="p-19"><em>PTS induces cell death via apoptosis</em>. PTS-induced cell death was observed in cisplatin-resistant GC cells (<a id="xref-fig-1-3" class="xref-fig" href="#F1">Figure 1</a>). After using PI/DAPI/TUNEL triple staining on cisplatin-resistant GC cells, the apoptotic cells (TUNEL-positive cells) following PTS treatment are shown (<a id="xref-fig-2-1" class="xref-fig" href="#F2">Figure 2A</a>). The quantification results showed that PTS treatment significantly increased TUNEL-positive staining (<a id="xref-fig-2-2" class="xref-fig" href="#F2">Figure 2B</a>) and that PTS with caspase inhibitor (z-VAD-fmk) treatment significantly increased cell variability compared to PTS alone (<a id="xref-fig-2-3" class="xref-fig" href="#F2">Figure 2C</a>). Therefore, these results indicated that AGS/CDDPR cell apoptosis was induced by PTS.</p><div id="F2" class="fig pos-float odd"><div class="highwire-figure"><div class="fig-inline-img-wrapper"><div class="fig-inline-img"><a href="https://ar.iiarjournals.org/content/anticanres/45/2/511/F2.large.jpg?width=800&height=600&carousel=1" title="Effects of PTS on cell apoptosis in cisplatin-resistant GC cells. The cisplatin-resistant GC cells were treated to 0 and 75 μM of PTS for 24 h. TUNEL-positive cells were detected using a In Situ Cell Death Detection Kit. PI and DAPI were used as a nuclear counterstain. (A) Stained cells were visualized using a ImageXpress Micro Confocal (×100). (B) TUNEL-positive cell quantification chart. (C) Pre-incubation with caspase inhibitor (z-VAD-fmk; 10 μM) for 2 h, cisplatin-resistant GC cells were treated to 75 μM of PTS for 24 h. Cell viability was assessed using the CCK-8 assay. Values are presented as the mean±SD of three independent experiments. ***p" class="highwire-fragment fragment-images colorbox-load" rel="gallery-fragment-images-343087649" data-figure-caption="<div class="highwire-markup">Effects of PTS on cell apoptosis in cisplatin-resistant GC cells. The cisplatin-resistant GC cells were treated to 0 and 75 μM of PTS for 24 h. TUNEL-positive cells were detected using a In Situ Cell Death Detection Kit. PI and DAPI were used as a nuclear counterstain. (A) Stained cells were visualized using a ImageXpress Micro Confocal (×100). (B) TUNEL-positive cell quantification chart. (C) Pre-incubation with caspase inhibitor (z-VAD-fmk; 10 μM) for 2 h, cisplatin-resistant GC cells were treated to 75 μM of PTS for 24 h. Cell viability was assessed using the CCK-8 assay. Values are presented as the mean±SD of three independent experiments. ***p<0.001 vs. PTS-treated. PTS: Pterostilbene; GC: gastric cancer; TUNEL: terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labeling; PI: propidium iodide; DAPI: 4′,6-diamidino-2-phenylindole; SD: standard deviation.</div>" data-icon-position="" data-hide-link-title="0"><span class="hw-responsive-img"><img class="highwire-fragment fragment-image lazyload" alt="Figure 2." src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAAAAAP///yH5BAEAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAIBRAA7" data-src="https://ar.iiarjournals.org/content/anticanres/45/2/511/F2.medium.gif" width="440" height="363"/><noscript><img class="highwire-fragment fragment-image" alt="Figure 2." src="https://ar.iiarjournals.org/content/anticanres/45/2/511/F2.medium.gif" width="440" height="363"/></noscript></span></a></div></div><ul class="highwire-figure-links inline"><li class="download-fig first"><a href="https://ar.iiarjournals.org/content/anticanres/45/2/511/F2.large.jpg?download=true" class="highwire-figure-link highwire-figure-link-download" title="Download Figure 2." data-icon-position="" data-hide-link-title="0">Download figure</a></li><li class="new-tab"><a href="https://ar.iiarjournals.org/content/anticanres/45/2/511/F2.large.jpg" class="highwire-figure-link highwire-figure-link-newtab" target="_blank" data-icon-position="" data-hide-link-title="0">Open in new tab</a></li><li class="download-ppt last"><a href="/highwire/powerpoint/83087" class="highwire-figure-link highwire-figure-link-ppt" data-icon-position="" data-hide-link-title="0">Download powerpoint</a></li></ul></div><div class="fig-caption"><span class="fig-label">Figure 2.</span> <p id="p-20" class="first-child">Effects of PTS on cell apoptosis in cisplatin-resistant GC cells. The cisplatin-resistant GC cells were treated to 0 and 75 μM of PTS for 24 h. TUNEL-positive cells were detected using a In Situ Cell Death Detection Kit. PI and DAPI were used as a nuclear counterstain. (A) Stained cells were visualized using a ImageXpress Micro Confocal (×100). (B) TUNEL-positive cell quantification chart. (C) Pre-incubation with caspase inhibitor (z-VAD-fmk; 10 μM) for 2 h, cisplatin-resistant GC cells were treated to 75 μM of PTS for 24 h. Cell viability was assessed using the CCK-8 assay. Values are presented as the mean±SD of three independent experiments. ***p<0.001 vs. PTS-treated. PTS: Pterostilbene; GC: gastric cancer; TUNEL: terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labeling; PI: propidium iodide; DAPI: 4′,6-diamidino-2-phenylindole; SD: standard deviation.</p><div class="sb-div caption-clear"></div></div></div><p id="p-21"><em>PTS induces apoptosis via caspase-9 and caspase-3 activation</em>. We evaluated the caspase-9 and caspase-3 in PTS-treated cisplatin-resistant GC cells. Increased concentrations of PTS significantly increased caspase-9 (<a id="xref-fig-3-1" class="xref-fig" href="#F3">Figure 3A</a>) and caspase-3 activities (<a id="xref-fig-3-2" class="xref-fig" href="#F3">Figure 3B</a>). Our results demonstrate that PTS-induced apoptosis in cisplatin-resistant GC cells is caspase-dependent.</p><div id="F3" class="fig pos-float odd"><div class="highwire-figure"><div class="fig-inline-img-wrapper"><div class="fig-inline-img"><a href="https://ar.iiarjournals.org/content/anticanres/45/2/511/F3.large.jpg?width=800&height=600&carousel=1" title="Effects of PTS on caspase-9 and caspase-3 activities in cisplatin-resistant GC cells. The cisplatin-resistant GC cells were treated with 0, 25, 50, 75 and 100 μM of PTS for 24 h. Caspase-9 (A) and caspase-3 (B) activity assays were performed using a colorimetric assay based on the manufacturer’s protocol. Values are presented as the mean±SD of three independent experiments. ***p" class="highwire-fragment fragment-images colorbox-load" rel="gallery-fragment-images-343087649" data-figure-caption="<div class="highwire-markup">Effects of PTS on caspase-9 and caspase-3 activities in cisplatin-resistant GC cells. The cisplatin-resistant GC cells were treated with 0, 25, 50, 75 and 100 μM of PTS for 24 h. Caspase-9 (A) and caspase-3 (B) activity assays were performed using a colorimetric assay based on the manufacturer’s protocol. Values are presented as the mean±SD of three independent experiments. ***p<0.001 vs. untreated control. PTS: Pterostilbene; GC: gastric cancer; SD: standard deviation.</div>" data-icon-position="" data-hide-link-title="0"><span class="hw-responsive-img"><img class="highwire-fragment fragment-image lazyload" alt="Figure 3." src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAAAAAP///yH5BAEAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAIBRAA7" data-src="https://ar.iiarjournals.org/content/anticanres/45/2/511/F3.medium.gif" width="289" height="440"/><noscript><img class="highwire-fragment fragment-image" alt="Figure 3." src="https://ar.iiarjournals.org/content/anticanres/45/2/511/F3.medium.gif" width="289" height="440"/></noscript></span></a></div></div><ul class="highwire-figure-links inline"><li class="download-fig first"><a href="https://ar.iiarjournals.org/content/anticanres/45/2/511/F3.large.jpg?download=true" class="highwire-figure-link highwire-figure-link-download" title="Download Figure 3." data-icon-position="" data-hide-link-title="0">Download figure</a></li><li class="new-tab"><a href="https://ar.iiarjournals.org/content/anticanres/45/2/511/F3.large.jpg" class="highwire-figure-link highwire-figure-link-newtab" target="_blank" data-icon-position="" data-hide-link-title="0">Open in new tab</a></li><li class="download-ppt last"><a href="/highwire/powerpoint/83340" class="highwire-figure-link highwire-figure-link-ppt" data-icon-position="" data-hide-link-title="0">Download powerpoint</a></li></ul></div><div class="fig-caption"><span class="fig-label">Figure 3.</span> <p id="p-22" class="first-child">Effects of PTS on caspase-9 and caspase-3 activities in cisplatin-resistant GC cells. The cisplatin-resistant GC cells were treated with 0, 25, 50, 75 and 100 μM of PTS for 24 h. Caspase-9 (A) and caspase-3 (B) activity assays were performed using a colorimetric assay based on the manufacturer’s protocol. Values are presented as the mean±SD of three independent experiments. ***p<0.001 vs. untreated control. PTS: Pterostilbene; GC: gastric cancer; SD: standard deviation.</p><div class="sb-div caption-clear"></div></div></div><p id="p-23"><em>PTS induces autophagic cell death</em>. We examined PTS-induced autophagy in cisplatin-resistant GC cells. Compared to the control group, a significant decrease in AO and increased acidic vesicular organelle fluorescence intensity were observed in the PTS-treated group, suggesting increased formation of acidic vesicles (<a id="xref-fig-4-1" class="xref-fig" href="#F4">Figure 4A</a>). Additionally, MDC staining showed higher fluorescence intensity in the PTS-treated group than in the control group, indicating that the accumulation of MDC in acidic autophagic vacuoles resulted in autophagy (<a id="xref-fig-4-2" class="xref-fig" href="#F4">Figure 4B</a>). We also observed LC3-RFP fluorescence (<a id="xref-fig-5-1" class="xref-fig" href="#F5">Figure 5A</a>) and increased relative fluorescence intensity (<a id="xref-fig-5-2" class="xref-fig" href="#F5">Figure 5B</a>) in PTS-treated cisplatin-resistant GC cells. Moreover, PTS with 3-Methyladenine (3-MA; an autophagy inhibitor) notably increased cell variability compared to PTS alone (<a id="xref-fig-5-3" class="xref-fig" href="#F5">Figure 5B</a>). Our results suggest that PTS induces autophagy in cisplatin-resistant GC cells.</p><div id="F4" class="fig pos-float odd"><div class="highwire-figure"><div class="fig-inline-img-wrapper"><div class="fig-inline-img"><a href="https://ar.iiarjournals.org/content/anticanres/45/2/511/F4.large.jpg?width=800&height=600&carousel=1" title="Effects of PTS on cell autophagy in cisplatin-resistant GC cells. The cisplatin-resistant GC cells were treated with 0 and 75 μM of PTS for 24 h. Autophagy probed using (A) AO staining to detect acidic vesicular organelles. (B) Monodansylcadaverin staining to detect autophagolysosome. All samples were detected by the NucleoCounter NC-3000 analyzed using NucleoView NC-3000 software. PTS: Pterostilbene; GC: gastric cancer; AO: acridine orange." class="highwire-fragment fragment-images colorbox-load" rel="gallery-fragment-images-343087649" data-figure-caption="<div class="highwire-markup">Effects of PTS on cell autophagy in cisplatin-resistant GC cells. The cisplatin-resistant GC cells were treated with 0 and 75 μM of PTS for 24 h. Autophagy probed using (A) AO staining to detect acidic vesicular organelles. (B) Monodansylcadaverin staining to detect autophagolysosome. All samples were detected by the NucleoCounter NC-3000 analyzed using NucleoView NC-3000 software. PTS: Pterostilbene; GC: gastric cancer; AO: acridine orange.</div>" data-icon-position="" data-hide-link-title="0"><span class="hw-responsive-img"><img class="highwire-fragment fragment-image lazyload" alt="Figure 4." src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAAAAAP///yH5BAEAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAIBRAA7" data-src="https://ar.iiarjournals.org/content/anticanres/45/2/511/F4.medium.gif" width="440" height="345"/><noscript><img class="highwire-fragment fragment-image" alt="Figure 4." src="https://ar.iiarjournals.org/content/anticanres/45/2/511/F4.medium.gif" width="440" height="345"/></noscript></span></a></div></div><ul class="highwire-figure-links inline"><li class="download-fig first"><a href="https://ar.iiarjournals.org/content/anticanres/45/2/511/F4.large.jpg?download=true" class="highwire-figure-link highwire-figure-link-download" title="Download Figure 4." data-icon-position="" data-hide-link-title="0">Download figure</a></li><li class="new-tab"><a href="https://ar.iiarjournals.org/content/anticanres/45/2/511/F4.large.jpg" class="highwire-figure-link highwire-figure-link-newtab" target="_blank" data-icon-position="" data-hide-link-title="0">Open in new tab</a></li><li class="download-ppt last"><a href="/highwire/powerpoint/83271" class="highwire-figure-link highwire-figure-link-ppt" data-icon-position="" data-hide-link-title="0">Download powerpoint</a></li></ul></div><div class="fig-caption"><span class="fig-label">Figure 4.</span> <p id="p-24" class="first-child">Effects of PTS on cell autophagy in cisplatin-resistant GC cells. The cisplatin-resistant GC cells were treated with 0 and 75 μM of PTS for 24 h. Autophagy probed using (A) AO staining to detect acidic vesicular organelles. (B) Monodansylcadaverin staining to detect autophagolysosome. All samples were detected by the NucleoCounter NC-3000 analyzed using NucleoView NC-3000 software. PTS: Pterostilbene; GC: gastric cancer; AO: acridine orange.</p><div class="sb-div caption-clear"></div></div></div><div id="F5" class="fig pos-float odd"><div class="highwire-figure"><div class="fig-inline-img-wrapper"><div class="fig-inline-img"><a href="https://ar.iiarjournals.org/content/anticanres/45/2/511/F5.large.jpg?width=800&height=600&carousel=1" title="Effects of PTS on LC-3B protein expression in cisplatin-resistant GC cells. The cisplatin-resistant GC cells were treated with 0 and 75 μM of PTS for 24 h. LC-3B protein expression was detected using LC3-RFP fluorescence probe. (A) Stained cells were visualized using a ImageXpress Micro Confocal (×100). (B) LC-3B-RFP positive cell quantification chart. (C) Pre-incubation with autophagy inhibitor (3-MA; 10 mM) for 2 h, cisplatin-resistant GC cells were treated to 75 μM of PTS for 24 h. Cell viability was assessed using the CCK-8 assay. Values are presented as the mean±SD of three independent experiments. ***p" class="highwire-fragment fragment-images colorbox-load" rel="gallery-fragment-images-343087649" data-figure-caption="<div class="highwire-markup">Effects of PTS on LC-3B protein expression in cisplatin-resistant GC cells. The cisplatin-resistant GC cells were treated with 0 and 75 μM of PTS for 24 h. LC-3B protein expression was detected using LC3-RFP fluorescence probe. (A) Stained cells were visualized using a ImageXpress Micro Confocal (×100). (B) LC-3B-RFP positive cell quantification chart. (C) Pre-incubation with autophagy inhibitor (3-MA; 10 mM) for 2 h, cisplatin-resistant GC cells were treated to 75 μM of PTS for 24 h. Cell viability was assessed using the CCK-8 assay. Values are presented as the mean±SD of three independent experiments. ***p<0.001 vs. PTS-treated. PTS: Pterostilbene; GC: gastric cancer; 3-MA: 3-methyladenine.</div>" data-icon-position="" data-hide-link-title="0"><span class="hw-responsive-img"><img class="highwire-fragment fragment-image lazyload" alt="Figure 5." src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAAAAAP///yH5BAEAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAIBRAA7" data-src="https://ar.iiarjournals.org/content/anticanres/45/2/511/F5.medium.gif" width="440" height="293"/><noscript><img class="highwire-fragment fragment-image" alt="Figure 5." src="https://ar.iiarjournals.org/content/anticanres/45/2/511/F5.medium.gif" width="440" height="293"/></noscript></span></a></div></div><ul class="highwire-figure-links inline"><li class="download-fig first"><a href="https://ar.iiarjournals.org/content/anticanres/45/2/511/F5.large.jpg?download=true" class="highwire-figure-link highwire-figure-link-download" title="Download Figure 5." data-icon-position="" data-hide-link-title="0">Download figure</a></li><li class="new-tab"><a href="https://ar.iiarjournals.org/content/anticanres/45/2/511/F5.large.jpg" class="highwire-figure-link highwire-figure-link-newtab" target="_blank" data-icon-position="" data-hide-link-title="0">Open in new tab</a></li><li class="download-ppt last"><a href="/highwire/powerpoint/83221" class="highwire-figure-link highwire-figure-link-ppt" data-icon-position="" data-hide-link-title="0">Download powerpoint</a></li></ul></div><div class="fig-caption"><span class="fig-label">Figure 5.</span> <p id="p-25" class="first-child">Effects of PTS on LC-3B protein expression in cisplatin-resistant GC cells. The cisplatin-resistant GC cells were treated with 0 and 75 μM of PTS for 24 h. LC-3B protein expression was detected using LC3-RFP fluorescence probe. (A) Stained cells were visualized using a ImageXpress Micro Confocal (×100). (B) LC-3B-RFP positive cell quantification chart. (C) Pre-incubation with autophagy inhibitor (3-MA; 10 mM) for 2 h, cisplatin-resistant GC cells were treated to 75 μM of PTS for 24 h. Cell viability was assessed using the CCK-8 assay. Values are presented as the mean±SD of three independent experiments. ***p<0.001 vs. PTS-treated. PTS: Pterostilbene; GC: gastric cancer; 3-MA: 3-methyladenine.</p><div class="sb-div caption-clear"></div></div></div><p id="p-26"><em>RNA sequencing (RNA-Seq) analysis in PTS-treated cisplatin-resistant GC cells</em>. A volcano plot was used to demonstrate the up-regulation (red) and down-regulation (blue) of genes in PTS-treated cisplatin-resistant GC cells. Among the activated genes, 37 were up-regulated and 122 were down-regulated (<a id="xref-fig-6-1" class="xref-fig" href="#F6">Figure 6A</a>). A scatter plot was used to graphically present the pathway analysis of enriched genes, with data represented by the <em>p</em>-value and number of genes significantly enriched in these pathways. <a id="xref-fig-6-2" class="xref-fig" href="#F6">Figure 6B</a> shows the top 20 related pathways, including mitotic metaphase and anaphase, kinetochore metaphase signaling, Rho GTPase cycle, Rho GTPase activated formins, cell cycle checkpoints, Intracellular Golgi and retrograde Golgi-to-ER traffic, cohesin chromatin regulation, kinesins, MIF regulation of innate immunity, nuclear cytoskeleton signaling, DNA damage response and repair proteins, nucleosome assembly, chemokine signaling, UVC-induced MAPK signaling, Endothelin-1 signaling, OAS antiviral response, Renin-angiotensin signaling, and ID1 signaling pathway.</p><div id="F6" class="fig pos-float odd"><div class="highwire-figure"><div class="fig-inline-img-wrapper"><div class="fig-inline-img"><a href="https://ar.iiarjournals.org/content/anticanres/45/2/511/F6.large.jpg?width=800&height=600&carousel=1" title="RNA sequencing analysis in PTS-treated cisplatin-resistant GC cells. (A) Volcano plot (B) Ingenuity canonical pathways analysis. PTS: Pterostilbene; GC: gastric cancer." class="highwire-fragment fragment-images colorbox-load" rel="gallery-fragment-images-343087649" data-figure-caption="<div class="highwire-markup">RNA sequencing analysis in PTS-treated cisplatin-resistant GC cells. (A) Volcano plot (B) Ingenuity canonical pathways analysis. PTS: Pterostilbene; GC: gastric cancer.</div>" data-icon-position="" data-hide-link-title="0"><span class="hw-responsive-img"><img class="highwire-fragment fragment-image lazyload" alt="Figure 6." src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAAAAAP///yH5BAEAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAIBRAA7" data-src="https://ar.iiarjournals.org/content/anticanres/45/2/511/F6.medium.gif" width="440" height="409"/><noscript><img class="highwire-fragment fragment-image" alt="Figure 6." src="https://ar.iiarjournals.org/content/anticanres/45/2/511/F6.medium.gif" width="440" height="409"/></noscript></span></a></div></div><ul class="highwire-figure-links inline"><li class="download-fig first"><a href="https://ar.iiarjournals.org/content/anticanres/45/2/511/F6.large.jpg?download=true" class="highwire-figure-link highwire-figure-link-download" title="Download Figure 6." data-icon-position="" data-hide-link-title="0">Download figure</a></li><li class="new-tab"><a href="https://ar.iiarjournals.org/content/anticanres/45/2/511/F6.large.jpg" class="highwire-figure-link highwire-figure-link-newtab" target="_blank" data-icon-position="" data-hide-link-title="0">Open in new tab</a></li><li class="download-ppt last"><a href="/highwire/powerpoint/83173" class="highwire-figure-link highwire-figure-link-ppt" data-icon-position="" data-hide-link-title="0">Download powerpoint</a></li></ul></div><div class="fig-caption"><span class="fig-label">Figure 6.</span> <p id="p-27" class="first-child">RNA sequencing analysis in PTS-treated cisplatin-resistant GC cells. (A) Volcano plot (B) Ingenuity canonical pathways analysis. PTS: Pterostilbene; GC: gastric cancer.</p><div class="sb-div caption-clear"></div></div></div><p id="p-28"><a id="xref-fig-7-1" class="xref-fig" href="#F7">Figure 7</a> illustrates the pathway analysis of the autophagic response, with predicted activation in orange and inhibition in blue in PTS-treated cisplatin-resistant GC cells. The results confirmed that PTS inhibited genes, such as <em>ATR, HIF-1, PI3K, RB1CC</em>, and <em>TBK1</em> (red mark), leading to the activation of the autophagy pathway. <a id="xref-fig-8-1" class="xref-fig" href="#F8">Figure 8</a> shows the pathway analysis of mitochondrial dysfunction in PTS-treated cisplatin-resistant GC cells. In <a id="xref-fig-8-2" class="xref-fig" href="#F8">Figure 8</a>, we can clearly see that mitochondria-related genes are decreased, leading to mitochondrial dysfunction, which ultimately activates caspase-9 and caspase-3, leading to cell apoptosis (red mark). Our RNA sequencing results suggest that PTS activates autophagic and apoptotic mechanisms in cisplatin-resistant GC cells.</p><div id="F7" class="fig pos-float odd"><div class="highwire-figure"><div class="fig-inline-img-wrapper"><div class="fig-inline-img"><a href="https://ar.iiarjournals.org/content/anticanres/45/2/511/F7.large.jpg?width=800&height=600&carousel=1" title="The target genes of autophagy pathway on PTS-treated cisplatin-resistant GC cells were analyzed using IPA software. PTS: Pterostilbene; GC: gastric cancer." class="highwire-fragment fragment-images colorbox-load" rel="gallery-fragment-images-343087649" data-figure-caption="<div class="highwire-markup">The target genes of autophagy pathway on PTS-treated cisplatin-resistant GC cells were analyzed using IPA software. PTS: Pterostilbene; GC: gastric cancer.</div>" data-icon-position="" data-hide-link-title="0"><span class="hw-responsive-img"><img class="highwire-fragment fragment-image lazyload" alt="Figure 7." src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAAAAAP///yH5BAEAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAIBRAA7" data-src="https://ar.iiarjournals.org/content/anticanres/45/2/511/F7.medium.gif" width="440" height="268"/><noscript><img class="highwire-fragment fragment-image" alt="Figure 7." src="https://ar.iiarjournals.org/content/anticanres/45/2/511/F7.medium.gif" width="440" height="268"/></noscript></span></a></div></div><ul class="highwire-figure-links inline"><li class="download-fig first"><a href="https://ar.iiarjournals.org/content/anticanres/45/2/511/F7.large.jpg?download=true" class="highwire-figure-link highwire-figure-link-download" title="Download Figure 7." data-icon-position="" data-hide-link-title="0">Download figure</a></li><li class="new-tab"><a href="https://ar.iiarjournals.org/content/anticanres/45/2/511/F7.large.jpg" class="highwire-figure-link highwire-figure-link-newtab" target="_blank" data-icon-position="" data-hide-link-title="0">Open in new tab</a></li><li class="download-ppt last"><a href="/highwire/powerpoint/83253" class="highwire-figure-link highwire-figure-link-ppt" data-icon-position="" data-hide-link-title="0">Download powerpoint</a></li></ul></div><div class="fig-caption"><span class="fig-label">Figure 7.</span> <p id="p-29" class="first-child">The target genes of autophagy pathway on PTS-treated cisplatin-resistant GC cells were analyzed using IPA software. PTS: Pterostilbene; GC: gastric cancer.</p><div class="sb-div caption-clear"></div></div></div><div id="F8" class="fig pos-float odd"><div class="highwire-figure"><div class="fig-inline-img-wrapper"><div class="fig-inline-img"><a href="https://ar.iiarjournals.org/content/anticanres/45/2/511/F8.large.jpg?width=800&height=600&carousel=1" title="Target genes of mitochondrial-related apoptosis pathway on PTS-treated cisplatin-resistant GC cells were analyzed using IPA software. PTS: Pterostilbene; GC: gastric cancer." class="highwire-fragment fragment-images colorbox-load" rel="gallery-fragment-images-343087649" data-figure-caption="<div class="highwire-markup">Target genes of mitochondrial-related apoptosis pathway on PTS-treated cisplatin-resistant GC cells were analyzed using IPA software. PTS: Pterostilbene; GC: gastric cancer.</div>" data-icon-position="" data-hide-link-title="0"><span class="hw-responsive-img"><img class="highwire-fragment fragment-image lazyload" alt="Figure 8." src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAAAAAP///yH5BAEAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAIBRAA7" data-src="https://ar.iiarjournals.org/content/anticanres/45/2/511/F8.medium.gif" width="440" height="257"/><noscript><img class="highwire-fragment fragment-image" alt="Figure 8." src="https://ar.iiarjournals.org/content/anticanres/45/2/511/F8.medium.gif" width="440" height="257"/></noscript></span></a></div></div><ul class="highwire-figure-links inline"><li class="download-fig first"><a href="https://ar.iiarjournals.org/content/anticanres/45/2/511/F8.large.jpg?download=true" class="highwire-figure-link highwire-figure-link-download" title="Download Figure 8." data-icon-position="" data-hide-link-title="0">Download figure</a></li><li class="new-tab"><a href="https://ar.iiarjournals.org/content/anticanres/45/2/511/F8.large.jpg" class="highwire-figure-link highwire-figure-link-newtab" target="_blank" data-icon-position="" data-hide-link-title="0">Open in new tab</a></li><li class="download-ppt last"><a href="/highwire/powerpoint/83284" class="highwire-figure-link highwire-figure-link-ppt" data-icon-position="" data-hide-link-title="0">Download powerpoint</a></li></ul></div><div class="fig-caption"><span class="fig-label">Figure 8.</span> <p id="p-30" class="first-child">Target genes of mitochondrial-related apoptosis pathway on PTS-treated cisplatin-resistant GC cells were analyzed using IPA software. PTS: Pterostilbene; GC: gastric cancer.</p><div class="sb-div caption-clear"></div></div></div></div><div class="section discussion" id="sec-3"><h2 class="">Discussion</h2><p id="p-31">PTS, a natural phenolic compound, is a well-known antioxidant that reduces reactive oxygen species (ROS) production by increasing protein levels and activities of catalase, glutathione peroxidase (GPx), glutathione reductase, and superoxide dismutase (<a id="xref-ref-39-1" class="xref-bibr" href="#ref-39">39</a>, <a id="xref-ref-40-1" class="xref-bibr" href="#ref-40">40</a>). Evidence has demonstrated that PTS may have pharmacological action in the prevention and treatment of cancer, dyslipidemia, diabetes, and cardiovascular and neurological degeneration. PTS has important pharmacological actions in cancer prevention or anticancer activities by evoking apoptosis or autophagy (<a id="xref-ref-41-1" class="xref-bibr" href="#ref-41">41</a>-<a id="xref-ref-44-1" class="xref-bibr" href="#ref-44">44</a>). Administration of 125 mg PTS twice daily for 6-8 weeks was safe and did not induce remarkable adverse reactions in clinical trials (<a id="xref-ref-45-1" class="xref-bibr" href="#ref-45">45</a>). Pan <em>et al</em>. demonstrated that PTS induces mitochondria-mediated apoptotic cell death and cell cycle arrest in the G0/G1 phase in human gastric carcinoma AGS cells (<a id="xref-ref-46-1" class="xref-bibr" href="#ref-46">46</a>). In this study, we investigated whether PTS exerts pro-apoptotic and autophagic effects on cisplatin-resistant GC cells. In this study, we examined the effects of PTS on cisplatin-resistant GC cells (<a id="xref-fig-1-4" class="xref-fig" href="#F1">Figure 1</a>). <a id="xref-fig-1-5" class="xref-fig" href="#F1">Figure 1</a> shows that cell variability was significantly inhibited by PTS at 25, 50, 75 and 100 μM compared to the control group. In addition, there was no significant cytotoxicity found of PTS at 25, 50, 75 and 100 μM at 24 and 48 h in primary cultured stomach epithelial cells (data not shown). Our results indicated that a combination of apoptotic and autophagic cell death mechanisms is associated with PTS-induced cytotoxicity. The findings of this study constitute important supplementary data by Pan <em>et al</em>., contributing to the establishment of the therapeutic profile of PTS and proving useful for further discovering anti-GC effects on cisplatin resistance (<a id="xref-ref-46-2" class="xref-bibr" href="#ref-46">46</a>).</p><p id="p-32">Our previous studies demonstrated that PTS modulates the suppression of multidrug resistance protein 1 (MRP-1) and induce autophagic and apoptotic cell death in cisplatin-resistant human oral cancer CAR cells (<a id="xref-ref-25-2" class="xref-bibr" href="#ref-25">25</a>). Previous studies demonstrated that PTS induces autophagy and apoptosis in chemoresistant lung cancer cells, chemoresistant human bladder cancer cells, and bortezomib-resistant myeloma cells (<a id="xref-ref-47-1" class="xref-bibr" href="#ref-47">47</a>-<a id="xref-ref-49-1" class="xref-bibr" href="#ref-49">49</a>). In this study, DNA condensation and DNA fragmentation were observed using the PI/DAPI/TUNEL assay (<a id="xref-fig-2-4" class="xref-fig" href="#F2">Figure 2A and B</a>), suggesting that apoptotic cell death was triggered in PTS-treated cisplatin-resistant GC cells. As shown in <a id="xref-fig-2-5" class="xref-fig" href="#F2">Figure 2C</a>, the viability of PTS-treated cells was significantly lower than that of control cells. However, the cell viability was significantly higher in the pan-caspase inhibitor (z-VAD-FMK) + PTS group than in the PTS-treated group. The increase in caspase-3 and caspase-9 activities provided evidence of the PTS-induced caspase-dependent apoptotic pathway in cisplatin-resistant GC cells (<a id="xref-fig-3-3" class="xref-fig" href="#F3">Figure 3</a>). The results of RNA sequencing demonstrated that the expression of many mitochondria-related genes decreased, leading to mitochondrial dysfunction and cell apoptosis (<a id="xref-fig-8-3" class="xref-fig" href="#F8">Figure 8</a>). These experimental results indicate that PTS induces apoptosis in cisplatin-resistant GC cells, possibly through mitochondria-mediated and caspase-dependent pathways.</p><p id="p-33">In this study, PTS-induced autophagy in cisplatin-resistant GC cells was demonstrated by observing the formation of acidic vesicles using AO and MDC staining (<a id="xref-fig-4-3" class="xref-fig" href="#F4">Figure 4</a>), LC3B expression is characteristic of autophagy during early autophagosome formation (<a id="xref-ref-50-1" class="xref-bibr" href="#ref-50">50</a>, <a id="xref-ref-51-1" class="xref-bibr" href="#ref-51">51</a>). The results shown in <a id="xref-fig-5-4" class="xref-fig" href="#F5">Figure 5A and B</a> indicate that PTS increased the protein expression of the LC3B in cisplatin-resistant GC cells. The autophagy inhibitor 3-MA significantly increased the viability of cisplatin-resistant GC cells following PTS treatment compared to cells treated with PTS alone (<a id="xref-fig-5-5" class="xref-fig" href="#F5">Figure 5C</a>). Additionally, RNA sequencing results showed that <em>ATR, HIF-1, PI3K, RB1CC</em>, and <em>TBK1</em> (red mark) were down-regulated, leading to activation of the autophagy pathway in PTS-treated cisplatin-resistant GC cells. Previous studies revealed the anticancer effects of PTS-induced autophagic cell death (<a id="xref-ref-42-1" class="xref-bibr" href="#ref-42">42</a>, <a id="xref-ref-43-1" class="xref-bibr" href="#ref-43">43</a>, <a id="xref-ref-52-1" class="xref-bibr" href="#ref-52">52</a>, <a id="xref-ref-53-1" class="xref-bibr" href="#ref-53">53</a>). Hani Lee <em>et al</em>. demonstrated that PTS activates the ATM/CHK/p53 pathway in lung cancer cells (<a id="xref-ref-54-1" class="xref-bibr" href="#ref-54">54</a>). PTS combined with a histone deacetylase inhibitor attenuates prostate cancer progression <em>via</em> the MTA1/HIF-1alpha pathway (<a id="xref-ref-55-1" class="xref-bibr" href="#ref-55">55</a>). Our previous study demonstrated that the PTS derivative (ANK-199) induces autophagy through the PI3K pathway in cisplatin-resistant CAR human oral cancer cells (<a id="xref-ref-56-1" class="xref-bibr" href="#ref-56">56</a>). PTS-induced autophagy sensitizes cisplatin-resistant cancer cells and enhances the cytotoxicity of bladder and pancreatic cancer cells <em>via</em> the PI3K pathway (<a id="xref-ref-26-2" class="xref-bibr" href="#ref-26">26</a>, <a id="xref-ref-57-1" class="xref-bibr" href="#ref-57">57</a>, <a id="xref-ref-58-1" class="xref-bibr" href="#ref-58">58</a>). The results of this study are in accordance with those of previous studies; PTS activates the autophagy pathway by down-regulating <em>ATR, HIF-1</em>, and <em>PI3K</em> gene expression (<a id="xref-ref-59-1" class="xref-bibr" href="#ref-59">59</a>). This will be the focus of future studies on the functions of RB1CC and TBK1 in PTS-induced cisplatin-resistant GC cell autophagy.</p></div><div class="section conclusion" id="sec-4"><h2 class="">Conclusion</h2><p id="p-34">This study demonstrated that PTS causes autophagy and apoptosis in human cisplatin-resistant GC cells. We suggest that PTS is a candidate phytochemical agent for the treatment of human GC.</p></div><div class="section ack" id="ack-1"><h2 class="">Acknowledgements</h2><p id="p-39">The Authors would like to thank the Office of Research and Development, China Medical University (Taichung, Taiwan), for providing the Medical Research Core Facilities for performing the experiments and data analysis.</p></div><div class="section fn-group" id="fn-group-1"><h2>Footnotes</h2><ul><li class="fn" id="fn-1"><p id="p-1"><strong>Authors’ Contributions</strong></p><p id="p-2">Research design: Huang CJ, Yang JS, and Hung CH; experimental design, organization and conduction: Shieh PC, Yang JS, Bau DT, Li YC and Hung CH; statistical analysis: Yang JS and Shieh PC; data clearance and validation: Huang CJ, Yang JS, Li YC, Bau DT and Hung CH; article writing: Bau DT, Yang JS and Hung CH; correction of manuscript: Yang JS, Shieh PC and Hung CH, review and revision: Yang JS, Hung CH and Bau DT.</p></li><li class="fn" id="fn-2"><p id="p-35"><strong>Conflicts of Interest</strong></p><p id="p-36">The Authors declare that they have no competing interests.</p></li><li class="fn" id="fn-3"><p id="p-37"><strong>Funding</strong></p><p id="p-38">This work was supported, in part, by a project (DMR-114-085) from China Medical University Hospital and in part by a project (V113B-006) from Taipei Veterans General Hospital.</p></li></ul></div><ul class="history-list"><li xmlns:hwp="http://schema.highwire.org/Journal" class="received" hwp:start="2024-12-02"><span class="received-label">Received </span>December 2, 2024.</li><li xmlns:hwp="http://schema.highwire.org/Journal" class="rev-recd" hwp:start="2024-12-18"><span class="rev-recd-label">Revision received </span>December 18, 2024.</li><li xmlns:hwp="http://schema.highwire.org/Journal" class="accepted" hwp:start="2025-01-09"><span class="accepted-label">Accepted </span>January 9, 2025.</li></ul><ul class="copyright-statement"><li class="fn" id="copyright-statement-1">Copyright © 2025 International Institute of Anticancer Research (Dr. George J. Delinasios), All rights reserved.</li></ul><div class="license" id="license-1"><p id="p-3">This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY-NC-ND) 4.0 international license (<a href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0" rel="license">https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0</a>).</p></div><div class="section ref-list" id="ref-list-1"><h2 class="">References</h2><ol class="cit-list"><li><a class="rev-xref-ref" href="#xref-ref-1-1" title="View reference 1 in text" id="ref-1">↵</a><div class="cit ref-cit ref-journal" id="cit-45.2.511.1" data-doi="10.1186/s40360-020-00442-1"><div class="cit-metadata"><ol class="cit-auth-list"><li><span class="cit-auth"><span class="cit-name-surname">Al-Bahlani</span> <span class="cit-name-given-names">S</span></span>, </li><li><span class="cit-auth"><span class="cit-name-surname">Burney</span> <span class="cit-name-given-names">IA</span></span>, 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class="cit-pub-id cit-pub-id-doi">10.1371/journal.pone.0111814</span></cite></div><div class="cit-extra"><a href="{openurl}?query=rft.jtitle%253DPLoS%2BOne%26rft.volume%253D9%26rft.spage%253De111814%26rft_id%253Dinfo%253Adoi%252F10.1371%252Fjournal.pone.0111814%26rft_id%253Dinfo%253Apmid%252F25389774%26rft.genre%253Darticle%26rft_val_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Ajournal%26ctx_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ctx_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Actx" class="cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-openurl cit-ref-sprinkles-open-url"><span>OpenUrl</span></a><a href="/lookup/external-ref?access_num=10.1371/journal.pone.0111814&link_type=DOI" class="cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-doi cit-ref-sprinkles-crossref"><span>CrossRef</span></a><a href="/lookup/external-ref?access_num=25389774&link_type=MED&atom=%2Fanticanres%2F45%2F2%2F511.atom" class="cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-medline"><span>PubMed</span></a></div></div></li><li><a 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cells</span>. <abbr class="cit-jnl-abbrev">Biomolecules</abbr> <span class="cit-vol">10</span>(<span class="cit-issue">5</span>): <span class="cit-fpage">709</span>, <span class="cit-pub-date">2020</span>.<span class="cit-pub-id-sep cit-pub-id-doi-sep"> </span><span class="cit-pub-id-scheme">DOI: </span><span class="cit-pub-id cit-pub-id-doi">10.3390/biom10050709</span></cite></div><div class="cit-extra"><a href="{openurl}?query=rft.jtitle%253DBiomolecules%26rft.volume%253D10%26rft.spage%253D709%26rft_id%253Dinfo%253Adoi%252F10.3390%252Fbiom10050709%26rft_id%253Dinfo%253Apmid%252F32375296%26rft.genre%253Darticle%26rft_val_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Ajournal%26ctx_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ctx_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Actx" class="cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-openurl cit-ref-sprinkles-open-url"><span>OpenUrl</span></a><a href="/lookup/external-ref?access_num=10.3390/biom10050709&link_type=DOI" 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class="cit-name-surname">Yang</span> <span class="cit-name-given-names">SF</span></span>, </li><li><span class="cit-auth"><span class="cit-name-surname">Chiou</span> <span class="cit-name-given-names">HL</span></span>, </li><li><span class="cit-auth"><span class="cit-name-surname">Hsieh</span> <span class="cit-name-given-names">MJ</span></span></li></ol><cite>: <span class="cit-article-title">Pterostilbene induce autophagy on human oral cancer cells through modulation of Akt and mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway</span>. <abbr class="cit-jnl-abbrev">Oral Oncol</abbr> <span class="cit-vol">51</span>(<span class="cit-issue">6</span>): <span class="cit-fpage">593</span>-<span class="cit-lpage">601</span>, <span class="cit-pub-date">2015</span>.<span class="cit-pub-id-sep cit-pub-id-doi-sep"> </span><span class="cit-pub-id-scheme">DOI: </span><span class="cit-pub-id cit-pub-id-doi">10.1016/j.oraloncology.2015.03.007</span></cite></div><div class="cit-extra"><a 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id="share-node-83134--4240507004" data-pisa="anticanres;45/2/511" data-pisa-master="anticanres;45/2/511" data-apath="/anticanres/45/2/511.atom"><div class="highwire-cite highwire-cite-highwire-article highwire-citation-jcore-standard clearfix"> <div class="highwire-cite-title">Pterostilbene Suppressed Cell Viability, Induced Apoptosis and Autophagy of Cisplatin-resistant Gastric Cancer Cells</div> <div class="highwire-cite-authors"><span class="highwire-citation-authors"><span class="highwire-citation-author first" data-delta="0"><span class="nlm-given-names">CHIEN-JUNG</span> <span class="nlm-surname">HUANG</span></span>, <span class="highwire-citation-author" data-delta="1"><span class="nlm-given-names">PO-CHUEN</span> <span class="nlm-surname">SHIEH</span></span>, <span class="highwire-citation-author" data-delta="2"><span class="nlm-given-names">JAI-SING</span> <span class="nlm-surname">YANG</span></span>, <span class="highwire-citation-author" data-delta="3"><span class="nlm-given-names">YI-CHIA</span> <span class="nlm-surname">LI</span></span>, <span class="highwire-citation-author" data-delta="4"><span class="nlm-given-names"> YU-JEN</span> <span class="nlm-surname">CHIU</span></span>, <span class="highwire-citation-author" data-delta="5"><span class="nlm-given-names">DA-TIAN</span> <span class="nlm-surname">BAU</span></span>, <span class="highwire-citation-author" data-delta="6"><span class="nlm-given-names">CHIH-HSIN</span> <span class="nlm-surname">HUNG</span></span></span></div> <div class="highwire-cite-metadata"><span class="highwire-cite-metadata-oa-ind highwire-cite-metadata"><i class="highwire-oa-indicator"></i> </span><span class="highwire-cite-metadata-journal highwire-cite-metadata">Anticancer Research </span><span class="highwire-cite-metadata-date highwire-cite-metadata">Feb 2025, </span><span class="highwire-cite-metadata-volume highwire-cite-metadata">45 </span><span class="highwire-cite-metadata-issue 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pane-highwire-term-full-title" > <h2 class="pane-title">Keywords</h2> <div class="pane-content"> <div class="highwire-list highwire-a-full-title"><ul class="field-items inline comma-separated"><li class="first odd"><a href="/keyword/rna-sequencing" class="" data-icon-position="" data-hide-link-title="0"><span class="wrapper">RNA sequencing</span></a></li><li class="even"><a href="/keyword/gastric-cancer" class="" data-icon-position="" data-hide-link-title="0"><span class="wrapper">Gastric cancer</span></a></li><li class="odd"><a href="/keyword/cisplatin-resistant" class="" data-icon-position="" data-hide-link-title="0"><span class="wrapper">cisplatin-resistant</span></a></li><li class="even"><a href="/keyword/apoptosis" class="" data-icon-position="" data-hide-link-title="0"><span class="wrapper">apoptosis</span></a></li><li class="last odd"><a href="/keyword/autophagy" class="" data-icon-position="" data-hide-link-title="0"><span class="wrapper">autophagy</span></a></li></ul></div> 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