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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Written_evidence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2 Written evidence </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Written_evidence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Printing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Printing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3 Printing </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Printing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Secularization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Secularization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.4 Secularization </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Secularization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-20th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#20th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.5 20th century </div> </a> <ul id="toc-20th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phonology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phonology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Phonology </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Phonology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Phonology subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Phonology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Consonants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Consonants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Consonants </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Consonants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vowels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vowels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Vowels </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vowels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dialectal_variation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dialectal_variation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Dialectal variation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dialectal_variation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Comparison_with_German" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Comparison_with_German"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Comparison with German </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Comparison_with_German-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Comparison_with_Hebrew" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Comparison_with_Hebrew"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 Comparison with Hebrew </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Comparison_with_Hebrew-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Grammar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Grammar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Grammar </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Grammar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Writing_system" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Writing_system"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Writing system </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Writing_system-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Numbers_of_speakers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Numbers_of_speakers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Numbers of speakers </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Numbers_of_speakers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Status_as_a_language" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Status_as_a_language"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Status as a language </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Status_as_a_language-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Status as a language subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Status_as_a_language-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Israel_and_Zionism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Israel_and_Zionism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Israel and Zionism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Israel_and_Zionism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-South_Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#South_Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 South Africa </div> </a> <ul id="toc-South_Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mexico" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mexico"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Mexico </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mexico-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Former_Soviet_Union" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Former_Soviet_Union"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 Former Soviet Union </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Former_Soviet_Union-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Russia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Russia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4.1 Russia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Russia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Jewish_Autonomous_Oblast" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jewish_Autonomous_Oblast"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4.1.1 Jewish Autonomous Oblast </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jewish_Autonomous_Oblast-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ukraine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ukraine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4.2 Ukraine </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ukraine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Council_of_Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Council_of_Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.5 Council of Europe </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Council_of_Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sweden" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sweden"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.6 Sweden </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sweden-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.7 United States </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Present_U.S._speaker_population" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Present_U.S._speaker_population"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.7.1 Present U.S. speaker population </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Present_U.S._speaker_population-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_Kingdom" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_Kingdom"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.8 United Kingdom </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_Kingdom-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Canada" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Canada"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.9 Canada </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Canada-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religious_communities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religious_communities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.10 Religious communities </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religious_communities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_Yiddish_education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_Yiddish_education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.11 Modern Yiddish education </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_Yiddish_education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Internet" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Internet"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.12 Internet </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Internet-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Influence_on_other_languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Influence_on_other_languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Influence on other languages </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Influence_on_other_languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Language_examples" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Language_examples"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Language examples </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Language_examples-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Yiddish</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 133 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-133" aria-hidden="true" > 133 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jiddisj" title="Jiddisj – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Jiddisj" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jiddische_Sprache" title="Jiddische Sprache – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Jiddische Sprache" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8B%AA%E1%8B%B2%E1%88%BD%E1%8A%9B" title="ዪዲሽኛ – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ዪዲሽኛ" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%B4%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="اللغة اليديشية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="اللغة اليديشية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiddisch" title="Yiddisch – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Yiddisch" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frp mw-list-item"><a href="https://frp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yidich%C2%B7e" title="Yidich·e – Arpitan" lang="frp" hreflang="frp" data-title="Yidich·e" data-language-autonym="Arpetan" data-language-local-name="Arpitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Arpetan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiddish" title="Yiddish – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Yiddish" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0di%C5%9F_dili" title="İdiş dili – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="İdiş dili" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B6_%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%BE" title="য়িদ্দিশ ভাষা – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="য়িদ্দিশ ভাষা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bjn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bjn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basa_Yiddis" title="Basa Yiddis – Banjar" lang="bjn" hreflang="bjn" data-title="Basa Yiddis" data-language-autonym="Banjar" data-language-local-name="Banjar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Banjar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiddish-g%C3%AD" title="Yiddish-gí – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Yiddish-gí" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%88" title="Идиш – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Идиш" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D0%B4%D1%8B%D1%88" title="Ідыш – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Ідыш" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D0%B4%D1%8B%D1%88" title="Ідыш – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Ідыш" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tataramon_na_Yidis" title="Tataramon na Yidis – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Tataramon na Yidis" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%88" title="Идиш – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Идиш" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jiddisch" title="Jiddisch – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Jiddisch" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Boarisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yideg" title="Yideg – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Yideg" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%8Ddix" title="Ídix – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Ídix" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%88" title="Идиш – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Идиш" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jidi%C5%A1" title="Jidiš – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Jidiš" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iddew-Almaeneg" title="Iddew-Almaeneg – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Iddew-Almaeneg" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jiddisch" title="Jiddisch – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Jiddisch" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pdc mw-list-item"><a href="https://pdc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiddisch" title="Yiddisch – Pennsylvania German" lang="pdc" hreflang="pdc" data-title="Yiddisch" data-language-autonym="Deitsch" data-language-local-name="Pennsylvania German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deitsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jiddisch" title="Jiddisch – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Jiddisch" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://dsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jidi%C5%A1%C4%87ina" title="Jidišćina – Lower Sorbian" lang="dsb" hreflang="dsb" data-title="Jidišćina" data-language-autonym="Dolnoserbski" data-language-local-name="Lower Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dolnoserbski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jidi%C5%A1i_keel" title="Jidiši keel – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Jidiši keel" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CE%AF%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B9%CF%82" title="Γίντις – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Γίντις" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-myv mw-list-item"><a href="https://myv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%88" title="Идиш – Erzya" lang="myv" hreflang="myv" data-title="Идиш" data-language-autonym="Эрзянь" data-language-local-name="Erzya" class="interlanguage-link-target">Эрзянь</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yidis" title="Yidis – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Yidis" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jido_(lingvo)" title="Jido (lingvo) – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Jido (lingvo)" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiddish" title="Yiddish – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Yiddish" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86_%DB%8C%DB%8C%D8%AF%DB%8C%D8%B4" title="زبان ییدیش – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="زبان ییدیش" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiddish_bhasa" title="Yiddish bhasa – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Yiddish bhasa" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jiddiskt_m%C3%A1l" title="Jiddiskt mál – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Jiddiskt mál" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiddish" title="Yiddish – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Yiddish" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jiddysk" title="Jiddysk – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Jiddysk" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Ghi%C3%BAdais" title="An Ghiúdais – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="An Ghiúdais" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ewdish" title="Ewdish – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Ewdish" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaelg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/I%C3%B9dais" title="Iùdais – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Iùdais" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_yiddish" title="Lingua yiddish – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Lingua yiddish" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%84%8F%E7%AC%AC%E7%B7%92%E8%AA%9E" title="意第緒語 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="意第緒語" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target">贛語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-got mw-list-item"><a href="https://got.wikipedia.org/wiki/%F0%90%8C%BE%F0%90%8C%B9%F0%90%8C%B3%F0%90%8C%B9%F0%90%8D%83%F0%90%8C%BA%F0%90%8C%B0%F0%90%8D%82%F0%90%8C%B0%F0%90%8C%B6%F0%90%8C%B3%F0%90%8C%B0" title="𐌾𐌹𐌳𐌹𐍃𐌺𐌰𐍂𐌰𐌶𐌳𐌰 – Gothic" lang="got" hreflang="got" data-title="𐌾𐌹𐌳𐌹𐍃𐌺𐌰𐍂𐌰𐌶𐌳𐌰" data-language-autonym="𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺" data-language-local-name="Gothic" class="interlanguage-link-target">𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiddish-ng%C3%AE" title="Yiddish-ngî – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Yiddish-ngî" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9D%B4%EB%94%94%EC%8B%9C%EC%96%B4" title="이디시어 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="이디시어" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BB%D5%A4%D5%AB%D5%B7" title="Իդիշ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Իդիշ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="यिद्दी भाषा – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="यिद्दी भाषा" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://hsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jidi%C5%A1%C4%87ina" title="Jidišćina – Upper Sorbian" lang="hsb" hreflang="hsb" data-title="Jidišćina" data-language-autonym="Hornjoserbsce" data-language-local-name="Upper Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hornjoserbsce</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jidi%C5%A1" title="Jidiš – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Jidiš" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yidisha_linguo" title="Yidisha linguo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Yidisha linguo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pagsasao_a_Yidis" title="Pagsasao a Yidis – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Pagsasao a Yidis" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Yiddi" title="Bahasa Yiddi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Bahasa Yiddi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_yiddish" title="Lingua yiddish – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Lingua yiddish" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiddic" title="Yiddic – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Yiddic" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingue</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%88" title="Идиш – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Идиш" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Ossetic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ирон</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jidd%C3%ADska" title="Jiddíska – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Jiddíska" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_yiddish" title="Lingua yiddish – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Lingua yiddish" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%99%D7%99%D7%93%D7%99%D7%A9" title="יידיש – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="יידיש" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basa_Yiddish" title="Basa Yiddish – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Basa Yiddish" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%98%E1%83%93%E1%83%98%E1%83%A8%E1%83%98" title="იდიში – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="იდიში" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%88" title="Идиш – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Идиш" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yedhowek" title="Yedhowek – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Yedhowek" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiyiddish" title="Kiyiddish – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Kiyiddish" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kv mw-list-item"><a href="https://kv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%88" title="Идиш – Komi" lang="kv" hreflang="kv" data-title="Идиш" data-language-autonym="Коми" data-language-local-name="Komi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Коми</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ziman%C3%AA_y%C3%AEd%C3%AE%C5%9F" title="Zimanê yîdîş – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Zimanê yîdîş" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad mw-list-item"><a href="https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idish" title="Idish – Ladino" lang="lad" hreflang="lad" data-title="Idish" data-language-autonym="Ladino" data-language-local-name="Ladino" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladino</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_Iudaeo-Germanica" title="Lingua Iudaeo-Germanica – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Lingua Iudaeo-Germanica" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jidi%C5%A1s" title="Jidišs – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Jidišs" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jidi%C5%A1" title="Jidiš – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Jidiš" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lengua_yiddish" title="Lengua yiddish – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Lengua yiddish" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ligure</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jiddisch" title="Jiddisch – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Jiddisch" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ides" title="Ides – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Ides" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jiddis_nyelv" title="Jiddis nyelv – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Jiddis nyelv" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%88%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%88" title="Јидиш – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Јидиш" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiteny_idisy" title="Fiteny idisy – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Fiteny idisy" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A6%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A6%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B7%E0%B5%8D" title="യിദ്ദിഷ് – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="യിദ്ദിഷ്" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B6_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="यिडिश भाषा – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="यिडिश भाषा" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%98%E1%83%93%E1%83%98%E1%83%A8%E1%83%98" title="იდიში – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="იდიში" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%8A%D9%8A%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%B4" title="ييديش – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="ييديش" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%8C%DB%8C%D8%AF%DB%8C%D8%B4" title="ییدیش – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="ییدیش" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target">مازِرونی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Yiddish" title="Bahasa Yiddish – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Bahasa Yiddish" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jiddisch" title="Jiddisch – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Jiddisch" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jiddisj" title="Jiddisj – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Jiddisj" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nedersaksies</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A4%E3%83%87%E3%82%A3%E3%83%83%E3%82%B7%E3%83%A5%E8%AA%9E" title="イディッシュ語 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="イディッシュ語" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jidisk" title="Jidisk – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Jidisk" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jiddisch" title="Jiddisch – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Jiddisch" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jiddisch" title="Jiddisch – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Jiddisch" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiddish" title="Yiddish – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Yiddish" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mhr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%88_%D0%B9%D1%8B%D0%BB%D0%BC%D0%B5" title="Идиш йылме – Eastern Mari" lang="mhr" hreflang="mhr" data-title="Идиш йылме" data-language-autonym="Олык марий" data-language-local-name="Eastern Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target">Олык марий</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idish" title="Idish – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Idish" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AF%E0%A8%BF%E0%A9%B1%E0%A8%A6%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BC_%E0%A8%AD%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%BE" title="ਯਿੱਦੀਸ਼ ਭਾਸ਼ਾ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਯਿੱਦੀਸ਼ ਭਾਸ਼ਾ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%8C%D8%AF%D8%B4" title="یدش – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="یدش" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%8A%D9%8A%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%B4%D9%8A_%DA%98%D8%A8%D9%87" title="ييديشي ژبه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="ييديشي ژبه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiddish" title="Yiddish – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Yiddish" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jiddische_Spraak" title="Jiddische Spraak – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Jiddische Spraak" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jidysz" title="Jidysz – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Jidysz" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%ADngua_i%C3%ADdiche" title="Língua iídiche – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Língua iídiche" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-crh mw-list-item"><a href="https://crh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yidi%C5%9F_tili" title="Yidiş tili – Crimean Tatar" lang="crh" hreflang="crh" data-title="Yidiş tili" data-language-autonym="Qırımtatarca" data-language-local-name="Crimean Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qırımtatarca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limba_idi%C8%99" title="Limba idiș – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Limba idiș" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yithish_simi" title="Yithish simi – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Yithish simi" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%88" title="Идиш – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Идиш" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%88" title="Идиш – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Идиш" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%AD%E1%B1%A4%E1%B1%AB%E1%B1%AB%E1%B1%A4%E1%B1%A5_%E1%B1%AF%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%B9%E1%B1%A8%E1%B1%A5%E1%B1%A4" title="ᱭᱤᱫᱫᱤᱥ ᱯᱟᱹᱨᱥᱤ – Santali" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱭᱤᱫᱫᱤᱥ ᱯᱟᱹᱨᱥᱤ" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="Santali" class="interlanguage-link-target">ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiddish_leid" title="Yiddish leid – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Yiddish leid" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jidish" title="Jidish – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Jidish" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_yiddish" title="Lingua yiddish – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Lingua yiddish" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiddish" title="Yiddish – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Yiddish" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jidi%C5%A1" title="Jidiš – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Jidiš" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jidi%C5%A1" title="Jidiš – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Jidiš" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szl mw-list-item"><a href="https://szl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jidisz" title="Jidisz – Silesian" lang="szl" hreflang="szl" data-title="Jidisz" data-language-autonym="Ślůnski" data-language-local-name="Silesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ślůnski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C_%DB%8C%D8%AF%DB%8C%D8%B4" title="زمانی یدیش – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="زمانی یدیش" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%88%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%88_(%D1%98%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA)" title="Јидиш (језик) – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Јидиш (језик)" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jidi%C5%A1" title="Jidiš – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Jidiš" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jiddi%C5%A1" title="Jiddiš – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Jiddiš" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jiddisch" title="Jiddisch – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Jiddisch" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikang_Yidis" title="Wikang Yidis – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Wikang Yidis" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF_%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%B4%E0%AE%BF" title="இத்திய மொழி – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="இத்திய மொழி" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tayidict" title="Tayidict – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Tayidict" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taqbaylit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%88_%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5" title="Идиш теле – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Идиш теле" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A9%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%8A" title="ภาษายิดดิช – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ภาษายิดดิช" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D0%98%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%88" title="Забони Идиш – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Забони Идиш" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yidi%C5%9F" title="Yidiş – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Yidiş" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%87%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%88" title="Їдиш – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Їдиш" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%8C%D8%AF%DB%8C%D8%B4_%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86" title="یدیش زبان – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="یدیش زبان" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ti%E1%BA%BFng_Yiddish" title="Tiếng Yiddish – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Tiếng Yiddish" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%84%8F%E7%AC%AC%E7%BB%AA%E8%AF%AD" title="意第绪语 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="意第绪语" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%99%D7%99%D7%93%D7%99%D7%A9" title="יידיש – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="יידיש" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BE%9D%E5%9C%B0%E6%96%87" title="依地文 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="依地文" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yidi%C5%9Fki" title="Yidişki – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Yidişki" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zazaki</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C4%97d%C4%97%C5%A1_kalba" title="Jėdėš kalba – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Jėdėš kalba" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Žemaitėška</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%84%8F%E7%AC%AC%E7%B7%92%E8%AA%9E" title="意第緒語 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="意第緒語" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-iba mw-list-item"><a href="https://iba.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaku_Yiddish" title="Jaku Yiddish – Iban" lang="iba" hreflang="iba" data-title="Jaku Yiddish" data-language-autonym="Jaku Iban" data-language-local-name="Iban" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jaku Iban</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tly mw-list-item"><a href="https://tly.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jidi%C5%A1i" title="Jidiši – Talysh" lang="tly" hreflang="tly" data-title="Jidiši" data-language-autonym="Tolışi" data-language-local-name="Talysh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tolışi</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet 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class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">High German-derived language used by Ashkenazi Jews</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above above" style="font-size:125%; color: black; background-color: #c9ffd9;">Yiddish</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: #c9ffd9;">Judaeo-German</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: #c9ffd9;">ייִדיש, יידיש or אידיש, yidish / idish</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Pronunciation</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Yiddish" title="Help:IPA/Yiddish">[ˈ(j)ɪdɪʃ]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Native to</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">Central, Eastern, and Western Europe</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Region</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">Europe, Israel, North America, South America, <a href="/wiki/Jewish_diaspora" title="Jewish diaspora">other regions with Jewish populations</a><a href="#cite_note-e18-1">[1]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Ethnicity</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Jews" title="Ashkenazi Jews">Ashkenazi Jews</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Native speakers</div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">≤ 600,000 (2021)<a href="#cite_note-2021_stats-2">[2]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">Language family</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:1.35em;padding-left:0"><li> <a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/West_Germanic_languages" title="West Germanic languages">West Germanic</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Elbe_Germanic" title="Elbe Germanic">Elbe Germanic</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/High_German_languages" title="High German languages">High German</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li>Yiddish</li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Early form</div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Old_High_German" title="Old High German">Old High German</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Middle_High_German" title="Middle High German">Middle High German</a><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr class="plainlist"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Dialects</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"> <ul><li>Eastern Yiddish</li> <li>Western Yiddish</li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">Writing system</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_alphabet" title="Hebrew alphabet">Hebrew alphabet</a> (<a href="/wiki/Yiddish_orthography" title="Yiddish orthography">Yiddish orthography</a>) occasionally <a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">Latin alphabet</a><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: #c9ffd9;">Official status</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Official language in</div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a> (<a href="/wiki/Jewish_Autonomous_Oblast" title="Jewish Autonomous Oblast">Jewish Autonomous Oblast</a>)<a href="#cite_note-jao-ustav-6">[6]</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Recognised minority language in</div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="vertical-align:middle;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Austria" title="Austria">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belarus" title="Belarus">Belarus</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" title="Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poland" title="Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romania" title="Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a><a href="#cite_note-jao-ustav-6">[6]</a></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_language_regulators" title="List of language regulators">Regulated by</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">No formal bodies <a href="/wiki/YIVO" title="YIVO">YIVO</a> de facto</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: #c9ffd9;">Language codes</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-1" title="ISO 639-1">ISO 639-1</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/standards/iso639-2/php/langcodes_name.php?iso_639_1=yi">yi</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-2" title="ISO 639-2">ISO 639-2</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/standards/iso639-2/php/langcodes_name.php?code_ID=495">yid</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-3" title="ISO 639-3">ISO 639-3</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/yid" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:yid">yid</a></code> – inclusive code Individual codes: <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/ydd" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:ydd">ydd</a></code> – Eastern Yiddish <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/yih" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:yih">yih</a></code> – Western Yiddish</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/Glottolog" title="Glottolog">Glottolog</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/east2295">east2295</a></code>  Eastern Yiddish <code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/west2361">west2361</a></code>  Western Yiddish</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/Linguasphere_Observatory" title="Linguasphere Observatory">Linguasphere</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">52-ACB-g = 52-ACB-ga (West) + 52-ACB-gb (East); totalling 11 varieties</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/File:Lang_Status_80-VU.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Lang_Status_80-VU.svg/320px-Lang_Status_80-VU.svg.png" decoding="async" width="320" height="96" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Lang_Status_80-VU.svg/480px-Lang_Status_80-VU.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Lang_Status_80-VU.svg/640px-Lang_Status_80-VU.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="153" /></a><div style="text-align:left;"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Yiddish is classified as Vulnerable by the UNESCO <a href="/wiki/Atlas_of_the_World%27s_Languages_in_Danger" title="Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger">Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger</a> (2023)<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236303919">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}</style> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BelohnteTugend.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/BelohnteTugend.jpg/220px-BelohnteTugend.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="313" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/BelohnteTugend.jpg/330px-BelohnteTugend.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/88/BelohnteTugend.jpg 2x" data-file-width="424" data-file-height="603" /></a><figcaption>The opening page of the 1828 Yiddish-written Jewish holiday of <a href="/wiki/Purim" title="Purim">Purim</a> play Esther, oder die belohnte Tugend from <a href="/wiki/F%C3%BCrth" title="Fürth">Fürth</a> (by Nürnberg), <a href="/wiki/Bavaria" title="Bavaria">Bavaria</a>.</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1092331828">@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .contains-special-characters{width:22em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right contains-special-characters noprint selfref"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><a href="/wiki/Shalom" title="Shalom"><img alt="שָׁלוֹם" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Shalom2.svg/40px-Shalom2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Shalom2.svg/60px-Shalom2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Shalom2.svg/80px-Shalom2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="741" data-file-height="400" /></a></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">This article contains <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_alphabet" title="Hebrew alphabet">Hebrew text</a>. Without proper <a href="/wiki/Help:Hebrew" title="Help:Hebrew">rendering support</a>, you may see <a href="/wiki/Specials_(Unicode_block)#Replacement_character" title="Specials (Unicode block)">question marks, boxes, or other symbols</a> instead of Hebrew letters.</div></div> </div> Yiddish (ייִדיש, יידיש or אידיש, yidish or idish, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style>pronounced <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Yiddish" title="Help:IPA/Yiddish">[ˈ(j)ɪdɪʃ]</a>, <abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr> 'Jewish'; ייִדיש-טײַטש, historically also Yidish-Taytsh, <abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr> 'Judeo-German')<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> is a <a href="/wiki/West_Germanic_languages" title="West Germanic languages">West Germanic</a> language historically spoken by <a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Jews" title="Ashkenazi Jews">Ashkenazi Jews</a>. It originated in 9th century<a href="#cite_note-jacobs2005-11">[11]</a>: 2  <a href="/wiki/Central_Europe" title="Central Europe">Central Europe</a>, and provided the nascent Ashkenazi community with a <a href="/wiki/Vernacular" title="Vernacular">vernacular</a> based on <a href="/wiki/High_German" class="mw-redirect" title="High German">High German</a> fused with many elements taken from <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a> (notably <a href="/wiki/Mishnaic_Hebrew" title="Mishnaic Hebrew">Mishnaic</a>) and to some extent <a href="/wiki/Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Aramaic</a>. Most varieties of Yiddish include elements of <a href="/wiki/Slavic_languages" title="Slavic languages">Slavic languages</a> and the vocabulary contains traces of <a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance languages</a>.<a href="#cite_note-baumgarten-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-Yardumian-14">[14]</a> Yiddish has traditionally been written using the <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_alphabet" title="Hebrew alphabet">Hebrew alphabet</a>. Prior to <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, there were 11–13 million speakers.<a href="#cite_note-yivoyiddish-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> Eighty-five percent of the approximately six million Jews who were murdered in the <a href="/wiki/Holocaust" class="mw-redirect" title="Holocaust">Holocaust</a> were Yiddish speakers,<a href="#cite_note-Sprache_1984_p._3-17">[17]</a> leading to a massive decline in the use of the language. <a href="/wiki/Jewish_assimilation" title="Jewish assimilation">Assimilation</a> following World War II and <a href="/wiki/Aliyah" title="Aliyah">aliyah</a> (immigration to Israel) further decreased the use of Yiddish among survivors after adapting to <a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew" title="Modern Hebrew">Hebrew</a> in Israel. However, the number of Yiddish-speakers is increasing in <a href="/wiki/Hasidic_Judaism" title="Hasidic Judaism">Hasidic</a> communities. In 2014, <a href="/wiki/YIVO" title="YIVO">YIVO</a> stated that "most people who speak Yiddish in their daily lives are Hasidim and other <a href="/wiki/Haredi_Judaism" title="Haredi Judaism">Haredim</a>", whose population was estimated at the time to be between 500,000 and 1 million.<a href="#cite_note-:5-18">[18]</a> A 2021 estimate from <a href="/wiki/Rutgers_University" title="Rutgers University">Rutgers University</a> was that there were 250,000 American speakers, 250,000 Israeli speakers, and 100,000 in the rest of the world (for a total of 600,000).<a href="#cite_note-2021_stats-2">[2]</a> The earliest surviving references date from the 12th century and call the language <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1241449095">.mw-parser-output .script-hebrew,.mw-parser-output .script-Hebr{font-family:"Ezra SIL SR","Ezra SIL","SBL Hebrew","Taamey Frank CLM","SBL BibLit","Taamey Ashkenaz","Frank Ruehl CLM","Keter Aram Tsova","Taamey David CLM","Keter YG","Shofar","David CLM","Hadasim CLM","Simple CLM","Nachlieli",Cardo,Alef,"Noto Serif Hebrew","Noto Sans Hebrew","David Libre",David,"Times New Roman",Gisha,Arial,FreeSerif,FreeSans}</style>לשון־אַשכּנז‎ (loshn-ashknaz, "language of Ashkenaz") or <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095">טײַטש‎ (taytsh), a variant of tiutsch, the contemporary name for <a href="/wiki/Middle_High_German" title="Middle High German">Middle High German</a>. Colloquially, the language is sometimes called <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095">מאַמע־לשון‎ (mame-loshn, lit. "mother tongue"), distinguishing it from <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095">לשון־קודש‎ (<a href="/wiki/Lashon_Hakodesh" title="Lashon Hakodesh">loshn koydesh</a>, "holy tongue"), meaning Hebrew and Aramaic.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> The term "Yiddish", short for Yidish Taitsh ("Jewish German"), did not become the most frequently used designation in the literature until the 18th century. In the late 19th and into the 20th century, the language was more commonly called "Jewish", especially in non-Jewish contexts, but "Yiddish" is again the most common designation today.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-:5-18">[18]</a> Modern Yiddish has <a href="/wiki/Yiddish_dialects" title="Yiddish dialects">two major forms</a>: Eastern and Western. Eastern Yiddish is far more common today. It includes Southeastern (Ukrainian–Romanian), Mideastern (Polish–Galician–Eastern Hungarian) and Northeastern (Lithuanian–Belarusian) dialects. Eastern Yiddish differs from Western both by its far greater size and by the extensive inclusion of words of Slavic origin. Western Yiddish is divided into Southwestern (Swiss–Alsatian–Southern German), Midwestern (Central German), and Northwestern (Netherlandic–Northern German) dialects. Yiddish is used in a number of Haredi Jewish communities worldwide; it is the first language of the home, school, and in many social settings among many Haredi Jews, and is used in most <a href="/wiki/Hasidic_Judaism" title="Hasidic Judaism">Hasidic</a> <a href="/wiki/Yeshiva" title="Yeshiva">yeshivas</a>. The term "Yiddish" is also used in the adjectival sense, synonymously with "Ashkenazi Jewish", to designate attributes of <a href="/wiki/Yiddishkeit" title="Yiddishkeit">Yiddishkeit</a> ("Ashkenazi culture"; for example, <a href="/wiki/Jewish_cuisine#Jewish_cuisine_variations" title="Jewish cuisine">Yiddish cooking</a> and "Yiddish music" – <a href="/wiki/Klezmer" title="Klezmer">klezmer</a>).<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="background:lavender;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Jewish_culture" title="Jewish culture">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:lavender;"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_culture" title="Jewish culture">Jewish culture</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Mordecai_and_Esther.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Mordecai_and_Esther.jpg/260px-Mordecai_and_Esther.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="112" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Mordecai_and_Esther.jpg/390px-Mordecai_and_Esther.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Mordecai_and_Esther.jpg/520px-Mordecai_and_Esther.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2362" data-file-height="1021" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:lavender;;background:lavender;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_languages" title="Jewish languages">Languages</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew" title="Modern Hebrew">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Hebrew" title="Ashkenazi Hebrew">Ashkenazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sephardi_Hebrew" title="Sephardi Hebrew">Sephardi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_Hebrew" title="Mizrahi Hebrew">Mizrahi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemenite_Hebrew" title="Yemenite Hebrew">Yemenite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiberian_Hebrew" title="Tiberian Hebrew">Tiberian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Hebrew" title="Medieval Hebrew">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mishnaic_Hebrew" title="Mishnaic Hebrew">Mishnaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew" title="Biblical Hebrew">Biblical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaritan_Hebrew" title="Samaritan Hebrew">Samaritan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_vocalization" title="Babylonian vocalization">Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_vocalization" title="Palestinian vocalization">Palestinian</a></li></ul> <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Aramaic_languages" title="Judeo-Aramaic languages">Judeo-Aramaic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hulaul%C3%A1_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Hulaulá language">Hulaulá</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lishana_Deni" class="mw-redirect" title="Lishana Deni">Lishana Deni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lish%C3%A1n_Did%C3%A1n" class="mw-redirect" title="Lishán Didán">Lishán Didán</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barzani_Jewish_Neo-Aramaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Barzani Jewish Neo-Aramaic">Barzani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Betanure_Jewish_Neo-Aramaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Betanure Jewish Neo-Aramaic">Betanure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lishanid_Noshan" class="mw-redirect" title="Lishanid Noshan">Lishanid Noshan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Targum_(Aramaic_dialects)" title="Targum (Aramaic dialects)">Targum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Aramaic" title="Biblical Aramaic">Biblical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Babylonian_Aramaic" title="Jewish Babylonian Aramaic">Talmudic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Palestinian_Aramaic" title="Jewish Palestinian Aramaic">Palestinian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Galilean_dialect" title="Galilean dialect">Galilean</a></li></ul></li></ul> <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Arabic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Arabic languages">Judeo-Arabic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Iraqi_Arabic" title="Judeo-Iraqi Arabic">Yahudic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baghdad_Jewish_Arabic" title="Baghdad Jewish Arabic">Judeo-Baghdadi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Moroccan_Arabic" title="Judeo-Moroccan Arabic">Judeo-Moroccan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tripolitanian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tripolitanian Arabic">Judeo-Tripolitanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tunisian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tunisian Arabic">Djerbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Yemeni_Arabic" title="Judeo-Yemeni Arabic">Yemenite</a></li></ul> Other <a href="/wiki/List_of_Jewish_diaspora_languages" title="List of Jewish diaspora languages">Jewish diaspora languages</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Yiddish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Spanish" title="Judaeo-Spanish">Ladino</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haketia" title="Haketia">Haketia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetuani_Ladino" title="Tetuani Ladino">Tetuani</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yevanic" class="mw-redirect" title="Yevanic">Yevanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catalanic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Catalanic language">Catalanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italkian" class="mw-redirect" title="Italkian">Italkian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Piedmontese" title="Judaeo-Piedmontese">Piedmontese</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knaanic_language" title="Knaanic language">Knaanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Georgian" title="Judaeo-Georgian">Gruzinic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karaim_language" title="Karaim language">Karaim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzhidi" class="mw-redirect" title="Dzhidi">Dzhidi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bukhori" class="mw-redirect" title="Bukhori">Bukhori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tat" title="Judeo-Tat">Juhuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zarphatic_language" title="Zarphatic language">Zarphatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Golpaygani_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Golpaygani language">Golpaygani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Shirazi" title="Judeo-Shirazi">Shirazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Hamedani_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Hamedani dialect">Hamedani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shuadit" class="mw-redirect" title="Shuadit">Shuadit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Marathi" title="Judeo-Marathi">Judeo-Marathi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Berber" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Berber">Judeo-Berber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Malayalam" title="Judeo-Malayalam">Judeo-Malayalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krymchak_language" title="Krymchak language">Krymchak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Koine_Greek" title="Jewish Koine Greek">Koiné Greek</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:lavender;;background:lavender;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_mythology" title="Jewish mythology">Mythology</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baal" title="Baal">Baal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/El_(deity)" title="El (deity)">El</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genesis_1" class="mw-redirect" title="Genesis 1">Genesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_and_Eve" title="Adam and Eve">Adam and Eve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lilith" title="Lilith">Lilith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garden_of_Eden" title="Garden of Eden">Garden of Eden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tree_of_life_(biblical)" title="Tree of life (biblical)">Tree of Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forbidden_fruit" title="Forbidden fruit">Forbidden Fruit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patriarchs_(Bible)" title="Patriarchs (Bible)">Patriarchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham" title="Abraham">Abraham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Promised_Land" title="Promised Land">Promised Land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gog_and_Magog" title="Gog and Magog">Gog and Magog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nimrod" title="Nimrod">Nimrod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tower_of_Babel" title="Tower of Babel">Tower of Babel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sodom_and_Gomorrah" title="Sodom and Gomorrah">Sodom and Gomorrah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noah%27s_Ark" title="Noah's Ark">Noah's Ark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cain_and_Abel" title="Cain and Abel">Cain and Abel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moses" title="Moses">Moses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burning_bush" title="Burning bush">Burning bush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ten_Plagues" class="mw-redirect" title="Ten Plagues">Ten Plagues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crossing_the_Red_Sea" title="Crossing the Red Sea">Crossing the Red Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Exodus" title="The Exodus">The Exodus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Mount_Sinai" class="mw-redirect" title="Biblical Mount Sinai">Mount Sinai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_calf" title="Golden calf">Golden calf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ten_Commandments" title="Ten Commandments">Ten Commandments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tabernacle" title="Tabernacle">Tabernacle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Canaan" class="mw-redirect" title="Conquest of Canaan">Conquest of Canaan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yahweh" title="Yahweh">Yahweh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moloch" title="Moloch">Moloch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gehenna" title="Gehenna">Gehenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gathering_of_Israel" title="Gathering of Israel">Gathering of Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_(biblical_figure)" title="Daniel (biblical figure)">Daniel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gideon" title="Gideon">Gideon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saul" title="Saul">Saul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_and_Goliath" class="mw-redirect" title="David and Goliath">David and Goliath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solomon" title="Solomon">Solomon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samson" title="Samson">Samson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esther" title="Esther">Esther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haman" title="Haman">Haman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mordecai" title="Mordecai">Mordecai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Job_(biblical_figure)" title="Job (biblical figure)">Job</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satan" title="Satan">Satan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ezra" title="Ezra">Ezra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruth_(biblical_figure)" title="Ruth (biblical figure)">Ruth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azrael" title="Azrael">Azrael</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_(archangel)" title="Michael (archangel)">Michael</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel" title="Gabriel">Gabriel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dobiel" title="Dobiel">Dobiel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ouza" class="mw-redirect" title="Ouza">Ouza</a></li></ul> <a href="/wiki/Jewish_folklore" title="Jewish folklore">Jewish folklore</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dybbuk" title="Dybbuk">Dybbuk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golem" title="Golem">Golem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behemoth" title="Behemoth">Behemoth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leviathan" title="Leviathan">Leviathan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shedim" title="Shedim">Shedim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tannin_(monster)" title="Tannin (monster)">Tannin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rahab_(Egypt)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rahab (Egypt)">Rahab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bagdana_(Judaism)" title="Bagdana (Judaism)">Bagdana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estries" title="Estries">Estries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belial" title="Belial">Belial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samael" title="Samael">Samael</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Re%27em" title="Re'em">Re'em</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baal_Berith" title="Baal Berith">Baal Berith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lilin" title="Lilin">Lilin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bar_Juchne" title="Bar Juchne">Bar Juchne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ziz" title="Ziz">Ziz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naamah_(demon)" title="Naamah (demon)">Naamah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mazzikin" title="Mazzikin">Mazzikin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arariel" title="Arariel">Arariel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Se%27irim" title="Se'irim">Se'irim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dumah_(angel)" title="Dumah (angel)">Dumah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armilus" title="Armilus">Armilus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Broxa" title="Broxa">Broxa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elioud" title="Elioud">Elioud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alukah" title="Alukah">Alukah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rephaite" title="Rephaite">Rephaite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pardes_(legend)" title="Pardes (legend)">Pardes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yossele_the_Holy_Miser" title="Yossele the Holy Miser">Yossele</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valley_of_the_ants" title="Valley of the ants">Valley of the ants</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:lavender;;background:lavender;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_literature" title="Jewish literature">Literature</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Biblical literature">Biblical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_literature" title="Hebrew literature">Hebrew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_American_literature" title="Jewish American literature">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Spanish#Literature" title="Judaeo-Spanish">Ladino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tat_literature" title="Judeo-Tat literature">Judeo-Tat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish_literature" title="Yiddish literature">Yiddish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_English_Jewish_literature" title="Early English Jewish literature">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemenite_Jews#Yemenite_Jewish_literature" title="Yemenite Jews">Yemenite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Musar_literature" title="Musar literature">Musar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_literature" title="Rabbinic literature">Rabbinic</a></li></ul> <a href="/wiki/Jewish_literature#Poetry" title="Jewish literature">Jewish poetry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_poetry" title="Biblical poetry">Biblical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piyyut" title="Piyyut">Piyyutim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_poetry_from_Al-Andalus" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish poetry from Al-Andalus">Al-Andalus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemenite_Jewish_poetry" title="Yemenite Jewish poetry">Yemenite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_and_Jewish_epic_poetry" title="Hebrew and Jewish epic poetry">Epic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_literature#Poetry" title="Jewish literature">Medieval Hebrew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew_poetry" title="Modern Hebrew poetry">Modern Hebrew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Holocaust literature">Holocaust</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:lavender;;background:lavender;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Philosophy</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haskalah" title="Haskalah">Haskalah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Jewish_philosophers" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Jewish philosophers">Philosophers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Strauss" title="Leo Strauss">Strauss</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:lavender;;background:lavender;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_music" title="Jewish music">Music</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Secular_Jewish_music" title="Secular Jewish music">Secular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_Jewish_music" title="Religious Jewish music">Religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_music" title="Mizrahi music">Mizrahi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sephardic_music" title="Sephardic music">Sephardic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Klezmer" title="Klezmer">Klezmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niggun" class="mw-redirect" title="Niggun">Niggun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zemirot" title="Zemirot">Zemirot</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:lavender;;background:lavender;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_art" title="Jewish art">Art</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Jewish_art" title="Ancient Jewish art">Ancient Jewish art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish_theatre" title="Yiddish theatre">Yiddish theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tat_theatre" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Tat theatre">Judeo-Tat theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_dance" title="Jewish dance">Jewish dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_humor" title="Jewish humor">Humour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_Jews_associated_with_the_visual_arts" title="Lists of Jews associated with the visual arts">List of Jews in the visual arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Jewish_film_directors" title="List of Jewish film directors">List of Jewish film directors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_in_American_cinema" title="Jews in American cinema">Jews in American cinema</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:lavender;;background:lavender;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_culture#Science_and_technology" title="Jewish culture">Science</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_medicine" title="Jewish medicine">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_astronomy" title="Hebrew astronomy">Astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_cosmology" title="Biblical cosmology">Biblical cosmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Jewish_mathematicians" title="List of Jewish mathematicians">Mathematicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Jewish_scientists_and_philosophers" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Jewish scientists and philosophers">Scientists</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:lavender;;background:lavender;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sport" title="Sport">Sport</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Jews_in_sports" title="List of Jews in sports">List of Jews in sports</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jews_in_association_football" title="Jews in association football">Association football</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_in_baseball" title="Jews in baseball">Baseball</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Jewish_Sports_Hall_of_Fame" title="International Jewish Sports Hall of Fame">Jewish Sports Hall of Fame</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maccabiah_Games" title="Maccabiah Games">Maccabiah Games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Observance_of_Yom_Kippur_by_Jewish_athletes" title="Observance of Yom Kippur by Jewish athletes">Jewish athletes and Yom Kippur</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:lavender;;background:lavender;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_cuisine" title="Jewish cuisine">Cuisine</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Israelite_cuisine" title="Ancient Israelite cuisine">Ancient Israelite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuisine_of_the_Sephardic_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Cuisine of the Sephardic Jews">Sephardi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuisine_of_the_Mizrahi_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Cuisine of the Mizrahi Jews">Mizrahi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_cuisine" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashkenazi cuisine">Ashkenazi</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:lavender;;background:lavender;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Other aspects</li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_symbolism" title="Jewish symbolism">Symbolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_religious_clothing" title="Jewish religious clothing">Clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synagogue_architecture" title="Synagogue architecture">Architecture</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Judaism" title="Portal:Judaism">Portal:Judaism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Jewish_culture" title="Category:Jewish culture">Category:Jewish culture</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Jewish_culture" title="Template:Jewish culture"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Jewish_culture" title="Template talk:Jewish culture"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Jewish_culture" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Jewish culture"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Yiddish&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Origins">Origins</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Yiddish&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Origins">edit</a>]</div> By the 10th century, a distinctive Jewish culture had formed in Central Europe.<a href="#cite_note-kriwaczek-22">[22]</a>: <span title="Page / location: 151
Quotation: "As early evidence for Jewish presence in Germany mentions that Abraham ben Jacob (fl. 961) states that there were "Jews operating a salt mine in Halle in Germany" in his day."" class="tooltip tooltip-dashed" style="border-bottom: 1px dashed;">151  By the <a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">high medieval period</a>, their area of settlement, centered on the <a href="/wiki/Rhineland" title="Rhineland">Rhineland</a> (<a href="/wiki/Mainz" title="Mainz">Mainz</a>) and the <a href="/wiki/Palatinate_(region)" title="Palatinate (region)">Palatinate</a> (notably <a href="/wiki/Worms,_Germany" title="Worms, Germany">Worms</a> and <a href="/wiki/Speyer" title="Speyer">Speyer</a>), came to be known as <a href="/wiki/Ashkenaz" title="Ashkenaz">Ashkenaz</a>,<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> originally a term used of <a href="/wiki/Scythia" title="Scythia">Scythia</a>, and later of various areas of Eastern Europe and Anatolia. In the <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Hebrew" title="Medieval Hebrew">medieval Hebrew</a> of <a href="/wiki/Rashi" title="Rashi">Rashi</a> (d. 1105), Ashkenaz becomes a term for Germany, and אשכּנזי <a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashkenazi">Ashkenazi</a> for the Jews settling in this area.<a href="#cite_note-kriwaczek-22">[22]</a>: Chapter 3, endnote 9 [<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">need quotation to verify</a>]<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> Ashkenaz bordered on the area inhabited by another distinctive Jewish cultural group, the <a href="/wiki/Sephardi_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Sephardi Jews">Sephardi Jews</a>, who ranged into <a href="/wiki/Southern_France" title="Southern France">southern France</a>. Ashkenazi culture later spread into Eastern Europe with large-scale population migrations.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> Nothing is known with certainty about the vernacular of the earliest Jews in Germany, but several theories have been put forward. As noted above, the first language of the Ashkenazim may have been <a href="/wiki/Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Aramaic</a>, the vernacular of the Jews in <a href="/wiki/Judaea_(Roman_province)" title="Judaea (Roman province)">Roman-era Judea</a> and ancient and early medieval <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>. The widespread use of Aramaic among the large non-Jewish <a href="/wiki/Syrians" title="Syrians">Syrian</a> trading population of the Roman provinces, including those in Europe, would have reinforced the use of Aramaic among Jews engaged in trade. In Roman times, many of the Jews living in <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a> and <a href="/wiki/Southern_Italy" title="Southern Italy">Southern Italy</a> appear to have been <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a>-speakers, and this is reflected in some Ashkenazi personal names (e.g., Kalonymos and Yiddish Todres). Hebrew, on the other hand, was regarded as a holy language reserved for ritual and spiritual purposes and not for common use. The established view is that, as with other <a href="/wiki/Jewish_languages" title="Jewish languages">Jewish languages</a>, Jews speaking distinct languages learned new co-territorial vernaculars, which they then Judaized. In the case of Yiddish, this scenario sees it as emerging when speakers of <a href="/wiki/Zarphatic_language" title="Zarphatic language">Zarphatic</a> (Judeo-French) and other Judeo-Romance languages began to acquire varieties of <a href="/wiki/Middle_High_German" title="Middle High German">Middle High German</a>, and from these groups the Ashkenazi community took shape.<a href="#cite_note-ELL-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-Spolsky-27">[27]</a> Exactly what German substrate underlies the earliest form of Yiddish is disputed. The Jewish community in the Rhineland would have encountered the <a href="/wiki/Middle_High_German" title="Middle High German">Middle High German</a> dialects from which the <a href="/wiki/Rhenish_Franconian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhenish Franconian languages">Rhenish German</a> dialects of the modern period would emerge. Jewish communities of the high medieval period would have been speaking their own versions of these German dialects, mixed with linguistic elements that they themselves brought into the region, including many Hebrew and Aramaic words, but there is also Romance.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Max_Weinreich" title="Max Weinreich">Max Weinreich</a>'s model, Jewish speakers of <a href="/wiki/Old_French" title="Old French">Old French</a> or <a href="/wiki/Old_Italian" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Italian">Old Italian</a> who were literate in either liturgical <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a> or <a href="/wiki/Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Aramaic</a>, or both, migrated through Southern Europe to settle in the <a href="/wiki/Rhine_Valley" title="Rhine Valley">Rhine Valley</a> in an area known as <a href="/wiki/Lotharingia" title="Lotharingia">Lotharingia</a> (later known in Yiddish as Loter) extending over parts of Germany and France.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> There, they encountered and were influenced by Jewish speakers of <a href="/wiki/High_German_languages" title="High German languages">High German languages</a> and several other German dialects. Both Weinreich and <a href="/wiki/Solomon_Birnbaum" title="Solomon Birnbaum">Solomon Birnbaum</a> developed this model further in the mid-1950s.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> In Weinreich's view, this Old Yiddish substrate later bifurcated into two distinct versions of the language, Western and Eastern Yiddish.<a href="#cite_note-Fleischer-31">[31]</a> They retained the Semitic vocabulary and constructions needed for religious purposes and created a Judeo-German form of speech, sometimes not accepted as a fully autonomous language. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1224211176">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{text-align:center;font-size:110%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:246px; ; color: #202122;background-color: #c6dbf7;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> Yiddish was a rich, living language, the chattering tongue of an urban population. It had the limitations of its origins. There were few Yiddish words for animals and birds. It had virtually no military vocabulary. Such voids were filled by borrowing from <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polish_language" title="Polish language">Polish</a> and <a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a>. Yiddish was particularly good at borrowing: from <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a>, from <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a>, from <a href="/wiki/Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Aramaic</a> and from anything with which it intersected. On the other hand, it <a href="/wiki/Yiddishisms" class="mw-redirect" title="Yiddishisms">contributed</a> to <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> – <a href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">American</a>. [sic] Its chief virtue lay in its internal subtlety, particularly in its characterization of human types and emotions. It was the language of street wisdom, of the clever underdog, of pathos, resignation and suffering, all of which it palliated by humor, intense irony and superstition. <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Bashevis_Singer" title="Isaac Bashevis Singer">Isaac Bashevis Singer</a>, its greatest practitioner, pointed out that it is the only language never spoken by men in power. </blockquote> <cite class="left-aligned" style="">– <a href="/wiki/Paul_Johnson_(writer)" title="Paul Johnson (writer)">Paul Johnson</a>, A History of the Jews (1988)<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a></cite> </div> Later linguistic research has refined the Weinreich model or provided alternative approaches to the language's origins, with points of contention being the characterization of its Germanic base, the source of its Hebrew/Aramaic <a href="/wiki/Stratum_(linguistics)" title="Stratum (linguistics)">adstrata</a>, and the means and location of this fusion. Some theorists argue that the fusion occurred with a Bavarian dialect base.<a href="#cite_note-Spolsky-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-jacobs2005-11">[11]</a>: 9–15  The two main candidates for the germinal matrix of Yiddish, the Rhineland and Bavaria, are not necessarily incompatible. There may have been parallel developments in the two regions, seeding the Western and Eastern dialects of Modern Yiddish. <a href="/wiki/Dovid_Katz" title="Dovid Katz">Dovid Katz</a> proposes that Yiddish emerged from contact between speakers of High German and Aramaic-speaking Jews from the Middle East.<a href="#cite_note-yivoyiddish-15">[15]</a> The lines of development proposed by the different theories do not necessarily rule out the others (at least not entirely); an article in <a href="/wiki/The_Forward" title="The Forward">The Forward</a> argues that "in the end, a new 'standard theory' of Yiddish's origins will probably be based on the work of Weinreich and his challengers alike."<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> <a href="/wiki/Paul_Wexler_(linguist)" title="Paul Wexler (linguist)">Paul Wexler</a> proposed a model in 1991 that took Yiddish, by which he means primarily eastern Yiddish,<a href="#cite_note-Fleischer-31">[31]</a> not to be genetically grounded in a Germanic language at all, but rather as "<a href="/wiki/Judeo-Sorbian" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Sorbian">Judeo-Sorbian</a>" (a proposed <a href="/wiki/West_Slavic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="West Slavic language">West Slavic language</a>) that had been <a href="/wiki/Relexification" title="Relexification">relexified</a> by High German.<a href="#cite_note-Spolsky-27">[27]</a> In more recent work, Wexler has argued that Eastern Yiddish is unrelated genetically to Western Yiddish. Wexler's model has been met with little academic support, and strong critical challenges, especially among historical linguists.<a href="#cite_note-Spolsky-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-Fleischer-31">[31]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Written_evidence">Written evidence</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Yiddish&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Written evidence">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Machzor.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Machzor.jpg/300px-Machzor.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Machzor.jpg/450px-Machzor.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Machzor.jpg/600px-Machzor.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1146" data-file-height="456" /></a><figcaption>The calligraphic segment in the Worms Machzor. The Yiddish text is in red.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:S%C3%BCd-West-Jiddische_Lebensbeschreibung.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/S%C3%BCd-West-Jiddische_Lebensbeschreibung.jpg/220px-S%C3%BCd-West-Jiddische_Lebensbeschreibung.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="348" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/S%C3%BCd-West-Jiddische_Lebensbeschreibung.jpg/330px-S%C3%BCd-West-Jiddische_Lebensbeschreibung.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/S%C3%BCd-West-Jiddische_Lebensbeschreibung.jpg/440px-S%C3%BCd-West-Jiddische_Lebensbeschreibung.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2016" data-file-height="3185" /></a><figcaption>The South-West Yiddish account of the life of Seligmann Brunschwig von <a href="/wiki/Durmenach" title="Durmenach">Dürmenach</a> describes, among other things, the anti-Semitic events of the <a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848" title="Revolutions of 1848">revolutionary year 1848</a>. In the collection of the <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Museum_of_Switzerland" title="Jewish Museum of Switzerland">Jewish Museum of Switzerland</a>. </figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Yiddish_orthography" title="Yiddish orthography">Yiddish orthography</a> developed towards the end of the high medieval period. It is first recorded in 1272, with the oldest surviving literary document in Yiddish, a blessing found in the Worms <a href="/wiki/Machzor" title="Machzor">machzor</a> (a Hebrew prayer book).<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-baumgarten-12">[12]</a> <table class="wikitable plainrowheaders"> <caption>A Yiddish phrase transliterated and translated </caption> <tbody><tr> <th scope="row">Yiddish </th> <td>גוּט טַק אִים בְּטַגְֿא שְ וַיר דִּיש מַחֲזוֹר אִין בֵּיתֿ הַכְּנֶסֶתֿ טְרַגְֿא </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Transliterated </th> <td>gut tak im betage se vaer dis makhazor in beis hakneses trage </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Translated </th> <td>May a good day come to him who carries this prayer book into the synagogue. </td></tr></tbody></table> This brief rhyme is decoratively embedded in an otherwise purely Hebrew text.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> Nonetheless, it indicates that the Yiddish of that day was a more or less regular Middle High German written in the Hebrew alphabet into which Hebrew words – מַחֲזוֹר, <a href="/wiki/Machzor" title="Machzor">makhazor</a> (prayerbook for the <a href="/wiki/High_Holy_Days" title="High Holy Days">High Holy Days</a>) and בֵּיתֿ הַכְּנֶסֶתֿ, 'synagogue' (read in Yiddish as beis hakneses) – had been included. The <a href="/wiki/Niqqud" title="Niqqud">niqqud</a> appears as though it might have been added by a second scribe, in which case it may need to be dated separately and may not be indicative of the pronunciation of the rhyme at the time of its initial annotation. Over the course of the 14th and 15th centuries, songs and poems in Yiddish, and <a href="/wiki/Macaronic_language" title="Macaronic language">macaronic</a> pieces in Hebrew and German, began to appear. These were collected in the late 15th century by Menahem ben Naphtali Oldendorf.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> During the same period, a tradition seems to have emerged of the Jewish community's adapting its own versions of German secular literature. The earliest Yiddish epic poem of this sort is the <a href="/wiki/Dukus_Horant" title="Dukus Horant">Dukus Horant</a>, which survives in the famous Cambridge Codex T.-S.10.K.22. This 14th-century manuscript was discovered in the <a href="/wiki/Cairo_Geniza" title="Cairo Geniza">Cairo Geniza</a> in 1896, and also contains a collection of narrative poems on themes from the <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Bible" title="Hebrew Bible">Hebrew Bible</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Haggadah" title="Haggadah">Haggadah</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Printing">Printing</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Yiddish&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Printing">edit</a>]</div> The advent of the <a href="/wiki/Printing_press" title="Printing press">printing press</a> in the 16th century enabled the large-scale production of works, at a cheaper cost, some of which have survived. One particularly popular work was <a href="/wiki/Elia_Levita" title="Elia Levita">Elia Levita</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Bovo-Bukh" title="Bovo-Bukh">Bovo-Bukh</a> (בָּבָֿא-בּוך), composed around 1507–08 and printed several times, beginning in 1541 (under the title Bovo d'Antona). Levita, the earliest named Yiddish author, may also have written פּאַריז און װיענע Pariz un Viene (Paris and <a href="/wiki/Vienna" title="Vienna">Vienna</a>). Another Yiddish retelling of a chivalric romance, װידװילט Vidvilt (often referred to as "Widuwilt" by Germanizing scholars), presumably also dates from the 15th century, although the manuscripts are from the 16th. It is also known as Kinig Artus Hof, an adaptation of the Middle High German romance Wigalois by <a href="/wiki/Wirnt_von_Grafenberg" title="Wirnt von Grafenberg">Wirnt von Grafenberg</a>.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> Another significant writer is Avroham ben Schemuel Pikartei, who published a paraphrase on the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Job" title="Book of Job">Book of Job</a> in 1557. Women in the Ashkenazi community were traditionally not literate in Hebrew but did read and write Yiddish. A body of literature therefore developed for which women were a primary audience. This included secular works, such as the Bovo-Bukh, and religious writing specifically for women, such as the צאנה וראינה <a href="/wiki/Tseno_Ureno" class="mw-redirect" title="Tseno Ureno">Tseno Ureno</a> and the תחנות <a href="/wiki/Tkhine" title="Tkhine">Tkhines</a>. One of the best-known early woman authors was <a href="/wiki/Gl%C3%BCckel_of_Hameln" title="Glückel of Hameln">Glückel of Hameln</a>, whose memoirs are still in print. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Page_from_Yiddish-Hebrew-Latin-German_dictionary_by_Elijah_Levita.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Page_from_Yiddish-Hebrew-Latin-German_dictionary_by_Elijah_Levita.jpg/220px-Page_from_Yiddish-Hebrew-Latin-German_dictionary_by_Elijah_Levita.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="317" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Page_from_Yiddish-Hebrew-Latin-German_dictionary_by_Elijah_Levita.jpg/330px-Page_from_Yiddish-Hebrew-Latin-German_dictionary_by_Elijah_Levita.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cd/Page_from_Yiddish-Hebrew-Latin-German_dictionary_by_Elijah_Levita.jpg 2x" data-file-width="432" data-file-height="622" /></a><figcaption>A page from the Shemot Devarim (<abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr> 'Names of Things'), a Yiddish–Hebrew–Latin–German dictionary and thesaurus, published by Elia Levita in 1542</figcaption></figure> The segmentation of the Yiddish readership, between women who read מאַמע־לשון mame-loshn but not לשון־קדש loshn-koydesh, and men who read both, was significant enough that distinctive <a href="/wiki/Typeface" title="Typeface">typefaces</a> were used for each. The name commonly given to the semicursive form used exclusively for Yiddish was ווײַבערטײַטש (<a href="/wiki/Vaybertaytsh" title="Vaybertaytsh">vaybertaytsh</a>, 'women's taytsh', shown in the heading and fourth column in the <a href="/wiki/Shemot_Devarim" title="Shemot Devarim">Shemot Devarim</a>), with square Hebrew letters (shown in the third column) being reserved for text in that language and Aramaic. This distinction was retained in general typographic practice through to the early 19th century, with Yiddish books being set in vaybertaytsh (also termed מעשייט mesheyt or מאַשקעט mashket—the construction is uncertain).<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> An additional distinctive semicursive typeface was, and still is, used for rabbinical commentary on religious texts when Hebrew and Yiddish appear on the same page. This is commonly termed <a href="/wiki/Rashi_script" title="Rashi script">Rashi script</a>, from the name of the most renowned early author, whose commentary is usually printed using this script. (Rashi is also the typeface normally used when the Sephardic counterpart to Yiddish, <a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Spanish" title="Judaeo-Spanish">Judaeo-Spanish</a> or Ladino, is printed in Hebrew script.) According to a study by the German media association Internationale Medienhilfe (IMH), more than 40 printed Yiddish newspapers and magazines were published worldwide in 2024, and the trend is rising.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Secularization">Secularization</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Yiddish&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Secularization">edit</a>]</div> The Western Yiddish dialect—sometimes pejoratively labeled Mauscheldeutsch,<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> i. e. "Moses German"<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a>—declined in the 18th century, as the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Haskalah" title="Haskalah">Haskalah</a> led to a view of Yiddish as a corrupt dialect. The 19th century Prussian-Jewish historian <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Graetz" title="Heinrich Graetz">Heinrich Graetz</a>, for example, wrote that "the language of the Jews [in Poland] ... degenerat[ed] into a ridiculous jargon, a mixture of German, Polish, and Talmudical elements, an unpleasant stammering, rendered still more repulsive by forced attempts at wit."<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> A <a href="/wiki/Maskil" class="mw-redirect" title="Maskil">Maskil</a> (one who takes part in the Haskalah) would write about and promote acclimatization to the outside world.<a href="#cite_note-:0-44">[44]</a> Jewish children began attending secular schools where the primary language spoken and taught was German, not Yiddish.<a href="#cite_note-:0-44">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1224211176"><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:246px; ; color: #202122;background-color: #c6dbf7;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> Yiddish grates on our ears and distorts. This jargon is incapable in fact of expressing sublime thoughts. It is our obligation to cast off these old rags, a heritage of the dark Middle Ages. </blockquote> <cite class="left-aligned" style="">– <a href="/wiki/Osip_Rabinovich" title="Osip Rabinovich">Osip Aronovich Rabinovich</a>, in an article titled "Russia – Our Native Land: Just as We Breathe Its Air, We Must Speak Its Language" in the <a href="/wiki/Odessa" class="mw-redirect" title="Odessa">Odessan</a> journal Рассвет (dawn), 1861.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a></cite> </div> Owing to both assimilation to German and the <a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew" title="Modern Hebrew">revival of Hebrew</a>, Western Yiddish survived only as a language of "intimate family circles or of closely knit trade groups".<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> In eastern Europe, the response to these forces took the opposite direction, with Yiddish becoming the cohesive force in a <a href="/wiki/Secularity" title="Secularity">secular culture</a> (see the <a href="/wiki/Yiddishist_movement" title="Yiddishist movement">Yiddishist movement</a>). Notable Yiddish writers of the late 19th and early 20th centuries are Sholem Yankev Abramovitch, writing as <a href="/wiki/Mendele_Mocher_Sforim" title="Mendele Mocher Sforim">Mendele Mocher Sforim</a>; Sholem Rabinovitsh, widely known as <a href="/wiki/Sholem_Aleichem" title="Sholem Aleichem">Sholem Aleichem</a>, whose stories about טבֿיה דער מילכיקער (Tevye der milkhiker, "<a href="/wiki/Tevye" title="Tevye">Tevye</a> the Dairyman") inspired the Broadway musical and film <a href="/wiki/Fiddler_on_the_Roof" title="Fiddler on the Roof">Fiddler on the Roof</a>; and <a href="/wiki/I._L._Peretz" title="I. L. Peretz">Isaac Leib Peretz</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="20th_century">20th century</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Yiddish&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: 20th century">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yiddish_WWI_poster2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Yiddish_WWI_poster2.jpg/220px-Yiddish_WWI_poster2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="333" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Yiddish_WWI_poster2.jpg/330px-Yiddish_WWI_poster2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Yiddish_WWI_poster2.jpg/440px-Yiddish_WWI_poster2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2564" data-file-height="3880" /></a><figcaption>American <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>-era poster in Yiddish. Translated caption: "Food will win the war – <a href="/wiki/History_of_immigration_to_the_United_States#New_immigration" title="History of immigration to the United States">You came here seeking freedom</a>, now you must help to preserve it – We must supply the <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_I" title="Allies of World War I">Allies</a> with wheat – Let nothing go to waste". Colour lithograph, 1917. Digitally restored.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:100karbovantsevUNR_R.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/100karbovantsevUNR_R.jpg/220px-100karbovantsevUNR_R.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/100karbovantsevUNR_R.jpg/330px-100karbovantsevUNR_R.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/100karbovantsevUNR_R.jpg/440px-100karbovantsevUNR_R.jpg 2x" data-file-width="983" data-file-height="624" /></a><figcaption>1917. 100 <a href="/wiki/Karbovanets" class="mw-redirect" title="Karbovanets">karbovanets</a> of the Ukrainian People's Republic. Revers. Three languages: <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_language" title="Ukrainian language">Ukrainian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polish_language" title="Polish language">Polish</a> and Yiddish.</figcaption></figure> In the early 20th century, especially after the Socialist <a href="/wiki/October_Revolution" title="October Revolution">October Revolution</a> in Russia, Yiddish was emerging as a major Eastern European language. Its rich literature was more widely published than ever, <a href="/wiki/Yiddish_theatre" title="Yiddish theatre">Yiddish theatre</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yiddish_cinema" title="Yiddish cinema">Yiddish cinema</a> were booming, and for a time it achieved the status of one of the <a href="/wiki/Official_language" title="Official language">official languages</a> of the short-lived <a href="/wiki/Galician_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Galician Soviet Socialist Republic">Galician Soviet Socialist Republic</a>. Educational autonomy for Jews in several countries (notably <a href="/wiki/Poland" title="Poland">Poland</a>) after <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> led to an increase in formal Yiddish-language education, more uniform orthography, and to the 1925 founding of the Yiddish Scientific Institute, <a href="/wiki/YIVO" title="YIVO">YIVO</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Vilnius" title="Vilnius">Vilnius</a>, there was debate over which language should take primacy, Hebrew or Yiddish.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> Yiddish changed significantly during the 20th century. <a href="/wiki/Michael_Wex" title="Michael Wex">Michael Wex</a> writes, "As increasing numbers of Yiddish speakers moved from the Slavic-speaking East to Western Europe and the Americas in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, they were so quick to jettison Slavic vocabulary that the most prominent Yiddish writers of the time—the founders of modern Yiddish literature, who were still living in Slavic-speaking countries—revised the printed editions of their oeuvres to eliminate obsolete and 'unnecessary' Slavisms."<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> The vocabulary used in Israel absorbed many Modern Hebrew words, and there was a similar but smaller increase in the English component of Yiddish in the United States and, to a lesser extent, the United Kingdom.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] This has resulted in some difficulty in communication between Yiddish speakers from Israel and those from other countries. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Phonology">Phonology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Yiddish&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Phonology">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Yiddish_phonology" title="Yiddish phonology">Yiddish phonology</a></div>There is significant <a href="/wiki/Phonology" title="Phonology">phonological</a> variation among the various <a href="/wiki/Yiddish_dialects" title="Yiddish dialects">Yiddish dialects</a>. The description that follows is of a modern Standard Yiddish that was devised during the early 20th century and is frequently encountered in pedagogical contexts. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Consonants">Consonants</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Yiddish&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Consonants">edit</a>]</div> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"> <caption>Yiddish consonants<a href="#cite_note-kleine-50">[50]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2" rowspan="2"> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Labial_consonant" title="Labial consonant">Labial</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_consonant" title="Alveolar consonant">Alveolar</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Postalveolar_consonant" title="Postalveolar consonant">Postalveolar</a> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Palatal_consonant" title="Palatal consonant">Palatal</a> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">Velar</a>/ <a href="/wiki/Uvular_consonant" title="Uvular consonant">Uvular</a> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Glottal_consonant" title="Glottal consonant">Glottal</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th>hard </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics)" title="Palatalization (phonetics)">soft</a> </th> <th>hard </th> <th>soft </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Nasal_consonant" title="Nasal consonant">Nasal</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiced bilabial nasal">m</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar nasal">n</a> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics)" title="Palatalization (phonetics)">nʲ</a>) </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_nasal" title="Voiced velar nasal">ŋ</a>) </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Stop_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Stop consonant">Plosive</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Voicelessness" title="Voicelessness">voiceless</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a> </td> <td> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">ʔ</a>) </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">voiced</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiced bilabial plosive">b</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar plosive">d</a> </td> <td> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Affricate_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Affricate consonant">Affricate</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Voicelessness" title="Voicelessness">voiceless</a> </th> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless alveolar affricate">ts</a> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics)" title="Palatalization (phonetics)">tsʲ</a>) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless postalveolar affricate">tʃ</a> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics)" title="Palatalization (phonetics)">tʃʲ</a>) </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">voiced</a> </th> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_affricate" title="Voiced alveolar affricate">dz</a> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics)" title="Palatalization (phonetics)">dzʲ</a>) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiced postalveolar affricate">dʒ</a> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics)" title="Palatalization (phonetics)">dʒʲ</a>) </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Fricative_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Fricative consonant">Fricative</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Voicelessness" title="Voicelessness">voiceless</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiceless labiodental fricative">f</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics)" title="Palatalization (phonetics)">sʲ</a>) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless postalveolar fricative">ʃ</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_uvular_fricative" title="Voiceless uvular fricative">χ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">voiced</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiced labiodental fricative">v</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiced alveolar fricative">z</a> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics)" title="Palatalization (phonetics)">zʲ</a>) </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/Voiced_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiced postalveolar fricative">ʒ</a>) </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_uvular_fricative" title="Voiced uvular fricative">ʁ</a> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Rhotic_consonant" title="Rhotic consonant">Rhotic</a> </th> <td> </td> <td colspan="6">r </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Approximant_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Approximant consonant">Approximant</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Central_consonant" title="Central consonant">central</a> </th> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_approximant" title="Voiced palatal approximant">j</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Lateral_consonant" title="Lateral consonant">lateral</a> </th> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar lateral approximant">l</a> </td> <td> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_lateral_approximant" title="Voiced palatal lateral approximant">ʎ</a>) </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li>/m, p, b/ are <a href="/wiki/Bilabial_consonant" title="Bilabial consonant">bilabial</a>, whereas /f, v/ are <a href="/wiki/Labiodental_consonant" title="Labiodental consonant">labiodental</a>.<a href="#cite_note-kleine-50">[50]</a></li> <li>The /l – ʎ/ contrast has collapsed in some speakers.<a href="#cite_note-kleine-50">[50]</a></li> <li>The palatalized coronals /nʲ, tsʲ, dzʲ, tʃʲ, dʒʲ, sʲ, zʲ/ appear only in Slavic loanwords.<a href="#cite_note-kleine-50">[50]</a> The phonemic status of these palatalised consonants, as well as any other affricates, is unclear.</li> <li>/k, ɡ/ and [ŋ] are <a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">velar</a>, whereas /j, ʎ/ are <a href="/wiki/Palatal_consonant" title="Palatal consonant">palatal.</a><a href="#cite_note-kleine-50">[50]</a> <ul><li>[ŋ] is an allophone of /n/ after /k, ɡ/, and it can only be syllabic [ŋ̍].<a href="#cite_note-kleine-50">[50]</a></li> <li>[ɣ] is an allophone of /χ/ before /b, d, ɡ, v, z, ʒ/.<a href="#cite_note-katz1987-51">[51]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>]</li></ul></li> <li>The phonetic realization of /χ/ and /nʲ/ is unclear: <ul><li>In the case of /χ/,<a href="#cite_note-kleine-50">[50]</a> puts it in the "velar" column, but consistently uses a symbol denoting a voiceless uvular fricative ⟨χ⟩ to transcribe it. It is thus safe to assume that /χ/ is phonetically uvular [<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_uvular_fricative" title="Voiceless uvular fricative">χ</a>].</li> <li>In the case of /nʲ/,<a href="#cite_note-kleine-50">[50]</a> puts it in the "palatalized" column. This can mean that it is either palatalized alveolar [nʲ] or alveolo-palatal [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolo-palatal_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolo-palatal nasal">ɲ̟</a>]. /ʎ/ may actually also be alveolo-palatal [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolo-palatal_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolo-palatal lateral approximant">ʎ̟</a>], rather than just palatal.</li></ul></li> <li>The rhotic /r/ can be either alveolar or uvular, either a trill [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_trill" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar trill">r</a> ~ <a href="/wiki/Voiced_uvular_trill" title="Voiced uvular trill">ʀ</a>] or, more commonly, a flap/tap [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_and_alveolar_taps_and_flaps" title="Voiced dental and alveolar taps and flaps">ɾ</a> ~ <a href="/wiki/Voiced_uvular_tap_and_flap" title="Voiced uvular tap and flap">ʀ̆</a>].<a href="#cite_note-kleine-50">[50]</a></li> <li>The glottal stop [ʔ] appears only as an intervocalic separator.<a href="#cite_note-kleine-50">[50]</a></li></ul> As in the <a href="/wiki/Slavic_languages" title="Slavic languages">Slavic languages</a> with which Yiddish was long in <a href="/wiki/Language_contact" title="Language contact">contact</a> (Russian, <a href="/wiki/Belarusian_language" title="Belarusian language">Belarusian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polish_language" title="Polish language">Polish</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_language" title="Ukrainian language">Ukrainian</a>), but unlike German, <a href="/wiki/Voiceless_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless consonant">voiceless</a> stops have little to no <a href="/wiki/Aspiration_(phonetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Aspiration (phonetics)">aspiration</a>; unlike many such languages, voiced stops are not devoiced in final position.<a href="#cite_note-kleine-50">[50]</a> Moreover, Yiddish has regressive <a href="/wiki/Phonation" title="Phonation">voicing</a> <a href="/wiki/Assimilation_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Assimilation (linguistics)">assimilation</a>, so that, for example, זאָגט /zɔɡt/ ('says') is pronounced [zɔkt] and הקדמה /hakˈdɔmɜ/ ('foreword') is pronounced [haɡˈdɔmɜ]. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vowels">Vowels</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Yiddish&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Vowels">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Vowel" title="Vowel">vowel</a> phonemes of Standard Yiddish are: <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Yiddish <a href="/wiki/Monophthong" title="Monophthong">monophthongs</a><a href="#cite_note-kleine-50">[50]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Front_vowel" title="Front vowel">Front</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Central_vowel" title="Central vowel">Central</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Back_vowel" title="Back vowel">Back</a> </th></tr> <tr align="center"> <th><a href="/wiki/Close_vowel" title="Close vowel">Close</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Near-close_near-front_unrounded_vowel" title="Near-close near-front unrounded vowel">ɪ</a> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Near-close_near-back_rounded_vowel" title="Near-close near-back rounded vowel">ʊ</a> </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_vowel" title="Open-mid vowel">Open-mid</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open-mid front unrounded vowel">ɛ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_central_unrounded_vowel" title="Open-mid central unrounded vowel">ɜ</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Open-mid back rounded vowel">ɔ</a> </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th><a href="/wiki/Open_vowel" title="Open vowel">Open</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open front unrounded vowel">a</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li>/ɪ, ʊ/ are typically <a href="/wiki/Near-close_vowel" title="Near-close vowel">near-close</a> [<a href="/wiki/Near-close_near-front_unrounded_vowel" title="Near-close near-front unrounded vowel">ɪ</a>, <a href="/wiki/Near-close_near-back_rounded_vowel" title="Near-close near-back rounded vowel">ʊ</a>] respectively, but the height of /ɪ/ may vary freely between a higher and lower allophone.<a href="#cite_note-kleine-50">[50]</a></li> <li>/ɜ/ appears only in <a href="/wiki/Stress_(linguistics)" title="Stress (linguistics)">unstressed</a> syllables.<a href="#cite_note-kleine-50">[50]</a></li></ul> <table class="wikitable"> <caption><a href="/wiki/Diphthong" title="Diphthong">Diphthongs</a><a href="#cite_note-kleine-50">[50]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Front <a href="/wiki/Syllable#Nucleus" title="Syllable">nucleus</a> </th> <th>Central nucleus </th> <th>Back nucleus </th></tr> <tr> <td align="center">ɛɪ </td> <td align="center">aɪ </td> <td align="center">ɔɪ </td></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li>The last two diphthongs may be realized as [aɛ] and [ɔɜ], respectively.<a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-the-international-phonetic-association/article/standard-yiddish/981F08583A3410BA1D43264975016C2D">[3]</a></li></ul> In addition, the <a href="/wiki/Sonorant" title="Sonorant">sonorants</a> /l/ and /n/ can function as <a href="/wiki/Syllable#Nucleus" title="Syllable">syllable nuclei</a>: <ul><li>אײזל /ˈɛɪzl̩/ 'donkey'</li> <li>אָװנט /ˈɔvn̩t/ 'evening'</li></ul> [m] and [ŋ] appear as syllable nuclei as well, but only as allophones of /n/, after bilabial consonants and <a href="/wiki/Dorsal_consonant" title="Dorsal consonant">dorsal consonants</a>, respectively. The syllabic sonorants are always unstressed. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dialectal_variation">Dialectal variation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Yiddish&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Dialectal variation">edit</a>]</div> Stressed vowels in the <a href="/wiki/Yiddish_dialects" title="Yiddish dialects">Yiddish dialects</a> may be understood by considering their common origins in the Proto-Yiddish sound system. Yiddish linguistic scholarship uses a system developed by <a href="/wiki/Max_Weinreich" title="Max Weinreich">Max Weinreich</a> in 1960 to indicate the descendent <a href="/wiki/Diaphoneme" title="Diaphoneme">diaphonemes</a> of the Proto-Yiddish stressed vowels.<a href="#cite_note-jacobs2005-11">[11]</a>: 28  Each Proto-Yiddish vowel is given a unique two-digit identifier, and its reflexes use it as a subscript, for example Southeastern o11 is the vowel /o/, descended from Proto-Yiddish */a/.<a href="#cite_note-jacobs2005-11">[11]</a>: 28  The first digit indicates Proto-Yiddish quality (1-=*[a], 2-=*[e], 3-=*[i], 4-=*[o], 5-=*[u]), and the second refers to quantity or diphthongization (−1=short, −2=long, −3=short but lengthened early in the history of Yiddish, −4=diphthong, −5=special length occurring only in Proto-Yiddish vowel 25).<a href="#cite_note-jacobs2005-11">[11]</a>: 28  Vowels 23, 33, 43 and 53 have the same reflexes as 22, 32, 42 and 52 in all Yiddish dialects, but they developed distinct values in <a href="/wiki/Middle_High_German" title="Middle High German">Middle High German</a>; Katz (1987) argues that they should be collapsed with the −2 series, leaving only 13 in the −3 series.<a href="#cite_note-katz1987-51">[51]</a>: 17  <table> <caption>Genetic sources of Yiddish dialect vowels<a href="#cite_note-katz1987-51">[51]</a>: 25  </caption> <tbody><tr> <td> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Netherlandic </caption> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Front_vowel" title="Front vowel">Front</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Back_vowel" title="Back vowel">Back</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Close_vowel" title="Close vowel">Close</a> </th> <td align="center">i31 iː32 </td> <td align="center">u52 </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_vowel" title="Close-mid vowel">Close-mid</a> </th> <td align="center">eː25 </td> <td align="center">o51 oː12 </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_vowel" title="Open-mid vowel">Open-mid</a> </th> <td align="center">ɛ21 ɛj22/34 </td> <td align="center">ɔ41 ɔu42/54 </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Open_vowel" title="Open vowel">Open</a> </th> <td colspan="2" align="center">a11/13 aː24/44 </td></tr></tbody></table> </td> <td> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Polish </caption> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Front_vowel" title="Front vowel">Front</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Back_vowel" title="Back vowel">Back</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Close_vowel" title="Close vowel">Close</a> </th> <td align="center">i31/51 iː32/52 </td> <td align="center">u12/13 </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_vowel" title="Close-mid vowel">Close-mid</a> </th> <td align="center">eː~ej25 </td> <td align="center">oː~ou54 </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_vowel" title="Open-mid vowel">Open-mid</a> </th> <td align="center">ɛ21 </td> <td align="center">ɔ41 ɔj42/44 </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Open_vowel" title="Open vowel">Open</a> </th> <td colspan="2" align="center">a11 aː34 aj22/24 </td></tr></tbody></table> </td> <td> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Lithuanian </caption> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Front_vowel" title="Front vowel">Front</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Back_vowel" title="Back vowel">Back</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Close_vowel" title="Close vowel">Close</a> </th> <td align="center">i31/32 </td> <td align="center">u51/52 </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_vowel" title="Close-mid vowel">Close-mid</a> </th> <td align="center">ej22/24/42/44 </td> <td align="center"> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_vowel" title="Open-mid vowel">Open-mid</a> </th> <td align="center">ɛ21/25 </td> <td align="center">ɔ12/13/41 ɔj54 </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Open_vowel" title="Open vowel">Open</a> </th> <td colspan="2" align="center">a11 aj34 </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Comparison_with_German">Comparison with German</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Yiddish&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Comparison with German">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/High_German_consonant_shift" title="High German consonant shift">High German consonant shift</a></div> In vocabulary of Germanic origin, the differences between Standard German and Yiddish pronunciation are mainly in the <a href="/wiki/Vowel" title="Vowel">vowels</a> and <a href="/wiki/Diphthong" title="Diphthong">diphthongs</a>. All varieties of Yiddish lack the German <a href="/wiki/Front_rounded_vowel" title="Front rounded vowel">front rounded vowels</a> /œ, øː/ and /ʏ, yː/, having merged them with /ɛ, e:/ and /ɪ, i:/, respectively. Diphthongs have also undergone divergent developments in German and Yiddish. Where Standard German has merged the <a href="/wiki/Middle_High_German" title="Middle High German">Middle High German</a> diphthong ei and long vowel î to /aɪ/, Yiddish has maintained the distinction between them; and likewise, the Standard German /ɔʏ/ corresponds to both the MHG diphthong öu and the long vowel iu, which in Yiddish have merged with their unrounded counterparts ei and î, respectively. Lastly, the Standard German /aʊ/ corresponds to both the MHG diphthong ou and the long vowel û, but in Yiddish, they have not merged. Although Standard Yiddish does not distinguish between those two diphthongs and renders both as /ɔɪ/, the distinction becomes apparent when the two diphthongs undergo <a href="/wiki/Germanic_umlaut" title="Germanic umlaut">Germanic umlaut</a>, such as in forming plurals: <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="4">Singular </th> <th colspan="2">Plural </th></tr> <tr> <th>English </th> <th>MHG </th> <th>Standard German </th> <th>Standard Yiddish </th> <th>Standard German </th> <th>Standard Yiddish </th></tr> <tr> <td>tree </td> <td>boum </td> <td>Baum /baʊ̯m/ </td> <td>בױם /bɔɪm/ </td> <td>Bäume /ˈbɔʏ̯mə/ </td> <td>בײמער‎ /bɛɪmɜr/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>abdomen </td> <td>bûch </td> <td>Bauch /baʊ̯x/ </td> <td>בױך /bɔɪχ/ </td> <td>Bäuche /ˈbɔʏ̯çə/ </td> <td>בײַכער‎ /baɪχɜr/ </td></tr></tbody></table> The <a href="/wiki/Vowel_length" title="Vowel length">vowel length</a> distinctions of German do not exist in the Northeastern (Lithuanian) varieties of Yiddish, which form the phonetic basis for Standard Yiddish. In those varieties, the vowel qualities in most long/short vowel pairs diverged and so the phonemic distinction has remained. There are consonantal differences between German and Yiddish. Yiddish <a href="/wiki/Lenition" title="Lenition">deaffricates</a> the Middle High German <a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labiodental_affricate" title="Voiceless labiodental affricate">voiceless labiodental affricate</a> /pf/ to /f/ initially (as in פֿונט funt, but this pronunciation is also quasi-standard throughout northern and central Germany); /pf/ surfaces as an <a href="/wiki/High_German_consonant_shift" title="High German consonant shift">unshifted</a> /p/ medially or finally (as in עפּל /ɛpl/ and קאָפּ /kɔp/). Additionally, final voiced stops appear in Standard Yiddish but not Northern Standard German. <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">M. Weinreich's <a href="/wiki/Diaphoneme" title="Diaphoneme">diaphoneme</a> </th> <th colspan="6">Pronunciation </th> <th colspan="3">Examples </th></tr> <tr> <th>Middle High German </th> <th>Standard German </th> <th>Western Yiddish </th> <th>Northeastern ("Litvish") </th> <th>Central ("Poylish") </th> <th>South-Eastern ("Ukrainish") </th> <th>MHG </th> <th>Standard German </th> <th>Standard Yiddish </th></tr> <tr> <td>A1 </td> <td>a in closed syllable </td> <td>short a /<a href="/wiki/Open_central_unrounded_vowel" title="Open central unrounded vowel">a</a>/ </td> <td>/a/ </td> <td>/a/ </td> <td>/a/ </td> <td>/a/ </td> <td>machen, glat </td> <td>machen, glatt /ˈmaxən, ɡlat/ </td> <td>מאַכן, גלאַט /maχn, ɡlat/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>A2 </td> <td>â </td> <td rowspan="2">long a /<a href="/wiki/Open_central_unrounded_vowel" title="Open central unrounded vowel">aː</a>/ </td> <td>/oː/ </td> <td rowspan="2">/ɔ/ </td> <td rowspan="2">/uː/ </td> <td rowspan="2">/u/ </td> <td>sâme </td> <td>Samen /ˈzaːmən/ </td> <td>זױמען /ˈzɔɪ̯mn̩/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>A3 </td> <td>a in open syllable </td> <td>/aː/ </td> <td>vater, sagen </td> <td>Vater, sagen /ˈfaːtɐ, zaːɡən/ </td> <td>פֿאָטער, זאָגן /ˈfɔtɜr, zɔɡn/ </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">E1 </td> <td>e, ä, æ, all in closed syllable </td> <td>short ä and short e /<a href="/wiki/Open-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open-mid front unrounded vowel">ɛ</a>/ </td> <td rowspan="2">/ɛ/ </td> <td rowspan="3">/ɛ/ </td> <td rowspan="2">/ɛ/ </td> <td rowspan="2">/ɛ/ </td> <td>becker, mensch </td> <td>Bäcker, Mensch /ˈbɛkɐ, mɛnʃ/ </td> <td>בעקער, מענטש /ˈbɛkɜr, mɛntʃ/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>ö in closed syllable </td> <td>short ö /<a href="/wiki/Open-mid_front_rounded_vowel" title="Open-mid front rounded vowel">œ</a>/ </td> <td>töhter </td> <td>Töchter /ˈtœçtɐ/ </td> <td>טעכטער /ˈtɛχtɜr/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>E5 </td> <td>ä and æ in open syllable </td> <td>long ä /<a href="/wiki/Open-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open-mid front unrounded vowel">ɛː</a>/ </td> <td>/eː/ </td> <td>/eː~eɪ/ </td> <td>/eɪ~ɪ/ </td> <td>kæse </td> <td>Käse /ˈkɛːzə/ </td> <td>קעז /kɛz/ </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">E2/3 </td> <td>e in open syllable, and ê </td> <td>long e /<a href="/wiki/Close-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid front unrounded vowel">eː</a>/ </td> <td rowspan="2">/ɛɪ/ </td> <td rowspan="2">/eɪ/ </td> <td rowspan="2">/aɪ/ </td> <td rowspan="2">/eɪ/ </td> <td>esel </td> <td>Esel /eːzl̩/ </td> <td>אײזל /ɛɪzl/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>ö in open syllable, and œ </td> <td>long ö /<a href="/wiki/Close-mid_front_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid front rounded vowel">øː</a>/ </td> <td>schœne </td> <td>schön /ʃøːn/ </td> <td>שײן /ʃɛɪn/ </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">I1 </td> <td>i in closed syllable </td> <td>short i /<a href="/wiki/Near-close_near-front_unrounded_vowel" title="Near-close near-front unrounded vowel">ɪ</a>/ </td> <td rowspan="2">/ɪ/ </td> <td rowspan="4">/ɪ/ </td> <td rowspan="2">/ɪ/ </td> <td rowspan="2">/ɪ/ </td> <td>niht </td> <td>nicht /nɪçt/ </td> <td>נישט /nɪʃt/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>ü in closed syllable </td> <td>short ü /<a href="/wiki/Near-close_near-front_rounded_vowel" title="Near-close near-front rounded vowel">ʏ</a>/ </td> <td>brück, vünf </td> <td>Brücke, fünf /ˈbʁʏkə, fʏnf/ </td> <td>בריק, פֿינף /brɪk, fɪnf/ </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">I2/3 </td> <td>i in open syllable, and ie </td> <td>long i /<a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">iː</a>/ </td> <td rowspan="2">/iː/ </td> <td rowspan="2">/iː/ </td> <td rowspan="2">/iː/ </td> <td>liebe </td> <td>Liebe /ˈliːbə/ </td> <td>ליבע /ˈlɪbɜ/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>ü in open syllable, and üe </td> <td>long ü /<a href="/wiki/Close_front_rounded_vowel" title="Close front rounded vowel">yː</a>/ </td> <td>grüene </td> <td>grün /ɡʁyːn/ </td> <td>גרין /ɡrɪn/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>O1 </td> <td>o in closed syllable </td> <td>short o /<a href="/wiki/Open-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Open-mid back rounded vowel">ɔ</a>/ </td> <td>/ɔ/ </td> <td>/ɔ/ </td> <td>/ɔ/ </td> <td>/ɔ/ </td> <td>kopf, scholn </td> <td>Kopf, sollen /kɔpf, ˈzɔlən/ </td> <td>קאָפּ, זאָלן /kɔp, zɔln/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>O2/3 </td> <td>o in open syllable, and ô </td> <td>long o /<a href="/wiki/Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid back rounded vowel">oː</a>/ </td> <td>/ɔu/ </td> <td>/eɪ~u~ui/ </td> <td>/ɔɪ/ </td> <td>/ɔɪ/ </td> <td>hôch, schône </td> <td>hoch, schon /hoːx, ʃoːn/ </td> <td>הױך, שױן /hɔɪχ, ʃɔɪn/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>U1 </td> <td>u in closed syllable </td> <td>short u /<a href="/wiki/Near-close_near-back_rounded_vowel" title="Near-close near-back rounded vowel">ʊ</a>/ </td> <td>/ʊ/ </td> <td rowspan="2">/ʊ/ </td> <td>/ɪ/ </td> <td>/ɪ/ </td> <td>hunt </td> <td>Hund /hʊnt/ </td> <td>הונט /hʊnt/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>U2/3 </td> <td>u in open syllable, and uo </td> <td>long u /<a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">uː</a>/ </td> <td>/uː/ </td> <td>/iː/ </td> <td>/iː/ </td> <td>buoch </td> <td>Buch /buːx/ </td> <td>בוך /bʊχ/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>E4 </td> <td>ei </td> <td rowspan="2">ei /aɪ/ </td> <td>/aː/ </td> <td>/eɪ/ </td> <td>/aɪ/ </td> <td>/eɪ/ </td> <td>vleisch </td> <td>Fleisch /flaɪ̯ʃ/ </td> <td>פֿלײש /flɛɪʃ/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>I4 </td> <td>î </td> <td>/aɪ/ </td> <td>/aɪ/ </td> <td>/aː/ </td> <td>/a/ </td> <td>mîn </td> <td>mein /maɪ̯n/ </td> <td>מײַן /maɪn/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>O4 </td> <td>ou </td> <td rowspan="2">au /aʊ/ </td> <td>/aː/ </td> <td>/eɪ/ </td> <td>/ɔɪ/ </td> <td>/ɔɪ/ </td> <td>ouh, koufen </td> <td>auch, kaufen /aʊ̯x, ˈkaʊ̯fən/ </td> <td>אױך, קױפֿן /ɔɪχ, kɔɪfn/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>U4 </td> <td>û </td> <td>/ɔu/ </td> <td>/ɔɪ/ </td> <td>/oː~ou/ </td> <td>/ou~u/ </td> <td>hûs </td> <td>Haus/haʊ̯s/ </td> <td>הױז /hɔɪz/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>(E4) </td> <td>öu </td> <td rowspan="2">äu and eu /ɔʏ/ </td> <td>/aː/ </td> <td>/eɪ/ </td> <td>/aɪ/ </td> <td>/eɪ/ </td> <td>vröude </td> <td>Freude /ˈfʁɔʏ̯də/ </td> <td>פֿרײד /frɛɪd/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>(I4) </td> <td>iu </td> <td>/aɪ/ </td> <td>/aɪ/ </td> <td>/aː/ </td> <td>/a/ </td> <td>diutsch </td> <td>Deutsch /dɔʏ̯t͡ʃ/ </td> <td>דײַטש /daɪtʃ/ </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Comparison_with_Hebrew">Comparison with Hebrew</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Yiddish&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Comparison with Hebrew">edit</a>]</div> The pronunciation of vowels in Yiddish words of <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a> origin is similar to <a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Hebrew" title="Ashkenazi Hebrew">Ashkenazi Hebrew</a> but not identical. The most prominent difference is <a href="/wiki/Kamatz" title="Kamatz">kamatz</a> gadol in closed syllables being pronounced same as <a href="/wiki/Patah" class="mw-redirect" title="Patah">patah</a> in Yiddish but the same as any other kamatz in Ashkenazi Hebrew. Also, Hebrew features no reduction of unstressed vowels and so the given name <a href="/wiki/Jochebed" title="Jochebed">Jochebed</a> יוֹכֶבֶֿד would be /jɔɪˈχɛvɛd/ in Ashkenazi Hebrew but /ˈjɔχvɜd/ in Standard Yiddish. <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">M. Weinreich's <a href="/wiki/Diaphoneme" title="Diaphoneme">diaphoneme</a> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Tiberian_vocalization" title="Tiberian vocalization">Tiberian vocalization</a> </th> <th colspan="3">Pronunciation </th> <th>Examples </th></tr> <tr> <th>Western Yiddish </th> <th>Northeastern ("Litvish") </th> <th>Central ("Poylish") </th> <th>Standard Yiddish </th></tr> <tr> <td>A1 </td> <td>patah and kamatz gadol in closed syllable </td> <td>/a/ </td> <td>/a/ </td> <td>/a/ </td> <td>אַלְמָן, כְּתָבֿ /ˈalmɜn, ksav/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>A2 </td> <td>kamatz gadol in open syllable </td> <td>/oː/ </td> <td>/ɔ/ </td> <td>/uː/ </td> <td>פָּנִים‎ /ˈpɔnɜm/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>E1 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Tzere" title="Tzere">tzere</a> and <a href="/wiki/Segol" title="Segol">segol</a> in closed syllable; hataf segol </td> <td>/ɛ/ </td> <td rowspan="2">/ɛ/ </td> <td>/ɛ/ </td> <td>גֵּט, חֶבְֿרָה, אֱמֶת‎ /gɛt, ˈχɛvrɜ, ˈɛmɜs/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>E5 </td> <td>segol in open syllable </td> <td>/eː/ </td> <td>/eː~eɪ/ </td> <td>גֶּפֶֿן /ˈgɛfɜn/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>E2/3 </td> <td>tzere in open syllable </td> <td>/ɛɪ/ </td> <td>/eɪ/ </td> <td>/aɪ/ </td> <td>סֵדֶר‎ /ˈsɛɪdɜr/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>I1 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Hiriq" title="Hiriq">hiriq</a> in closed syllable </td> <td>/ɪ/ </td> <td rowspan="2">/ɪ/ </td> <td>/ɪ/ </td> <td>דִּבּוּק /ˈdɪbɜk/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>I2/3 </td> <td>hiriq in open syllable </td> <td>/iː/ </td> <td>/iː/ </td> <td>מְדִינָה /mɜˈdɪnɜ/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>O1 </td> <td>holam and kamatz katan in closed syllable </td> <td>/ɔ/ </td> <td>/ɔ/ </td> <td>/ɔ/ </td> <td>חָכְמָה, עוֹף‎ /ˈχɔχmɜ, ɔf/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>O2/3 </td> <td>holam in open syllable </td> <td>/ɔu/ </td> <td>/eɪ/ </td> <td>/ɔɪ/ </td> <td>סוֹחֵר /ˈsɔɪχɜr/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>U1 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Kubutz_and_shuruk" title="Kubutz and shuruk">kubutz and shuruk</a> in closed syllable </td> <td>/ʊ/ </td> <td rowspan="2">/ʊ/ </td> <td>/ɪ/ </td> <td>מוּם /mʊm/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>U2/3 </td> <td>kubutz and shuruk in open syllable </td> <td>/uː/ </td> <td>/iː/ </td> <td>שׁוּרָה /ˈʃʊrɜ/ </td></tr></tbody></table> <a href="/wiki/Patah" class="mw-redirect" title="Patah">Patah</a> in open syllable, as well as hataf patah, are unpredictably split between A1 and A2: קַדַּחַת, נַחַת /kaˈdɔχɜs, ˈnaχɜs/; חֲלוֹם, חֲתֻנָּה /ˈχɔlɜm, ˈχasɜnɜ/. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Grammar">Grammar</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Yiddish&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Grammar">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Yiddish_grammar" title="Yiddish grammar">Yiddish grammar</a></div><a href="/wiki/Yiddish_grammar" title="Yiddish grammar">Yiddish grammar</a> can vary slightly depending on the dialect. The main article focuses on standard form of Yiddish grammar while also acknowledging some dialectal differences. Yiddish grammar has similarities to the German grammar system, as well as grammatical elements from Hebrew and Slavic languages. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Writing_system">Writing system</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Yiddish&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Writing system">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Yiddish_orthography" title="Yiddish orthography">Yiddish orthography</a></div> Yiddish is written in the <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_alphabet" title="Hebrew alphabet">Hebrew alphabet</a>, but its <a href="/wiki/Orthography" title="Orthography">orthography</a> differs significantly from <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_spelling" title="Hebrew spelling">that of Hebrew</a>. In Hebrew, many vowels are represented only optionally by <a href="/wiki/Diacritical_marks" class="mw-redirect" title="Diacritical marks">diacritical marks</a> called <a href="/wiki/Niqqud" title="Niqqud">niqqud</a> whereas Yiddish uses letters to represent all vowels. Several Yiddish letters consist of another letter combined with a niqqud mark resembling a Hebrew letter–niqqud pair, but each of those combinations is an inseparable unit representing a vowel alone, not a consonant–vowel sequence. The niqqud marks have no phonetic value on their own. In most varieties of Yiddish, however, words borrowed from Hebrew are written in their native forms without application of Yiddish orthographical conventions. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Numbers_of_speakers">Numbers of speakers</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Yiddish&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Numbers of speakers">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yiddish.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Yiddish.png/220px-Yiddish.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="179" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Yiddish.png/330px-Yiddish.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Yiddish.png/440px-Yiddish.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="488" /></a><figcaption>Map of the Yiddish dialects between the 15th and the 19th centuries (Western dialects in orange / Eastern dialects in green)</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1224211176"><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:246px; ; color: #202122;background-color: #c6dbf7;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> Ghosts love Yiddish and as far as I know, they all speak it. </blockquote> <cite class="left-aligned" style="">– <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Bashevis_Singer" title="Isaac Bashevis Singer">Isaac Bashevis Singer</a> upon receiving the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_for_Literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Nobel Prize for Literature">Nobel Prize for Literature</a>, 1978.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a></cite> </div> On the eve of <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, there were 11 to 13 million Yiddish speakers.<a href="#cite_note-yivoyiddish-15">[15]</a> <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">The Holocaust</a>, however, led to a dramatic, sudden decline in the use of Yiddish, as the extensive Jewish communities, both secular and religious, that used Yiddish in their day-to-day life were largely destroyed. Around five million of those killed – 85 percent of the Jews murdered in the Holocaust – were speakers of Yiddish.<a href="#cite_note-Sprache_1984_p._3-17">[17]</a> Although millions of Yiddish speakers survived the war (including nearly all Yiddish speakers in the Americas), further assimilation in countries such as the United States and the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>, in addition to the strictly monolingual stance of the <a href="/wiki/Haskalah" title="Haskalah">Haskalah</a><a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> and later <a href="/wiki/Zionist" class="mw-redirect" title="Zionist">Zionist</a> movements, led to a decline in the use of Eastern Yiddish.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> However, the number of speakers within the widely dispersed Haredi (mainly Hasidic) communities is now increasing. Although used in various countries, Yiddish has attained official recognition as a <a href="/wiki/Minority_language" title="Minority language">minority language</a> only in <a href="/wiki/Moldova" title="Moldova">Moldova</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" title="Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a>,<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">Sweden</a>. Reports of the number of current Yiddish speakers vary significantly. <a href="/wiki/Ethnologue" title="Ethnologue">Ethnologue</a> estimates, based on publications through 1991, that there were at that time 1.5 million speakers of Eastern Yiddish,<a href="#cite_note-Ethnologue-56">[56]</a> of which 40% lived in Ukraine, 15% in Israel, and 10% in the United States. The <a href="/wiki/Modern_Language_Association" title="Modern Language Association">Modern Language Association</a> agrees with fewer than 200,000 in the United States.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> Western Yiddish is reported by Ethnologue to have had an ethnic population of 50,000 in 2000, and an undated speaking population of 5,400, mostly in Germany.<a href="#cite_note-Ethnologue-western-58">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> A 1996 report by the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Europe" title="Council of Europe">Council of Europe</a> estimates a worldwide Yiddish-speaking population of about two million.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> Further <a href="/wiki/Demographics" class="mw-redirect" title="Demographics">demographic</a> information about the recent status of what is treated as an Eastern–Western dialect continuum is provided in the YIVO Language and Cultural Atlas of Ashkenazic Jewry. In a study in the 1st half of 2024, the German media association Internationale Medienhilfe (IMH) found that the number of Yiddish media is increasing again, due to an increase in the Yiddish-speaking population, especially in the USA. According to IMH estimates, the number of speakers worldwide is approaching two million. In 2024, more than 40 print media were published worldwide in the German dialect Yiddish - and the trend is rising.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> The <a href="/wiki/1922_census_of_Palestine" title="1922 census of Palestine">1922 census of Palestine</a> lists 1,946 Yiddish speakers in Mandatory Palestine (9 in the Southern District, 1,401 in Jerusalem-Jaffa, 4 in Samaria, and 532 in the Northern District), including 1,759 in municipal areas (999 in <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a>, 356 in <a href="/wiki/Jaffa" title="Jaffa">Jaffa</a>, 332 in <a href="/wiki/Haifa" title="Haifa">Haifa</a>, 5 in <a href="/wiki/Gaza_City" title="Gaza City">Gaza</a>, 4 in <a href="/wiki/Hebron" title="Hebron">Hebron</a>, 3 in <a href="/wiki/Nazareth" title="Nazareth">Nazareth</a>, 7 in <a href="/wiki/Ramla" title="Ramla">Ramleh</a>, 33 in <a href="/wiki/Tiberias" title="Tiberias">Tiberias</a>, and 4 in <a href="/wiki/Jenin" title="Jenin">Jenin</a>).<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> In the Hasidic communities of Israel, boys speak more Yiddish amongst themselves, while girls use Hebrew more often. This is probably due to the tendency of girls to learn more secular subjects, thus increasing their contact with the Hebrew language, while boys are usually taught religious subjects in Yiddish.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Status_as_a_language">Status as a language</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Yiddish&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Status as a language">edit</a>]</div> Historically, there have been frequent debates about the extent of the linguistic independence of Yiddish from the languages that it absorbed. There has been periodic assertion that Yiddish is a dialect of German, or even "just broken German, more of a linguistic mishmash than a true language".<a href="#cite_note-NYT_Johnson-64">[64]</a> Even when recognized as an autonomous language, it has occasionally been referred to, typically by people foreign to the language, as Judeo-German, along the lines of other Jewish languages like <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Persian" title="Judeo-Persian">Judeo-Persian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Spanish" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Spanish">Judeo-Spanish</a> or <a href="/wiki/Judeo-French" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-French">Judeo-French</a>. A widely cited summary of attitudes in the 1930s was published by <a href="/wiki/Max_Weinreich" title="Max Weinreich">Max Weinreich</a>, quoting a remark by an auditor of one of his lectures: אַ שפּראַך איז אַ דיאַלעקט מיט אַן אַרמיי און פֿלאָט (a shprakh iz a dialekt mit an armey un flot<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> — "<a href="/wiki/A_language_is_a_dialect_with_an_army_and_navy" title="A language is a dialect with an army and navy">A language is a dialect with an army and navy</a>"). Today's speakers consider Yiddish a separate language, officially recognized as such in the USSR (where it was viewed as "the Jewish language"), <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Autonomous_Oblast" title="Jewish Autonomous Oblast">post-Soviet Russia</a> and Sweden, thus complying to Max Weinreich's notion of official state recognition. Virtually all specialists working in the field of Yiddish view it as a separate language, including researchers and teachers who study and teach Yiddish in German-speaking countries. For centuries, Yiddish has been developing in countries separated from the German language space and has its own system of dialects. Contemporary debates on this subject are almost exclusively limited to the nature of medieval and early modern texts written in Western Yiddish dialects that seem much closer to varieties of German than today's Eastern Yiddish. <a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Israel_and_Zionism">Israel and Zionism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Yiddish&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Israel and Zionism">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1023981488">@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .rquote{width:auto!important;float:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote rquote" style="float: right; width: 33%;">We shall get rid of the stunted and squashed jargons which we use now, these ghetto languages. They were the furtive tongues of prisoners.<a href="#cite_note-68">[a]</a><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/Theodor_Herzl" title="Theodor Herzl">Theodor Herzl</a>, <a href="/wiki/Der_Judenstaat" title="Der Judenstaat">Der Judenstaat</a>, 1896.<a href="#cite_note-69">[68]</a></cite></div></blockquote><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Languages" title="War of the Languages">War of the Languages</a></div><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yidish_graffiti.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Yidish_graffiti.JPG/220px-Yidish_graffiti.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="298" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Yidish_graffiti.JPG/330px-Yidish_graffiti.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Yidish_graffiti.JPG/440px-Yidish_graffiti.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1672" data-file-height="2266" /></a><figcaption>An example of graffiti in Yiddish, Tel Aviv, Washington Avenue (און איר זאלט ליב האבן דעם פרעמדען, ווארום פרעמדע זייט איר געווען אין לאנד מצרים—Un ir zolt lib hobn dem fremden, varum fremde zayt ir geven in land mitsraym). "You shall have love for the stranger, because you were strangers in the land of Egypt." (Deuteronomy 10:19)</figcaption></figure> The national language of Israel is <a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew" title="Modern Hebrew">Modern Hebrew</a>. The debate in Zionist circles over the use of Yiddish in Israel and in the diaspora in preference to Hebrew also reflected the tensions between religious and secular Jewish lifestyles. Many secular Zionists wanted Hebrew as the sole language of Jews, to contribute to a national cohesive identity. Traditionally religious Jews, on the other hand, preferred use of Yiddish, viewing Hebrew as a respected holy language reserved for prayer and religious study. In the early 20th century, Zionist activists in the <a href="/wiki/Mandatory_Palestine" title="Mandatory Palestine">Mandate of Palestine</a> tried to eradicate the use of Yiddish among Jews in preference to Hebrew, and make its use socially unacceptable.<a href="#cite_note-70">[69]</a> This conflict also reflected the opposing views among secular Jews worldwide, one side seeing Hebrew (and Zionism) and the other Yiddish (and <a href="/wiki/Internationalism_(politics)" title="Internationalism (politics)">Internationalism</a>) as the means of defining Jewish nationalism. In the 1920s and 1930s, גדוד מגיני השפה gdud maginéi hasafá, "<a href="/wiki/Battalion_for_the_Defence_of_the_Language" class="mw-redirect" title="Battalion for the Defence of the Language">Battalion for the Defence of the Language</a>", whose motto was "עברי, דבר עברית ivri, dabér ivrít", that is, "Hebrew [i.e. Jew], speak Hebrew!", used to tear down signs written in "foreign" languages and disturb Yiddish theatre gatherings with stink bombs.<a href="#cite_note-71">[70]</a> In 1927, a proposal to institute a chair in Yiddish at <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Hebrew University">Hebrew University</a> was met with protests.<a href="#cite_note-72">[71]</a> However, according to linguist <a href="/wiki/Ghil%27ad_Zuckermann" title="Ghil'ad Zuckermann">Ghil'ad Zuckermann</a>, the members of this group in particular, and the Hebrew revival in general, did not succeed in uprooting Yiddish patterns (as well as the patterns of other European languages Jewish immigrants spoke) within what he calls "Israeli", i.e. <a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew" title="Modern Hebrew">Modern Hebrew</a>. Zuckermann believes that "Israeli does include numerous Hebrew elements resulting from a conscious revival but also numerous pervasive linguistic features deriving from a subconscious survival of the revivalists’ mother tongues, e.g. Yiddish."<a href="#cite_note-73">[72]</a> After the founding of the State of Israel, a massive wave of <a href="/wiki/Jewish_exodus_from_Arab_and_Muslim_countries" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish exodus from Arab and Muslim countries">Jewish immigrants from Arab countries</a> arrived. In short order, these <a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_Jews" title="Mizrahi Jews">Mizrahi Jews</a> and their descendants would account for nearly half the Jewish population. While all were at least familiar with Hebrew as a liturgical language, essentially none had any contact with or affinity for Yiddish (some, of <a href="/wiki/Sephardi_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Sephardi Jews">Sephardic</a> origin, spoke Judeo-Spanish, others various <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Arabic_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Arabic dialects">Judeo-Arabic varieties</a>). Thus, Hebrew emerged as the dominant linguistic common denominator between the different population groups. Despite a past of marginalization and <a href="/wiki/Anti-Yiddish" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Yiddish">anti-Yiddish</a> government policy, in 1996 the <a href="/wiki/Knesset" title="Knesset">Knesset</a> passed a law founding the "National Authority for Yiddish Culture", with the aim of supporting and promoting contemporary Yiddish art and <a href="/wiki/Yiddish_literature" title="Yiddish literature">literature</a>, as well as preservation of <a href="/wiki/Yiddish_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Yiddish culture">Yiddish culture</a> and publication of Yiddish classics, both in Yiddish and in Hebrew translation.<a href="#cite_note-74">[73]</a> In religious circles, it is the Ashkenazi <a href="/wiki/Haredi_Judaism" title="Haredi Judaism">Haredi Jews</a>, particularly the Hasidic Jews and the Lithuanian yeshiva world (see <a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithuanian Jews">Lithuanian Jews</a>), who continue to teach, speak and use Yiddish, making it a language used regularly by hundreds of thousands of Haredi Jews today. The largest of these centers are in <a href="/wiki/Bnei_Brak" title="Bnei Brak">Bnei Brak</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a>. There is a growing revival of interest in Yiddish culture among secular Israelis, with the flourishing of new proactive cultural organizations like YUNG YiDiSH, as well as <a href="/wiki/Yiddish_theatre" title="Yiddish theatre">Yiddish theatre</a> (usually with simultaneous translation to Hebrew and Russian) and young people are taking university courses in Yiddish, some achieving considerable fluency.<a href="#cite_note-NYT_Johnson-64">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-75">[74]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="South_Africa">South Africa</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Yiddish&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: South Africa">edit</a>]</div> In the early years of the 20th century Yiddish was classified as a 'Semitic Language'. After much campaigning, in 1906 the South African legislator <a href="/wiki/Morris_Alexander" title="Morris Alexander">Morris Alexander</a> won a parliamentary fight to have Yiddish reclassified as a European language, thereby permitting the immigration of Yiddish-speakers to South Africa.<a href="#cite_note-76">[75]</a> While there used to be a large Yiddish press in South Africa now Yiddish has largely died out in South Africa being replaced with other languages.<a href="#cite_note-77">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-78">[77]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mexico">Mexico</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Yiddish&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Mexico">edit</a>]</div> In <a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a>, Yiddish was spoken among the Ashkenazi Jewish population and Yiddish poet <a href="/w/index.php?title=Isaac_Berliner&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Isaac Berliner (page does not exist)">Isaac Berliner</a> wrote about the life of <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Mexico" title="History of the Jews in Mexico">Mexican Jews</a>. Isaac Berliner's Yiddishism was a way for the Ashkenazi Jews in Mexico to build a secular culture in a Mexico skeptical of religion.<a href="#cite_note-79">[78]</a> Yiddish became a marker of Ashkenazi ethnic identity in Mexico.<a href="#cite_note-80">[79]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Former_Soviet_Union">Former Soviet Union</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Yiddish&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Former Soviet Union">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Drive_to_the_Collective_Farm.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Drive_to_the_Collective_Farm.jpg/190px-Drive_to_the_Collective_Farm.jpg" decoding="async" width="190" height="277" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Drive_to_the_Collective_Farm.jpg/285px-Drive_to_the_Collective_Farm.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f0/Drive_to_the_Collective_Farm.jpg 2x" data-file-width="360" data-file-height="524" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/New_Economic_Policy" title="New Economic Policy">NEP</a>-era Soviet Yiddish poster "Come to us at the <a href="/wiki/Kolkhoz" title="Kolkhoz">Kolkhoz</a>!" (קום צו אונדז אין קאָלווירט!)</figcaption></figure> In the Soviet Union during the era of the <a href="/wiki/New_Economic_Policy" title="New Economic Policy">New Economic Policy</a> (NEP) in the 1920s, Yiddish was promoted as the language of the Jewish <a href="/wiki/Proletariat" title="Proletariat">proletariat</a>. At the same time, <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a> was considered a <a href="/wiki/Bourgeois" class="mw-redirect" title="Bourgeois">bourgeois</a> and <a href="/wiki/Reactionary" title="Reactionary">reactionary</a> language and its use was generally discouraged.<a href="#cite_note-81">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-82">[81]</a> Yiddish was one of the recognized languages of the <a href="/wiki/Byelorussian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic">Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic</a>. Until 1938, the <a href="/wiki/Emblem_of_the_Byelorussian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Emblem of the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic">Emblem of the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic</a> included the motto <a href="/wiki/Workers_of_the_world,_unite!" title="Workers of the world, unite!">Workers of the world, unite!</a> in Yiddish. Yiddish was also an official language in several agricultural districts of the <a href="/wiki/Galician_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Galician Soviet Socialist Republic">Galician Soviet Socialist Republic</a>. The use of Yiddish as the primary spoken language by Jews was heavily encouraged by multiple Jewish political groups at the time. The <a href="/wiki/Evsektsiia" class="mw-redirect" title="Evsektsiia">Evsketsii</a>, the Jewish Communist Group, and The <a href="/wiki/General_Jewish_Labour_Bund" title="General Jewish Labour Bund">Bund</a>, the Jewish Socialist Group, both heavily encouraged the use of Yiddish. During the Bolshevik Era these political groups worked alongside the government to encourage the widespread Jewish use of Yiddish. Both the Evsketsii and the Bund supported the Jewish movement towards assimilation and saw Yiddish as a way to encourage it. They saw the use of Yiddish as a step away from the religious aspects of Judaism, instead favoring the cultural aspects of Judaism.<a href="#cite_note-83">[82]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Emblem_of_the_Byelorussian_SSR_(1927%E2%80%931937).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Emblem_of_the_Byelorussian_SSR_%281927%E2%80%931937%29.svg/190px-Emblem_of_the_Byelorussian_SSR_%281927%E2%80%931937%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="190" height="197" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Emblem_of_the_Byelorussian_SSR_%281927%E2%80%931937%29.svg/285px-Emblem_of_the_Byelorussian_SSR_%281927%E2%80%931937%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Emblem_of_the_Byelorussian_SSR_%281927%E2%80%931937%29.svg/380px-Emblem_of_the_Byelorussian_SSR_%281927%E2%80%931937%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="758" data-file-height="787" /></a><figcaption>State emblem of the <a href="/wiki/Byelorussian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic">Byelorussian SSR</a> (1927–1937) with the motto Workers of the world, unite! in Yiddish (lower left part of the ribbon): ״פראָלעטאריער פון אלע לענדער, פאראייניקט זיך!״—Proletarier fun ale lender, fareynikt zikh! The same slogan is written in Belarusian, Russian and Polish.</figcaption></figure> A public educational system entirely based on the Yiddish language was established and comprised kindergartens, schools, and higher educational institutions (technical schools, <a href="/wiki/Rabfak" title="Rabfak">rabfaks</a> and other university departments).<a href="#cite_note-:2-84">[83]</a> These were initially created in the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a> to stop Jewish children from taking too many spots in regular Russian schools. Imperial government feared that the Jewish children were both taking spots from non-Jews as well as spreading revolutionary ideas to their non-Jewish peers. As a result, in 1914 laws were passed that guaranteed Jews the right to a Jewish education and as a result the Yiddish education system was established.<a href="#cite_note-85">[84]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] After the Bolshevik revolution in 1917 even more Yiddish schools were established. These schools thrived with government, specifically Bolshevik, and Jewish support. They were established as part of the effort to revitalize the Soviet Jewish Community. Specifically, the Bolsheviks wanted to encourage Jewish assimilation. While these schools were taught in Yiddish, the content was Soviet. They were created to attract Jews in to getting a Soviet education under the guise of a Jewish institution.<a href="#cite_note-:3-86">[85]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] While schools with curriculums taught in Yiddish existed in some areas until the 1950s, there was a general decline in enrollment due to preference for Russian-speaking institutions and the declining reputation of Yiddish schools among Yiddish speaking Soviets. As the Yiddish schools declined, so did overall Yiddish culture. The two were inherently linked and with the downfall of one, so did the other.<a href="#cite_note-87">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-:3-86">[85]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] General Soviet denationalization programs and secularization policies also led to a further lack of enrollment and funding; the last schools to be closed existed until 1951.<a href="#cite_note-:2-84">[83]</a> It continued to be spoken widely for decades, nonetheless, in areas with compact Jewish populations (primarily in Moldova, Ukraine, and to a lesser extent Belarus). In the former Soviet states, recently active Yiddish authors include <a href="/wiki/Josef_Burg_(writer)" title="Josef Burg (writer)">Yoysef Burg</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chernivtsi" title="Chernivtsi">Chernivtsi</a> 1912–2009) and <a href="/wiki/Olexander_Beyderman" title="Olexander Beyderman">Olexander Beyderman</a> (b. 1949, <a href="/wiki/Odessa" class="mw-redirect" title="Odessa">Odessa</a>). Publication of an earlier Yiddish periodical (דער פֿרײַנד – der fraynd; lit. The Friend), was resumed in 2004 with דער נײַער פֿרײַנד (der nayer fraynd; lit. The New Friend, <a href="/wiki/Saint_Petersburg" title="Saint Petersburg">Saint Petersburg</a>). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Russia">Russia</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Yiddish&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Russia">edit</a>]</div> According to the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Census_(2010)" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian Census (2010)">2010 census</a>, 1,683 people spoke Yiddish in Russia, approximately 1% of all the Jews of the Russian Federation.<a href="#cite_note-88">[87]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Shvydkoy" title="Mikhail Shvydkoy">Mikhail Shvydkoy</a>, former Minister of Culture of Russia and himself of Jewish origin, Yiddish culture in Russia is gone, and its revival is unlikely.<a href="#cite_note-Lechaim.ru-89">[88]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">From my point of view, Yiddish culture today isn't just fading away, but disappearing. It is stored as memories, as fragments of phrases, as books that have long gone unread. ... Yiddish culture is dying and this should be treated with utmost calm. There is no need to pity that which cannot be resurrected – it has receded into the world of the enchanting past, where it should remain. Any artificial culture, a culture without replenishment, is meaningless. ... Everything that happens with Yiddish culture is transformed into a kind of cabaret—epistolary genre, nice, cute to the ear and the eye, but having nothing to do with high art, because there is no natural, national soil. In Russia, it is the memory of the departed, sometimes sweet memories. But it's the memories of what will never be again. Perhaps that's why these memories are always so sharp.<a href="#cite_note-Lechaim.ru-89">[88]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Jewish_Autonomous_Oblast">Jewish Autonomous Oblast</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Yiddish&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Jewish Autonomous Oblast">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Autonomous_Oblast" title="Jewish Autonomous Oblast">Jewish Autonomous Oblast</a>, <a href="/wiki/Birobidzhan" title="Birobidzhan">Birobidzhan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Jewish_Autonomous_Oblast" title="History of the Jews in the Jewish Autonomous Oblast">History of the Jews in the Jewish Autonomous Oblast</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:RussiaJewish2007-07.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/RussiaJewish2007-07.png/220px-RussiaJewish2007-07.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7f/RussiaJewish2007-07.png 1.5x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="178" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Jewish_Autonomous_Oblast" title="History of the Jews in the Jewish Autonomous Oblast">Jewish Autonomous Oblast</a> in Russia</figcaption></figure> The Jewish Autonomous Oblast was formed in 1934 in the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Far_East" title="Russian Far East">Russian Far East</a>, with its capital city in Birobidzhan and Yiddish as its official language.<a href="#cite_note-90">[89]</a> The intention was for the Soviet Jewish population to settle there. Jewish cultural life was revived in Birobidzhan much earlier than elsewhere in the Soviet Union. Yiddish theaters began opening in the 1970s. The newspaper דער ביראָבידזשאַנער שטערן (<a href="/wiki/Birobidzhaner_Shtern" title="Birobidzhaner Shtern">Der Birobidzhaner Shtern</a>; lit: The Birobidzhan Star) includes a Yiddish section.<a href="#cite_note-91">[90]</a> In modern Russia, the cultural significance of the language is still recognized and bolstered. The First Birobidzhan International Summer Program for Yiddish Language and Culture was launched in 2007.<a href="#cite_note-92">[91]</a> As of 2010<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yiddish&action=edit">[update]</a>, according to data provided by the Russian Census Bureau, there were 97 speakers of Yiddish in the JAO.<a href="#cite_note-93">[92]</a> A November 2017 article in <a href="/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a>, titled, "Revival of a Soviet Zion: Birobidzhan celebrates its Jewish heritage", examined the current status of the city and suggested that, even though the Jewish Autonomous Region in Russia's far east is now barely 1% Jewish, officials hope to woo back people who left after Soviet collapse and to revive the Yiddish language in this region.<a href="#cite_note-94">[93]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ukraine">Ukraine</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Yiddish&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Ukraine">edit</a>]</div> Yiddish was an official language of the <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_People%27s_Republic" title="Ukrainian People's Republic">Ukrainian People's Republic</a> (1917–1921).<a href="#cite_note-Ukraine:_Birth_of_a_Modern_Nation-95">[94]</a><a href="#cite_note-HoUJsntui-96">[95]</a> But due to the holocaust, assimilation, and migration of <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Ukraine" title="History of the Jews in Ukraine">Ukrainian jews</a> abroad today only 3,100 of the remaining jews speak Yiddish as their first language.<a href="#cite_note-97">[96]</a> The Southeast dialect of Yiddish has many Ukrainian loanwords due to the long contact between Yiddish speakers and Ukrainian speakers.<a href="#cite_note-98">[97]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Council_of_Europe">Council of Europe</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Yiddish&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Council of Europe">edit</a>]</div> Several countries that ratified the 1992 <a href="/wiki/European_Charter_for_Regional_or_Minority_Languages" title="European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages">European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages</a> have included Yiddish in the list of their recognized minority languages: the Netherlands (1996), Sweden (2000), Romania (2008), Poland (2009), Bosnia and Herzegovina (2010).<a href="#cite_note-:1-99">[98]</a> In 2005, Ukraine did not mention Yiddish as such, but "the language(s) of the Jewish ethnic minority".<a href="#cite_note-:1-99">[98]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sweden">Sweden</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Yiddish&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Sweden">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jidische.Folkschtime.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Jidische.Folkschtime.jpg/220px-Jidische.Folkschtime.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="137" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Jidische.Folkschtime.jpg/330px-Jidische.Folkschtime.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Jidische.Folkschtime.jpg/440px-Jidische.Folkschtime.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2209" data-file-height="1371" /></a><figcaption>Banner from the first issue of the יודישע פאלקסשטימע—Jidische Folkschtime (Yiddish People's Voice), published in Stockholm, January 12, 1917</figcaption></figure> In June 1999, the Swedish Parliament enacted legislation giving Yiddish legal status<a href="#cite_note-100">[99]</a> as one of the country's <a href="/wiki/Official_minority_languages_of_Sweden" title="Official minority languages of Sweden">official minority languages</a> (entering into effect in April 2000). Additional legislation was enacted in June 2006 establishing a new governmental agency, the Swedish National Language Council, whose goal is to "collect, preserve, scientifically research, and spread material about the national minority languages." These languages include Yiddish. The Swedish government has published documents in Yiddish detailing the national action plan for human rights.<a href="#cite_note-101">[100]</a> An earlier one provides general information about national minority language policies.<a href="#cite_note-102">[101]</a> On September 6, 2007, it became possible to register Internet domains with Yiddish names in the national top-level domain <a href="/wiki/.se" title=".se">.se</a>.<a href="#cite_note-103">[102]</a> The first Jews were permitted to reside in Sweden during the late 18th century. The Jewish population in Sweden is estimated at 20,000. According to various reports and surveys, between 2,000 and 6,000 Swedish Jews have at least some knowledge of Yiddish. In 2009, the number of native speakers was estimated by linguist Mikael Parkvall to be 750–1,500. He says that most native speakers of Yiddish in Sweden today are adults, many of them elderly.<a href="#cite_note-104">[103]</a> After the war Yiddish theater enjoyed great popularity in Sweden and all the great stars performed there. Since the recognition of Yiddish as an official minority language, Swedish schoolchildren have the right to study Yiddish at school as a mother tongue, and there are public radio broadcasts and television shows in Yiddish.<a href="#cite_note-105">[104]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States">United States</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Yiddish&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: United States">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Free_Classes_in_English.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Free_Classes_in_English.jpg/220px-Free_Classes_in_English.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="342" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Free_Classes_in_English.jpg/330px-Free_Classes_in_English.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Free_Classes_in_English.jpg/440px-Free_Classes_in_English.jpg 2x" data-file-width="658" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption>Poster by the <a href="/wiki/Government_of_New_York_City" title="Government of New York City">City of New York</a> advertising free English classes for Yiddish speakers, 1930s: Learn to speak, read and write the language of your children.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Women_voter_outreach_1935_English_Yiddish.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Women_voter_outreach_1935_English_Yiddish.jpg/220px-Women_voter_outreach_1935_English_Yiddish.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Women_voter_outreach_1935_English_Yiddish.jpg/330px-Women_voter_outreach_1935_English_Yiddish.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Women_voter_outreach_1935_English_Yiddish.jpg/440px-Women_voter_outreach_1935_English_Yiddish.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2860" data-file-height="2277" /></a><figcaption>Women surrounded by posters in English and Yiddish supporting <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Herbert_H._Lehman" title="Herbert H. Lehman">Herbert H. Lehman</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/American_Labor_Party" title="American Labor Party">American Labor Party</a> teach other women how to vote, 1936.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yiddish_language_distribution_in_the_United_States.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Yiddish_language_distribution_in_the_United_States.svg/220px-Yiddish_language_distribution_in_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Yiddish_language_distribution_in_the_United_States.svg/330px-Yiddish_language_distribution_in_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Yiddish_language_distribution_in_the_United_States.svg/440px-Yiddish_language_distribution_in_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="959" data-file-height="593" /></a><figcaption>Yiddish distribution in the United States. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend">  More than 100,000 speakers</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  More than 10,000 speakers</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  More than 5,000 speakers</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  More than 1,000 speakers</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Fewer than 1,000 speakers</div></figcaption></figure> In the United States, at first most Jews were of <a href="/wiki/Sephardi_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Sephardi Jews">Sephardic</a> origin, and hence did not speak Yiddish. It was not until the mid-to-late 19th century, as first German Jews, then Central and Eastern European Jews, arrived in the nation, that Yiddish became dominant within the immigrant community. This helped to bond Jews from many countries. פֿאָרווערטס (Forverts – <a href="/wiki/The_Forward" title="The Forward">The Forward</a>) was one of seven Yiddish daily newspapers in New York City, and other Yiddish newspapers served as a forum for Jews of all European backgrounds. In 1915, the circulation of the daily Yiddish newspapers was half a million in New York City alone, and 600,000 nationally. In addition, thousands more subscribed to the numerous weekly papers and the many magazines.<a href="#cite_note-106">[105]</a> The typical circulation in the 21st century is a few thousand. The Forward still appears weekly and is also available in an online edition.<a href="#cite_note-107">[106]</a> It remains in wide distribution, together with דער אַלגעמיינער זשורנאַל (der algemeyner zhurnal – <a href="/wiki/Algemeiner_Journal" title="Algemeiner Journal">Algemeyner Journal</a>; algemeyner = general), a <a href="/wiki/Chabad" title="Chabad">Chabad</a> newspaper which is also published weekly and appears online.<a href="#cite_note-108">[107]</a> The widest-circulation Yiddish newspapers are probably the weekly issues <a href="/wiki/Der_Yid" title="Der Yid">Der Yid</a> (דער איד "The Jew"), <a href="/wiki/Der_Blatt" title="Der Blatt">Der Blatt</a> (דער בלאַט; blat 'paper') and <a href="/wiki/Di_Tzeitung" title="Di Tzeitung">Di Tzeitung</a> (די צייטונג 'the newspaper'). Several additional newspapers and magazines are in regular production, such as the weekly אידישער טריביון Yiddish Tribune and the monthly publications דער שטערן (Der Shtern The Star) and דער בליק (Der Blik The View). (The romanized titles cited in this paragraph are in the form given on the masthead of each publication and may be at some variance both with the literal Yiddish title and the <a href="/wiki/Yiddish_orthography#Transliteration" title="Yiddish orthography">transliteration rules</a> otherwise applied in this article.) Thriving Yiddish theater, especially in the New York City <a href="/wiki/Yiddish_Theatre_District" title="Yiddish Theatre District">Yiddish Theatre District</a>, kept the language vital. Interest in <a href="/wiki/Klezmer" title="Klezmer">klezmer</a> music provided another bonding mechanism. Most of the Jewish immigrants to the New York metropolitan area during the years of <a href="/wiki/Ellis_Island" title="Ellis Island">Ellis Island</a> considered Yiddish their native language; however, native Yiddish speakers tended not to pass the language on to their children, who assimilated and spoke English. For example, <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Asimov" title="Isaac Asimov">Isaac Asimov</a> states in his autobiography <a href="/wiki/In_Memory_Yet_Green" class="mw-redirect" title="In Memory Yet Green">In Memory Yet Green</a> that Yiddish was his first and sole spoken language, and remained so for about two years after he emigrated to the United States as a small child. By contrast, Asimov's younger siblings, born in the United States, never developed any degree of fluency in Yiddish. Many "Yiddishisms", like "Italianisms" and "Spanishisms", entered <a href="/wiki/New_York_City_English" title="New York City English">New York City English</a>, often used by Jews and non-Jews alike, unaware of the linguistic origin of the phrases. <a href="/wiki/Yiddish_words_used_in_English" title="Yiddish words used in English">Yiddish words used in English</a> were documented extensively by <a href="/wiki/Leo_Rosten" title="Leo Rosten">Leo Rosten</a> in <a href="/wiki/The_Joys_of_Yiddish" title="The Joys of Yiddish">The Joys of Yiddish</a>;<a href="#cite_note-109">[108]</a> see also the <a href="/wiki/List_of_English_words_of_Yiddish_origin" title="List of English words of Yiddish origin">list of English words of Yiddish origin</a>. In 1975, the film <a href="/wiki/Hester_Street_(film)" title="Hester Street (film)">Hester Street</a>, much of which is in Yiddish, was released. It was later chosen to be on the Library of Congress <a href="/wiki/National_Film_Registry" title="National Film Registry">National Film Registry</a> for being considered a "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant" film.<a href="#cite_note-110">[109]</a> In 1976, the Canadian-born American author <a href="/wiki/Saul_Bellow" title="Saul Bellow">Saul Bellow</a> received the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="Nobel Prize in Literature">Nobel Prize in Literature</a>. He was fluent in Yiddish, and translated several Yiddish poems and stories into English, including <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Bashevis_Singer" title="Isaac Bashevis Singer">Isaac Bashevis Singer</a>'s "Gimpel the Fool". In 1978, Singer, a writer in the Yiddish language, who was born in <a href="/wiki/Poland" title="Poland">Poland</a> and lived in the United States, received the Nobel Prize in Literature. Legal scholars <a href="/wiki/Eugene_Volokh" title="Eugene Volokh">Eugene Volokh</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alex_Kozinski" title="Alex Kozinski">Alex Kozinski</a> argue that Yiddish is "supplanting Latin as the spice in American legal argot".<a href="#cite_note-111">[110]</a><a href="#cite_note-112">[111]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Present_U.S._speaker_population">Present U.S. speaker population</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Yiddish&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Present U.S. speaker population">edit</a>]</div> In the <a href="/wiki/2000_United_States_Census" class="mw-redirect" title="2000 United States Census">2000 United States Census</a>, 178,945 people in the United States reported speaking Yiddish at home. Of these speakers, 113,515 lived in <a href="/wiki/New_York_(state)" title="New York (state)">New York</a> (63.43% of American Yiddish speakers); 18,220 in <a href="/wiki/Florida" title="Florida">Florida</a> (10.18%); 9,145 in <a href="/wiki/New_Jersey" title="New Jersey">New Jersey</a> (5.11%); and 8,950 in <a href="/wiki/California" title="California">California</a> (5.00%). The remaining states with speaker populations larger than 1,000 are <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania" title="Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a> (5,445), <a href="/wiki/Ohio" title="Ohio">Ohio</a> (1,925), <a href="/wiki/Michigan" title="Michigan">Michigan</a> (1,945), <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts" title="Massachusetts">Massachusetts</a> (2,380), <a href="/wiki/Maryland" title="Maryland">Maryland</a> (2,125), <a href="/wiki/Illinois" title="Illinois">Illinois</a> (3,510), <a href="/wiki/Connecticut" title="Connecticut">Connecticut</a> (1,710), and <a href="/wiki/Arizona" title="Arizona">Arizona</a> (1,055). The population is largely elderly: 72,885 of the speakers were older than 65, 66,815 were between 18 and 64, and only 39,245 were age 17 or lower.<a href="#cite_note-113">[112]</a> In the six years since the 2000 census, the 2006 <a href="/wiki/American_Community_Survey" title="American Community Survey">American Community Survey</a> reflected an estimated 15 percent decline of people speaking Yiddish at home in the U.S. to 152,515.<a href="#cite_note-114">[113]</a> In 2011, the number of persons in the United States above the age of five speaking Yiddish at home was 160,968.<a href="#cite_note-115">[114]</a> 88% of them were living in four <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_area" title="Metropolitan area">metropolitan areas</a> – New York City and another metropolitan area <a href="/wiki/Poughkeepsie%E2%80%93Newburgh%E2%80%93Middletown_metropolitan_area" class="mw-redirect" title="Poughkeepsie–Newburgh–Middletown metropolitan area">just north of it</a>, Miami, and Los Angeles.<a href="#cite_note-116">[115]</a> There are a few predominantly <a href="/wiki/Hasidic_Judaism" title="Hasidic Judaism">Hasidic</a> communities in the United States in which Yiddish remains the majority language including concentrations in the <a href="/wiki/Crown_Heights,_Brooklyn" title="Crown Heights, Brooklyn">Crown Heights</a>, <a href="/wiki/Borough_Park,_Brooklyn" title="Borough Park, Brooklyn">Borough Park</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Williamsburg,_Brooklyn" title="Williamsburg, Brooklyn">Williamsburg</a> neighborhoods of Brooklyn. In <a href="/wiki/Kiryas_Joel,_New_York" title="Kiryas Joel, New York">Kiryas Joel</a> in <a href="/wiki/Orange_County,_New_York" title="Orange County, New York">Orange County, New York</a>, in the 2000 census, nearly 90% of residents of Kiryas Joel reported speaking Yiddish at home.<a href="#cite_note-117">[116]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_Kingdom">United Kingdom</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Yiddish&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: United Kingdom">edit</a>]</div> There are well over 30,000 Yiddish speakers in the United Kingdom, and several thousand children now have Yiddish as a first language. The largest group of Yiddish speakers in Britain reside in the <a href="/wiki/Stamford_Hill" title="Stamford Hill">Stamford Hill</a> district of North London, but there are sizable communities in northwest London, <a href="/wiki/Leeds" title="Leeds">Leeds</a>, Manchester and <a href="/wiki/Gateshead" title="Gateshead">Gateshead</a>.<a href="#cite_note-118">[117]</a> The Yiddish readership in the UK is mainly reliant upon imported material from the United States and Israel for newspapers, magazines and other periodicals. However, the London-based weekly <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Tribune_(UK)" title="Jewish Tribune (UK)">Jewish Tribune</a> has a small section in Yiddish called אידישע טריבונע Yidishe Tribune. From the 1910s to the 1950s, London had a daily Yiddish newspaper called די צײַט (Di Tsayt, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1177148991">Yiddish pronunciation: <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Yiddish" title="Help:IPA/Yiddish">[dɪ tsaɪt]</a>; in English, The Time), founded, and edited from offices in <a href="/wiki/Whitechapel_Road" title="Whitechapel Road">Whitechapel Road</a>, by Romanian-born Morris Myer, who was succeeded on his death in 1943 by his son Harry. There were also from time to time Yiddish newspapers in Manchester, <a href="/wiki/Liverpool" title="Liverpool">Liverpool</a>, <a href="/wiki/Glasgow" title="Glasgow">Glasgow</a> and Leeds. The bilingual Yiddish and English café <a href="/wiki/Pink_Peacock" title="Pink Peacock">Pink Peacock</a> opened in Glasgow in 2021 but closed down in 2023. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Canada">Canada</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Yiddish&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Canada">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Montreal" title="Montreal">Montreal</a> had, and to some extent still has, one of the most thriving Yiddish communities in North America. Yiddish was Montreal's third language (after French and English) for the entire first half of the twentieth century. Der <a href="/wiki/Keneder_Adler" title="Keneder Adler">Keneder Adler</a> (The Canadian Eagle, founded by <a href="/wiki/Hirsch_Wolofsky" title="Hirsch Wolofsky">Hirsch Wolofsky</a>), Montreal's daily Yiddish newspaper, appeared from 1907 to 1988.<a href="#cite_note-119">[118]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Monument-National" title="Monument-National">Monument-National</a> was the center of Yiddish theater from 1896 until the construction of the Saidye Bronfman Centre for the Arts (now the <a href="/wiki/Segal_Centre_for_Performing_Arts" title="Segal Centre for Performing Arts">Segal Centre for Performing Arts</a>), inaugurated on September 24, 1967, where the established resident theater, the <a href="/wiki/Dora_Wasserman_Yiddish_Theatre" title="Dora Wasserman Yiddish Theatre">Dora Wasserman Yiddish Theatre</a>, remains the only permanent Yiddish theatre in North America. The theatre group also tours Canada, US, Israel, and Europe.<a href="#cite_note-120">[119]</a> Even though Yiddish has receded, it is the immediate ancestral language of Montrealers like <a href="/wiki/Mordecai_Richler" title="Mordecai Richler">Mordecai Richler</a> and <a href="/wiki/Leonard_Cohen" title="Leonard Cohen">Leonard Cohen</a>, as well as former interim city mayor <a href="/wiki/Michael_Applebaum" title="Michael Applebaum">Michael Applebaum</a>. Besides Yiddish-speaking activists, it remains today the native everyday language of 15,000 Montreal Hasidim. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religious_communities">Religious communities</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Yiddish&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Religious communities">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Brooklyn_Posters_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Brooklyn_Posters_1.jpg/220px-Brooklyn_Posters_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Brooklyn_Posters_1.jpg/330px-Brooklyn_Posters_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Brooklyn_Posters_1.jpg/440px-Brooklyn_Posters_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption>A typical poster-hung wall in a Jewish section of <a href="/wiki/Brooklyn" title="Brooklyn">Brooklyn</a>, New York</figcaption></figure> Major exceptions to the decline of spoken Yiddish are found in <a href="/wiki/Haredi_Judaism" title="Haredi Judaism">Haredi</a> communities all over the world. In some of the more closely knit such communities, Yiddish is spoken as a home and schooling language, especially in Hasidic, <a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithuanian Jews">Litvish</a>, or Yeshivish communities, such as <a href="/wiki/Brooklyn" title="Brooklyn">Brooklyn</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Borough_Park,_Brooklyn" title="Borough Park, Brooklyn">Borough Park</a>, <a href="/wiki/Williamsburg,_Brooklyn" title="Williamsburg, Brooklyn">Williamsburg</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Crown_Heights,_Brooklyn" title="Crown Heights, Brooklyn">Crown Heights</a>, and in the communities of <a href="/wiki/Monsey,_New_York" title="Monsey, New York">Monsey</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kiryas_Joel,_New_York" title="Kiryas Joel, New York">Kiryas Joel</a>, and <a href="/wiki/New_Square,_New_York" title="New Square, New York">New Square</a> in New York (over 88% of the population of Kiryas Joel is reported to speak Yiddish at home.<a href="#cite_note-121">[120]</a>) Also in <a href="/wiki/New_Jersey" title="New Jersey">New Jersey</a>, Yiddish is widely spoken mostly in <a href="/wiki/Lakewood_Township,_New_Jersey" title="Lakewood Township, New Jersey">Lakewood Township</a>, but also in smaller towns with <a href="/wiki/Yeshiva" title="Yeshiva">yeshivas</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Passaic,_New_Jersey" title="Passaic, New Jersey">Passaic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Teaneck,_New_Jersey" title="Teaneck, New Jersey">Teaneck</a>, and elsewhere. Yiddish is also widely spoken in the Jewish community in <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Antwerp" title="History of the Jews in Antwerp">Antwerp</a>, and in Haredi communities such as the ones in London, <a href="/wiki/Manchester" title="Manchester">Manchester</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Montreal" title="Montreal">Montreal</a>. Yiddish is also spoken in many Haredi communities throughout Israel. Among most Ashkenazi Haredim, Hebrew is generally reserved for prayer, while Yiddish is used for religious studies, as well as a home and business language. In Israel, however, Haredim commonly speak <a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew" title="Modern Hebrew">modern Hebrew</a>, with the notable exception of many Hasidic communities. However, many Haredim who use Modern Hebrew also understand Yiddish. There are some who send their children to schools in which the primary language of instruction is Yiddish. Members of anti-Zionist Haredi groups such as the <a href="/wiki/Satmar_(Hasidic_dynasty)" class="mw-redirect" title="Satmar (Hasidic dynasty)">Satmar Hasidim</a>, who view the commonplace use of Hebrew as a form of Zionism, use Yiddish almost exclusively. Hundreds of thousands of young children around the globe have been, and are still, taught to translate the texts of the <a href="/wiki/Torah" title="Torah">Torah</a> into Yiddish. This process is called טײַטשן (taytshn) – 'translating'. Many Ashkenazi yeshivas' highest level lectures in Talmud and <a href="/wiki/Halakha" title="Halakha">Halakha</a> are delivered in Yiddish by the <a href="/wiki/Rosh_yeshiva" title="Rosh yeshiva">rosh yeshivas</a> as well as ethical talks of the <a href="/wiki/Musar_movement" title="Musar movement">Musar movement</a>. Hasidic <a href="/wiki/Rebbe" title="Rebbe">rebbes</a> generally use only Yiddish to converse with their followers and to deliver their various Torah talks, classes, and lectures. The linguistic style and vocabulary of Yiddish have influenced the manner in which many <a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Judaism" title="Orthodox Judaism">Orthodox Jews</a> who attend yeshivas speak English. This usage is distinctive enough that it has been dubbed "<a href="/wiki/Yeshivish" title="Yeshivish">Yeshivish</a>". While Hebrew remains the exclusive language of <a href="/wiki/Jewish_prayer" title="Jewish prayer">Jewish prayer</a>, the Hasidim have mixed some Yiddish into their Hebrew, and are also responsible for a significant secondary religious literature written in Yiddish. For example, the tales about the <a href="/wiki/Baal_Shem_Tov" title="Baal Shem Tov">Baal Shem Tov</a> were written largely in Yiddish. The Torah Talks of the late Chabad leaders are published in their original form, Yiddish. In addition, some prayers, such as "<a href="/wiki/God_of_Abraham" title="God of Abraham">God of Abraham</a>", were composed and are recited in Yiddish. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_Yiddish_education">Modern Yiddish education</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Yiddish&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Modern Yiddish education">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yiddishsign.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Yiddishsign.JPG/220px-Yiddishsign.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Yiddishsign.JPG/330px-Yiddishsign.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Yiddishsign.JPG/440px-Yiddishsign.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2304" /></a><figcaption>A road sign in Yiddish (except for the word "sidewalk") at an official construction site in the <a href="/wiki/Monsey,_New_York" title="Monsey, New York">Monsey</a> hamlet, a community with thousands of Yiddish speakers, in <a href="/wiki/Ramapo,_New_York" title="Ramapo, New York">Ramapo</a>, New York.</figcaption></figure> There has been a resurgence in Yiddish learning in recent times among many from around the world with Jewish ancestry. The language which had lost many of its native speakers during the Holocaust has been making something of a comeback.<a href="#cite_note-122">[121]</a> In Poland, which traditionally had Yiddish speaking communities, a museum has begun to revive Yiddish education and culture.<a href="#cite_note-123">[122]</a> Located in Kraków, the <a href="/wiki/Galicia_Jewish_Museum" title="Galicia Jewish Museum">Galicia Jewish Museum</a> offers classes in Yiddish Language Instruction and workshops on Yiddish Songs. The museum has taken steps to revive the culture through concerts and events held on site.<a href="#cite_note-124">[123]</a> There are various universities worldwide which now offer Yiddish programs based on the <a href="/wiki/YIVO" title="YIVO">YIVO</a> Yiddish standard. Many of these programs are held during the summer and are attended by Yiddish enthusiasts from around the world. One such school located within <a href="/wiki/Vilnius_University" title="Vilnius University">Vilnius University</a> (Vilnius Yiddish Institute) was the first Yiddish center of higher learning to be established in post-Holocaust Eastern Europe. Vilnius Yiddish Institute is an integral part of the four-century-old Vilnius University. Published Yiddish scholar and researcher Dovid Katz is among the Faculty.<a href="#cite_note-125">[124]</a> Despite this growing popularity among many <a href="/wiki/American_Jews" title="American Jews">American Jews</a>,<a href="#cite_note-126">[125]</a> finding opportunities for practical use of Yiddish is becoming increasingly difficult, and thus many students have trouble learning to speak the language.<a href="#cite_note-127">[126]</a> One solution has been the establishment of a farm in <a href="/wiki/Goshen,_New_York" title="Goshen, New York">Goshen, New York</a>, for Yiddishists.<a href="#cite_note-128">[127]</a> Yiddish is the medium of instruction in many Hasidic חדרים khadoorim, Jewish boys' schools, and some Hasidic girls' schools. Some American Jewish days schools and high schools offer Yiddish education. An organization called Yiddishkayt (יידישקייט) promotes Yiddish-language education in schools.<a href="#cite_note-129">[128]</a> <a href="/wiki/Sholem_Aleichem_College" title="Sholem Aleichem College">Sholem Aleichem College</a>, a secular Jewish primary school in <a href="/wiki/Melbourne" title="Melbourne">Melbourne</a> teaches Yiddish as a second language to all its students. The school was founded in 1975 by the <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Labour_Bund_(Australia)" title="Jewish Labour Bund (Australia)">Bund movement in Australia</a>, and still maintains daily Yiddish instruction today, and includes student theater and music in Yiddish. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Internet">Internet</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Yiddish&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Internet">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Google_Translate" title="Google Translate">Google Translate</a> includes Yiddish as one of its languages,<a href="#cite_note-130">[129]</a><a href="#cite_note-131">[130]</a> as does <a href="/wiki/Yiddish_Wikipedia" title="Yiddish Wikipedia">Wikipedia</a>. Hebrew-alphabet keyboards are available, and right-to-left writing is recognized. <a href="/wiki/Google_Search" title="Google Search">Google Search</a> accepts queries in Yiddish. Over eleven thousand Yiddish texts,<a href="#cite_note-132">[131]</a> estimated as between a sixth and a quarter of all the published works in Yiddish,<a href="#cite_note-133">[132]</a> are now online, based on the work of the <a href="/wiki/Yiddish_Book_Center" title="Yiddish Book Center">Yiddish Book Center</a>, volunteers, and the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a>.<a href="#cite_note-134">[133]</a> There are many websites on the Internet in Yiddish. In January 2013, The Forward announced the launch of the new daily version of its newspaper's website, which has been active since 1999 as an online weekly, supplied with radio and video programs, a literary section for fiction writers and a special blog written in local contemporary Hasidic dialects.<a href="#cite_note-135">[134]</a> Many Jewish <a href="/wiki/Ethnolect" title="Ethnolect">ethnolects</a> influenced by Yiddish are available via online resources such as <a href="/wiki/YouTube" title="YouTube">YouTube</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:4-136">[135]</a> Computer scientist <a href="/wiki/Raphael_Finkel" title="Raphael Finkel">Raphael Finkel</a> maintains a hub of Yiddish-language resources, including a searchable <a href="/wiki/Dictionary" title="Dictionary">dictionary</a><a href="#cite_note-137">[136]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spell_checker" title="Spell checker">spell checker</a>.<a href="#cite_note-138">[137]</a> In late 2016, <a href="/wiki/Motorola" title="Motorola">Motorola</a> Inc. released its smartphones with keyboard access for the Yiddish language in its foreign language option. On April 5, 2021, <a href="/wiki/Duolingo" title="Duolingo">Duolingo</a> added Yiddish to its courses.<a href="#cite_note-139">[138]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Influence_on_other_languages">Influence on other languages</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Yiddish&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Influence on other languages">edit</a>]</div> In addition to <a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew" title="Modern Hebrew">Modern Hebrew</a> and <a href="/wiki/New_York_English" class="mw-redirect" title="New York English">New York English</a>, especially as spoken by <a href="/wiki/Yeshivah" class="mw-redirect" title="Yeshivah">yeshivah</a> students (sometimes known as <a href="/wiki/Yeshivish" title="Yeshivish">Yeshivish</a>), Yiddish has influenced <a href="/wiki/Cockney_English" class="mw-redirect" title="Cockney English">Cockney</a> in England and to some degree the city dialects of Vienna and Berlin. <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a> <a href="/wiki/Argot" class="mw-redirect" title="Argot">argot</a> has some words coming from Yiddish.<a href="#cite_note-Nahon_2017_pp._139–155-140">[139]</a> <a href="/wiki/Paul_Wexler_(linguist)" title="Paul Wexler (linguist)">Paul Wexler</a> proposed that <a href="/wiki/Esperanto" title="Esperanto">Esperanto</a> was not an arbitrary pastiche of major European languages but a Latinate <a href="/wiki/Relexification" title="Relexification">relexification</a> of Yiddish, a native language of its <a href="/wiki/L._L._Zamenhof" title="L. L. Zamenhof">founder</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Wexler-141">[140]</a> This model is generally unsupported by mainstream linguists.<a href="#cite_note-Spolsky_157-142">[141]</a> Yiddish had an influence on <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_Swedish&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jewish Swedish (page does not exist)">Jewish Swedish</a> a dialect of <a href="/wiki/Swedish_language" title="Swedish language">Swedish</a> used by Jews with loanwords from Hebrew and Yiddish.<a href="#cite_note-143">[142]</a> And Yiddish had an influence on Hungarian with extra influence on <a href="/w/index.php?title=Judeo_Hungarian&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Judeo Hungarian (page does not exist)">Jewish Hungarian</a>, a dialect of Hungarian spoken by <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Hungary" title="History of the Jews in Hungary">Hungarian Jews</a>.<a href="#cite_note-144">[143]</a> Yiddish had influence on other <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Europe" title="History of the Jews in Europe">European Jewish</a> ethnolects like <a href="/w/index.php?title=Judeo_Russian&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Judeo Russian (page does not exist)">Jewish Russian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_French" title="Varieties of French">Jewish French</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Jewish_Russian-145">[144]</a> These ethnolects are shown in various pieces of media across various mediums both digital and physical.<a href="#cite_note-Jewish_Russian-145">[144]</a><a href="#cite_note-:4-136">[135]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1248256098">@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery{width:100%!important}}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery{display:table}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-default{background:transparent;margin-top:4px}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-center{margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-left{float:left}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-right{float:right}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-none{float:none}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-collapsible{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .title,.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .main,.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .footer{display:table-row}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .title>div{display:table-cell;padding:0 4px 4px;text-align:center;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .main>div{display:table-cell}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .gallery{line-height:1.35em}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .footer>div{display:table-cell;padding:4px;text-align:right;font-size:85%;line-height:1em}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .title>div *,.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .footer>div *{overflow:visible}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .gallerybox img{background:none!important}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .bordered-images .thumb img{border:solid var(--background-color-neutral,#eaecf0)1px}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .whitebg .thumb{background:var(--background-color-base,#fff)!important}</style><div class="mod-gallery mod-gallery-default"><div class="main"><div><ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional nochecker bordered-images whitebg"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><a href="/wiki/File:NewSquareElectionSign.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="A 2008 election poster in front of a store in Village of New Square, Town of Ramapo, New York, entirely in Yiddish. The candidates' names are transliterated into Hebrew letters."><img alt="A 2008 election poster in front of a store in Village of New Square, Town of Ramapo, New York, entirely in Yiddish. The candidates' names are transliterated into Hebrew letters." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/NewSquareElectionSign.JPG/180px-NewSquareElectionSign.JPG" decoding="async" width="180" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/NewSquareElectionSign.JPG/270px-NewSquareElectionSign.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/NewSquareElectionSign.JPG/360px-NewSquareElectionSign.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2304" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">A 2008 election poster in front of a store in <a href="/wiki/New_Square,_New_York" title="New Square, New York">Village of New Square</a>, Town of Ramapo, New York, entirely in Yiddish. The candidates' names are transliterated into Hebrew letters.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Rosh_Hashana_Montevideo_1932.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Rosh Hashanah greeting card, Montevideo, 1932. The inscription includes text in Hebrew (לשנה טובה תכתבו—LeShoyno Toyvo Tikoseyvu) and Yiddish (מאנטעווידעא—Montevideo)."><img alt="Rosh Hashanah greeting card, Montevideo, 1932. The inscription includes text in Hebrew (לשנה טובה תכתבו—LeShoyno Toyvo Tikoseyvu) and Yiddish (מאנטעווידעא—Montevideo)." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Rosh_Hashana_Montevideo_1932.jpg/180px-Rosh_Hashana_Montevideo_1932.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="109" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Rosh_Hashana_Montevideo_1932.jpg/270px-Rosh_Hashana_Montevideo_1932.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Rosh_Hashana_Montevideo_1932.jpg/360px-Rosh_Hashana_Montevideo_1932.jpg 2x" data-file-width="379" data-file-height="229" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Rosh_Hashanah" title="Rosh Hashanah">Rosh Hashanah</a> greeting card, <a href="/wiki/Montevideo" title="Montevideo">Montevideo</a>, 1932. The inscription includes text in Hebrew (לשנה טובה תכתבו—LeShoyno Toyvo Tikoseyvu) and Yiddish (מאנטעווידעא—Montevideo).</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px; height: 210px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Examples_of_Yiddish_usage_in_Birobidzhan_public_space.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Examples of Yiddish usage in Birobidzhan public space"><img alt="Examples of Yiddish usage in Birobidzhan public space" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Examples_of_Yiddish_usage_in_Birobidzhan_public_space.jpg/180px-Examples_of_Yiddish_usage_in_Birobidzhan_public_space.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Examples_of_Yiddish_usage_in_Birobidzhan_public_space.jpg/270px-Examples_of_Yiddish_usage_in_Birobidzhan_public_space.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Examples_of_Yiddish_usage_in_Birobidzhan_public_space.jpg/360px-Examples_of_Yiddish_usage_in_Birobidzhan_public_space.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1080" data-file-height="1080" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Examples of Yiddish usage in Birobidzhan public space</div> </li> </ul></div></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Language_examples">Language examples</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Yiddish&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Language examples">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/WIKITONGUES-_Suri_speaking_Yiddish.webm/220px--WIKITONGUES-_Suri_speaking_Yiddish.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="124" data-durationhint="385" data-mwtitle="WIKITONGUES-_Suri_speaking_Yiddish.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:WIKITONGUES-_Suri_speaking_Yiddish.webm"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/3d/WIKITONGUES-_Suri_speaking_Yiddish.webm/WIKITONGUES-_Suri_speaking_Yiddish.webm.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/3d/WIKITONGUES-_Suri_speaking_Yiddish.webm/WIKITONGUES-_Suri_speaking_Yiddish.webm.720p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="720p.vp9.webm" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/3d/WIKITONGUES-_Suri_speaking_Yiddish.webm/WIKITONGUES-_Suri_speaking_Yiddish.webm.1080p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="1080p.vp9.webm" data-width="1920" data-height="1080" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3d/WIKITONGUES-_Suri_speaking_Yiddish.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-width="1920" data-height="1080" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/3d/WIKITONGUES-_Suri_speaking_Yiddish.webm/WIKITONGUES-_Suri_speaking_Yiddish.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/3d/WIKITONGUES-_Suri_speaking_Yiddish.webm/WIKITONGUES-_Suri_speaking_Yiddish.webm.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/3d/WIKITONGUES-_Suri_speaking_Yiddish.webm/WIKITONGUES-_Suri_speaking_Yiddish.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AWIKITONGUES-_Suri_speaking_Yiddish.webm&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></video><figcaption>Example video of native Yiddish speaker talking in the Yiddish language (with English-translated subtitles).</figcaption></figure> The following is a short example of the Yiddish language written in both the Hebrew and Latin scripts with English and <a href="/wiki/Standard_German" title="Standard German">standard German</a> for comparison. <table class="wikitable plainrowheaders"> <caption>Article 1 of the <a href="/wiki/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights" title="Universal Declaration of Human Rights">Universal Declaration of Human Rights</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th scope="col">Language </th> <th scope="col">Text </th></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">English<a href="#cite_note-146">[145]</a> </th> <td>All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood. </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Yiddish<a href="#cite_note-ohchr_yiddish-147">[146]</a> </th> <td><div dir="rtl" style="text-align:right">יעדער מענטש װערט געבױרן פֿרײַ און גלײַך אין כּבֿוד און רעכט. יעדער װערט באַשאָנקן מיט פֿאַרשטאַנד און געװיסן; יעדער זאָל זיך פֿירן מיט אַ צװײטן אין אַ געמיט פֿון ברודערשאַפֿט.</div> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Yiddish (transliteration) </th> <td>yeder mentsh vert geboyrn fray un glaykh in koved un rekht. yeder vert bashonkn mit farshtand un gevisn; yeder zol zikh firn mit a tsveytn in a gemit fun brudershaft. </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">German with wording and word order as close to the Yiddish version as possible </th> <td>Jeder Mensch wird geboren, frei und gleich in Ehre und Recht. Jeder wird beschenkt, mit Verstand und Gewissen; Jeder soll sich führen, miteinander im Gemüt von Bruderschaft. </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Official German version<a href="#cite_note-148">[147]</a> </th> <td>Alle Menschen sind frei und gleich an Würde und Rechten geboren. Sie sind mit Vernunft und Gewissen begabt und sollen einander im Geist der Brüderlichkeit begegnen. </td></tr> <tr> <th>Hebrew<a href="#cite_note-149">[148]</a> </th> <td>כל בני האדם נולדו בני חורין ושווים בערכם ובזכויותיהם. כולם חוננו בתבונה ובמצפון, לפיכך חובה עליהם לנהוג איש ברעהו ברוח של אחווה </td></tr> <tr> <th>Hebrew (transliteration) </th> <td>kol benei ha'adam noldu benei khorin veshavim be'erkam uvizkhuyoteihem. Kulam khonenu bitevuna uvematspun, lefikhakh chova 'aleihem linhog ish bere'ehu beruakh shel akhava. </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Yiddish&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Yiddish-language_poets" title="List of Yiddish-language poets">List of Yiddish-language poets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Yiddish_newspapers_and_periodicals" title="List of Yiddish newspapers and periodicals">List of Yiddish newspapers and periodicals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Yiddish_King_Lear" title="The Yiddish King Lear">The Yiddish King Lear</a> – 1892 play</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yinglish" class="mw-redirect" title="Yinglish">Yinglish</a> – Words from the Yiddish Language used in everyday EnglishPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish_symbols" title="Yiddish symbols">Yiddish symbols</a> – Symbols of Yiddishist movements</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Spanish" title="Judaeo-Spanish">Judaeo-Spanish</a> – Language derived from Medieval Spanish spoken by Sephardic Jews</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Iranian_languages" title="Judeo-Iranian languages">Judeo-Iranian languages</a> – Jewish variants of Iranian languages</li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Yiddish&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> Die verkümmerten und verdrückten Jargons, deren wir uns jetzt bedienen, diese Ghettosprachen werden wir uns abgewöhnen. Es waren die verstohlenen Sprachen von Gefangenen. </li> </ol></div></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-e18-1"><a href="#cite_ref-e18_1-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ethnologue.com/18/language/Yiddish/">Yiddish</a> at <a href="/wiki/Ethnologue" title="Ethnologue">Ethnologue</a> (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required) </li> <li id="cite_note-2021_stats-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-2021_stats_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-2021_stats_2-1">b</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210215015918/https://jewishstudies.rutgers.edu/yiddish/102-department-of-jewish-studies/yiddish/159-yiddish-faqs">"Yiddish FAQs"</a>. Rutgers University. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://jewishstudies.rutgers.edu/yiddish/102-department-of-jewish-studies/yiddish/159-yiddish-faqs">the original</a> on February 15, 2021. Retrieved February 9, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Yiddish+FAQs&rft.pub=Rutgers+University&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjewishstudies.rutgers.edu%2Fyiddish%2F102-department-of-jewish-studies%2Fyiddish%2F159-yiddish-faqs&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYiddish" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> Edited by Ekkehard König and Johan van der Auwera: The Germanic Languages. Routledge: London & New York, 1994, p. 388 (chapter 12 Yiddish) </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> Sten Vikner: Oxford Studies in Comparative Syntax: Verb Movement and Expletive Subjects in the Germanic Languages. Oxford University Press: New York & Oxford, 1995, p. 7 </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> Matthias Mieses: Die Gesetze der Schriftgeschichte: Konfession und Schrift im Leben der Völker. 1919, p. 323. Also cp. the following works, where certain works in Yiddish language with Latin script are mentioned: <ul><li>Carmen Reichert: Poetische Selbstbilder: Deutsch-jüdische und Jiddische Lyrikanthologien 1900–1938. (Jüdische Religion, Geschichte und Kultur. Band 29). 2019, p. 223 (in chapter 4. 10 Ein radikaler Schritt:eine jiddische Anthologie in lateinischen Buchstaben)</li> <li>Illa Meisels: Erinnerung der Herzen. Wien: Czernin Verlag, 2004, p. 74: "Chaja Raismann, Nit in Golus un nit in der Heem, Amsterdam 1931, ein in lateinischen Buchstaben geschriebenes jiddisches Büchlein."</li> <li>Desanka Schwara: Humor und Toleranz. Ostjüdische Anekdoten als historische Quelle. 2001, p. 42</li> <li>Edited by Manfred Treml and Josef Kirmeier with assistance by Evamaria Brockhoff: Geschichte und Kultur der Juden in Bayern: Aufsätze. 1988, p. 522</li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-jao-ustav-6">^ <a href="#cite_ref-jao-ustav_6-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-jao-ustav_6-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://constitution.garant.ru/region/ustav_evreis/chapter/1/">"Устав Еврейской автономной области от 8 октября 1997 г. N 40-ОЗ (с изменениями и дополнениями) Глава I. Общие положения. Статья 6.2 [Charter of the Jewish Autonomous Oblast N 40-ОЗ (with the Amendments and Additions of 8 October 1997): Chapter I. General situation. Article 6.2]"</a>. Сайт Конституции Российской Федерации [Site of the Constitution of the Russian Federation]. Garant. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150221205825/http://constitution.garant.ru/region/ustav_evreis/chapter/1/#block_1000">Archived</a> from the original on February 21, 2015. Retrieved June 16, 2023. <q>В области создаются условия для сохранения, изучения и развития языков еврейского народа и других народов, проживающих на территории области.</q> [In the oblast the conditions will be created for the protection, stidy and growth of the languages of the Jewish peoples and other peoples living on the territory of the oblast.]</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%B9%D1%82+%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%83%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B8+%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9+%D0%A4%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B8+%5BSite+of+the+Constitution+of+the+Russian+Federation%5D&rft.atitle=%D0%A3%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B2+%D0%95%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9+%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B9+%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8+%D0%BE%D1%82+8+%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%8F%D0%B1%D1%80%D1%8F+1997+%D0%B3.+N+40-%D0%9E%D0%97+%28%D1%81+%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F%D0%BC%D0%B8+%D0%B8+%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F%D0%BC%D0%B8%29+%D0%93%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0+I.+%D0%9E%D0%B1%D1%89%D0%B8%D0%B5+%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F.+%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%8C%D1%8F+6.2+%5BCharter+of+the+Jewish+Autonomous+Oblast+N+40-%D0%9E%D0%97+%28with+the+Amendments+and+Additions+of+8+October+1997%29%3A+Chapter+I.+General+situation.+Article+6.2%5D&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fconstitution.garant.ru%2Fregion%2Fustav_evreis%2Fchapter%2F1%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYiddish" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.coe.int/en/web/european-charter-regional-or-minority-languages/languages-covered">What languages does the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages apply to?</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zakon.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/670-2024-п">"Про затвердження переліку мов національних меншин (спільнот) та корінних народів України, яким загрожує зникнення"</a>. Official webportal of the Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine. June 7, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Official+webportal+of+the+Verkhovna+Rada+of+Ukraine&rft.atitle=%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE+%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B4%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F+%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BA%D1%83+%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2+%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%96%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%85+%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%BD+%28%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%96%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%82%29+%D1%82%D0%B0+%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%85+%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%96%D0%B2+%D0%A3%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%97%D0%BD%D0%B8%2C+%D1%8F%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%BC+%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B6%D1%83%D1%94+%D0%B7%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F&rft.date=2024-06-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fzakon.rada.gov.ua%2Flaws%2Fshow%2F670-2024-%D0%BF&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYiddish" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://en.wal.unesco.org/languages/eastern-yiddish">"World Atlas of Languages: Eastern Yiddish"</a>. en.wal.unesco.org. Retrieved April 23, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=en.wal.unesco.org&rft.atitle=World+Atlas+of+Languages%3A+Eastern+Yiddish&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wal.unesco.org%2Flanguages%2Feastern-yiddish&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYiddish" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Yaron_Matras" title="Yaron Matras">Matras, Yaron</a>. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://languagecontact.humanities.manchester.ac.uk/ELA/languages/Yiddish.html">Archive of Endangered and Smaller Languages: Yiddish</a>". University of Manchester. humanities.manchester.ac.uk. Matres explains that with the emigration of Jews eastward into Slavic-speaking areas of Central Europe, from around the twelfth century onward, Yiddish "took on an independent development path", adding: "It was only in this context that Jews began to refer to their language as 'Yiddish' (= 'Jewish'), while earlier, it had been referred to as 'Yiddish-Taitsh' (='Judeo-German')." </li> <li id="cite_note-jacobs2005-11">^ <a href="#cite_ref-jacobs2005_11-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-jacobs2005_11-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-jacobs2005_11-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-jacobs2005_11-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-jacobs2005_11-4">e</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJacobs2005" class="citation book cs1">Jacobs, Neil G. (2005). Yiddish: a Linguistic Introduction. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-77215-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-77215-X"><bdi>0-521-77215-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Yiddish%3A+a+Linguistic+Introduction&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-521-77215-X&rft.aulast=Jacobs&rft.aufirst=Neil+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYiddish" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-baumgarten-12">^ <a href="#cite_ref-baumgarten_12-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-baumgarten_12-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaumgartenFrakes2005" class="citation book cs1">Baumgarten, Jean; Frakes, Jerold C. (June 1, 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eyBQn7JrBVwC&pg=PA72">Introduction to Old Yiddish literature</a>. Oxford University Press. p. 72. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-927633-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-927633-2"><bdi>978-0-19-927633-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Old+Yiddish+literature&rft.pages=72&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005-06-01&rft.isbn=978-0-19-927633-2&rft.aulast=Baumgarten&rft.aufirst=Jean&rft.au=Frakes%2C+Jerold+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DeyBQn7JrBVwC%26pg%3DPA72&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYiddish" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jewishgen.org/databases/givennames/yiddial.htm">"Development of Yiddish over the ages"</a>. jewishgen.org.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Development+of+Yiddish+over+the+ages&rft.pub=jewishgen.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jewishgen.org%2Fdatabases%2Fgivennames%2Fyiddial.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYiddish" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Yardumian-14"><a href="#cite_ref-Yardumian_14-0">^</a> Aram Yardumian, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biorxiv.org/content/biorxiv/early/2013/12/12/001354.full.pdf">"A Tale of Two Hypotheses: Genetics and the Ethnogenesis of Ashkenazi Jewry".</a> University of Pennsylvania. 2013. </li> <li id="cite_note-yivoyiddish-15">^ <a href="#cite_ref-yivoyiddish_15-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-yivoyiddish_15-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-yivoyiddish_15-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDovid_Katz" class="citation web cs1">Dovid Katz. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120322162722/http://yivo.org/downloads/Yiddish.pdf">"Yiddish"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/YIVO" title="YIVO">YIVO</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://yivo.org/downloads/Yiddish.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on March 22, 2012. Retrieved December 20, 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=YIVO&rft.atitle=Yiddish&rft.au=Dovid+Katz&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fyivo.org%2Fdownloads%2FYiddish.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYiddish" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cal.org/heritage/yiddish.html">"Yiddish Language"</a>. Center for Applied Linguistics. 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Yiddish+Language&rft.pub=Center+for+Applied+Linguistics&rft.date=2012&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cal.org%2Fheritage%2Fyiddish.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYiddish" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sprache_1984_p._3-17">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sprache_1984_p._3_17-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sprache_1984_p._3_17-1">b</a> <a href="/wiki/Solomon_Birnbaum" title="Solomon Birnbaum">Solomon Birnbaum</a>, Grammatik der jiddischen Sprache (4., erg. Aufl., Hamburg: Buske, 1984), p. 3. </li> <li id="cite_note-:5-18">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:5_18-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_18-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.yivo.org/cimages/basic_facts_about_yiddish_2014.pdf">"Basic Facts about Yiddish"</a> (PDF). YIVO. 2014. Retrieved December 24, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=YIVO&rft.atitle=Basic+Facts+about+Yiddish&rft.date=2014&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.yivo.org%2Fcimages%2Fbasic_facts_about_yiddish_2014.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYiddish" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> In particular, <a href="/wiki/L._L._Zamenhof" title="L. L. Zamenhof">Zamenhof</a>, the initiator of <a href="/wiki/Esperanto" title="Esperanto">Esperanto</a> and a Litvak Jew from <a href="/wiki/Congress_Poland" title="Congress Poland">Congress Poland</a>, often mentioned his fondness for what he called his mama-loshen (it was not yet called Yiddish but usually jargon at that time and place) in his correspondence. </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jewishlanguages.org/yiddish">"Yiddish"</a>. Jewish Languages. Retrieved December 25, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Jewish+Languages&rft.atitle=Yiddish&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jewishlanguages.org%2Fyiddish&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYiddish" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Oscar_Levant" title="Oscar Levant">Oscar Levant</a> described <a href="/wiki/Cole_Porter" title="Cole Porter">Cole Porter</a>'s '<a href="/wiki/My_Heart_Belongs_to_Daddy" title="My Heart Belongs to Daddy">My Heart Belongs to Daddy</a>" as "one of the most Yiddish tunes ever written", despite the fact that "Cole Porter's genetic background was completely alien to any Jewishness". Oscar Levant, <a href="/wiki/The_Unimportance_of_Being_Oscar" title="The Unimportance of Being Oscar">The Unimportance of Being Oscar</a>, Pocket Books 1969 (reprint of G.P. Putnam 1968), p. 32. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-671-77104-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-671-77104-3">0-671-77104-3</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-kriwaczek-22">^ <a href="#cite_ref-kriwaczek_22-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-kriwaczek_22-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKriwaczek2005" class="citation book cs1">Kriwaczek, Paul (2005). Yiddish Civilization: The Rise and Fall of a Forgotten Nation. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-297-82941-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-297-82941-6"><bdi>0-297-82941-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Yiddish+Civilization%3A+The+Rise+and+Fall+of+a+Forgotten+Nation&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Weidenfeld+%26+Nicolson&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-297-82941-6&rft.aulast=Kriwaczek&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYiddish" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0110.htm#3">Genesis 10:3</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> "Thus in Rashi's (1040–1105) commentary on the Talmud, German expressions appear as leshon Ashkenaz. Similarly when Rashi writes: "But in Ashkenaz I saw [...]" he no doubt meant the communities of Mainz and Worms in which he had dwelt." <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerenbaumSkolnik2007" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Berenbaum" title="Michael Berenbaum">Berenbaum, Michael</a>; <a href="/wiki/Fred_Skolnik" title="Fred Skolnik">Skolnik, Fred</a>, eds. (2007). "Ashkenaz". <a href="/wiki/Encyclopaedia_Judaica" title="Encyclopaedia Judaica">Encyclopaedia Judaica</a>. Vol. 2 (2nd ed.). Detroit: Macmillan Reference. pp. 569–571. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-02-866097-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-02-866097-4"><bdi>978-0-02-866097-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ashkenaz&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+Judaica&rft.place=Detroit&rft.pages=569-571&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Macmillan+Reference&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-02-866097-4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYiddish" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchoenberg" class="citation web cs1">Schoenberg, Shira. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/ashkenazim">"Judaism: Ashkenazism"</a>. Retrieved December 10, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Judaism%3A+Ashkenazism&rft.aulast=Schoenberg&rft.aufirst=Shira&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jewishvirtuallibrary.org%2Fashkenazim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYiddish" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ELL-26"><a href="#cite_ref-ELL_26-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYiddish2005" class="citation book cs1">Yiddish (2005). <a href="/wiki/Keith_Brown_(linguist)" title="Keith Brown (linguist)">Keith Brown</a> (ed.). <a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Language_and_Linguistics" title="Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics">Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics</a> (2 ed.). Elsevier. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-08-044299-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-08-044299-4"><bdi>0-08-044299-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Language+and+Linguistics&rft.edition=2&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-08-044299-4&rft.au=Yiddish&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYiddish" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Spolsky-27">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Spolsky_27-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Spolsky_27-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Spolsky_27-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Spolsky_27-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpolsky2014" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Spolsky" title="Bernard Spolsky">Spolsky, Bernard</a> (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5Xk9AwAAQBAJ&pg=PA183">The Languages of the Jews: A Sociolinguistic History</a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 183. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-91714-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-139-91714-8"><bdi>978-1-139-91714-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Languages+of+the+Jews%3A+A+Sociolinguistic+History&rft.pages=183&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-139-91714-8&rft.aulast=Spolsky&rft.aufirst=Bernard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5Xk9AwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA183&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYiddish" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> Traces remain in the contemporary Yiddish vocabulary: for example, בענטשן (bentshn, "to bless"), ultimately from the Latin benedicere; לייענען (leyenen, "to read"), from the Old French lei(e)re; and the personal names בונים Bunim (related to French bon nom, good name) and Yentl (Old French gentil, "noble"). Western Yiddish includes additional words of ultimate Latin derivation (but still very few): for example, אָרן orn (to pray), cf. Old French orer. Beider, Alexander (2015). Origins of Yiddish Dialects. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-873931-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-873931-9">978-0-19-873931-9</a>, pp. 382–402. </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeinreich2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Max_Weinreich" title="Max Weinreich">Weinreich, Max</a> (2008). Glasser, Paul (ed.). History of the Yiddish Language. Yale University Press/ YIVO Institute for Jewish Research. p. 336.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+the+Yiddish+Language&rft.pages=336&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press%2F+YIVO+Institute+for+Jewish+Research&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Weinreich&rft.aufirst=Max&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYiddish" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeinreich1954" class="citation book cs1">Weinreich, Uriel, ed. (1954). The Field of Yiddish. Linguistic Circle of New York. pp. 63–101.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Field+of+Yiddish&rft.pages=63-101&rft.pub=Linguistic+Circle+of+New+York&rft.date=1954&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYiddish" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fleischer-31">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fleischer_31-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fleischer_31-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fleischer_31-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAptrootHansen2014" class="citation book cs1">Aptroot, Marion; Hansen, Björn (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8ynoBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA108">Yiddish Language Structures</a>. De Gruyter Mouton. p. 108. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-033952-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-033952-9"><bdi>978-3-11-033952-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Yiddish+Language+Structures&rft.pages=108&rft.pub=De+Gruyter+Mouton&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-3-11-033952-9&rft.aulast=Aptroot&rft.aufirst=Marion&rft.au=Hansen%2C+Bj%C3%B6rn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8ynoBQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA108&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYiddish" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnson1987" class="citation book cs1">Johnson, Paul (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pdfdrive.com/a-history-of-the-jews-e159156761.html">A History of the Jews</a> (1st U.S. ed.). New York: Harper & Row. p. 339. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-091533-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-06-091533-9"><bdi>978-0-06-091533-9</bdi></a>. Retrieved February 1, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Jews&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=339&rft.edition=1st+U.S.&rft.pub=Harper+%26+Row&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-06-091533-9&rft.aulast=Johnson&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pdfdrive.com%2Fa-history-of-the-jews-e159156761.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYiddish" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPhilologos2014" class="citation news cs1">Philologos (July 27, 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://forward.com/culture/202706/the-origins-of-yiddish-part-fir/">"The Origins of Yiddish: Part Fir"</a>. The Forward.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Forward&rft.atitle=The+Origins+of+Yiddish%3A+Part+Fir&rft.date=2014-07-27&rft.au=Philologos&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fforward.com%2Fculture%2F202706%2Fthe-origins-of-yiddish-part-fir%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYiddish" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.yivoencyclopedia.org/popups/viewmedia.aspx?id=1116">"Image"</a>. Yivoencyclopedia.org. Retrieved August 7, 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Image&rft.pub=Yivoencyclopedia.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.yivoencyclopedia.org%2Fpopups%2Fviewmedia.aspx%3Fid%3D1116&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYiddish" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrakes2004" class="citation book cs1">Frakes, Jerold C (2004). Early Yiddish Texts 1100–1750. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-926614-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-926614-X"><bdi>0-19-926614-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+Yiddish+Texts+1100%E2%80%931750&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-19-926614-X&rft.aulast=Frakes&rft.aufirst=Jerold+C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYiddish" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120715192212/http://www.milon.co.il/general/general.php?term=%D7%91%D7%93%D7%A2%D7%AA%D7%95">"בדעתו"</a>. Milon.co.il. May 14, 2007. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.milon.co.il/general/general.php?term=%D7%91%D7%93%D7%A2%D7%AA%D7%95">the original</a> on July 15, 2012. Retrieved August 7, 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%D7%91%D7%93%D7%A2%D7%AA%D7%95&rft.pub=Milon.co.il&rft.date=2007-05-14&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.milon.co.il%2Fgeneral%2Fgeneral.php%3Fterm%3D%25D7%2591%25D7%2593%25D7%25A2%25D7%25AA%25D7%2595&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYiddish" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> Old Yiddish Literature from Its Origins to the Haskalah Period by Zinberg, Israel. KTAV, 1975. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87068-465-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-87068-465-5">0-87068-465-5</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> Speculum, A Journal of Medieval Studies: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=7652280&fileId=S0038713400099498">Volume 78, Issue 01, January 2003, pp 210–212</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeinreich1973" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Max_Weinreich" title="Max Weinreich">Weinreich, Max</a> (1973). געשיכטע פֿון דער ייִדישער שפּראַך [History of the Yiddish language]. Vol. 1. New York: YIVO Institute for Jewish Research. p. 280.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%D7%92%D7%A2%D7%A9%D7%99%D7%9B%D7%98%D7%A2+%D7%A4%D6%BF%D7%95%D7%9F+%D7%93%D7%A2%D7%A8+%D7%99%D7%99%D6%B4%D7%93%D7%99%D7%A9%D7%A2%D7%A8+%D7%A9%D7%A4%D6%BC%D7%A8%D7%90%D6%B7%D7%9A&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=280&rft.pub=YIVO+Institute+for+Jewish+Research&rft.date=1973&rft.aulast=Weinreich&rft.aufirst=Max&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYiddish" class="Z3988"> with explanation of symbol on p. xiv. </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFInternationale_Medienhilfe_(IMH)2024" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Internationale Medienhilfe (IMH) (September 22, 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.medienhilfe.org/still-exist-yiddish-language-newspapers-magazines-throughout-world/">"They still exist: Yiddish-language newspapers and magazines throughout the world"</a>. IMH (in German). Retrieved September 22, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=IMH&rft.atitle=They+still+exist%3A+Yiddish-language+newspapers+and+magazines+throughout+the+world&rft.date=2024-09-22&rft.au=Internationale+Medienhilfe+%28IMH%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.medienhilfe.org%2Fstill-exist-yiddish-language-newspapers-magazines-throughout-world%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYiddish" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBechtel2010" class="citation book cs1">Bechtel, Delphine (2010). "Yiddish Theatre and Its Impact on the German and Austrian Stage". In Malkin, Jeanette R.; Rokem, Freddie (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=geJnnySQ4rUC">Jews and the making of modern German theatre</a>. Studies in theatre history and culture. University of Iowa Press. p. 304. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58729-868-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58729-868-4"><bdi>978-1-58729-868-4</bdi></a>. Retrieved October 28, 2011. <q>[...] audiences heard on the stage a continuum of hybrid language-levels between Yiddish and German that was sometimes combined with the traditional use of Mauscheldeutsch (surviving forms of Western Yiddish).</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Yiddish+Theatre+and+Its+Impact+on+the+German+and+Austrian+Stage&rft.btitle=Jews+and+the+making+of+modern+German+theatre&rft.series=Studies+in+theatre+history+and+culture&rft.pages=304&rft.pub=University+of+Iowa+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-58729-868-4&rft.aulast=Bechtel&rft.aufirst=Delphine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgeJnnySQ4rUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYiddish" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFApplegatePotter2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Celia_Applegate" title="Celia Applegate">Applegate, Celia</a>; Potter, Pamela Maxine (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=roHbXnBqE1wC">Music and German national identity</a>. University of Chicago Press. p. 310. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-02131-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-02131-7"><bdi>978-0-226-02131-7</bdi></a>. Retrieved October 28, 2011. <q>[...] in 1787, over 10 percent of the Prague population was Jewish [...] which spoke German and, probably, Mauscheldeutsch, a local Jewish-German dialect distinct from Yiddish (Mauscheldeutsch = Moischele-Deutsch = 'Moses German').</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Music+and+German+national+identity&rft.pages=310&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-226-02131-7&rft.aulast=Applegate&rft.aufirst=Celia&rft.au=Potter%2C+Pamela+Maxine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DroHbXnBqE1wC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYiddish" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGraetzLöwy1891" class="citation book cs1">Graetz, Heinrich; Löwy, Bella (1891). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofje04grae/page/640/mode/2up">History of the Jews, vol. 6</a>. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America. p. 641. Retrieved December 3, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+the+Jews%2C+vol.+6&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pages=641&rft.pub=Jewish+Publication+Society+of+America&rft.date=1891&rft.aulast=Graetz&rft.aufirst=Heinrich&rft.au=L%C3%B6wy%2C+Bella&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryofje04grae%2Fpage%2F640%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYiddish" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-44">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_44-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_44-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/history-and-development-of-yiddish">"History & Development of Yiddish"</a>. www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org. Retrieved February 7, 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org&rft.atitle=History+%26+Development+of+Yiddish&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jewishvirtuallibrary.org%2Fhistory-and-development-of-yiddish&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYiddish" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> <a href="/wiki/L._L._Zamenhof" title="L. L. Zamenhof">Zamenhof</a>, whose <a href="/wiki/Mark_Zamenhof" title="Mark Zamenhof">father</a> was overtly assimilationist, expressed in his correspondence both a great fondness for his mama-loshen and (apart from <a href="/wiki/Esperanto" title="Esperanto">Esperanto</a>, of course) a preference for <a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a> over <a href="/wiki/Polish_language" title="Polish language">Polish</a> as a culture language. </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRabinovich1861" class="citation journal cs1">Rabinovich, O.A. (1861). "Russia – Our Native Land: Just as We Breathe Its Air We Must Speak Its Language". Рассвет. 16: 220. As cited on the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/history-and-development-of-yiddish#1">website</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Virtual_Library" title="Jewish Virtual Library">Jewish Virtual Library</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=%D0%A0%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82&rft.atitle=Russia+%E2%80%93+Our+Native+Land%3A+Just+as+We+Breathe+Its+Air+We+Must+Speak+Its+Language&rft.volume=16&rft.pages=220.+As+cited+on+the+website+of+the+Jewish+Virtual+Library&rft.date=1861&rft.aulast=Rabinovich&rft.aufirst=O.A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYiddish" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiptzin1972" class="citation book cs1">Liptzin, Sol (1972). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofyiddish00lipt">A History of Yiddish Literature</a>. Middle Village, New York: Jonathan David Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8246-0124-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-8246-0124-6"><bdi>0-8246-0124-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Yiddish+Literature&rft.place=Middle+Village%2C+New+York&rft.pub=Jonathan+David+Publishers&rft.date=1972&rft.isbn=0-8246-0124-6&rft.aulast=Liptzin&rft.aufirst=Sol&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryofyiddish00lipt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYiddish" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190403153951/https://www.yadvashem.org/yv/en/exhibitions/vilna/before/hebrew_or_yiddish.asp%3FWT.mc_id%3Dwiki">"Hebrew or Yiddish? – The Interwar Period – The Jerusalem of Lithuania: The Story of the Jewish Community of Vilna"</a>. www.yadvashem.org. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.yadvashem.org/yv/en/exhibitions/vilna/before/hebrew_or_yiddish.asp?WT.mc_id=wiki">the original</a> on April 3, 2019. Retrieved April 3, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.yadvashem.org&rft.atitle=Hebrew+or+Yiddish%3F+%E2%80%93+The+Interwar+Period+%E2%80%93+The+Jerusalem+of+Lithuania%3A+The+Story+of+the+Jewish+Community+of+Vilna&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.yadvashem.org%2Fyv%2Fen%2Fexhibitions%2Fvilna%2Fbefore%2Fhebrew_or_yiddish.asp%3FWT.mc_id%3Dwiki&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYiddish" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWex2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Wex" title="Michael Wex">Wex, Michael</a> (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/borntokvetchyidd00wexm/page/29">Born to Kvetch: Yiddish Language and Culture in All Its Moods</a>. St. Martin's Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/borntokvetchyidd00wexm/page/29">29</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-312-30741-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-312-30741-1"><bdi>0-312-30741-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Born+to+Kvetch%3A+Yiddish+Language+and+Culture+in+All+Its+Moods&rft.pages=29&rft.pub=St.+Martin%27s+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-312-30741-1&rft.aulast=Wex&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fborntokvetchyidd00wexm%2Fpage%2F29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYiddish" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-kleine-50">^ <a href="#cite_ref-kleine_50-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-kleine_50-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-kleine_50-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-kleine_50-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-kleine_50-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-kleine_50-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-kleine_50-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-kleine_50-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-kleine_50-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-kleine_50-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-kleine_50-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-kleine_50-11">l</a> <a href="#cite_ref-kleine_50-12">m</a> <a href="#cite_ref-kleine_50-13">n</a> <a href="#cite_ref-kleine_50-14">o</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKleine2003" class="citation journal cs1">Kleine, Ane (December 2003). "Standard Yiddish". Journal of the International Phonetic Association. 33 (2): 261–265. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100303001385">10.1017/S0025100303001385</a> (inactive November 1, 2024). <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1475-3502">1475-3502</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:232346563">232346563</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+International+Phonetic+Association&rft.atitle=Standard+Yiddish&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=261-265&rft.date=2003-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A232346563%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1475-3502&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0025100303001385&rft.aulast=Kleine&rft.aufirst=Ane&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYiddish" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_DOI_inactive_as_of_November_2024" title="Category:CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-katz1987-51">^ <a href="#cite_ref-katz1987_51-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-katz1987_51-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-katz1987_51-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKatz1987" class="citation book cs1">Katz, Dovid (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/grammarofyiddish0000katz">Grammar of the Yiddish Language</a>. London: Duckworth. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7156-2162-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-7156-2162-9"><bdi>0-7156-2162-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Grammar+of+the+Yiddish+Language&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Duckworth&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=0-7156-2162-9&rft.aulast=Katz&rft.aufirst=Dovid&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgrammarofyiddish0000katz&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYiddish" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBashevis_Singer1978" class="citation web cs1">Bashevis Singer, Isaac (December 10, 1978). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/literature/1978/singer/speech/">"Isaac Bashevis Singer's banquet speech upon receiving the Nobel Prize for Literature 1978"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Foundation" title="Nobel Foundation">Nobel Foundation</a>. Retrieved February 1, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Isaac+Bashevis+Singer%27s+banquet+speech+upon+receiving+the+Nobel+Prize+for+Literature+1978&rft.pub=Nobel+Foundation&rft.date=1978-12-10&rft.aulast=Bashevis+Singer&rft.aufirst=Isaac&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nobelprize.org%2Fprizes%2Fliterature%2F1978%2Fsinger%2Fspeech%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYiddish" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKatz2007" class="citation book cs1">Katz, Dovid (2007). Words on Fire: The Unfinished Story of Yiddish. London: Basic Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-465-03730-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-465-03730-8"><bdi>978-0-465-03730-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Words+on+Fire%3A+The+Unfinished+Story+of+Yiddish&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-465-03730-8&rft.aulast=Katz&rft.aufirst=Dovid&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYiddish" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHalperin2015" class="citation book cs1">Halperin, Liora R. (2015). Babel in Zion: Jews, Nationalism, and Language Diversity in Palestine, 1920-1948. London: Yale University Press. p. 9. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-19748-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-19748-8"><bdi>978-0-300-19748-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Babel+in+Zion%3A+Jews%2C+Nationalism%2C+and+Language+Diversity+in+Palestine%2C+1920-1948&rft.place=London&rft.pages=9&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-300-19748-8&rft.aulast=Halperin&rft.aufirst=Liora+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYiddish" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rijksoverheid.nl/onderwerpen/erkende-talen/vraag-en-antwoord/erkende-talen-nederland">"Welke erkende talen heeft Nederland?"</a>. Rijksoverheid.nl. July 2, 2010. Retrieved June 5, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Welke+erkende+talen+heeft+Nederland%3F&rft.pub=Rijksoverheid.nl&rft.date=2010-07-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.rijksoverheid.nl%2Fonderwerpen%2Ferkende-talen%2Fvraag-en-antwoord%2Ferkende-talen-nederland&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYiddish" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ethnologue-56"><a href="#cite_ref-Ethnologue_56-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ethnologue.com/18/language/ydd/">Eastern Yiddish</a> at <a href="/wiki/Ethnologue" title="Ethnologue">Ethnologue</a> (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required) </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060619224705/http://www.mla.org/cgi-shl/docstudio/docs.pl?map_data_results">Most spoken languages in the United States</a>, Modern Language Association. Retrieved October 17, 2006. </li> <li id="cite_note-Ethnologue-western-58"><a href="#cite_ref-Ethnologue-western_58-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ethnologue.com/18/language/yih/">Western Yiddish</a> at <a href="/wiki/Ethnologue" title="Ethnologue">Ethnologue</a> (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required) </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.endangeredlanguages.com/lang/2990">"Did you know Western Yiddish is threatened?"</a>. Endangered Languages. Retrieved February 4, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Endangered+Languages&rft.atitle=Did+you+know+Western+Yiddish+is+threatened%3F&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.endangeredlanguages.com%2Flang%2F2990&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYiddish" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> Emanuelis Zingeris, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://assembly.coe.int/Documents/WorkingDocs/doc96/EDOC7489.htm">Yiddish culture</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120330161904/http://assembly.coe.int/Documents/WorkingDocs/doc96/EDOC7489.htm">Archived</a> March 30, 2012, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Council of Europe Committee on Culture and Education Doc. 7489, February 12, 1996. Retrieved October 17, 2006. </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFInternationale_Medienhilfe_(IMH)2024" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Internationale Medienhilfe (IMH) (September 19, 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.medienhilfe.org/jiddische-medien-yiddish-media/">"Trendumkehr: Immer mehr Menschen sprechen Jiddisch"</a>. IMH (in German). Retrieved September 22, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=IMH&rft.atitle=Trendumkehr%3A+Immer+mehr+Menschen+sprechen+Jiddisch&rft.date=2024-09-19&rft.au=Internationale+Medienhilfe+%28IMH%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.medienhilfe.org%2Fjiddische-medien-yiddish-media%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYiddish" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.org/details/PalestineCensus1922">Palestine Census ( 1922)</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Palestine+Census+%28+1922%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FPalestineCensus1922&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYiddish" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRabinowitz2017" class="citation news cs1">Rabinowitz, Aaron (September 23, 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/.premium.MAGAZINE-for-some-ultra-orthodox-there-can-be-only-one-language-1.5452371">"War on Hebrew For Some ultra-Orthodox, There Can Be Only One Language"</a>. 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The Guardian. Retrieved April 3, 2019 – via www.theguardian.com.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Revival+of+a+Soviet+Zion%3A+Birobidzhan+celebrates+its+Jewish+heritage&rft.date=2017-09-27&rft.aulast=Walker&rft.aufirst=Shaun&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2017%2Fsep%2F27%2Frevival-of-a-soviet-zion-birobidzhan-celebrates-its-jewish-heritage&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYiddish" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ukraine:_Birth_of_a_Modern_Nation-95"><a href="#cite_ref-Ukraine:_Birth_of_a_Modern_Nation_95-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYekelchyk2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Serhy_Yekelchyk" title="Serhy Yekelchyk">Yekelchyk, Serhy</a> (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yZLtAAAAMAAJ">Ukraine: Birth of a Modern Nation</a>. OUP USA. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-530546-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-530546-3"><bdi>978-0-19-530546-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ukraine%3A+Birth+of+a+Modern+Nation&rft.pub=OUP+USA&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-19-530546-3&rft.aulast=Yekelchyk&rft.aufirst=Serhy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyZLtAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYiddish" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-HoUJsntui-96"><a href="#cite_ref-HoUJsntui_96-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMagocsi2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Robert_Magocsi" title="Paul Robert Magocsi">Magocsi, Paul Robert</a> (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BNUtdVrw6lIC&pg=PA537">A History of Ukraine: The Land and Its Peoples</a>. University of Toronto Press. p. 537. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4426-4085-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4426-4085-6"><bdi>978-1-4426-4085-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Ukraine%3A+The+Land+and+Its+Peoples&rft.pages=537&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-4426-4085-6&rft.aulast=Magocsi&rft.aufirst=Paul+Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBNUtdVrw6lIC%26pg%3DPA537&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYiddish" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCongress" class="citation web cs1">Congress, World Jewish. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldjewishcongress.org/en/about/communities/UA">"World Jewish Congress"</a>. World Jewish Congress. Retrieved September 7, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=World+Jewish+Congress&rft.atitle=World+Jewish+Congress&rft.aulast=Congress&rft.aufirst=World+Jewish&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldjewishcongress.org%2Fen%2Fabout%2Fcommunities%2FUA&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYiddish" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CY%5CI%5CYiddish.htm">"Yiddish"</a>. www.encyclopediaofukraine.com. Retrieved September 7, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.encyclopediaofukraine.com&rft.atitle=Yiddish&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.encyclopediaofukraine.com%2Fdisplay.asp%3Flinkpath%3Dpages%255CY%255CI%255CYiddish.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYiddish" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-99">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_99-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_99-1">b</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.coe.int/en/web/conventions/search-on-treaties/-/conventions/treaty/148/declarations">European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. List of declarations made with respect to treaty No. 148</a>, Status as of: April 29, 2019 </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> (in Swedish) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://regeringen.se/download/f5c9eed7.pdf?major=1&minor=2218&cn=attachmentPublDuplicator_0_attachment">Regeringens proposition 1998/99:143 Nationella minoriteter i Sverige</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍], June 10, 1999. Retrieved October 17, 2006. </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> (in Yiddish) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://regeringen.se/download/098c9eb4.pdf?major=1&minor=67638&cn=attachmentPublDuplicator_0_attachment">אַ נאַציאָנאַלער האַנדלונגס־פּלאַן פאַר די מענטשלעכע רעכט</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍] A National Action Plan for Human Rights 2006–2009. Retrieved December 4, 2006. </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> (in Yiddish) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.manskligarattigheter.gov.se/dynamaster/file_archive/050216/24a99c86fd734f15c9f722b343cc152e/FaktaJu%5f0415ji.pdf">נאַציאַנאַלע מינאָריטעטן און מינאָריטעט־שפּראַכן</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070926131653/http://www.manskligarattigheter.gov.se/dynamaster/file_archive/050216/24a99c86fd734f15c9f722b343cc152e/FaktaJu%5f0415ji.pdf">Archived</a> September 26, 2007, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> National Minorities and Minority Languages. Retrieved December 4, 2006. </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090207204801/http://www.idg.se/2.1085/1.119665">"IDG: Jiddischdomänen är här"</a>. Idg.se. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.idg.se/2.1085/1.119665">the original</a> on February 7, 2009. Retrieved October 18, 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=IDG%3A+Jiddischdom%C3%A4nen+%C3%A4r+h%C3%A4r&rft.pub=Idg.se&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.idg.se%2F2.1085%2F1.119665&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYiddish" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> Mikael Parkvall, Sveriges språk. Vem talar vad och var?. RAPPLING 1. Rapporter från Institutionen för lingvistik vid Stockholms universitet. 2009 <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.språkförsvaret.se/sf/fileadmin/PDF/Parkvall_spraakstatistik.pdf">[1]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140920233246/http://www.xn--sprkfrsvaret-vcb4v.se/sf/fileadmin/PDF/Parkvall_spraakstatistik.pdf">Archived</a> September 20, 2014, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, pp. 68–72 </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.haaretz.com/world-news/2024-02-23/ty-article-magazine/.highlight/why-a-yiddish-renaissance-is-underway-in-sweden-of-all-places/0000018d-d36b-d5f7-a3ff-d3ffea4f0000">"Why a Yiddish Renaissance Is Underway in Sweden, of All Places"</a>. Haaretz. Retrieved March 6, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Haaretz&rft.atitle=Why+a+Yiddish+Renaissance+Is+Underway+in+Sweden%2C+of+All+Places&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.haaretz.com%2Fworld-news%2F2024-02-23%2Fty-article-magazine%2F.highlight%2Fwhy-a-yiddish-renaissance-is-underway-in-sweden-of-all-places%2F0000018d-d36b-d5f7-a3ff-d3ffea4f0000&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYiddish" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobert_Moses_Shapiro2003" class="citation book cs1">Robert Moses Shapiro (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=I3lItIwOzCkC&pg=PA18">Why Didn't the Press Shout?: American & International Journalism During the Holocaust</a>. KTAV. p. 18. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88125-775-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88125-775-5"><bdi>978-0-88125-775-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Why+Didn%27t+the+Press+Shout%3F%3A+American+%26+International+Journalism+During+the+Holocaust&rft.pages=18&rft.pub=KTAV&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-88125-775-5&rft.au=Robert+Moses+Shapiro&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DI3lItIwOzCkC%26pg%3DPA18&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYiddish" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a> (in Yiddish) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://yiddish.forward.com/">פֿאָרווערטס</a>: <a href="/wiki/The_Forward" title="The Forward">The Forward</a> online. </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> (in Yiddish) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.algemeiner.com/generic.asp?cat=4">דער אַלגעמיינער זשורנאַל</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110106211758/http://www.algemeiner.com/generic.asp?cat=4">Archived</a> January 6, 2011, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>: Algemeiner Journal online </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRosten2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Leo_Rosten" title="Leo Rosten">Rosten, Leo</a> (2000). Joys of Yiddish. Pocket. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7434-0651-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-7434-0651-6"><bdi>0-7434-0651-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Joys+of+Yiddish&rft.pub=Pocket&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-7434-0651-6&rft.aulast=Rosten&rft.aufirst=Leo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYiddish" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/item/prn-11-240/2011-national-film-registry-more-than-a-box-of-chocolates/2011-12-28/">"2011 National Film Registry More Than a Box of Chocolates"</a>. Library of Congress. Retrieved April 3, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Library+of+Congress&rft.atitle=2011+National+Film+Registry+More+Than+a+Box+of+Chocolates&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.loc.gov%2Fitem%2Fprn-11-240%2F2011-national-film-registry-more-than-a-box-of-chocolates%2F2011-12-28%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYiddish" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVolokhKozinski,_Alex1993" class="citation journal cs1">Volokh, Eugene; Kozinski, Alex (1993). "Lawsuit, Shmawsuit". Yale Law Journal. 103 (2). The Yale Law Journal Company, Inc.: 463–467. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F797101">10.2307/797101</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/797101">797101</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Yale+Law+Journal&rft.atitle=Lawsuit%2C+Shmawsuit&rft.volume=103&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=463-467&rft.date=1993&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F797101&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F797101%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Volokh&rft.aufirst=Eugene&rft.au=Kozinski%2C+Alex&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYiddish" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> Note: an updated version of the article appears on Professor Volokh's UCLA web page, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.law.ucla.edu/volokh/yiddish.htm">"Judge Alex Kozinski & Eugene Volokh, "Lawsuit, Shmawsuit" <*>"</a>. Law.ucla.edu. Retrieved October 18, 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Judge+Alex+Kozinski+%26+Eugene+Volokh%2C+%22Lawsuit%2C+Shmawsuit%22+%3C%2A%3E&rft.pub=Law.ucla.edu&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.law.ucla.edu%2Fvolokh%2Fyiddish.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYiddish" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mla.org/map_data_states&lang_id=609&mode=lang_tops&a=&ea=&order=r">Language by State: Yiddish</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150919151951/http://www.mla.org/map_data_states%26lang_id%3D609%26mode%3Dlang_tops%26a%3D%26ea%3D%26order%3Dr">Archived</a> September 19, 2015, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Modern_Language_Association" title="Modern Language Association">MLA</a> Language Map Data Center, based on U.S. Census data. Retrieved December 25, 2006. </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.census.gov">"U.S. Census website"</a>. <a href="/wiki/United_States_Census_Bureau" title="United States Census Bureau">United States Census Bureau</a>. Retrieved October 18, 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=U.S.+Census+website&rft.pub=United+States+Census+Bureau&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.census.gov&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYiddish" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160205101044/http://www.census.gov/prod/2013pubs/acs-22.pdf#page=12&zoom=auto,-265,62">"Camille Ryan: Language Use in the United States: 2011, Issued August 2013"</a> (PDF). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.census.gov/prod/2013pubs/acs-22.pdf#page=12&zoom=auto,-265,62">the original</a> (PDF) on February 5, 2016. 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Retrieved January 25, 2023 – via ETH-Bibliothek Zuerich.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Revue+de+Linguistique+Romane&rft.atitle=Notes+lexicologiques+sur+des+interf%C3%A9rences+entre+yidich+et+fran%C3%A7ais+moderne&rft.volume=81&rft.issue=321%E2%80%93322&rft.pages=139-155&rft.date=2017-01%2F2017-06&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1114334924&rft.issn=0035-1458&rft.aulast=Nahon&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.e-periodica.ch%2Fdigbib%2Fview%3Fpid%3Drlr-001%253A2017%253A81%253A%253A4%23144&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYiddish" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wexler-141"><a href="#cite_ref-Wexler_141-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWexler2002" class="citation book cs1">Wexler, Paul (2002). Two-tiered Relexification in Yiddish: Jews, Sorbs, Khazars, and the Kiev-Polessian Dialect. De Gruyter Mouton. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-089873-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-089873-6"><bdi>978-3-11-089873-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Two-tiered+Relexification+in+Yiddish%3A+Jews%2C+Sorbs%2C+Khazars%2C+and+the+Kiev-Polessian+Dialect&rft.pub=De+Gruyter+Mouton&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-3-11-089873-6&rft.aulast=Wexler&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYiddish" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Spolsky_157-142"><a href="#cite_ref-Spolsky_157_142-0">^</a> Bernard Spolsky,<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5Xk9AwAAQBAJ&pg=PA157">The Languages of the Jews: A Sociolinguistic History,</a> Cambridge University Press, 2014 pp.157,180ff. p.183 </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJoshua_Klagsbrun_Lebenswerd2015" class="citation book cs1">Joshua Klagsbrun Lebenswerd, Patric (2015). Handbook of Jewish Languages. Brill. pp. 618–619. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-21733-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-21733-1"><bdi>978-90-04-21733-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Jewish+Languages&rft.pages=618-619&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-90-04-21733-1&rft.aulast=Joshua+Klagsbrun+Lebenswerd&rft.aufirst=Patric&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYiddish" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jewishlanguages.org/jewish-hungarian">"Jewish Hungarian"</a>. Jewish Languages. 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Retrieved April 3, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.ohchr.org&rft.atitle=OHCHR+Yiddish&rft.au=OHCHR&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ohchr.org%2FEN%2FUDHR%2FPages%2FLanguage.aspx%3FLangID%3Dydd&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYiddish" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOHCHR" class="citation web cs1">OHCHR. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ohchr.org/en/udhr/pages/Language.aspx?LangID=ger">"OHCHR German"</a>. www.ohchr.org. Retrieved April 3, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.ohchr.org&rft.atitle=OHCHR+German&rft.au=OHCHR&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ohchr.org%2Fen%2Fudhr%2Fpages%2FLanguage.aspx%3FLangID%3Dger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYiddish" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.omniglot.com/udhr/afroasiatic.htm#semitic">"UDHR in Afroasiatic languages"</a>. www.omniglot.com. Retrieved December 18, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.omniglot.com&rft.atitle=UDHR+in+Afroasiatic+languages&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.omniglot.com%2Fudhr%2Fafroasiatic.htm%23semitic&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYiddish" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Yiddish&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Bibliography">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col div-col-small" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Solomon_Birnbaum" title="Solomon Birnbaum">Birnbaum, Solomon</a> (2016) [1979]. Yiddish – A Survey and a Grammar (2nd ed.). Toronto: University of Toronto Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Yiddish+%E2%80%93+A+Survey+and+a+Grammar&rft.place=Toronto&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.aulast=Birnbaum&rft.aufirst=Solomon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYiddish" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Dunphy, Graeme (2007). "The New Jewish Vernacular". In Reinhart, Max (ed.). Camden House History of German Literature, Volume 4: Early Modern German Literature 1350–1700. pp. 74–79. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57113-247-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57113-247-5"><bdi>978-1-57113-247-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+New+Jewish+Vernacular&rft.btitle=Camden+House+History+of+German+Literature%2C+Volume+4%3A+Early+Modern+German+Literature+1350%E2%80%931700&rft.pages=74-79&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-57113-247-5&rft.aulast=Dunphy&rft.aufirst=Graeme&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYiddish" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Fishman, David E. (2005). The Rise of Modern Yiddish Culture. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8229-4272-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-8229-4272-0"><bdi>0-8229-4272-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rise+of+Modern+Yiddish+Culture&rft.place=Pittsburgh&rft.pub=University+of+Pittsburgh+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-8229-4272-0&rft.aulast=Fishman&rft.aufirst=David+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYiddish" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Fishman, Joshua A., ed. (1981). Never Say Die: A Thousand Years of Yiddish in Jewish Life and Letters (in Yiddish and English). The Hague: Mouton Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-279-7978-2" title="Special:BookSources/90-279-7978-2"><bdi>90-279-7978-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Never+Say+Die%3A+A+Thousand+Years+of+Yiddish+in+Jewish+Life+and+Letters&rft.place=The+Hague&rft.pub=Mouton+Publishers&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=90-279-7978-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYiddish" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHerzog1992–2000" class="citation book cs1">Herzog, Marvin; et al., eds. (1992–2000). The Language and Culture Atlas of Ashkenazic Jewry. Tübingen: Max-Niemeyer-Verlag in collaboration with <a href="/wiki/YIVO" title="YIVO">YIVO</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-484-73013-7" title="Special:BookSources/3-484-73013-7"><bdi>3-484-73013-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Language+and+Culture+Atlas+of+Ashkenazic+Jewry&rft.place=T%C3%BCbingen&rft.pub=Max-Niemeyer-Verlag+in+collaboration+with+YIVO&rft.date=1992%2F2000&rft.isbn=3-484-73013-7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYiddish" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Dovid_Katz" title="Dovid Katz">Katz, Hirshe-Dovid</a> (1992). Code of Yiddish spelling ratified in 1992 by the programmes in Yiddish language and literature at Bar Ilan University, Oxford University, Tel Aviv University, Vilnius University. Oxford: Oksforder Yiddish Press in cooperation with the <a href="/wiki/Oxford_Centre_for_Postgraduate_Hebrew_Studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxford Centre for Postgraduate Hebrew Studies">Oxford Centre for Postgraduate Hebrew Studies</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-897744-01-3" title="Special:BookSources/1-897744-01-3"><bdi>1-897744-01-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Code+of+Yiddish+spelling+ratified+in+1992+by+the+programmes+in+Yiddish+language+and+literature+at+Bar+Ilan+University%2C+Oxford+University%2C+Tel+Aviv+University%2C+Vilnius+University&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oksforder+Yiddish+Press+in+cooperation+with+the+Oxford+Centre+for+Postgraduate+Hebrew+Studies&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=1-897744-01-3&rft.aulast=Katz&rft.aufirst=Hirshe-Dovid&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYiddish" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Katz, Dovid (2007). Words on Fire: The Unfinished Story of Yiddish (2nd ed.). New York: Basic Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-465-03730-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-465-03730-8"><bdi>978-0-465-03730-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Words+on+Fire%3A+The+Unfinished+Story+of+Yiddish&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-465-03730-8&rft.aulast=Katz&rft.aufirst=Dovid&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYiddish" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Lansky, Aaron (2004). Outwitting History: How a Young Man Rescued a Million Books and Saved a Vanishing Civilisation. Chapel Hill: Algonquin Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56512-429-4" title="Special:BookSources/1-56512-429-4"><bdi>1-56512-429-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Outwitting+History%3A+How+a+Young+Man+Rescued+a+Million+Books+and+Saved+a+Vanishing+Civilisation&rft.place=Chapel+Hill&rft.pub=Algonquin+Books&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=1-56512-429-4&rft.aulast=Lansky&rft.aufirst=Aaron&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYiddish" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Margolis, Rebecca (2011). Basic Yiddish: A Grammar and Workbook. 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Berkeley: University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-24416-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-520-24416-8"><bdi>0-520-24416-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Adventures+in+Yiddishland%3A+Postvernacular+Language+and+Culture&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-520-24416-8&rft.aulast=Shandler&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYiddish" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Shmeruk, Chone (1988). Prokim fun der Yidisher Literatur-Geshikhte [Chapters of Yiddish Literary History] (in Yiddish). Tel Aviv: Peretz.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Prokim+fun+der+Yidisher+Literatur-Geshikhte&rft.place=Tel+Aviv&rft.pub=Peretz&rft.date=1988&rft.aulast=Shmeruk&rft.aufirst=Chone&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYiddish" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Shternshis, Anna (2006). Soviet and Kosher: Jewish Popular Culture in the Soviet Union, 1923–1939. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Soviet+and+Kosher%3A+Jewish+Popular+Culture+in+the+Soviet+Union%2C+1923%E2%80%931939&rft.place=Bloomington%2C+IN&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Shternshis&rft.aufirst=Anna&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYiddish" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Nahum_Stutchkoff" title="Nahum Stutchkoff">Stutchkoff, Nahum</a> (1950). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/nybc201134">Oytser fun der Yidisher Shprakh</a> [Thesaurus of the Yiddish language] (in Yiddish). New York: Yidisher Ṿisenshafṭlekher Insṭiṭuṭ.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Oytser+fun+der+Yidisher+Shprakh&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Yidisher+%E1%B9%BEisenshaf%E1%B9%ADlekher+Ins%E1%B9%ADi%E1%B9%ADu%E1%B9%AD&rft.date=1950&rft.aulast=Stutchkoff&rft.aufirst=Nahum&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnybc201134&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYiddish" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeinreich1999" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Uriel_Weinreich" title="Uriel Weinreich">Weinreich, Uriel</a> (1999). College Yiddish: An Introduction to the Yiddish language and to Jewish Life and Culture (in Yiddish and English) (6th rev. ed.). New York: YIVO Institute for Jewish Research. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-914512-26-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-914512-26-9"><bdi>0-914512-26-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=College+Yiddish%3A+An+Introduction+to+the+Yiddish+language+and+to+Jewish+Life+and+Culture&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=6th+rev.&rft.pub=YIVO+Institute+for+Jewish+Research&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0-914512-26-9&rft.aulast=Weinreich&rft.aufirst=Uriel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYiddish" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Weinstein, Miriam (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/yiddish00miri">Yiddish: A Nation of Words</a>. New York: Ballantine Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-345-44730-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-345-44730-1"><bdi>0-345-44730-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Yiddish%3A+A+Nation+of+Words&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Ballantine+Books&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-345-44730-1&rft.aulast=Weinstein&rft.aufirst=Miriam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fyiddish00miri&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYiddish" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Witriol, Joseph (1974). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mummeloohshen.wordpress.com/">Mumme Loohshen: An Anatomy of Yiddish</a>. London: Philip Israel Witriol.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mumme+Loohshen%3A+An+Anatomy+of+Yiddish&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Philip+Israel+Witriol&rft.date=1974&rft.aulast=Witriol&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmummeloohshen.wordpress.com%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYiddish" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Yiddish&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>YIVO Bleter, pub. YIVO Institute for Jewish Research, NYC, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060216075513/http://www.yivo.org/aboutyivo/timeline3.htm">initial series</a> from 1931, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060515195332/http://www.yivoinstitute.org/publications/index.php?tid=123&aid=319">new series</a> since 1991.</li> <li>Afn Shvel, pub. League for Yiddish, NYC, since 1940; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.leagueforyiddish.org/ishi.html">אויפן שוועל</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://docs.leagueforyiddish.org/undzer-perets-artikl.pdf">sample article אונדזער פרץ – Our Peretz</a></li> <li>Lebns-fragn, by-monthly for social issues, current affairs, and culture, Tel Aviv, since 1951; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lebnsfragn.com/about.html">לעבנס-פראגן</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lebnsfragn.com/index.html">current issue</a></li> <li>Yerusholaymer Almanakh, periodical collection of Yiddish literature and culture, Jerusalem, since 1973; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090103220918/http://yiddish-almanach.org/index.php/the-yerusholaymer-almanakh/">ירושלימער אלמאנאך</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081221005457/http://yiddish-almanach.org/">new volume, contents and downloads</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDiamant1982" class="citation news cs1">Diamant, Anita (December 7, 1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sim_boston-phoenix_1982-12-07_11_49/page/n37/mode/1up">"Es lebt! It's alive! - That's right: Yiddish"</a>. The Boston Phoenix. Retrieved October 7, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Boston+Phoenix&rft.atitle=Es+lebt%21+It%27s+alive%21+-+That%27s+right%3A+Yiddish&rft.date=1982-12-07&rft.aulast=Diamant&rft.aufirst=Anita&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsim_boston-phoenix_1982-12-07_11_49%2Fpage%2Fn37%2Fmode%2F1up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYiddish" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Der Yiddisher Tam-Tam, pub. Maison de la Culture Yiddish, Paris, since 1994, also available in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.yiddishweb.com/tamtam.htm">electronic format</a>.</li> <li>Yidishe Heftn, pub. Le Cercle Bernard Lazare, Paris, since 1996, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060213025703/http://mapage.noos.fr/bernardlazare/CahiersY.htm">יידישע העפטן sample cover</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bernardlazare.org/">subscription info</a>.</li> <li>Gilgulim, naye shafungen, new literary magazine, Paris, since 2008; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170616164805/http://gilgulim.org/">גילגולים, נייע שאפונגען</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Yiddish&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/80/Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg/40px-Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="37" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/80/Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg/60px-Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/80/Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg/80px-Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="103" data-file-height="94" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/" class="extiw" title="yi:"> Yiddish edition</a> of <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia" title="Wikipedia">Wikipedia</a>, the free encyclopedia</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1250146164">.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow{padding:0.75em 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow>b{display:block}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul{border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.75em 0;width:217px;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul>li{min-height:31px}.mw-parser-output .sister-logo{display:inline-block;width:31px;line-height:31px;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-link{display:inline-block;margin-left:4px;width:182px;vertical-align:middle}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div role="navigation" aria-labelledby="sister-projects" class="side-box metadata side-box-right sister-box sistersitebox plainlinks"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> Yiddish at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects">sister projects</a></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/27px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/41px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/54px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="391" data-file-height="391" /><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Wiktionary:About_Yiddish" class="extiw" title="wikt:Wiktionary:About Yiddish">Definitions</a> from Wiktionary</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Yiddish_language" class="extiw" title="c:Category:Yiddish language">Media</a> from Commons</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/23px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/35px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/46px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Yiddish" class="extiw" title="q:Yiddish">Quotations</a> from Wikiquote</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/27px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/41px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/54px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Subject:Yiddish_language" class="extiw" title="b:Subject:Yiddish language">Textbooks</a> from Wikibooks</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/27px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/41px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/54px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="193" data-file-height="193" /><a href="https://en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/Yiddish_phrasebook" class="extiw" title="voy:Yiddish phrasebook">Phrasebook</a> from Wikivoyage</li></ul></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has the text of the 1920 <a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_Americana" title="Encyclopedia Americana">Encyclopedia Americana</a> article <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Encyclopedia_Americana_(1920)/Yiddish_Language" class="extiw" title="s:The Encyclopedia Americana (1920)/Yiddish Language">Yiddish Language</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161001140409/http://www.yiddishbookcenter.org/">Yiddish Book Center</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.yivo.org/yiddish-dictionaries/">YIVO Institute for Jewish Research: Yiddish Dictionaries</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://yiddish-rashutleumit.co.il/en/">The Israeli National Authority of Yiddish Culture</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190901133657/http://strauss.sfs.uni-tuebingen.de:8080/lang/yiddish-eastern/yiddish-western/">Comparison of Eastern and Western Yiddish</a> based on a stable vocabulary. <a href="/w/index.php?title=EVOLAEMP&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="EVOLAEMP (page does not exist)">EVOLAEMP</a> Project, <a href="/wiki/University_of_T%C3%BCbingen" title="University of Tübingen">University of Tübingen</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ingeveb.org/">In Geveb: A Journal of Yiddish Studies</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 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.navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Jews_and_Judaism" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible expanded navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link 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href="/wiki/Index_of_Jewish_history-related_articles" class="mw-redirect" title="Index of Jewish history-related articles">Index of Jewish history-related articles</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_history" title="Jewish history">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Jewish_history" title="Timeline of Jewish history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israelites" title="Israelites">Israelites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_Judaism" title="Origins of Judaism">Origins of Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_ancient_Israel_and_Judah" title="History of ancient Israel and Judah">Ancient Israel and Judah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Temple_period" title="Second Temple period">Second Temple period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synagogal_Judaism" title="Synagogal Judaism">Synagogal Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_Judaism" title="Rabbinic Judaism">Rabbinic Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Jews in the Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zionism" title="Zionism">Zionism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_population_by_country" title="Jewish population by country">Population</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_assimilation" title="Jewish assimilation">Assimilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_atheism" title="Jewish atheism">Atheists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Buddhist" title="Jewish Buddhist">Buddhists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_Jews" title="Israeli Jews">Israeli Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karaite_Judaism" title="Karaite Judaism">Karaites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaritans" title="Samaritans">Samaritans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_Jews" title="Lists of Jews">Lists of Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jews" title="Persecution of Jews">Persecution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">Antisemitism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xueta_Christianity" title="Xueta Christianity">Xueta Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zionism,_race_and_genetics" class="mw-redirect" title="Zionism, race and genetics">Zionism, race and genetics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gentile" title="Gentile">Gentile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groups_claiming_affiliation_with_Israelites" title="Groups claiming affiliation with Israelites">Groups claiming affiliation with Israelites</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Diaspora" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_diaspora" title="Jewish diaspora">Diaspora</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Jews" title="Ashkenazi Jews">Ashkenazim</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afrikaner-Jews" title="Afrikaner-Jews">Afrikaner-Jode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chuts" title="Chuts">Chuts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galician_Jews" title="Galician Jews">Galitzianers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Litvaks" title="Litvaks">Lita'im</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oberlander_Jews" title="Oberlander Jews">Oberlander Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Udmurtia_and_Tatarstan" title="History of the Jews in Udmurtia and Tatarstan">Udmurt and Tatar Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unterlander_Jews" title="Unterlander Jews">Unterlander Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yekke" title="Yekke">Yekkes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beta_Israel" title="Beta Israel">Beta Israel</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beta_Abraham" title="Beta Abraham">Beta Abraham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falash_Mura" title="Falash Mura">Falash Mura</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desi_Jews" title="Desi Jews">Desi Jews</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bene_Israel" title="Bene Israel">Bene Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cochin_Jews" title="Cochin Jews">Kochinim</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%B6nmeh" title="Dönmeh">Dönmeh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_Jews" title="Georgian Jews">Gruzínim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Jews" title="Italian Jews">Italkim</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neofiti" title="Neofiti">Neofiti</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaifeng_Jews" title="Kaifeng Jews">Kaifeng Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karaite_Judaism" title="Karaite Judaism">Karaites</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constantinopolitan_Karaites" title="Constantinopolitan Karaites">Constantinopolitan Karaites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimean_Karaites" title="Crimean Karaites">Crimean Karaites</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Kurdistan" title="History of the Jews in Kurdistan">Kurdish Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krymchaks" title="Krymchaks">Krymchaks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lemba_people" title="Lemba people">Lemba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maghrebi_Jews" title="Maghrebi Jews">Maghrebi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Berber_Jews" title="Berber Jews">Berber Jews</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_Jews" title="Mizrahi Jews">Mizrahi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Afghanistan" title="History of the Jews in Afghanistan">Afghan Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Alexandria" title="History of the Jews in Alexandria">Alexandrian Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baghdadi_Jews" title="Baghdadi Jews">Baghdadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bukharan_Jews" title="Bukharan Jews">Bukharan Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Egypt" title="History of the Jews in Egypt">Egyptian Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mountain_Jews" title="Mountain Jews">Mountain Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_Jews" title="Palestinian Jews">Palestinian Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian Jews">Persian Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urfalim" title="Urfalim">Urfalim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemenite_Jews" title="Yemenite Jews">Teimanim</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adeni_Jews" title="Adeni Jews">Adeni Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habbani_Jews" title="Habbani Jews">Ḥabbanim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Hadramaut" title="History of the Jews in Hadramaut">Hadhrami Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Saada" title="History of the Jews in Saada">Saada Jews</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Musta%27arabi_Jews" title="Musta'arabi Jews">Mustaʿravim</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_tribes_of_Arabia" title="Jewish tribes of Arabia">Jewish tribes of Arabia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romaniote_Jews" title="Romaniote Jews">Romaniote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sephardic_Jews" title="Sephardic Jews">Sephardim</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_and_Portuguese_Jews" title="Spanish and Portuguese Jews">Eastern Sephardim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Livorno" title="History of the Jews in Livorno">Livornese Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_African_Sephardim" title="North African Sephardim">North African Sephardim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradesi_Jews" title="Paradesi Jews">Paradesi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Meshuchrarim" title="Meshuchrarim">Meshuchrarim</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sephardic_Bnei_Anusim" title="Sephardic Bnei Anusim">Sephardic Bnei Anusim</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xueta" title="Xueta">Xuetes</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_languages" title="Jewish languages">Languages</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_Jewish_diaspora_languages" title="List of Jewish diaspora languages">Diasporic</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew" title="Modern Hebrew">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Hebrew" title="Ashkenazi Hebrew">Ashkenazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sephardi_Hebrew" title="Sephardi Hebrew">Sephardi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_Hebrew" title="Mizrahi Hebrew">Mizrahi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemenite_Hebrew" title="Yemenite Hebrew">Yemenite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiberian_Hebrew" title="Tiberian Hebrew">Tiberian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaritan_Hebrew" title="Samaritan Hebrew">Samaritan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manually_coded_language#List_of_signed_languages" title="Manually coded language">Signed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Hebrew" title="Medieval Hebrew">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mishnaic_Hebrew" title="Mishnaic Hebrew">Mishnaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew" title="Biblical Hebrew">Biblical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_vocalization" title="Babylonian vocalization">Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_vocalization" title="Palestinian vocalization">Palestinian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Catalan" title="Judaeo-Catalan">Catalanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Berber_language" title="Judeo-Berber language">Judeo-Amazigh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Arabic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Arabic languages">Judeo-Arabic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Iraqi_Arabic" title="Judeo-Iraqi Arabic">Yahudic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baghdad_Jewish_Arabic" title="Baghdad Jewish Arabic">Judeo-Baghdadi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Moroccan_Arabic" title="Judeo-Moroccan Arabic">Judeo-Moroccan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tripolitanian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tripolitanian Arabic">Judeo-Tripolitanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tunisian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tunisian Arabic">Judeo-Tunisian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Yemeni_Arabic" title="Judeo-Yemeni Arabic">Judeo-Yemeni</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Aramaic_languages" title="Judeo-Aramaic languages">Judaeo-Aramaic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Targum_(Aramaic_dialects)" title="Targum (Aramaic dialects)">Targum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Barzani" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Barzani">Barzani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Betanure" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Betanure">Betanure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans-Zab_Jewish_Neo-Aramaic" title="Trans-Zab Jewish Neo-Aramaic">Hulaulá</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Zakho" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Zakho">Lishana Deni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Urmia" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Urmia">Lishán Didán</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inter-Zab_Jewish_Neo-Aramaic" title="Inter-Zab Jewish Neo-Aramaic">Lishanid Noshan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Aramaic" title="Biblical Aramaic">Biblical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Babylonian_Aramaic" title="Jewish Babylonian Aramaic">Talmudic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Palestinian_Aramaic" title="Jewish Palestinian Aramaic">Palestinian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Galilean_dialect" title="Galilean dialect">Galilean</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Aragonese" title="Judaeo-Aragonese">Judeo-Aragonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_English_varieties" title="Jewish English varieties">Jewish English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yeshivish" title="Yeshivish">Yeshivish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yinglish" class="mw-redirect" title="Yinglish">Yinglish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heblish" class="mw-redirect" title="Heblish">Heblish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Gascon" title="Judeo-Gascon">Judeo-Gascon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yevanic_language" title="Yevanic language">Judaeo-Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Italian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Italian languages">Judeo-Italian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Piedmontese" title="Judaeo-Piedmontese">Judaeo-Piedmontese</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Latin" title="Judeo-Latin">Judeo-Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Malayalam" title="Judeo-Malayalam">Judeo-Malayalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Marathi" title="Judeo-Marathi">Judeo-Marathi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Proven%C3%A7al" title="Judeo-Provençal">Judaeo-Occitan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Persian" title="Judeo-Persian">Judeo-Persian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bukharian_(Judeo-Tajik_dialect)" title="Bukharian (Judeo-Tajik dialect)">Bukhori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Borujerdi" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Borujerdi">Judeo-Borujerdi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Golpaygani" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Golpaygani">Judeo-Golpaygani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Hamedani" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Hamedani">Judeo-Hamedani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Shirazi" title="Judeo-Shirazi">Judeo-Shirazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tat" title="Judeo-Tat">Juhuri</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Portuguese" title="Judaeo-Portuguese">Judaeo-Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Urdu" title="Judeo-Urdu">Judeo-Urdu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karaim_language" title="Karaim language">Karaim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kayla_dialect" title="Kayla dialect">Kayliñña</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Georgian" title="Judaeo-Georgian">Kivruli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knaanic_language" title="Knaanic language">Knaanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Koine_Greek" title="Jewish Koine Greek">Koiné Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krymchak_language" title="Krymchak language">Krymchak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lachoudisch" title="Lachoudisch">Lachoudisch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Spanish" title="Judaeo-Spanish">Ladino</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haketia" title="Haketia">Haketia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetuani_Ladino" title="Tetuani Ladino">Tetuani</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lotegorisch" title="Lotegorisch">Lotegorisch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qwara_dialect" title="Qwara dialect">Qwareña</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_Jewish_Sign_Language" title="Algerian Jewish Sign Language">Shassagh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_Sign_Language" title="Israeli Sign Language">Shassi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Proven%C3%A7al" title="Judeo-Provençal">Shuadit</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Yiddish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish_dialects" title="Yiddish dialects">dialects</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Yiddish" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Yiddish">Eastern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Galitzish" class="mw-redirect" title="Galitzish">Galitzish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_Yiddish" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithuanian Yiddish">Litvish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poylish" class="mw-redirect" title="Poylish">Poylish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Klezmer-loshn" title="Klezmer-loshn">Klezmer-loshn</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Yiddish" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Yiddish">Western</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Alsatian" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Alsatian">Judeo-Alsatian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lachoudisch" title="Lachoudisch">Lachoudisch</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scots-Yiddish" class="mw-redirect" title="Scots-Yiddish">Scots-Yiddish</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zarphatic_language" title="Zarphatic language">Zarphatic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_principles_of_faith" title="Jewish principles of faith">Beliefs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mitzvah" title="Mitzvah">Mitzvah</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_authority" title="Rabbinic authority">Rabbinic authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_as_the_chosen_people" title="Jews as the chosen people">Chosen people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conversion_to_Judaism" title="Conversion to Judaism">Conversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_eschatology" title="Jewish eschatology">Eschatology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Messiah_in_Judaism" title="Messiah in Judaism">Messiah</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_ethics" title="Jewish ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holiness_in_Judaism" title="Holiness in Judaism">Holiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Judaism" title="God in Judaism">God</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Names_of_God_in_Judaism" title="Names of God in Judaism">Names of God</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halakha" title="Halakha">Halakha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haskalah" title="Haskalah">Haskalah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kabbalah" title="Kabbalah">Kabbalah</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sefirot" title="Sefirot">Sefirot</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_of_Israel" title="Land of Israel">Land of Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Who_is_a_Jew%3F" title="Who is a Jew?">Who is a Jew?</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Branches_of_Judaism" class="mw-redirect" title="Branches of Judaism">Branches</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_religious_movements" title="Jewish religious movements">Religious movements</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Judaism" title="Orthodox Judaism">Orthodox</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haredi_Judaism" title="Haredi Judaism">Haredi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hasidic_Judaism" title="Hasidic Judaism">Hasidic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Litvishe" class="mw-redirect" title="Litvishe">Litvaks</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Orthodox_Judaism" title="Modern Orthodox Judaism">Modern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_Judaism" title="Conservative Judaism">Conservative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reform_Judaism" title="Reform Judaism">Reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstructionist_Judaism" title="Reconstructionist Judaism">Reconstructionist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_Judaism" title="Humanistic Judaism">Humanistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Hasidism" title="Neo-Hasidism">Neo-Hasidism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Renewal" title="Jewish Renewal">Renewal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neolog_Judaism" title="Neolog Judaism">Neolog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relationships_between_Jewish_religious_movements" title="Relationships between Jewish religious movements">relations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haymanot" title="Haymanot">Haymanot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_Judaism" title="Hellenistic Judaism">Hellenistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karaite_Judaism" title="Karaite Judaism">Karaite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaritanism" title="Samaritanism">Samaritanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Science" title="Jewish Science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_secularism" title="Jewish secularism">Secularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_schisms" title="Jewish schisms">Schisms</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_literature" title="Jewish literature">Literature</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sifrei_Kodesh" title="Sifrei Kodesh">Sifrei Kodesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Bible" title="Hebrew Bible">Tanakh</a>/Hebrew <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Torah" title="Torah">Torah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nevi%27im" title="Nevi'im">Nevi'im</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ketuvim" title="Ketuvim">Ketuvim</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_literature" title="Rabbinic literature">Rabbinic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mishnah" title="Mishnah">Mishnah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud">Talmud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tosefta" title="Tosefta">Tosefta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midrash" title="Midrash">Midrash</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primary_texts_of_Kabbalah" title="Primary texts of Kabbalah">Kabbalah texts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hekhalot_literature" title="Hekhalot literature">Hekhalot literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pardes_Rimonim" title="Pardes Rimonim">Pardes Rimonim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sefer_HaBahir" class="mw-redirect" title="Sefer HaBahir">Sefer HaBahir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etz_Chaim_(book)" title="Etz Chaim (book)">Sefer HaEtz Chaim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sefer_Raziel_HaMalakh" title="Sefer Raziel HaMalakh">Sefer Raziel HaMalakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sefer_Yetzirah" title="Sefer Yetzirah">Sefer Yetzirah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zohar" title="Zohar">Zohar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shulchan_Aruch" title="Shulchan Aruch">Shulchan Aruch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siddur" title="Siddur">Siddur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_literature" title="Hebrew literature">Hebrew literature</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_culture" title="Jewish culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_astrology" title="Jewish astrology">Astrology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_views_on_astrology" title="Jewish views on astrology">perspectives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monen" title="Monen">Monen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_astronomy" title="Hebrew astronomy">Astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_calendar" title="Hebrew calendar">Calendar</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_holidays" title="Jewish holidays">Holidays</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_cuisine" title="Jewish cuisine">Cuisine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kashrut" title="Kashrut">Kashrut</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_education" title="Jewish education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_leadership" title="Jewish leadership">Leadership</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rabbi" title="Rabbi">Rabbi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebbe" title="Rebbe">Rebbe</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_views_on_marriage" title="Jewish views on marriage">Marriage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Divorce_in_Judaism" class="mw-redirect" title="Divorce in Judaism">Divorce</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_music" title="Jewish music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_mythology" title="Jewish mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_name" title="Jewish name">Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_political_movements" title="Jewish political movements">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_prayer" title="Jewish prayer">Prayer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Synagogue" title="Synagogue">Synagogue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazzan" title="Hazzan">Hazzan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_symbolism" title="Jewish symbolism">Symbolism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_studies" title="Jewish studies">Studies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Center_for_Jewish_History" title="Center for Jewish History">Center for Jewish History</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Jewish_Historical_Society" title="American Jewish Historical Society">American Jewish Historical Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Sephardi_Federation" title="American Sephardi Federation">American Sephardi Federation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Baeck_Institute_New_York" title="Leo Baeck Institute New York">Leo Baeck Institute New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yeshiva_University_Museum" title="Yeshiva University Museum">Yeshiva University Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/YIVO" title="YIVO">YIVO Institute for Jewish Research</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Center_of_Contemporary_Jewish_Documentation" title="Center of Contemporary Jewish Documentation">Center of Contemporary Jewish Documentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Encyclopaedia_Judaica" title="Encyclopaedia Judaica">Encyclopaedia Judaica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_studies_on_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic studies on Jews">Genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jew_(word)" title="Jew (word)">Jew (word)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Jewish_Encyclopedia" title="The Jewish Encyclopedia">Jewish Encyclopedia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Virtual_Library" title="Jewish Virtual Library">Jewish Virtual Library</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Library_of_Israel" title="National Library of Israel">National Library of Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_YIVO_Encyclopedia_of_Jews_in_Eastern_Europe" title="The YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe">YIVO Encyclopedia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Holocaust_Memorial_Museum" title="United States Holocaust Memorial Museum">United States Holocaust Memorial Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_the_Holocaust" title="Encyclopedia of the Holocaust">Encyclopedia of the Holocaust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_Encyclopedia" class="mw-redirect" title="Holocaust Encyclopedia">Holocaust Encyclopedia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaism_and_other_religions" class="mw-redirect" title="Judaism and other religions">Relations with other religions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_Judaism" title="Christianity and Judaism">Christian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anabaptist%E2%80%93Jewish_relations" title="Anabaptist–Jewish relations">Anabaptism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_Judaism" title="Catholic Church and Judaism">Catholicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaism_and_Mormonism" title="Judaism and Mormonism">Mormonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism_and_Judaism" title="Protestantism and Judaism">Protestantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_and_Christmas" title="Jews and Christmas">Jews and Christmas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_and_Halloween" title="Jews and Halloween">Jews and Halloween</a></li></ul></li> <li>non-Christian <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judaism_and_Buddhism" class="mw-redirect" title="Judaism and Buddhism">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic%E2%80%93Jewish_relations" title="Islamic–Jewish relations">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinduism_and_Judaism" title="Hinduism and Judaism">Hinduism</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>Italics indicate <a href="/wiki/Language_death" title="Language death">extinct languages</a> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Jews_and_Judaism" title="Category:Jews and Judaism">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Star_of_David.svg/14px-Star_of_David.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Star_of_David.svg/21px-Star_of_David.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Star_of_David.svg/28px-Star_of_David.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="693" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Judaism" title="Portal:Judaism">Judaism portal</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Jewish_languages" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Jewish_languages" title="Template:Jewish languages"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Jewish_languages" title="Template talk:Jewish languages"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Jewish_languages" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Jewish languages"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Jewish_languages" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_languages" title="Jewish languages">Jewish languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Afroasiatic_languages" title="Afroasiatic languages">Afroasiatic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Eras</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew" title="Biblical Hebrew">Biblical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mishnaic_Hebrew" title="Mishnaic Hebrew">Mishnaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Hebrew" title="Medieval Hebrew">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew" title="Modern Hebrew">Modern</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Reading traditions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Hebrew" title="Ashkenazi Hebrew">Ashkenazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sephardi_Hebrew" title="Sephardi Hebrew">Sephardi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_Hebrew" title="Mizrahi Hebrew">Mizrahi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Hebrew" title="Italian Hebrew">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemenite_Hebrew" title="Yemenite Hebrew">Yemenite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiberian_Hebrew" title="Tiberian Hebrew">Tiberian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Aramaic_languages" title="Judeo-Aramaic languages">Judaeo-Aramaic</a>/<a href="/wiki/Targum_(Aramaic_dialects)" title="Targum (Aramaic dialects)">Targum</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Aramaic" title="Biblical Aramaic">Biblical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mishnaic_Hebrew" title="Mishnaic Hebrew">Talmudic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Babylonian_Aramaic" title="Jewish Babylonian Aramaic">Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Palestinian_Aramaic" title="Jewish Palestinian Aramaic">Jewish Palestinian Aramaic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Galilean_dialect" title="Galilean dialect">Galilean</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Barzani" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Barzani">Barzani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans-Zab_Jewish_Neo-Aramaic" title="Trans-Zab Jewish Neo-Aramaic">Hulaulá</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Zakho" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Zakho">Lishana Deni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Urmia" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Urmia">Lishán Didán</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inter-Zab_Jewish_Neo-Aramaic" title="Inter-Zab Jewish Neo-Aramaic">Lishanid Noshan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Betanure" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Betanure">Betanure</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Arabic" title="Judeo-Arabic">Judaeo-Arabic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Algerian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Algerian Arabic">Judaeo-Algerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Egyptian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Egyptian Arabic">Judaeo-Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fessi_dialect#Jewish_Fessi_dialect" title="Fessi dialect">Judaeo-Fessi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Iraqi_Arabic" title="Judeo-Iraqi Arabic">Judaeo-Iraqi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baghdad_Jewish_Arabic" title="Baghdad Jewish Arabic">Judaeo-Baghdadi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Moroccan_Arabic" title="Judeo-Moroccan Arabic">Judaeo-Moroccan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Palestinian_Judeo-Arabic" title="Modern Palestinian Judeo-Arabic">Judaeo-Palestinian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tripolitanian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tripolitanian Arabic">Judaeo-Tripolitanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Syrian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Syrian Arabic">Judaeo-Syrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tunisian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tunisian Arabic">Judaeo-Tunisian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Yemeni_Arabic" title="Judeo-Yemeni Arabic">Judaeo-Yemeni</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ge%CA%BDez" title="Geʽez">Geʽez</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Semitic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethiopian Semitic languages">Ethiosemitic</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kayla_dialect" title="Kayla dialect">Kayla</a>/<a href="/wiki/Qwara_dialect" title="Qwara dialect">Qwara</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cushitic_languages" title="Cushitic languages">Cushitic</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Berber_language" title="Judeo-Berber language">Judaeo-Berber</a> (<a href="/wiki/Berber_languages" title="Berber languages">Berber</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.5em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Yiddish</a> (<a href="/wiki/Yiddish_dialects" title="Yiddish dialects">dialects</a>/<a href="/wiki/Argot" class="mw-redirect" title="Argot">argots</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Yiddish" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Yiddish">Eastern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Galitzish" class="mw-redirect" title="Galitzish">Galitzish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_Yiddish" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithuanian Yiddish">Litvish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poylish" class="mw-redirect" title="Poylish">Poylish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish_dialects" title="Yiddish dialects">Ukrainish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Udmurtish" class="mw-redirect" title="Udmurtish">Udmurtish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Klezmer-loshn" title="Klezmer-loshn">Klezmer-loshn</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Yiddish" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Yiddish">Western</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Alsatian" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Alsatian">Judaeo-Alsatian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lachoudisch" title="Lachoudisch">Lachoudisch</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scots-Yiddish" class="mw-redirect" title="Scots-Yiddish">Scots-Yiddish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.5em"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_English_varieties" title="Jewish English varieties">Jewish English</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yeshivish" title="Yeshivish">Yeshivish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yinglish" class="mw-redirect" title="Yinglish">Yinglish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heblish" class="mw-redirect" title="Heblish">Heblish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Romance_languages" title="Judaeo-Romance languages">Judaeo-Romance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Catalan" title="Judaeo-Catalan">Judaeo-Catalan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Italian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Italian languages">Judaeo-Italian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Livornese" title="Judeo-Livornese">Judaeo-Livornese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Mantuan" title="Judeo-Mantuan">Judaeo-Mantuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Piedmontese" title="Judaeo-Piedmontese">Judaeo-Piedmontese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Roman_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Roman language">Judaeo-Roman</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Spanish" title="Judaeo-Spanish">Judaeo-Spanish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haketia" title="Haketia">Haketia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tetuani_Ladino" title="Tetuani Ladino">Tetuani</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Latin" title="Judeo-Latin">Judaeo-Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Proven%C3%A7al" title="Judeo-Provençal">Judaeo-Provençal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Gascon" title="Judeo-Gascon">Judaeo-Gascon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Portuguese" title="Judaeo-Portuguese">Judaeo-Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Aragonese" title="Judaeo-Aragonese">Judaeo-Aragonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zarphatic_language" title="Zarphatic language">Zarphatic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Iranian_languages" title="Judeo-Iranian languages">Judaeo-Iranian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bukharian_(Judeo-Tajik_dialect)" title="Bukharian (Judeo-Tajik dialect)">Bukhori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tat" title="Judeo-Tat">Judaeo-Tat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Persian" title="Judeo-Persian">Judaeo-Persian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Hamedani%E2%80%93Borujerdi" title="Judeo-Hamedani–Borujerdi">Judaeo-Hamedani–Borujerdi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Shirazi" title="Judeo-Shirazi">Judaeo-Shirazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrian_Dari" class="mw-redirect" title="Zoroastrian Dari">Judaeo-Yazdi–Kermani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Kashani" title="Judeo-Kashani">Judaeo-Kashani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Golpaygani" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Golpaygani">Judaeo-Golpaygani</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Koine_Greek" title="Jewish Koine Greek">Jewish Koine Greek</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yevanic_language" title="Yevanic language">Yevanic</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hellenic_languages" title="Hellenic languages">Hellenic</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knaanic_language" title="Knaanic language">Knaanic</a>, Pre-1970s <a href="/wiki/Odesan_Russian" title="Odesan Russian">Odesan Russian</a> (<a href="/wiki/Slavic_languages" title="Slavic languages">Slavic</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Urdu" title="Judeo-Urdu">Judaeo-Urdu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Marathi" title="Judeo-Marathi">Judaeo-Marathi</a> (<a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Indo-Aryan languages">Indo-Aryan</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Krymchak_language" title="Krymchak language">Krymchak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Karaim_language" title="Karaim language">Karaim</a> (<a href="/wiki/Turkic_languages" title="Turkic languages">Turkic</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Malayalam" title="Judeo-Malayalam">Judaeo-Malayalam</a> (<a href="/wiki/Dravidian_languages" title="Dravidian languages">Dravidian</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Georgian" title="Judaeo-Georgian">Judaeo-Georgian</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kartvelian_languages" title="Kartvelian languages">Kartvelian</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Papiamento" title="Judaeo-Papiamento">Judaeo-Papiamento</a> (<a href="/wiki/Portuguese-based_creole_languages" title="Portuguese-based creole languages">Portuguese-based Creole</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Malay" title="Judeo-Malay">Judaeo-Malay</a> (<a href="/wiki/Malayic_languages" title="Malayic languages">Malayic</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sign_language" title="Sign language">Sign languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_Sign_Language" title="Israeli Sign Language">Israeli Sign Language</a> (<a href="/wiki/German_Sign_Language_family" title="German Sign Language family">German Sign</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_Jewish_Sign_Language" title="Algerian Jewish Sign Language">Algerian Jewish Sign Language</a> (<a href="/wiki/Village_sign_language" title="Village sign language">village sign language</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>Italics indicate <a href="/wiki/Language_death" title="Language death">extinct languages</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Germanic_languages" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Germanic_languages" title="Template:Germanic languages"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Germanic_languages" title="Template talk:Germanic languages"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Germanic_languages" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Germanic languages"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Germanic_languages" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>According to contemporary <a href="/wiki/Germanic_philology" title="Germanic philology">philology</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="West" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/West_Germanic_languages" title="West Germanic languages">West</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Frisian_languages" title="Anglo-Frisian languages">Anglo-Frisian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anglic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglic languages">Anglic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dialects_of_English" class="mw-redirect" title="Dialects of English">dialects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Old English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_English" title="Middle English">Middle English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_English" title="Modern English">Modern English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Modern_English" title="Early Modern English">Early Modern English</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>Irish Middle English <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fingallian" title="Fingallian">Fingallian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kildare_Poems#Linguistic_features" title="Kildare Poems">Kildare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yola_dialect" title="Yola dialect">Yola</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scots_language" title="Scots language">Scots</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Scots" title="Early Scots">Early Scots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Scots" title="Middle Scots">Middle Scots</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Frisian_languages" title="Frisian languages">Frisian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Frisian" title="Old Frisian">Old Frisian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Frisian" title="Middle Frisian">Middle Frisian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/East_Frisian_language" title="East Frisian language">East Frisian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Ems <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saterland_Frisian_language" title="Saterland Frisian language">Saterland Frisian</a></li></ul></li> <li>Weser <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wangerooge_Frisian" title="Wangerooge Frisian">Wangerooge Frisian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wursten_Frisian" title="Wursten Frisian">Wursten Frisian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harlingerland_Frisian" title="Harlingerland Frisian">Harlingerland Frisian</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/North_Frisian_language" title="North Frisian language">North Frisian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Insular <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eiderstedt_Frisian" title="Eiderstedt Frisian">Eiderstedt</a></li> <li>Föhr–Amrum <ul><li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%B6hr_North_Frisian" title="Föhr North Frisian">Föhr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amrum_North_Frisian" title="Amrum North Frisian">Amrum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heligoland_Frisian" title="Heligoland Frisian">Heligolandic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sylt_North_Frisian" title="Sylt North Frisian">Sylt</a></li></ul></li> <li>Mainland <ul><li><a href="/wiki/B%C3%B6kingharde_North_Frisian" title="Bökingharde North Frisian">Bökingharde</a> <ul><li>Mooring</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halligen_Frisian" title="Halligen Frisian">Halligen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goesharde_Frisian" title="Goesharde Frisian">Goesharde</a> <ul><li>Northern</li> <li>Central</li> <li>Southern</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karrharde_Frisian" title="Karrharde Frisian">Karrharde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strand_Frisian" title="Strand Frisian">Strand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wiedingharde_Frisian" title="Wiedingharde Frisian">Wiedingharde</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/West_Frisian_languages" title="West Frisian languages">West Frisian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindeloopen_Frisian" title="Hindeloopen Frisian">Hindeloopen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schiermonnikoog_Frisian" title="Schiermonnikoog Frisian">Schiermonnikoog</a></li> <li>Westlauwers–Terschellings <ul><li><a href="/wiki/West_Frisian_language" title="West Frisian language">Mainland West Frisian</a> <ul><li>Clay Frisian</li> <li>Wood Frisian <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Westereendersk" title="Westereendersk">Westereendersk</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terschelling_Frisian" title="Terschelling Frisian">Terschelling</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Low_German" title="Low German">Low German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Saxon" title="Old Saxon">Old Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Low_German" title="Middle Low German">Middle Low German</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/West_Low_German" class="mw-redirect" title="West Low German">West Low German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Low_Saxon" title="Dutch Low Saxon">Dutch Low Saxon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stellingwarfs_dialect" title="Stellingwarfs dialect">Stellingwarfs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tweants_dialect" title="Tweants dialect">Tweants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gronings_dialect" title="Gronings dialect">Gronings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dr%C3%A8ents_dialects" title="Drèents dialects">Drèents</a></li> <li>Gelders-Overijssels <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achterhooks" title="Achterhooks">Achterhooks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sallaans_dialect" title="Sallaans dialect">Sallaans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urkers_dialect" title="Urkers dialect">Urkers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veluws_dialect" title="Veluws dialect">Veluws</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Low_Saxon" title="Northern Low Saxon">Northern Low Saxon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East_Frisian_Low_Saxon" title="East Frisian Low Saxon">East Frisian Low Saxon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastphalian_language" title="Eastphalian language">Eastphalian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westphalian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Westphalian language">Westphalian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/East_Low_German" title="East Low German">East Low German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch_dialect" title="Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch dialect">Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brandenburgisch_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Brandenburgisch dialect">Brandenburgisch</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Central_Pomeranian&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Central Pomeranian (page does not exist)">Central Pomeranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Pomeranian" class="mw-redirect" title="East Pomeranian">East Pomeranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low_Prussian_dialect" title="Low Prussian dialect">Low Prussian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plautdietsch" title="Plautdietsch">Plautdietsch / Mennonite Low German</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Low_Franconian" title="Low Franconian">Low Franconian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Frankish_language" title="Frankish language">Frankish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Dutch" title="Old Dutch">Old Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Dutch" title="Middle Dutch">Middle Dutch</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Standard_language" title="Standard language">Standard variants</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_language" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afrikaans" title="Afrikaans">Afrikaans</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kaaps" title="Kaaps">Kaaps</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">West Low Franconian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Dutch_dialects" title="Central Dutch dialects">Central Dutch</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hollandic_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Hollandic dialect">Hollandic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Flemish" title="West Flemish">West Flemish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_Flemish" title="French Flemish">French Flemish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zeelandic" title="Zeelandic">Zeelandic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Flemish" title="East Flemish">East Flemish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brabantian_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Brabantian dialect">Brabantian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kleverlandish" title="Kleverlandish">Kleverlandish</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Surinamese_Dutch" title="Surinamese Dutch">Surinamese Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jersey_Dutch_language" title="Jersey Dutch language">Jersey Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohawk_Dutch" title="Mohawk Dutch">Mohawk Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stadsfries_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="Stadsfries dialects">Stadsfries</a>/<a href="/wiki/Bildts" title="Bildts">Bildts</a>/<a href="/wiki/Amelands" title="Amelands">Amelands</a>/<a href="/w/index.php?title=Midslands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Midslands (page does not exist)">Midslands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/South_Low_Franconian" title="South Low Franconian">East Low Franconian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Limburgish" title="Limburgish">Limburgish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cover groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bergish_dialects" title="Bergish dialects">Bergish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meuse-Rhenish" title="Meuse-Rhenish">Meuse-Rhenish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/High_German_languages" title="High German languages">High German</a> (<a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_High_German" title="Old High German">Old High German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_High_German" title="Middle High German">Middle High German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_High_German" title="New High German">New High German</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_New_High_German" title="Early New High German">Early New High German</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Standard_German" title="Standard German">Standard German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_Standard_German" title="German Standard German">German Standard German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_German" title="Austrian German">Austrian Standard German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_Standard_German" title="Swiss Standard German">Swiss Standard German</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Non-<a href="/wiki/Standard_language" title="Standard language">standard variants</a> and <a href="/wiki/Creole_language" title="Creole language">creoles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Namibian_German" class="mw-redirect" title="Namibian German">Namibian German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Namibian_Black_German" title="Namibian Black German">Namibian Black German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_German" title="Berlin German">Berlinerisch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unserdeutsch" title="Unserdeutsch">Unserdeutsch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barossa_German" title="Barossa German">Barossa German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rotwelsch" title="Rotwelsch">Rotwelsch</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lotegorisch" title="Lotegorisch">Lotegorisch</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yenish_language" title="Yenish language">Yenish</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Yiddish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish_dialects#Eastern_Yiddish" title="Yiddish dialects">Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish_dialects#Western_Yiddish" title="Yiddish dialects">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Scotland#"Scots-Yiddish"" title="History of the Jews in Scotland">Scots Yiddish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Klezmer-loshn" title="Klezmer-loshn">Klezmer-loshn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lachoudisch" title="Lachoudisch">Lachoudisch</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Central_German" title="Central German">Central German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/West_Central_German" title="West Central German">West Central German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Franconian_languages" title="Central Franconian languages">Central Franconian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ripuarian_language" title="Ripuarian language">Ripuarian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colognian_dialect" title="Colognian dialect">Colognian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeast_Limburgish_dialect" title="Southeast Limburgish dialect">Southeast Limburgish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moselle_Franconian_language" title="Moselle Franconian language">Moselle Franconian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Luxembourgish" title="Luxembourgish">Luxembourgish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transylvanian_Saxon_dialect" title="Transylvanian Saxon dialect">Transylvanian Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunsr%C3%BCckisch_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Hunsrückisch dialect">Hunsrückisch</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hunsrik" title="Hunsrik">Hunsrik</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhenish_Franconian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhenish Franconian languages">Rhine Franconian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lorraine_Franconian" title="Lorraine Franconian">Lorraine Franconian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palatine_German_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Palatine German language">Palatine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Volga_Germans#Language" title="Volga Germans">Volga German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Dutch_language" title="Pennsylvania Dutch language">Pennsylvania Dutch</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hessian_dialects" title="Hessian dialects">Hessian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Hessian" title="Central Hessian">Central Hessian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amana_German" title="Amana German">Amana German</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/East_Central_German" title="East Central German">East Central German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thuringian_dialect" title="Thuringian dialect">Thuringian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upper_Saxon_German" title="Upper Saxon German">Upper Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erzgebirgisch" title="Erzgebirgisch">Erzgebirgisch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lusatian_dialects" title="Lusatian dialects">Lusatian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silesian_German" title="Silesian German">Silesian German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Prussian_dialect" title="High Prussian dialect">High Prussian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wymysorys_language" title="Wymysorys language">Wymysorys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alzenau_dialect" title="Alzenau dialect">Halcnovian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Upper_German" title="Upper German">Upper German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alemannic_German" title="Alemannic German">Alemannic</a> in the broad sense <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Low_Alemannic_German" title="Low Alemannic German">Low Alemannic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alsatian_dialect" title="Alsatian dialect">Alsatian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonia_Tovar_dialect" title="Colonia Tovar dialect">Coloniero</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Alemannic_German" title="High Alemannic German">High Alemannic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_German" title="Swiss German">Swiss German</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Highest_Alemannic_German" title="Highest Alemannic German">Highest Alemannic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Walser_German" title="Walser German">Walser German</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swabian_German" title="Swabian German">Swabian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bavarian_language" title="Bavarian language">Bavarian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Bavarian" title="Northern Bavarian">Northern Bavarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Bavarian" title="Central Bavarian">Central Bavarian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Viennese_German" title="Viennese German">Viennese German</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Bavarian" title="Southern Bavarian">Southern Bavarian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/South_Tyrolean_dialect" title="South Tyrolean dialect">South Tyrolean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cimbrian_language" title="Cimbrian language">Cimbrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C3%B2cheno_language" title="Mòcheno language">Mòcheno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hutterite_German" title="Hutterite German">Hutterite German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottscheerish" title="Gottscheerish">Gottscheerish</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Franconian_German" title="South Franconian German">South Franconian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Franconian_German" title="East Franconian German">East Franconian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vogtlandian" title="Vogtlandian">Vogtlandian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lombardic_language" title="Lombardic language">Langobardic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="North_and_East" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/North_Germanic_languages" title="North Germanic languages">North</a> and <a href="/wiki/East_Germanic_languages" title="East Germanic languages">East</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/North_Germanic_languages" title="North Germanic languages">North</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Norse_language" title="Proto-Norse language">Proto-Norse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse" title="Old Norse">Old Norse</a> <ul><li>Old West Norse</li> <li>Old East Norse</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Gutnish" title="Old Gutnish">Old Gutnish</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">West</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_language" title="Norwegian language">Norwegian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bergensk" title="Bergensk">Bergensk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kebabnorsk" title="Kebabnorsk">Kebabnorsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sognam%C3%A5l_dialect" title="Sognamål dialect">Sognamål</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tr%C3%B8ndersk" title="Trøndersk">Trøndersk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hallingm%C3%A5l-Valdris" title="Hallingmål-Valdris">Valdris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vestlandsk" title="Vestlandsk">Vestlandsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vikv%C3%A6rsk" class="mw-redirect" title="Vikværsk">Vikværsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bokm%C3%A5l" title="Bokmål">Bokmål</a> (written)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nynorsk" title="Nynorsk">Nynorsk</a> (written)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norwegian" title="Old Norwegian">Old Norwegian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Norwegian" title="Middle Norwegian">Middle Norwegian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faroese_language" title="Faroese language">Faroese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icelandic_language" title="Icelandic language">Icelandic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse#Old_Icelandic" title="Old Norse">Old Icelandic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Icelandic#Middle_Icelandic_(1350–1550)" title="History of Icelandic">Middle Icelandic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenlandic_Norse" title="Greenlandic Norse">Greenlandic Norse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norn_language" title="Norn language">Norn</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">East</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_language" title="Swedish language">Swedish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_dialects" title="Swedish dialects">Swedish dialects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rinkeby_Swedish" title="Rinkeby Swedish">Rinkebysvenska</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_language" title="Danish language">Danish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Danish_dialects" title="Danish dialects">Danish dialects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insular_Danish" title="Insular Danish">Insular Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jutlandic_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Jutlandic dialect">Jutlandic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/South_Jutlandic" title="South Jutlandic">South Jutlandic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Danish" title="East Danish">East Danish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bornholm_dialect" title="Bornholm dialect">Bornholmsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scanian_dialect" title="Scanian dialect">Scanian</a> (historically)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Schleswig_Danish" title="Southern Schleswig Danish">Southern Schleswig Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B8tudanskt_accent" title="Gøtudanskt accent">Gøtudanskt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perkerdansk" title="Perkerdansk">Perkerdansk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Danish" title="History of Danish">Old Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Danish" title="History of Danish">Middle Danish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dalecarlian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Dalecarlian language">Dalecarlian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elfdalian" title="Elfdalian">Elfdalian</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Gutnish <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gutnish_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Gutnish language">Mainland Gutnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A5r%C3%B6m%C3%A5l_dialect" title="Fårömål dialect">Fårö Gutnish</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/East_Germanic_languages" title="East Germanic languages">East</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_language" title="Gothic language">Gothic</a> (<a href="/wiki/Crimean_Gothic" title="Crimean Gothic">Crimean Gothic</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burgundians#Language" title="Burgundians">Burgundian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vandalic_language" title="Vandalic language">Vandalic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Philology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Germanic_philology" title="Germanic philology">Philology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Maurer_(linguist)" title="Friedrich Maurer (linguist)">Language subgroups</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/North_Germanic_languages" title="North Germanic languages">North</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Germanic_languages" title="East Germanic languages">East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Germanic_languages" title="West Germanic languages">West</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elbe_Germanic" title="Elbe Germanic">Elbe (Irminonic)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weser-Rhine_Germanic" class="mw-redirect" title="Weser-Rhine Germanic">Weser-Rhine (Istvaeonic)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Sea_Germanic" title="North Sea Germanic">North Sea (Ingvaeonic)</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Germanic" title="Northwest Germanic">Northwest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gotho-Nordic" class="mw-redirect" title="Gotho-Nordic">Gotho-Nordic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Germanic" title="South Germanic">South</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Reconstructed</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic_language" title="Proto-Germanic language">Proto-Germanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic_grammar" title="Proto-Germanic grammar">Proto-Germanic grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_parent_language" title="Germanic parent language">Germanic parent language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Belgian_language" title="Ancient Belgian language">Ancient Belgian language</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Diachronic features</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grimm%27s_law" title="Grimm's law">Grimm's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verner%27s_law" title="Verner's law">Verner's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holtzmann%27s_law" title="Holtzmann's law">Holtzmann's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sievers%27s_law" title="Sievers's law">Sievers's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kluge%27s_law" title="Kluge's law">Kluge's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_substrate_hypothesis" title="Germanic substrate hypothesis">Germanic substrate hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Germanic_gemination" title="West Germanic gemination">West Germanic gemination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_German_consonant_shift" title="High German consonant shift">High German consonant shift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_a-mutation" title="Germanic a-mutation">Germanic a-mutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_umlaut" title="Germanic umlaut">Germanic umlaut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_spirant_law" title="Germanic spirant law">Germanic spirant law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ingvaeonic_nasal_spirant_law" title="Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law">Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Vowel_Shift" title="Great Vowel Shift">Great Vowel Shift</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Synchronic features</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_verb" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic verb">Germanic verb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb" title="Germanic strong verb">Germanic strong verb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_weak_verb" title="Germanic weak verb">Germanic weak verb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_verb#Preterite-presents" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic verb">Preterite-present verb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grammatischer_Wechsel" title="Grammatischer Wechsel">Grammatischer Wechsel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_ablaut" title="Indo-European ablaut">Indo-European ablaut</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li>Italics indicate <a href="/wiki/Language_death" title="Language death">extinct languages</a></li> <li>Languages between parentheses are <a href="/wiki/Variety_(linguistics)" title="Variety (linguistics)">varieties</a> of the language on their left.</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Languages_of_Israel" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Languages_of_Israel" title="Template:Languages of Israel"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Languages_of_Israel" title="Template talk:Languages of Israel"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Languages_of_Israel" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Languages of Israel"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Languages_of_Israel" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Israel" title="Languages of Israel">Languages of Israel</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Official</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Special status</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_language_in_Israel" title="Arabic language in Israel">Arabic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_Arabic" title="Palestinian Arabic">Palestinian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Arabian_Arabic" title="Northwest Arabian Arabic">Bedouin</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Non-official</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amharic" title="Amharic">Amharic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domari_language" title="Domari language">Domari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Spanish" title="Judaeo-Spanish">Ladino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Kurdish languages">Kurdish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_language" title="Romanian language">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_language_in_Israel" title="Russian language in Israel">Russian</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Yiddish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Israel#Other_spoken_languages" title="Languages of Israel">others</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sign languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abu_Kaf_Bedouin_Sign_Language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Abu Kaf Bedouin Sign Language (page does not exist)">Abu Kaf</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Atrash_Sign_Language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Al-Atrash Sign Language (page does not exist)">Al-Atrash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Sayyid_Bedouin_Sign_Language" title="Al-Sayyid Bedouin Sign Language">Al-Sayyid</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arab_El-Naim_Sign_Language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Arab El-Naim Sign Language (page does not exist)">El-Naim</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ein_Mahel_Sign_Language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ein Mahel Sign Language (page does not exist)">Ein Mahel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_Jewish_Sign_Language" title="Algerian Jewish Sign Language">Ghardaian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_Sign_Language" title="Israeli Sign Language">Israeli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kafr_Qasem_Sign_Language" title="Kafr Qasem Sign Language">Kafr Qasem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levantine_Arabic_Sign_Language" title="Levantine Arabic Sign Language">Levantine Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Sign_Language" title="Russian Sign Language">Russian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>See also: <a href="/wiki/Jewish_languages" title="Jewish languages">Jewish languages</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Languages_of_Sweden" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Languages_of_Sweden" title="Template:Languages of 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href="/wiki/Official_minority_languages_of_Sweden" title="Official minority languages of Sweden">Recognized minority languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_language" title="Finnish language">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Me%C3%A4nkieli" title="Meänkieli">Meänkieli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%A1mi_languages" title="Sámi languages">Sámi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Southern_S%C3%A1mi" title="Southern Sámi">Southern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ume_S%C3%A1mi" title="Ume Sámi">Ume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pite_S%C3%A1mi" title="Pite Sámi">Pite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lule_S%C3%A1mi" title="Lule Sámi">Lule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_S%C3%A1mi" title="Northern Sámi">Northern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romani_language" title="Romani language">Romani</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_Kalo_language" title="Finnish Kalo language">Finnish Kalo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scandoromani_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Scandoromani language">Scandoromani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vlax_Romani" class="mw-redirect" title="Vlax Romani">Vlax dialects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balkan_Romani" title="Balkan Romani">Balkan dialects</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Yiddish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sign languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_Sign_Language" title="Swedish Sign Language">Swedish Sign Language</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dalecarlian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Dalecarlian language">Dalecarlian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elfdalian" title="Elfdalian">Elfdalian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gutnish" title="Gutnish">Gutnish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8641#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8641#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8641#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, 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