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<li id="toc-Prehistoric_evidence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prehistoric_evidence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Prehistoric evidence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prehistoric_evidence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pre-Columbian_Mesoamerica" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pre-Columbian_Mesoamerica"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pre-Columbian_Mesoamerica-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ancient_China" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancient_China"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Ancient China</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ancient_China-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medieval_East_Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medieval_East_Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Medieval East Africa</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medieval_East_Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pre-modern_Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pre-modern_Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Pre-modern Europe</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pre-modern_Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_medical_practices" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_medical_practices"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6</span> <span>Modern medical practices</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_medical_practices-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Myth_of_trepanation_as_a_treatment_for_headaches" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Myth_of_trepanation_as_a_treatment_for_headaches"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.7</span> <span>Myth of trepanation as a treatment for headaches</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Myth_of_trepanation_as_a_treatment_for_headaches-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cultural_Perspectives_on_Trepanation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cultural_Perspectives_on_Trepanation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.8</span> <span>Cultural Perspectives on Trepanation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cultural_Perspectives_on_Trepanation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tools_and_methods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tools_and_methods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Tools and methods</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tools_and_methods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Risks" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Risks"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Risks</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Risks-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Voluntary_trepanation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Voluntary_trepanation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Voluntary trepanation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Voluntary_trepanation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_interpretation_and_research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_interpretation_and_research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Modern interpretation and research</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_interpretation_and_research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Trepanning</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 41 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-41" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">41 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D9%82%D8%A8_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D9%85%D8%AC%D9%85%D8%A9" title="نقب الجمجمة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="نقب الجمجمة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trepanaci%C3%B3n" title="Trepanación – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Trepanación" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trepanasiya" title="Trepanasiya – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Trepanasiya" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%88%D8%B1_%D8%AF%D9%84%DB%8C%DA%A9" title="بور دلیک – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="بور دلیک" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trepanaci%C3%B3" title="Trepanació – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Trepanació" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trepanace" title="Trepanace – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Trepanace" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trepanation" title="Trepanation – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Trepanation" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trepanation" title="Trepanation – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Trepanation" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A4%CF%81%CF%85%CF%80%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%B9%CF%83%CE%BC%CF%8C%CF%82" title="Τρυπανισμός – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Τρυπανισμός" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trepanaci%C3%B3n" title="Trepanación – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Trepanación" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trepanado" title="Trepanado – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Trepanado" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trepanazio" title="Trepanazio – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Trepanazio" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%AA%D9%87%E2%80%8C%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="مته‌کاری – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="مته‌کاری" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tr%C3%A9panation" title="Trépanation – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Trépanation" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treap%C3%A1nadh" title="Treapánadh – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Treapánadh" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%B2%9C%EB%91%90" title="천두 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="천두" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B3%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%A3%D5%AB_%D5%BF%D6%80%D5%A5%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%A1%D6%81%D5%AB%D5%A1" title="Գանգի տրեպանացիա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Գանգի տրեպանացիա" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trepanago" title="Trepanago – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Trepanago" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trepanasi" title="Trepanasi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Trepanasi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trapanazione_del_cranio" title="Trapanazione del cranio – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Trapanazione del cranio" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%97%D7%99%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%A8_%D7%92%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%92%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%AA" title="חירור גולגולת – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="חירור גולגולת" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%9E%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ტრეპანაცია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ტრეპანაცია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trepanacija" title="Trepanacija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Trepanacija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trepan%C3%A1ci%C3%B3" title="Trepanáció – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Trepanáció" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schedeltrepanatie" title="Schedeltrepanatie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Schedeltrepanatie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A9%BF%E9%A0%AD" title="穿頭 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="穿頭" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trepanasjon" title="Trepanasjon – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Trepanasjon" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%96%E0%AC%AA%E0%AD%81%E0%AC%B0%E0%AD%80_%E0%AC%95%E0%AC%A3%E0%AC%BE_%E0%AC%85%E0%AC%B8%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%A4%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%B0%E0%AD%8B%E0%AC%AA%E0%AC%9A%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%B0" title="ଖପୁରୀ କଣା ଅସ୍ତ୍ରୋପଚାର – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ଖପୁରୀ କଣା ଅସ୍ତ୍ରୋପଚାର" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ଓଡ଼ିଆ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trepanacja" title="Trepanacja – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Trepanacja" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trepana%C3%A7%C3%A3o" title="Trepanação – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Trepanação" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trepana%C8%9Bie" title="Trepanație – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Trepanație" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BF%D0%B0" title="Трепанация черепа – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Трепанация черепа" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Трепанација – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Трепанација" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trepanacija" title="Trepanacija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Trepanacija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kallonporaus" title="Kallonporaus – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kallonporaus" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trepanation" title="Trepanation – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Trepanation" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pagbutas_sa_bungo" title="Pagbutas sa bungo – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Pagbutas sa bungo" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trepanasyon" title="Trepanasyon – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Trepanasyon" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%96%D1%8F_%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BF%D0%B0" title="Трепанація черепа – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Трепанація черепа" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ph%E1%BA%ABu_thu%E1%BA%ADt_khoan_s%E1%BB%8D" title="Phẫu thuật khoan sọ – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Phẫu thuật khoan sọ" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%A0%AD%E9%83%A8%E7%A9%BF%E5%AD%94" 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class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Surgically drilling a hole in the skull</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Trepanation" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Trepanation_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Trepanation (disambiguation)">Trepanation (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Trepanging" title="Trepanging">Trepanging</a>.</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hieronymus_Bosch_053_detail.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Hieronymus_Bosch_053_detail.jpg/325px-Hieronymus_Bosch_053_detail.jpg" decoding="async" width="325" height="308" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Hieronymus_Bosch_053_detail.jpg/488px-Hieronymus_Bosch_053_detail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Hieronymus_Bosch_053_detail.jpg/650px-Hieronymus_Bosch_053_detail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="662" data-file-height="627" /></a><figcaption>Detail from <i><a href="/wiki/The_Extraction_of_the_Stone_of_Madness_(The_Cure_of_Folly)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Extraction of the Stone of Madness (The Cure of Folly)">The Extraction of the Stone of Madness</a></i>, a painting by <a href="/wiki/Hieronymus_Bosch" title="Hieronymus Bosch">Hieronymus Bosch</a> depicting trepanation (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1488–1516</span>)</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Trepanning</b>, also known as <b>trepanation</b>, <b>trephination</b>, <b>trephining</b> or making a <b>burr hole</b> (the verb <i>trepan</i> derives from <a href="/wiki/Old_French" title="Old French">Old French</a> from <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Latin" title="Medieval Latin">Medieval Latin</a> <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">trepanum</i></span> from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Greek</a> <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">trúpanon</i></span>, literally "borer, auger"),<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is a surgical intervention in which a hole is <a href="/wiki/Drill" title="Drill">drilled</a> or scraped into the <a href="/wiki/Human_skull" class="mw-redirect" title="Human skull">human skull</a>. The intentional perforation of the cranium exposes the <i><a href="/wiki/Dura_mater" title="Dura mater">dura mater</a></i> to treat health problems related to intracranial diseases or release pressured blood buildup from an injury. It may also refer to any "<a href="/wiki/Burr_(cutter)" title="Burr (cutter)">burr</a>" hole created through other body surfaces, including nail beds. A <a href="/wiki/Trephine" title="Trephine">trephine</a> is an instrument used for cutting out a round piece of skull bone to relieve pressure beneath a surface.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In ancient times, holes were drilled into a person who was behaving in what was considered an abnormal way to let out what people believed were evil spirits.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Evidence of trepanation has been found in prehistoric human remains from <a href="/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">Neolithic</a> times onward. The bone that was trepanned was kept by the prehistoric people and may have been worn as a charm to keep evil spirits away. Evidence also suggests that trepanation was primitive emergency surgery after head wounds<sup id="cite_ref-Weber_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weber-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to remove shattered bits of bone from a fractured skull and clean out the blood that often pools under the skull after a blow to the head. Hunting accidents, falls, wild animals, and weapons such as clubs or spears could have caused such injuries. Trepanations appear to have been most common in areas where weapons that could produce skull fractures were used.<sup id="cite_ref-Rogers_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rogers-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The primary theories for the practice of trepanation in ancient times include spiritual purposes and treatment for epilepsy, head wound, mental disorders, and headache, although the latter may be just an unfounded myth.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:5_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In modern eye surgery, a trephine instrument is used in <a href="/wiki/Cornea_transplant" class="mw-redirect" title="Cornea transplant">corneal transplant surgery</a>. The procedure of drilling a hole through a fingernail or toenail is also known as trephination. It is performed by a physician or surgeon to relieve the pain associated with a <a href="/wiki/Subungual_hematoma" title="Subungual hematoma">subungual hematoma</a> (blood under the nail); a small amount of blood is expressed through the hole and the pain associated with the pressure is partially alleviated. Similarly, in abdominal surgery, a trephine incision is when a small disc of abdominal skin is excised to accommodate a <a href="/wiki/Stoma_(medicine)" title="Stoma (medicine)">stoma</a>. Although the abdominal wall does not contain bone, the use of the word <i>trephine</i> in this context may relate to the round excised area of skin being similar in shape to a burr hole. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trepanning&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Trepanated_skull_of_a_woman-P4140363-black.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Trepanated_skull_of_a_woman-P4140363-black.jpg/206px-Trepanated_skull_of_a_woman-P4140363-black.jpg" decoding="async" width="206" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Trepanated_skull_of_a_woman-P4140363-black.jpg/310px-Trepanated_skull_of_a_woman-P4140363-black.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Trepanated_skull_of_a_woman-P4140363-black.jpg/413px-Trepanated_skull_of_a_woman-P4140363-black.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2850" data-file-height="3010" /></a><figcaption>The perimeter of the hole in this trepanated <a href="/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">Neolithic</a> skull is rounded off by ingrowth of new bony tissue, indicating that the patient survived the operation.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cr%C3%A2nes_tr%C3%A9panation_%C3%A2ge_du_bronze.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Cr%C3%A2nes_tr%C3%A9panation_%C3%A2ge_du_bronze.jpg/220px-Cr%C3%A2nes_tr%C3%A9panation_%C3%A2ge_du_bronze.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Cr%C3%A2nes_tr%C3%A9panation_%C3%A2ge_du_bronze.jpg/330px-Cr%C3%A2nes_tr%C3%A9panation_%C3%A2ge_du_bronze.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Cr%C3%A2nes_tr%C3%A9panation_%C3%A2ge_du_bronze.jpg/440px-Cr%C3%A2nes_tr%C3%A9panation_%C3%A2ge_du_bronze.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4608" data-file-height="3456" /></a><figcaption>Skulls from the <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a> exhibited at the Musée archéologique de Saint-Raphaël (Archeological Museum of <a href="/wiki/Saint-Rapha%C3%ABl,_Var" title="Saint-Raphaël, Var">Saint-Raphaël</a>), found in <a href="/wiki/Comps-sur-Artuby" title="Comps-sur-Artuby">Comps-sur-Artuby</a> (France). The subjects survived operations.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dr_John_Clarke_trepanning_a_skull_operation.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Dr_John_Clarke_trepanning_a_skull_operation.jpg/220px-Dr_John_Clarke_trepanning_a_skull_operation.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="271" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Dr_John_Clarke_trepanning_a_skull_operation.jpg/330px-Dr_John_Clarke_trepanning_a_skull_operation.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Dr_John_Clarke_trepanning_a_skull_operation.jpg/440px-Dr_John_Clarke_trepanning_a_skull_operation.jpg 2x" data-file-width="470" data-file-height="578" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Dr._John_Clarke" class="mw-redirect" title="Dr. John Clarke">Dr. John Clarke</a> trepanning a skull, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1664</span>, in one of the earliest American portraits. Clarke is alleged to have been the first physician to have performed the operation in the <a href="/wiki/New_England_Colonies" title="New England Colonies">New England Colonies</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1750_Trepanationsbesteck_anagoria.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/1750_Trepanationsbesteck_anagoria.JPG/220px-1750_Trepanationsbesteck_anagoria.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="260" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/1750_Trepanationsbesteck_anagoria.JPG/330px-1750_Trepanationsbesteck_anagoria.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/1750_Trepanationsbesteck_anagoria.JPG/440px-1750_Trepanationsbesteck_anagoria.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2616" data-file-height="3092" /></a><figcaption>Trepanation instruments, 18th century; Germanic National Museum in Nuremberg</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prehistoric_evidence">Prehistoric evidence</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trepanning&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Prehistoric evidence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Trepanation dates back to 7,000–10,000 years ago,<sup id="cite_ref-:4_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and it is perhaps the oldest surgical procedure for which there is <a href="/wiki/Archaeological" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaeological">archaeological</a> evidence,<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in some areas may have been quite widespread. The main pieces of archaeological evidence are in the forms of cave paintings and human remains. At one burial site in <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a> dated to 6500 BCE, 40 out of 120 <a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Prehistoric France">prehistoric</a> skulls found had trepanation holes.<sup id="cite_ref-restak2000_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-restak2000-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the time only around 40% of people survived the procedure.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>More than 1,500 trephined skulls from the Neolithic period (representing 5–10% of all cranial remains from that era) have been uncovered throughout the world – from Europe, <a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a>, China and <a href="/wiki/The_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="The Americas">the Americas</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most of the trephined crania belong to adult males, but women and children are also represented. </p><p>There also exists evidence of trepanation being performed on a cow in France around 3400–3000 BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If performed while alive, the cow did not survive the procedure. It is unclear if this was performed as a <a href="/wiki/Veterinary_surgery" title="Veterinary surgery">veterinary procedure</a>, <a href="/wiki/Animal_testing" title="Animal testing">medical experimentation</a> or for other unknown reasons. However, It could be the earliest archaeological example of veterinary surgery or animal medical experimentation. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pre-Columbian_Mesoamerica">Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trepanning&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Trepanation_in_Mesoamerica" title="Trepanation in Mesoamerica">Trepanation in Mesoamerica</a></div> <p>In the more recent times of <a href="/wiki/Postclassical" class="mw-redirect" title="Postclassical">postclassical</a> <a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-Columbian">pre-Columbian</a> <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerica" title="Mesoamerica">Mesoamerica</a>, evidence for the practice of trepanation and an assortment of other <a href="/wiki/Human_cranium" class="mw-redirect" title="Human cranium">cranial</a> deformation techniques comes from a variety of sources, including physical cranial remains of burials, allusions in iconographic artworks and reports from the post-colonial period. </p><p>Among <a href="/wiki/New_World" title="New World">New World</a> societies, trepanning is most commonly found in the <a href="/wiki/Andes" title="Andes">Andean</a> civilizations, such as pre-<a href="/wiki/Incan_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Incan Empire">Incan</a> cultures. For example, the Paracas culture <a href="/wiki/Paracas_culture" title="Paracas culture">Ica</a>, situated in what is now known as Ica, located south of Lima. Trepanation has also been found in the <a href="/wiki/Muisca_Confederation" title="Muisca Confederation">Muisca Confederation</a><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (in modern-day Colombia) and the <a href="/wiki/Inca" class="mw-redirect" title="Inca">Inca Empire</a>. In both, even <a href="/wiki/Cranioplasty" title="Cranioplasty">cranioplasty</a> existed.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The prevalence of trepanation among Mesoamerican civilizations is much lower, at least judging from the comparatively few trepanned crania that have been uncovered.<sup id="cite_ref-tiesler2003a_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tiesler2003a-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Archaeological_record" title="Archaeological record">archaeological record</a> in Mesoamerica is further complicated by the practice of skull mutilation and modification carried out <i>after</i> the death of the subject, to fashion "trophy skulls" and the like of captives and enemies. This was a widespread tradition, illustrated in pre-Columbian art that occasionally depicts rulers adorned with or carrying the modified skulls of their defeated enemies, or of the ritualistic display of <a href="/wiki/Human_sacrifice" title="Human sacrifice">sacrificial</a> victims. Several Mesoamerican cultures used a skull-rack (known by its <a href="/wiki/Classical_Nahuatl_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical Nahuatl language">Nahuatl</a> term, <i><a href="/wiki/Tzompantli" title="Tzompantli">tzompantli</a></i>), on which skulls were impaled in rows or columns of wooden stakes. Even so, some evidence of genuine trepanation in Mesoamerica (i.e., where the subject was living) has survived.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The earliest archaeological survey published of trepanned crania was a late 19th-century study of several specimens recovered from the <a href="/wiki/Tarahumara" class="mw-redirect" title="Tarahumara">Tarahumara</a> mountains by the Norwegian <a href="/wiki/Ethnographer" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnographer">ethnographer</a> <a href="/wiki/Carl_Sofus_Lumholtz" title="Carl Sofus Lumholtz">Carl Lumholtz</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-tiesler2003a_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tiesler2003a-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later studies documented cases identified from a range of sites in <a href="/wiki/Oaxaca" title="Oaxaca">Oaxaca</a> and central <a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Tilantongo" title="Tilantongo">Tilantongo</a>, Oaxaca and the major <a href="/wiki/Zapotec_civilization" title="Zapotec civilization">Zapotec</a> site of <a href="/wiki/Monte_Alb%C3%A1n" title="Monte Albán">Monte Albán</a>. Two specimens from the <a href="/wiki/Tlatilco" title="Tlatilco">Tlatilco</a> civilization's homelands (which flourished around 1400 BCE) indicate the practice has a lengthy tradition.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Specimens identified from the <a href="/wiki/Maya_civilization" title="Maya civilization">Maya civilization</a> region of southern Mexico, <a href="/wiki/Guatemala" title="Guatemala">Guatemala</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Yucat%C3%A1n_Peninsula" title="Yucatán Peninsula">Yucatán Peninsula</a> show no evidence of the drilling or cutting techniques found in central and highland Mexico. Instead, the pre-Columbian Maya apparently used an abrasive technique that ground away at the back of the skull, thinning the bone and sometimes perforating it, similar to the examples from Cholula. Many skulls from the Maya region date from the Postclassic period (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 950–1400 CE</span>), and include specimens found at <a href="/wiki/Palenque" title="Palenque">Palenque</a> in <a href="/wiki/Chiapas" title="Chiapas">Chiapas</a>, and recovered from the <a href="/wiki/Sacred_Cenote" title="Sacred Cenote">Sacred Cenote</a> at the prominent Postclassic site of <a href="/wiki/Chichen_Itza" title="Chichen Itza">Chichen Itza</a> in northern Yucatán.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient_China">Ancient China</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trepanning&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Ancient China"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Before 2007, archaeological evidence of trepanation in ancient China was nonexistent. Since Chinese culture mainly focuses only on <a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_medicine" title="Traditional Chinese medicine">traditional Chinese medicine</a> that usually entails non-surgical treatments such as <a href="/wiki/Acupuncture" title="Acupuncture">acupuncture</a>, balancing <a href="/wiki/Qigong" title="Qigong">Qigong</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cupping_therapy" title="Cupping therapy">cupping</a>, <a href="/wiki/Herbal_medicine" title="Herbal medicine">herbal remedies</a>, etc. The resulting misconception was that trepanation was not practiced in ancient China. However, in 2007, Han and Chen from the Institute of Archeology, <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Academy_of_Social_Sciences" title="Chinese Academy of Social Sciences">Chinese Academy of Social Sciences</a> looked at six trepanned skulls spanning between the Neolithic period through the Bronze and Iron Ages (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 5000–2000</span> years ago) found in five different locations.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Along with the discovery of these trepanned skulls, another collection of 13 trepanned skulls was discovered and dated to 3,000 years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2015, an intact 3,600-year-old <a href="/wiki/Mummy" title="Mummy">mummy</a> with a trepanned skull was discovered. Meanwhile, the oldest trepanned skull (M382) analysed by Han and Chen was radiocarbon dated to around 5,000 years ago and discovered at the Fuija site in <a href="/wiki/Guangrao" class="mw-redirect" title="Guangrao">Guangrao</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shandong" title="Shandong">Shandong</a>. The skull, which belonged to an adult male, exhibited a right <a href="/wiki/Parietal_lobe" title="Parietal lobe">parietal</a> <a href="/wiki/Calvaria_(skull)" title="Calvaria (skull)">calvarial</a> defect (31 x 25 mm) with evidence of scraping by a <a href="/wiki/Trephine" title="Trephine">trephine</a>-like tool.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_19-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, bone regeneration and smooth edges suggest that the subject recovered from the surgery and lived a relatively long time afterward. </p><p>The 3,600-year-old perforated skull of a mummified female dating to 1615 BCE was found in the <a href="/wiki/Xiaohe_Cemetery" title="Xiaohe Cemetery">Xiaohe tomb</a> in China's <a href="/wiki/Xinjiang_Uygur_Autonomous_Region" class="mw-redirect" title="Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region">Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_19-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The only known female with a trepanned skull, it showed signs of bone spurs growth and retraction of the edges, suggesting that she also survived the surgery. Found in a massive burial site, this mummy was one of the hundreds found in the "Little River" Tomb complex. </p><p>The Bronze Age was found to be the period with the largest number of trepanned skulls in ancient China.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_19-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medieval_East_Africa">Medieval East Africa</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trepanning&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Medieval East Africa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Trephining has a long history in <a href="/wiki/East_Africa" title="East Africa">East Africa</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="There is no evidence for this claim (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>. Bones of depressed fractures were elevated by surgeons of <a href="/wiki/Bunyoro-Kitara" class="mw-redirect" title="Bunyoro-Kitara">Bunyoro-Kitara</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Davies_1959_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davies_1959-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The hair may or may not have been shaved depending upon the site of the operation. </p><p>Trepanning at the <a href="/wiki/Kisii_people" title="Kisii people">Kisii people</a> in Kenya was filmed in 1958.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pre-modern_Europe">Pre-modern Europe</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trepanning&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Pre-modern Europe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Trepanation was known to prehistoric Europeans, with some populations having impressive success rates of 78% in the Iron Age. <sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Trepanation was also practised in the classical and <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> periods. <a href="/wiki/Hippocrates" title="Hippocrates">Hippocrates</a> gave specific directions on the procedure from its evolution through the Greek age, and <a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a> also elaborates on the procedure. During the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a>, trepanation was practiced as a cure for various ailments, including seizures and skull fractures. Out of eight skulls with trepanations from the 6th to 8th centuries found in southwestern <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a>, seven skulls show clear evidence of healing and survival after trepanation, suggesting that the survival rate of the operations was high and the infection rate was low.<sup id="cite_ref-Weber_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weber-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the graveyards of pre-Christian (<a href="/wiki/Pagan" class="mw-redirect" title="Pagan">Pagan</a>) <a href="/wiki/Magyars" class="mw-redirect" title="Magyars">Magyars</a>, archeologists found a surprisingly high frequency (12.5%) of skulls with trepanation, although more than 90% only partial (these served probably ritual purposes).<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Self-published_sources" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="The material near this tag may rely on a self-published source. (May 2022)">self-published source?</span></a></i>]</sup> The trepanation was performed on adults only, with similar frequencies for males and females, but increasing frequency with age and wealth. This custom suddenly disappeared with the <a href="/wiki/Magyars" class="mw-redirect" title="Magyars">Magyars</a>' conversion to Christianity. </p><p>A small area near (modern) <a href="/wiki/Rostov-on-Don" title="Rostov-on-Don">Rostov-on-Don</a>, in southern Russia, may have been a centre for ritual trepanning, around 6000 years ago, according to archeologists who discovered remains of eight recipients of the practice, within a small area, all with the incision in the unusual <a href="/wiki/Obelion" title="Obelion">obelion</a> position, high on the back of the head.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the 16th and 17th centuries, around 80% of people survived the procedure of trepanation.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_medical_practices">Modern medical practices</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trepanning&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Modern medical practices"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The prefrontal leucotomy, a precursor to <a href="/wiki/Lobotomy" title="Lobotomy">lobotomy</a>, was performed by cutting a <a href="/wiki/Trephine" title="Trephine">trephine</a> hole into the skull, inserting an instrument, and destroying parts of the brain.<sup id="cite_ref-Moniz1937_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moniz1937-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was later made unnecessary by the development of the <a href="/wiki/Lobotomy#Transorbital_lobotomy" title="Lobotomy">orbital transit lobotomy</a> where a spike was inserted through the eye-sockets. </p><p>Trepanation is a treatment used for <a href="/wiki/Epidural_hematoma" title="Epidural hematoma">epidural</a> and <a href="/wiki/Subdural_hematoma" title="Subdural hematoma">subdural hematomas</a>, and surgical access for certain other neurosurgical procedures, such as intracranial pressure monitoring. Modern surgeons generally use the term <i><a href="/wiki/Craniotomy" title="Craniotomy">craniotomy</a></i> for this procedure. Unlike in folk practices, a craniotomy must be performed only after diagnostic imaging (like <a href="/wiki/CT_scan" title="CT scan">computed tomography</a> and <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_resonance_imaging" title="Magnetic resonance imaging">magnetic resonance imaging</a>) has pinpointed the issue within the skull; preoperative imaging allows for accurate examination and evaluation. Unlike in trepanation, the removed piece of skull (called a bone flap) is typically replaced as soon as possible, where it can <a href="/wiki/Bone_healing" title="Bone healing">heal</a>. Trepanation instruments, nowadays being replaced with <a href="/wiki/Cranial_drill" title="Cranial drill">cranial drills</a>, are now available with diamond-coated rims, which are less traumatic than the classical trephines with sharp teeth. They are smooth to soft tissues and cut only bone.<sup id="cite_ref-TrepanationJournal_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TrepanationJournal-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, the specially designed drills come with a safety feature that prevents the drill from penetrating into the brain tissue (through the dura mater). Along with antisepsis and prophylaxis of infection, modern neurosurgery is a common procedure for many reasons other than head trauma. </p><p>In 20th century, in documented trepanning cases in Africa and Oceania, around 90% of people survived the procedure.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_8-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Myth_of_trepanation_as_a_treatment_for_headaches">Myth of trepanation as a treatment for headaches</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trepanning&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Myth of trepanation as a treatment for headaches"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After the retrieval of some skulls from the Neolithic era that showed signs of trepanation, in the nineteenth century, the false belief that these holes were drilled for the treatment of headaches or other neurological disorders started spreading. During the 1870s, the French anthropologist and physician <a href="/wiki/Paul_Broca" title="Paul Broca">Paul Broca</a> found several European and South American children's skulls dating to the Neolithic age that were perforated surgically. Since no signs of fractures that could justify this complex procedure to relieve trauma were found, a debate emerged around why these children were subjected to trepanation while they were still alive. Broca theorized that this operation had a ritual or religious purpose, probably to remove "confined demons" inside the head of the patient, or to create healing or fortune talismans with the removed skull fragments. However, he also suggested that the operation may have been performed to treat some infantile conditions such as febrile seizures to explain why it was performed only on children. </p><p>Broca never mentioned headaches, though, and the association was established only several decades later by the world-famous Canadian physician <a href="/wiki/William_Osler" title="William Osler">William Osler</a> in 1913. Osler misinterpreted Broca's words, and added other conditions such as "infantile convulsions, headache and various cerebral diseases believed to be caused by confined demons." Osler's theory was seen as particularly palatable by other <a href="/wiki/Armchair_theorizing" title="Armchair theorizing">armchair anthropologists</a>, who were fascinated by the idea that folk traditions and/or myths could be linked with the treatment for common conditions such as migraine. Eventually, Broca's speculation came to be accepted as fact, and the myth was perpetuated by other historians and physicians. To this day, there's no credible evidence supporting this theory, especially since children are much less frequently affected by migraine and headache disorders than adults. Nevertheless, the myth persists.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cultural_Perspectives_on_Trepanation">Cultural Perspectives on Trepanation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trepanning&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Cultural Perspectives on Trepanation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The motivations behind trepanation varied significantly across cultures, often tied to beliefs about health, spirituality, and the treatment of ailments. Early instances of the practice may have been influenced by a combination of supernatural beliefs and early understandings of physical ailments, leading to its acceptance in various medical traditions. In many cultures, it was believed that drilling a hole in the skull will let out the evil spirits that caused pain and illness. It can be explained as most head injuries and diseases, such as migraine, felt like pounding, so cutting a hole in head may help to relieve the pain and pressure. In Africa and Europe, not only this procedure was performed for spiritual reasons, but also the discs made of cranial bones were commonly used as shield from demons and evils.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In China, there was found 12 shaman corpses in the tomb with trephined bodies because they also had duties of doctors.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_19-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This tells about connection of cranial surgery to religion; there was conception that open hole in head contributes to communication with god and souls of dead people. Trepanation was also associated in Chinese medicine with the balance of vital energy, or qi.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They understand trepanation as a way to balance the body and energy, spiritual and physical health. On the other hand, it was thought that celebral disorder arise from the loss of spiritual image in ancient Peru, illness developed after being separated from body.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Trepanation would have been done in order to allow spirit to return back into body. In these cases, the patient may have suffered from paralysis, cerebral palsy, severe depression, or mental retardation.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Tools_and_methods">Tools and methods</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trepanning&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Tools and methods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In ancient times, trepanation instruments were less complex, and were commonly made out of flint, obsidian, or harder material such as stone knives, and later with metal such as bronze and copper.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, the procedure was done by practitioners utilizing <i><a href="/wiki/Tumi" title="Tumi">tumi</a></i> (ceremonial knife in early Peru), sharpened seashells (South Pacific), a trephine drill, bronze knife, etc.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Greeks and <a href="/wiki/Surgery_in_Ancient_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Surgery in Ancient Rome">Romans</a> were the first to design medical instruments that were used to penetrate the skull.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such instruments includes the <i>terebra serrata</i> made to perforate the cranium by manually rolling the instrument between the surgeon's hand.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the Renaissance period, when trepanation was routinely performed, a range of instruments were developed to accommodate the demand. </p><p>As many as five main methods were found for trephination: </p> <ol><li>Rectangular intersecting cuts</li> <li>Scraping utilizing an abrasive instrument such as flint</li> <li>Circular grooving</li> <li>Boring and cutting by a circular trephine or crown saw</li> <li>Burr hole done by drilling several circle holes closely to create a space and then cut/chisel the bone between the hole.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <p>The scraping method was found to be the most common in prehistoric times.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_30-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The differences in method vary in the amount and depth of bone being removed. The trepanation surgical procedure includes exposure of the dura mater without damaging the underlying blood vessels, meninges, and brain. Over time, the skin will reform over the puncture site, but the hole in the skull will remain. </p><p>The location of the trepanation on the skull varies by geographical region and period, common locations are the <a href="/wiki/Frontal_bone" title="Frontal bone">frontal</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Occipital_bone" title="Occipital bone">occipital</a> bones.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In most cases, trepanation was a one-off operation, with only a small percentage of the trepanned skulls having undergone more than one surgery. In those with multiple openings, the extent of bone remodelling helps identify whether the opening was done at around the same time or at different times during the individual's life.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Risks">Risks</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trepanning&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Risks"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Neurosurgery" title="Neurosurgery">neurosurgeon</a> can perform the procedure safely, although it comes with severe repercussions such as direct or indirect perioperative complications, which include increased damage to the brain, infection, blood loss, hemorrhage, and potentially death due to the trauma as the skull's protective covering is compromised.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The operation leaves very minimal space for error and a high incidence of mortality if the dura mater is penetrated. Additionally, there is a high risk of infection if the operation is conducted with contaminated tools or improper sanitary wound care.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If the infection is not caught and treated immediately, it can be fatal or lead to significant and permanent brain damage. After surgery, neither the surrounding bone or the trepanned bone piece ever show any osseous healing like other bones. Osteoclastic and osteoblastic activity occurs after the first week, <a href="/wiki/Hyperaemia" title="Hyperaemia">hyperemia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Osteoclast" title="Osteoclast">osteoclastic</a> activity are seen on the necrotic bone surrounding the trepanation site, due to loss of blood supply.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Voluntary_trepanation">Voluntary trepanation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trepanning&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Voluntary trepanation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Since the early 1960s, voluntary trepanation has been performed by people interested in "enhancing mental power and well-being".<sup id="cite_ref-:4_8-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The practice of trepanning also continues today due to belief in various <a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">pseudoscientific</a> medical benefits.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, some have tried trepanation as a means of emulating the "<a href="/wiki/Third_eye" title="Third eye">third eye</a>", in order to achieve <a href="/wiki/Clairvoyance" title="Clairvoyance">clairvoyance</a> or as a means of maintaining a "permanent state of <a href="/wiki/Euphoria" title="Euphoria">euphoria</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other proponents claim that trepanning results in increased blood flow.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Individuals have practiced non-emergency trepanning for psychological purposes. A prominent proponent of the modern view is Peter Halvorson, who drilled a hole in the front of his own skull to increase "brain blood volume".<sup id="cite_ref-restak2000_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-restak2000-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One of the most prominent advocates of trepanning was <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Dutch</a> librarian <a href="/wiki/Bart_Huges" title="Bart Huges">Bart Huges</a>. In 1965, Huges drilled a hole in his own head with a dentist drill as a publicity stunt. Huges claimed that trepanning increases "brain blood volume" and thereby enhances cerebral metabolism in a manner similar to cerebral <a href="/wiki/Vasodilators" class="mw-redirect" title="Vasodilators">vasodilators</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Ginkgo_biloba" title="Ginkgo biloba">ginkgo biloba</a>. These claims are unsubstantiated by research. Huges and his girlfriend also made several comic books in the 1970s, which promoted trepanation.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In a chapter of his book <i>Eccentric Lives & Peculiar Notions</i>, esotericist <a href="/wiki/John_Michell_(writer)" title="John Michell (writer)">John Michell</a> cites Huges as pioneering the idea of trepanning in his 1962 monograph, <i>Homo Sapiens Correctus</i>, which is often cited by advocates of self-trepanation. Among other arguments, Huges contends that children have a higher state of consciousness and since children's skulls are not fully closed, one can return to an earlier, childlike state of consciousness by self-trepanation. Further, by allowing the brain to freely pulsate Huges argues that a number of benefits will accrue. </p><p>Michell quotes <a href="/wiki/Joey_Mellen" title="Joey Mellen">Joey Mellen's</a> book, <i>Bore Hole</i>. At the time the passage below was written, Joey and his partner, <a href="/wiki/Amanda_Feilding" title="Amanda Feilding">Amanda Feilding</a>, had made two previous attempts at trepanning Mellen. The second attempt ended up placing Mellen in the hospital, where he was reprimanded severely and sent for psychiatric evaluation. After he returned home, Mellen decided to try again. He describes his third attempt at self-trepanation: </p> <blockquote><p>After some time there was an ominous sounding schlurp and the sound of bubbling. I drew the trepan out and the gurgling continued. It sounded like air bubbles running under the skull as they were pressed out. I looked at the trepan and there was a bit of bone in it. At last!</p></blockquote> <p>Feilding also performed a self-trepanation with a drill, while Mellen shot the operation for the short film <i><a href="/wiki/Heartbeat_in_the_Brain" title="Heartbeat in the Brain">Heartbeat in the Brain</a></i>, which was long thought to have been lost. Portions of the film can be seen in the documentary <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=A_Hole_in_the_Head_(1998_film)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="A Hole in the Head (1998 film) (page does not exist)">A Hole in the Head</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Michell also describes a British group that advocates self-trepanation to allow the brain access to more space and oxygen. Other modern practitioners of trepanation claim that it holds other medical benefits, such as a treatment for depression or other psychological ailments. In 2000, two men from <a href="/wiki/Cedar_City,_Utah" title="Cedar City, Utah">Cedar City, Utah</a>, were prosecuted for practicing medicine without a license after they performed a trepanation on an English woman to treat her <a href="/wiki/Myalgic_encephalomyelitis/chronic_fatigue_syndrome" title="Myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome">chronic fatigue syndrome</a> and <a href="/wiki/Clinical_depression" class="mw-redirect" title="Clinical depression">depression</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2023, Michael Raduga, a Russian lucid dreaming researcher, performed self-neurosurgery that included trepanation, electrode implantation, and electrical stimulation of the motor cortex. The goal was to stimulate the brain during REM sleep, sleep paralysis, and lucid dreams.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_interpretation_and_research">Modern interpretation and research</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trepanning&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Modern interpretation and research"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Modern forensic and medical research on trepanned skulls demonstrates advanced surgical skills in prehistoric societies and highlights how trepanation influenced later developments in neurosurgery and the history of medicine. With the advancement of technology, it became possible to examine and interpret the trepanned skull with CT scans and new techniques of bioarchaeology. A recent study provided new perspective of the healing process of skull after cranial trepanation: even though there are many examples of prehistoric cranial lesions that have been classified as "healed trepanations", the research shows that definition of “healing” is not consistent. One of the reasons of distinction in variations of healing process is difference of surgical methods such as “scraping” or “grooving” that might alter the angle of the edge. The first smoothening of bone begins in 5 months, but total healing or closure never happens.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the 20th century, the ancient practice of trepanning evolved into procedure of bone marrow biopsy, which became vital for identifying illnesses including anemia, leukomia, lymphoma, and tuberculosis.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This change happened as doctors realized the need of accessing the inside of bones for diagnostic purposes, especially in the treatment of blood-related ailments. The initial tools of trepanation as crown trephine transitioned into the biopsy needles in modern medicine such as Vim-Silverman needle and Jamshidi needle.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The instrument created a small hole in the skull, reducing the possibility of significant injury. These instruments’ adaptation in performing multiple medical functions, ranging from diagnosing blood and relieving cranial pressure, shows how tools adapt to advancements in medicine. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trepanning&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Craniotomy" title="Craniotomy">Craniotomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C3%BCtter_Museum" title="Mütter Museum">Mütter Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shrunken_head" title="Shrunken head">Shrunken head</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trepanning&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFHarper" class="citation web cs1">Harper, Douglas. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.etymonline.com/?term=trepan">"trepan"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Online_Etymology_Dictionary" title="Online Etymology Dictionary">Online Etymology Dictionary</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Online+Etymology+Dictionary&rft.atitle=trepan&rft.aulast=Harper&rft.aufirst=Douglas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.etymonline.com%2F%3Fterm%3Dtrepan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrepanning" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:entry=tru/panon"><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">τρύπανον</span></span></a>. <a href="/wiki/Henry_Liddell" title="Henry Liddell">Liddell, Henry George</a>; <a href="/wiki/Robert_Scott_(philologist)" title="Robert Scott (philologist)">Scott, Robert</a>; <i><a href="/wiki/A_Greek%E2%80%93English_Lexicon" title="A Greek–English Lexicon">A Greek–English Lexicon</a></i> at the <a 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McGraw-Hill Education.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Abnormal+Psychology&rft.edition=6th&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill+Education&rft.date=2014&rft.au=Nolen-Hoeksema&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrepanning" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Weber-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Weber_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Weber_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeber,_J.A._Czarnetzki2001" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Weber, J.; A. Czarnetzki (2001). "Trepanationen im frühen Mittelalter im Südwesten von Deutschland – Indikationen, Komplikationen und Outcome". <i>Zentralblatt für Neurochirurgie</i> (in German). <b>62</b> (1): 10–14. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1055%2Fs-2001-16333">10.1055/s-2001-16333</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11496341">11496341</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:71480502">71480502</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Zentralblatt+f%C3%BCr+Neurochirurgie&rft.atitle=Trepanationen+im+fr%C3%BChen+Mittelalter+im+S%C3%BCdwesten+von+Deutschland+%E2%80%93+Indikationen%2C+Komplikationen+und+Outcome&rft.volume=62&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=10-14&rft.date=2001&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A71480502%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11496341&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1055%2Fs-2001-16333&rft.au=Weber%2C+J.&rft.au=A.+Czarnetzki&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrepanning" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rogers-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Rogers_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRogers1985" class="citation book cs1">Rogers, Spencer (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/primitivesurgery00roge"><i>Primitive Surgery: Skills Before Science</i></a>. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/primitivesurgery00roge/page/17">17-18</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-398-05123-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-398-05123-2"><bdi>0-398-05123-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Primitive+Surgery%3A+Skills+Before+Science&rft.place=Springfield%2C+IL&rft.pages=17-18&rft.pub=Charles+C.+Thomas&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=0-398-05123-2&rft.aulast=Rogers&rft.aufirst=Spencer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fprimitivesurgery00roge&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrepanning" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFaria2013" class="citation journal cs1">Faria, Miguel A. (2013-04-05). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3640229">"Violence, mental illness, and the brain – A brief history of psychosurgery: Part 1 – From trephination to lobotomy"</a>. <i>Surgical Neurology International</i>. <b>4</b>: 49. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4103%2F2152-7806.110146">10.4103/2152-7806.110146</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2229-5097">2229-5097</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3640229">3640229</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23646259">23646259</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Surgical+Neurology+International&rft.atitle=Violence%2C+mental+illness%2C+and+the+brain+%E2%80%93+A+brief+history+of+psychosurgery%3A+Part+1+%E2%80%93+From+trephination+to+lobotomy&rft.volume=4&rft.pages=49&rft.date=2013-04-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3640229%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=2229-5097&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23646259&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4103%2F2152-7806.110146&rft.aulast=Faria&rft.aufirst=Miguel+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3640229&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrepanning" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:5-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:5_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFButticè2022" class="citation book cs1">Butticè, Claudio (April 2022). <i>What you need to know about headaches</i>. Santa Barbara, California: <a href="/wiki/Greenwood_Publishing_Group" title="Greenwood Publishing Group">Greenwood Publishing Group</a>. pp. 29–30. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4408-7531-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4408-7531-1"><bdi>978-1-4408-7531-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1259297708">1259297708</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=What+you+need+to+know+about+headaches&rft.place=Santa+Barbara%2C+California&rft.pages=29-30&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2022-04&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1259297708&rft.isbn=978-1-4408-7531-1&rft.aulast=Buttic%C3%A8&rft.aufirst=Claudio&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrepanning" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:4_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_8-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_8-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_8-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndré2017" class="citation journal cs1">André, Charles (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1590%2F0004-282X20170040">"Evolving story: trepanation and self-trepanation to enhance brain function"</a>. <i>Arquivos de Neuro-Psiquiatria</i>. <b>75</b> (5): 307–313. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1590%2F0004-282X20170040">10.1590/0004-282X20170040</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0004-282X">0004-282X</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28591391">28591391</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Arquivos+de+Neuro-Psiquiatria&rft.atitle=Evolving+story%3A+trepanation+and+self-trepanation+to+enhance+brain+function&rft.volume=75&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=307-313&rft.date=2017&rft.issn=0004-282X&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28591391&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1590%2F0004-282X20170040&rft.aulast=Andr%C3%A9&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1590%252F0004-282X20170040&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrepanning" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCapasso,_Luigi2002" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Capasso, Luigi (2002). <i>Principi di storia della patologia umana: corso di storia della medicina per gli studenti della Facoltà di medicina e chirurgia e della Facoltà di scienze infermieristiche</i> (in Italian). Rome: SEU. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-88-87753-65-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-88-87753-65-3"><bdi>978-88-87753-65-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/50485765">50485765</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Principi+di+storia+della+patologia+umana%3A+corso+di+storia+della+medicina+per+gli+studenti+della+Facolt%C3%A0+di+medicina+e+chirurgia+e+della+Facolt%C3%A0+di+scienze+infermieristiche&rft.place=Rome&rft.pub=SEU&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F50485765&rft.isbn=978-88-87753-65-3&rft.au=Capasso%2C+Luigi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrepanning" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-restak2000-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-restak2000_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-restak2000_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRestak,_Richard2000" class="citation book cs1">Restak, Richard (2000). 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href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29937277">29937277</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Neuron&rft.atitle=Vascular+Compartmentalization+of+Functional+Hyperemia+from+the+Synapse+to+the+Pia&rft.volume=99&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=362-375.e4&rft.date=2018-07-25&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6069674%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=0896-6273&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F29937277&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.neuron.2018.06.012&rft.aulast=Rungta&rft.aufirst=Ravi+L.&rft.au=Chaigneau%2C+Emmanuelle&rft.au=Osmanski%2C+Bruno-F%C3%A9lix&rft.au=Charpak%2C+Serge&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6069674&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrepanning" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKnüsel2004" class="citation journal cs1">Knüsel, Christopher (March 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/oa.703">"Trepanation: History, Discovery, Theory. R. Arnott, S. Finger & C.U.M. Smith (eds). Swets & Zeitlinger Publishers, Lisse, The Netherlands 2003. 408 + XIIpp. ISBN 90 265 1923 0. £67/$99"</a>. <i>International Journal of Osteoarchaeology</i>. <b>14</b> (2): 151–153. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Foa.703">10.1002/oa.703</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1047-482X">1047-482X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Osteoarchaeology&rft.atitle=Trepanation%3A+History%2C+Discovery%2C+Theory.+R.+Arnott%2C+S.+Finger+%26+C.U.M.+Smith+%28eds%29.+Swets+%26+Zeitlinger+Publishers%2C+Lisse%2C+The+Netherlands+2003.+408+%2B+XIIpp.+ISBN+90+265+1923+0.+%C2%A367%2F%2499&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=151-153&rft.date=2004-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Foa.703&rft.issn=1047-482X&rft.aulast=Kn%C3%BCsel&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fonlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2F10.1002%2Foa.703&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrepanning" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJoseph_Cox2013" class="citation web cs1">Joseph Cox (August 14, 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.vice.com/en_au/read/drilling-a-hole-in-your-head-for-a-higher-state-of-consciousness">"An Interview with the Woman Who Drilled a Hole in Her Head to Open Up Her Mind"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160917195052/http://www.vice.com/en_au/read/drilling-a-hole-in-your-head-for-a-higher-state-of-consciousness">Archived</a> from the original on 2016-09-17<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-08-15</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=An+Interview+with+the+Woman+Who+Drilled+a+Hole+in+Her+Head+to+Open+Up+Her+Mind&rft.date=2013-08-14&rft.au=Joseph+Cox&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.vice.com%2Fen_au%2Fread%2Fdrilling-a-hole-in-your-head-for-a-higher-state-of-consciousness&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrepanning" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilcock1976" class="citation book cs1">Wilcock, John (1976). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OqFsAAAAMAAJ&q=trepanation+occult"><i>An Occult Guide to South America</i></a>. Book Division of Laurel Tape & Film; Briarcliff Manor, N.Y.: this ed. distributed by Stein & Day. p. 65. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8128-2107-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8128-2107-9"><bdi>978-0-8128-2107-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Occult+Guide+to+South+America&rft.pages=65&rft.pub=Book+Division+of+Laurel+Tape+%26+Film%3B+Briarcliff+Manor%2C+N.Y.%3A+this+ed.+distributed+by+Stein+%26+Day&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=978-0-8128-2107-9&rft.aulast=Wilcock&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOqFsAAAAMAAJ%26q%3Dtrepanation%2Boccult&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrepanning" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeMello2007" class="citation book cs1">DeMello, Margo (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=s0122BsqrZwC&pg=PA286"><i>Encyclopedia of Body Adornment</i></a>. ABC-CLIO. p. 286. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-33695-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-33695-9"><bdi>978-0-313-33695-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Body+Adornment&rft.pages=286&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-313-33695-9&rft.aulast=DeMello&rft.aufirst=Margo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Ds0122BsqrZwC%26pg%3DPA286&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrepanning" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Frood, Arran. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg20227121.400-like-a-hole-in-the-head-the-return-of-trepanation.html?full=true">"Like a hole in the head: The return of trepanation "</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140202154057/http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg20227121.400-like-a-hole-in-the-head-the-return-of-trepanation.html?full=true">Archived</a> February 2, 2014, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> February 2, 2014, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/New_Scientist" title="New Scientist">New Scientist</a></i> (17 June 2009)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lambiek.net/artists/d/dijk_eveline-van.htm">"Eveline van Dijk"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Eveline+van+Dijk&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.lambiek.net%2Fartists%2Fd%2Fdijk_eveline-van.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrepanning" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_Doran2016" class="citation web cs1">John Doran (February 12, 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.vice.com/read/meet-the-man-who-drilled-a-hole-in-his-own-skull-to-stay-high-forever">"I Drilled a Hole in My Own Skull to Stay High Forever"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160826054415/http://www.vice.com/read/meet-the-man-who-drilled-a-hole-in-his-own-skull-to-stay-high-forever">Archived</a> from the original on 2016-08-26<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-02-13</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=I+Drilled+a+Hole+in+My+Own+Skull+to+Stay+High+Forever&rft.date=2016-02-12&rft.au=John+Doran&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.vice.com%2Fread%2Fmeet-the-man-who-drilled-a-hole-in-his-own-skull-to-stay-high-forever&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrepanning" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rcfp.org/browse-media-law-resources/news/abc-ordered-hand-over-unedited-head-drilling-tapes">Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press (2000) <i>ABC ordered to hand over unedited head-drilling tapes</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160823161314/http://www.rcfp.org/browse-media-law-resources/news/abc-ordered-hand-over-unedited-head-drilling-tapes">Archived</a> August 23, 2016, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> August 23, 2016, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newsweek.com/russian-implants-chip-brain-control-dreams-hospital-1814256">"Man Implants Chip in His Brain to Help 'Control' His Dreams"</a>. <i>Newsweek</i>. July 20, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Newsweek&rft.atitle=Man+Implants+Chip+in+His+Brain+to+Help+%27Control%27+His+Dreams&rft.date=2023-07-20&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newsweek.com%2Frussian-implants-chip-brain-control-dreams-hospital-1814256&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrepanning" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.elpais.com.co/mundo/aterrador-para-controlar-sus-suenos-hombre-se-perfora-su-propio-craneo-2044.html">"Aterrador: para "controlar sus sueños" hombre se perfora su propio cráneo"</a>. <i>El Pais</i>. July 23, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=El+Pais&rft.atitle=Aterrador%3A+para+%22controlar+sus+sue%C3%B1os%22+hombre+se+perfora+su+propio+cr%C3%A1neo&rft.date=2023-07-23&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.elpais.com.co%2Fmundo%2Faterrador-para-controlar-sus-suenos-hombre-se-perfora-su-propio-craneo-2044.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrepanning" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://heraldodemexico.com.mx/tendencias/2023/7/19/insolito-se-realizo-una-cirugia-cerebral-si-mismo-para-controlar-los-suenos-523440.html">"Insólito: se realizó una cirugía cerebral a sí mismo "para controlar los sueños"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>El Heraldo</i>. July 19, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=El+Heraldo&rft.atitle=Ins%C3%B3lito%3A+se+realiz%C3%B3+una+cirug%C3%ADa+cerebral+a+s%C3%AD+mismo+%22para+controlar+los+sue%C3%B1os%22&rft.date=2023-07-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fheraldodemexico.com.mx%2Ftendencias%2F2023%2F7%2F19%2Finsolito-se-realizo-una-cirugia-cerebral-si-mismo-para-controlar-los-suenos-523440.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrepanning" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mk.ru/social/2023/07/20/issledovatel-raduga-rasskazal-kak-prosverlil-sebe-cherep-dlya-upravleniya-snami-priblizil-budushhee.html">"Исследователь Радуга рассказал, как просверлил себе череп для управления снами: "Приблизил будущее"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>Московский Комсомолец</i>. July 20, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=%D0%9C%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9+%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%86&rft.atitle=%D0%98%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C+%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B4%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%B0+%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BB%2C+%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BA+%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BB+%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%B1%D0%B5+%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BF+%D0%B4%D0%BB%D1%8F+%D1%83%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F+%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8%3A+%22%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BB+%D0%B1%D1%83%D0%B4%D1%83%D1%89%D0%B5%D0%B5%22&rft.date=2023-07-20&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mk.ru%2Fsocial%2F2023%2F07%2F20%2Fissledovatel-raduga-rasskazal-kak-prosverlil-sebe-cherep-dlya-upravleniya-snami-priblizil-budushhee.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrepanning" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPartiotLepetitDodréJenger2020" class="citation journal cs1">Partiot, Caroline; Lepetit, Aliénor; Dodré, Emilie; Jenger, Camille; Maureille, Bruno; Liguoro, Dominique; Thomas, Aline (December 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/joa.13266">"Cranial trepanation and healing process in modern patients—Bioarchaeological and anthropological implications"</a>. <i>Journal of Anatomy</i>. <b>237</b> (6): 1049–1061. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fjoa.13266">10.1111/joa.13266</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0021-8782">0021-8782</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7704229">7704229</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32584468">32584468</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Anatomy&rft.atitle=Cranial+trepanation+and+healing+process+in+modern+patients%E2%80%94Bioarchaeological+and+anthropological+implications&rft.volume=237&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=1049-1061&rft.date=2020-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7704229%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=0021-8782&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F32584468&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fjoa.13266&rft.aulast=Partiot&rft.aufirst=Caroline&rft.au=Lepetit%2C+Ali%C3%A9nor&rft.au=Dodr%C3%A9%2C+Emilie&rft.au=Jenger%2C+Camille&rft.au=Maureille%2C+Bruno&rft.au=Liguoro%2C+Dominique&rft.au=Thomas%2C+Aline&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fonlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2F10.1111%2Fjoa.13266&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrepanning" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:7-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:7_49-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_49-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParapia2007" class="citation journal cs1">Parapia, Liakat A. (October 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2141.2007.06749.x">"Trepanning or trephines: a history of bone marrow biopsy"</a>. <i>British Journal of Haematology</i>. <b>139</b> (1): 14–19. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1365-2141.2007.06749.x">10.1111/j.1365-2141.2007.06749.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0007-1048">0007-1048</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=British+Journal+of+Haematology&rft.atitle=Trepanning+or+trephines%3A+a+history+of+bone+marrow+biopsy&rft.volume=139&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=14-19&rft.date=2007-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1365-2141.2007.06749.x&rft.issn=0007-1048&rft.aulast=Parapia&rft.aufirst=Liakat+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fonlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1365-2141.2007.06749.x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrepanning" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trepanning&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 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trepanation</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080807235902/http://scienceblogs.com/neurophilosophy/2008/08/lunch_with_heather_perry.php">Interview with self-trepanner Heather Perry</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://phisick.com/article/an-abc-of-craniotomy/">ABC: A History of Craniotomy</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210224101451/https://phisick.com/article/an-abc-of-craniotomy/">Archived</a> 2021-02-24 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> phisick.com 14 Nov 2011</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output 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technology">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_Age" title="Stone Age">Stone Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-age_system#Stone_Age_subdivisions" title="Three-age system">Subdivisions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">New Stone Age</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">Technology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_technology" title="History of technology">history</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_archaeology" title="Glossary of archaeology">Glossary</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Tools" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Lithic_technology" title="Lithic technology">Tools</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_agriculture" title="History of agriculture">Farming</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Revolution" title="Neolithic Revolution">Neolithic Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Founder_crops" title="Founder crops">Founder crops</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_World_crops" title="New World crops">New World crops</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ard_(plough)" title="Ard (plough)">Ard / plough</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celt_(tool)" title="Celt (tool)">Celt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digging_stick" title="Digging stick">Digging stick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestication" title="Domestication">Domestication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goad" title="Goad">Goad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irrigation" title="Irrigation">Irrigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secondary_products_revolution" title="Secondary products revolution">Secondary products</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sickle" title="Sickle">Sickle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrace_(earthworks)" title="Terrace (earthworks)">Terracing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em">Food processing</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Control_of_fire_by_early_humans" title="Control of fire by early humans">Fire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basket" title="Basket">Basket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cooking" title="Cooking">Cooking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Earth_oven" title="Earth oven">Earth oven</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Granary" title="Granary">Granaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grinding_slab" title="Grinding slab">Grinding slab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ground_stone" title="Ground stone">Ground stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hearth" title="Hearth">Hearth</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/A%C5%9F%C4%B1kl%C4%B1_H%C3%B6y%C3%BCk#Hearths" title="Aşıklı Höyük">Aşıklı Höyük</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qesem_cave#Fire" title="Qesem cave">Qesem cave</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mano_(stone)" title="Mano (stone)">Manos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metate" title="Metate">Metate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortar_and_pestle" title="Mortar and pestle">Mortar and pestle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pottery" title="Pottery">Pottery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quern-stone" title="Quern-stone">Quern-stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_storage_pits" title="Prehistoric storage pits">Storage pits</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em"><a href="/wiki/Hunting_hypothesis" title="Hunting hypothesis">Hunting</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arrow" title="Arrow">Arrow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boomerang" title="Boomerang">Boomerang</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Throwing_stick" title="Throwing stick">throwing stick</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bow_and_arrow" title="Bow and arrow">Bow and arrow</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_archery" title="History of archery">history</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravettian#Hunting" title="Gravettian">Nets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spear" title="Spear">Spear</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spear-thrower" title="Spear-thrower">spear-thrower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baton_fragment_(Palart_310)" title="Baton fragment (Palart 310)">baton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harpoon" title="Harpoon">harpoon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sch%C3%B6ningen_spears" title="Schöningen spears">Schöningen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woomera_(spear-thrower)" title="Woomera (spear-thrower)">woomera</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Projectile_point" title="Projectile point">Projectile points</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arrowhead" title="Arrowhead">Arrowhead</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transverse_arrowhead" title="Transverse arrowhead">Transverse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bare_Island_projectile_point" title="Bare Island projectile point">Bare Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cascade_point" title="Cascade point">Cascade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clovis_point" title="Clovis point">Clovis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creswellian_culture" title="Creswellian culture">Cresswell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cumberland_point" title="Cumberland point">Cumberland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eden_point" title="Eden point">Eden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folsom_point" title="Folsom point">Folsom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamoka_projectile_point" title="Lamoka projectile point">Lamoka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manis_Mastodon_site" title="Manis Mastodon site">Manis Mastodon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plano_point" title="Plano point">Plano</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Systems</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Game_drive_system" title="Game drive system">Game drive system</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buffalo_jump" title="Buffalo jump">Buffalo jump</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em"><a href="/wiki/Lithic_technology" title="Lithic technology">Toolmaking</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Industry_(archaeology)" title="Industry (archaeology)">Earliest toolmaking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oldowan" title="Oldowan">Oldowan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acheulean" title="Acheulean">Acheulean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mousterian" title="Mousterian">Mousterian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aurignacian" title="Aurignacian">Aurignacian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clovis_culture" title="Clovis culture">Clovis culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cupstone" title="Cupstone">Cupstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_hardening" title="Fire hardening">Fire hardening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravettian" title="Gravettian">Gravettian culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hafting" title="Hafting">Hafting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hand_axe" title="Hand axe">Hand axe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grooves_(archaeology)" title="Grooves (archaeology)">Grooves</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Langdale_axe_industry" title="Langdale axe industry">Langdale axe industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levallois_technique" title="Levallois technique">Levallois technique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithic_core" title="Lithic core">Lithic core</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithic_reduction" title="Lithic reduction">Lithic reduction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lithic_analysis" title="Lithic analysis">analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debitage" title="Debitage">debitage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithic_flake" title="Lithic flake">flake</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithic_technology" title="Lithic technology">Lithic technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magdalenian" title="Magdalenian">Magdalenian culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferrous_metallurgy" title="Ferrous metallurgy">Metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microblade_technology" title="Microblade technology">Microblade technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grime%27s_Graves" title="Grime's Graves">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prepared-core_technique" title="Prepared-core technique">Prepared-core technique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solutrean" title="Solutrean">Solutrean industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Striking_platform" title="Striking platform">Striking platform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tool_stone" title="Tool stone">Tool stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniface" title="Uniface">Uniface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yubetsu_technique" title="Yubetsu technique">Yubetsu technique</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em"><a href="/wiki/Artifact_(archaeology)" title="Artifact (archaeology)">Other tools</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adze" title="Adze">Adze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stitching_awl" title="Stitching awl">Awl</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gravettian#Use_of_animal_remains" title="Gravettian">bone</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axe" title="Axe">Axe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bannerstone" title="Bannerstone">Bannerstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blade_(archaeology)" title="Blade (archaeology)">Blade</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prismatic_blade" title="Prismatic blade">prismatic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bone_tool" title="Bone tool">Bone tool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bow_drill" title="Bow drill">Bow drill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burin_(lithic_flake)" title="Burin (lithic flake)">Burin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canoe#History" title="Canoe">Canoe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oar" title="Oar">Oar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pesse_canoe" title="Pesse canoe">Pesse canoe</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chopper_(archaeology)" title="Chopper (archaeology)">Chopper</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chopping_tool" title="Chopping tool">tool</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleaver_(Stone_Age_tool)" title="Cleaver (Stone Age tool)">Cleaver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denticulate_tool" title="Denticulate tool">Denticulate tool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_plough" title="Fire plough">Fire plough</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire-saw" title="Fire-saw">Fire-saw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hammerstone" title="Hammerstone">Hammerstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knife" title="Knife">Knife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microlith" title="Microlith">Microlith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quern-stone" title="Quern-stone">Quern-stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racloir" title="Racloir">Racloir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rope" title="Rope">Rope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scraper_(archaeology)" title="Scraper (archaeology)">Scraper</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grattoir_de_c%C3%B4t%C3%A9" title="Grattoir de côté">side</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_tool" title="Stone tool">Stone tool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tally_stick#Paleolithic_tally_sticks" title="Tally stick">Tally stick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_weapons#Copper_Age" title="History of weapons">Weapons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wheel" title="Wheel">Wheel</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bronocice_pot" title="Bronocice pot">illustration</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Architecture" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_architecture" title="History of architecture">Architecture</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em">Ceremonial</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kiva" title="Kiva">Kiva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyramid" title="Pyramid">Pyramid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menhir" title="Menhir">Standing stones</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Megalith" title="Megalith">megalith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_row" title="Stone row">row</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stonehenge" title="Stonehenge">Stonehenge</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em">Dwellings</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_architecture" title="Neolithic architecture">Neolithic architecture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_long_house" title="Neolithic long house">long house</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_megalith_architecture" title="British megalith architecture">British megalith architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_megalith_architecture" title="Nordic megalith architecture">Nordic megalith architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burdei" title="Burdei">Burdei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cave" title="Cave">Cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cliff_dwelling" title="Cliff dwelling">Cliff dwelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dugout_(shelter)" title="Dugout (shelter)">Dugout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hut" title="Hut">Hut</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quiggly_hole" title="Quiggly hole">Quiggly hole</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacal" title="Jacal">Jacal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longhouse" title="Longhouse">Longhouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mudbrick" title="Mudbrick">Mudbrick</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mehrgarh#Lifestyle_and_technology" title="Mehrgarh">Mehrgarh</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pit-house" title="Pit-house">Pit-house</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navajo_pueblitos" title="Navajo pueblitos">Pueblitos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pueblo" title="Pueblo">Pueblo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rock_shelter" title="Rock shelter">Rock shelter</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blombos_Cave" title="Blombos Cave">Blombos Cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abri_de_la_Madeleine" title="Abri de la Madeleine">Abri de la Madeleine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sibudu_Cave" title="Sibudu Cave">Sibudu Cave</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roundhouse_(dwelling)" title="Roundhouse (dwelling)">Roundhouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stilt_house" title="Stilt house">Stilt house</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_pile_dwellings_around_the_Alps" title="Prehistoric pile dwellings around the Alps">Alp pile dwellings</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ness_of_Brodgar" title="Ness of Brodgar">Stone roof</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wattle_and_daub" title="Wattle and daub">Wattle and daub</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em">Water management</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Check_dam" title="Check dam">Check dam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cistern" title="Cistern">Cistern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flush_toilet#History" title="Flush toilet">Flush toilet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reservoir" title="Reservoir">Reservoir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Well" title="Well">Well</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em">Other architecture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feature_(archaeology)" title="Feature (archaeology)">Archaeological features</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Broch" title="Broch">Broch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burnt_mound" title="Burnt mound">Burnt mound</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fulacht_fiadh" title="Fulacht fiadh">fulacht fiadh</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causewayed_enclosure" title="Causewayed enclosure">Causewayed enclosure</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tor_enclosure" title="Tor enclosure">Tor enclosure</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_circular_enclosures_in_Central_Europe" title="Neolithic circular enclosures in Central Europe">Circular enclosure</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Goseck_Circle" title="Goseck Circle">Goseck</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cursus" title="Cursus">Cursus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henge" title="Henge">Henge</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thornborough_Henges" title="Thornborough Henges">Thornborough</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megalithic_architectural_elements" title="Megalithic architectural elements">Megalithic architectural elements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midden" title="Midden">Midden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_oldest_extant_buildings" title="List of oldest extant buildings">Oldest extant buildings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timber_circle" title="Timber circle">Timber circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timber_trackway" class="mw-redirect" title="Timber trackway">Timber trackway</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sweet_Track" title="Sweet Track">Sweet Track</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Arts_and_culture" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_art" title="Prehistoric art">Arts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Archaeological_culture" title="Archaeological culture">culture</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em"><a href="/wiki/Artifact_(archaeology)" title="Artifact (archaeology)">Material goods</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Basket_weaving" title="Basket weaving">Baskets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beadwork" title="Beadwork">Beadwork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bed#History" title="Bed">Beds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalcolithic" title="Chalcolithic">Chalcolithic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_clothing_and_textiles" title="History of clothing and textiles">Clothing/textiles</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_clothing_and_textiles_technology" title="Timeline of clothing and textiles technology">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_cosmetics" title="History of cosmetics">Cosmetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Stone_Age" title="Middle Stone Age">Glue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_hide_materials" title="History of hide materials">Hides</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shoe#History" title="Shoe">shoes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%96tzi#Clothes_and_shoes" title="Ötzi">Ötzi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewellery#History" title="Jewellery">Jewelry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amber#Use" title="Amber">amber use</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirror#History" title="Mirror">Mirrors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pottery#History" title="Pottery">Pottery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cardium_pottery" title="Cardium pottery">Cardium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cord-marked_pottery" title="Cord-marked pottery">Cord-marked</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grooved_ware" title="Grooved ware">Grooved ware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C5%8Dmon_pottery" title="Jōmon pottery">Jōmon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linear_Pottery_culture" title="Linear Pottery culture">Linear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unstan_ware" title="Unstan ware">Unstan ware</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewing_needle#History" title="Sewing needle">Sewing needle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weaving" title="Weaving">Weaving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_wine" title="History of wine">Wine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Areni-1_winery" title="Areni-1 winery">winery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_wine_press#Early_history" title="History of the wine press">wine press</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em"><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_art" title="Prehistoric art">Prehistoric art</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_the_Upper_Paleolithic" title="Art of the Upper Paleolithic">Art of the Upper Paleolithic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_the_Middle_Paleolithic" title="Art of the Middle Paleolithic">Art of the Middle Paleolithic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blombos_Cave#Archaeological_remains_and_material_culture_from_the_Middle_Stone_Age_levels" title="Blombos Cave">Blombos Cave</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Stone_Age_art" title="List of Stone Age art">List of Stone Age art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bird_stone" title="Bird stone">Bird stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cairn" title="Cairn">Cairn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carved_stone_balls" title="Carved stone balls">Carved stone balls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cave_painting" title="Cave painting">Cave paintings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cup_and_ring_mark" title="Cup and ring mark">Cup and ring mark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geoglyph" title="Geoglyph">Geoglyph</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hill_figure" title="Hill figure">Hill figure</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_hat" title="Golden hat">Golden hats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guardian_stones" title="Guardian stones">Guardian stones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gwion_Gwion_rock_paintings" title="Gwion Gwion rock paintings">Gwion Gwion rock paintings</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_painting#Pre-history" title="History of painting">painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pigment#History" title="Pigment">pigment</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megalithic_art" title="Megalithic art">Megalithic art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroform" title="Petroform">Petroform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroglyph" title="Petroglyph">Petroglyph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrosomatoglyph" title="Petrosomatoglyph">Petrosomatoglyph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pictogram" title="Pictogram">Pictogram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rock_art" title="Rock art">Rock art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rock_cupule" title="Rock cupule">Rock cupule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_carving" title="Stone carving">Stone carving</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sculpture#Prehistoric_periods" title="Sculpture">Sculpture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue_menhir" title="Statue menhir">Statue menhir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_circle" title="Stone circle">Stone circle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_stone_circles" title="List of stone circles">list</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_circles_in_the_British_Isles_and_Brittany" title="Stone circles in the British Isles and Brittany">British Isles and Brittany</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venus_figurine" title="Venus figurine">Venus figurine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em"><a href="/wiki/Paleolithic_religion" title="Paleolithic religion">Burial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tumulus" title="Tumulus">Burial mounds</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bowl_barrow" title="Bowl barrow">Bowl barrow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Round_barrow" title="Round barrow">Round barrow</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mound_Builders" title="Mound Builders">Mound Builders culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_burial_mounds_in_the_United_States" title="List of burial mounds in the United States">U.S. sites</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chamber_tomb" title="Chamber tomb">Chamber tomb</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cotswold-Severn_Group" title="Cotswold-Severn Group">Cotswold-Severn</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cist" title="Cist">Cist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dartmoor_kistvaens" title="Dartmoor kistvaens">Dartmoor kistvaens</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clava_cairn" title="Clava cairn">Clava cairn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Court_cairn" title="Court cairn">Court cairn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cremation#History" title="Cremation">Cremation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dolmen" title="Dolmen">Dolmen</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_dolmen" title="Great dolmen">Great dolmen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyre" title="Pyre">Funeral pyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallery_grave" title="Gallery grave">Gallery grave</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transepted_gallery_grave" class="mw-redirect" title="Transepted gallery grave">transepted</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wedge-shaped_gallery_grave" class="mw-redirect" title="Wedge-shaped gallery grave">wedge-shaped</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grave_goods" title="Grave goods">Grave goods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jar_burial" title="Jar burial">Jar burial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long_barrow" title="Long barrow">Long barrow</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Unchambered_long_barrow" title="Unchambered long barrow">unchambered</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gr%C3%B8nsalen" title="Grønsalen">Grønsalen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megalithic_tomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Megalithic tomb">Megalithic tomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mummy" title="Mummy">Mummy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passage_grave" title="Passage grave">Passage grave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rectangular_dolmen" title="Rectangular dolmen">Rectangular dolmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ring_cairn" title="Ring cairn">Ring cairn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simple_dolmen" title="Simple dolmen">Simple dolmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_box_grave" title="Stone box grave">Stone box grave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tor_cairn" title="Tor cairn">Tor cairn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unchambered_long_cairn" title="Unchambered long cairn">Unchambered long cairn</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em">Other cultural</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeoastronomy" title="Archaeoastronomy">Archaeoastronomy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_archaeoastronomical_sites_by_country" title="List of archaeoastronomical sites by country">sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lunar_calendar" title="Lunar calendar">lunar calendar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_modernity" title="Behavioral modernity">Behavioral modernity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_musicology" title="Evolutionary musicology">Evolutionary musicology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Music_archaeology" title="Music archaeology">music archaeology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_origin_of_religion" title="Evolutionary origin of religion">Evolutionary origin of religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleolithic_religion" title="Paleolithic religion">Paleolithic religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_religion" title="Prehistoric religion">Prehistoric religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entheogenic_drugs_and_the_archaeological_record" title="Entheogenic drugs and the archaeological record">Spiritual drug use</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_language" title="Origin of language">Origin of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_counting" title="Prehistoric counting">Prehistoric counting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_medicine" title="Prehistoric medicine">Prehistoric medicine</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">trepanning</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_music" title="Prehistoric music">Prehistoric music</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alligator_drum" title="Alligator drum">Alligator drum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleolithic_flute" title="Paleolithic flute">flutes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divje_Babe_flute" title="Divje Babe flute">Divje Babe flute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gudi_(instrument)" title="Gudi (instrument)">gudi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_warfare" title="Prehistoric warfare">Prehistoric warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diepkloof_Rock_Shelter" title="Diepkloof Rock Shelter">Symbols</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Howiesons_Poort#Symbolism" title="Howiesons Poort">symbolism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Pseudoscience" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Pseudoscience" title="Template:Pseudoscience"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Pseudoscience" title="Template talk:Pseudoscience"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Pseudoscience" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Pseudoscience"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Pseudoscience" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience" title="List of topics characterized as pseudoscience">List of topics characterized as pseudoscience</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Terminology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cargo_cult_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Cargo cult science">Cargo cult science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charlatan" title="Charlatan">Charlatan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crank_(person)" title="Crank (person)">Crank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fringe_theory" title="Fringe theory">Fringe theory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fringe_science" title="Fringe science">Fringe science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoarchaeology" title="Pseudoarchaeology">Pseudoarchaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudohistory" title="Pseudohistory">Pseudohistory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudomathematics" title="Pseudomathematics">Pseudomathematics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Junk_science" title="Junk science">Junk science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paranormal" title="Paranormal">Paranormal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pathological_science" title="Pathological science">Pathological science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quackery" title="Quackery">Quackery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snake_oil" title="Snake oil">Snake oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superseded_theories_in_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Superseded theories in science">Superseded scientific theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/True-believer_syndrome" title="True-believer syndrome">True-believer syndrome</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Voodoo_Science" title="Voodoo Science">Voodoo Science</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience" title="List of topics characterized as pseudoscience">Topics <br />characterized as <br />pseudoscience</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Medicine</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acupuncture" title="Acupuncture">Acupuncture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aromatherapy" title="Aromatherapy">Aromatherapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adrenal_fatigue" title="Adrenal fatigue">Adrenal fatigue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_medicine" title="Alternative medicine">Alternative medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthroposophic_medicine" title="Anthroposophic medicine">Anthroposophic medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Applied_kinesiology" title="Applied kinesiology">Applied kinesiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayurveda" title="Ayurveda">Ayurveda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bates_method" title="Bates method">Bates method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biorhythm_(pseudoscience)" title="Biorhythm (pseudoscience)">Biorhythms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bloodletting" title="Bloodletting">Bloodletting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body_memory" title="Body memory">Body memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chiropractic" title="Chiropractic">Chiropractic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromotherapy" title="Chromotherapy">Chromotherapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Correactology" title="Correactology">Correactology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryonics" title="Cryonics">Cryonics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crystal_healing" title="Crystal healing">Crystal healing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cupping_therapy" title="Cupping therapy">Cupping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detoxification_(alternative_medicine)" title="Detoxification (alternative medicine)">Detoxification</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colon_cleansing" title="Colon cleansing">Colon cleansing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctrine_of_signatures" title="Doctrine of signatures">Doctrine of signatures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doktor_Koster%27s_Antigaspills" title="Doktor Koster's Antigaspills">Doktor Koster's Antigaspills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ear_candling" title="Ear candling">Ear candling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_hypersensitivity" title="Electromagnetic hypersensitivity">Electromagnetic hypersensitivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_medicine" title="Energy medicine">Energy medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fad_diet" title="Fad diet">Fad diet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FasciaBlaster" title="FasciaBlaster">FasciaBlaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germ_theory_denialism" title="Germ theory denialism">Germ theory denialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_denialism" title="HIV/AIDS denialism">HIV/AIDS denialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homeopathy" title="Homeopathy">Homeopathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humorism" title="Humorism">Humorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iridology" title="Iridology">Iridology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leaky_gut_syndrome" title="Leaky gut syndrome">Leaky gut syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lunar_effect" title="Lunar effect">Lunar effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macrobiotic_diet" title="Macrobiotic diet">Macrobiotic diet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnet_therapy" title="Magnet therapy">Magnet therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miracle_Mineral_Supplement" title="Miracle Mineral Supplement">Miracle Mineral Supplement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturopathy" title="Naturopathy">Naturopathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palmistry" title="Palmistry">Palmistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panchagavya" title="Panchagavya">Panchagavya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patent_medicine" title="Patent medicine">Patent medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phrenology" title="Phrenology">Phrenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primal_therapy" title="Primal therapy">Primal therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radionics" title="Radionics">Radionics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reiki" title="Reiki">Reiki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_medicine" title="Traditional medicine">Traditional medicine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_medicine" title="Traditional Chinese medicine">Traditional Chinese medicine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Trepanning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vertebral_subluxation" title="Vertebral subluxation">Vertebral subluxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_turbine_syndrome" title="Wind turbine syndrome">Wind turbine syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Young_blood_transfusion" title="Young blood transfusion">Young blood transfusion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Social science</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2012_phenomenon" title="2012 phenomenon">2012 phenomenon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_astronauts" title="Ancient astronauts">Ancient astronauts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamal_Salibi#Arabian_Judah_theory" title="Kamal Salibi">Arabian Judah theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catastrophism" title="Catastrophism">Catastrophism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_theory" title="Conspiracy theory">Conspiracy theory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/5G#Misinformation_and_controversy" title="5G">5G conspiracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/9/11_conspiracy_theories" title="9/11 conspiracy theories">9/11 conspiracy theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemtrail_conspiracy_theory" title="Chemtrail conspiracy theory">Chemtrail conspiracy theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_denial" title="Climate change denial">Climate change denial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_misinformation" title="COVID-19 misinformation">COVID-19 misinformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moon_landing_conspiracy_theories" title="Moon landing conspiracy theories">Moon landing conspiracy theories</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conversion_therapy" title="Conversion therapy">Conversion therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generation#Generational_theory" title="Generation">Generational theory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Generationism" title="Generationism">Generationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strauss%E2%80%93Howe_generational_theory" title="Strauss–Howe generational theory">Strauss–Howe generational theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hollow_Earth" title="Hollow Earth">Hollow Earth theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigo_children" title="Indigo children">Indigo children</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japhetic_theory" title="Japhetic theory">Japhetic theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediumship" title="Mediumship">Mediumship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_archaeology" title="Nazi archaeology">Nazi archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nibiru_cataclysm" title="Nibiru cataclysm">Nibiru cataclysm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parapsychology" title="Parapsychology">Parapsychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoarchaeology" title="Pseudoarchaeology">Pseudoarchaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudohistory" title="Pseudohistory">Pseudohistory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genocide_denial" title="Genocide denial">Genocide denial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_negationism" title="Historical negationism">Historical negationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_denial" title="Holocaust denial">Holocaust denial</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudolaw" title="Pseudolaw">Pseudolaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recovered-memory_therapy" title="Recovered-memory therapy">Recovered-memory therapy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Past_life_regression" title="Past life regression">Past life regression</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_racism" title="Scientific racism">Scientific racism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aryan_race" title="Aryan race">Aryan race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melanin_theory" title="Melanin theory">Melanin theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myers%E2%80%93Briggs_Type_Indicator" title="Myers–Briggs Type Indicator">Myers–Briggs Type Indicator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enneagram_of_Personality" title="Enneagram of Personality">Enneagram of Personality</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Physics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-gravity" title="Anti-gravity">Anti-gravity‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_fusion" title="Cold fusion">Cold fusion‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faster-than-light" title="Faster-than-light">Faster-than-light travel</a>‎</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perpetual_motion" title="Perpetual motion">Perpetual motion</a>‎</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_mysticism" title="Quantum mysticism">Quantum mysticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reactionless_drive" title="Reactionless drive">Reactionless drive</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dean_drive" title="Dean drive">Dean drive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EmDrive" title="EmDrive">EMDrive</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teleportation" title="Teleportation">Teleportation‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tractor_beam" title="Tractor beam">Tractor beam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water-fueled_car" class="mw-redirect" title="Water-fueled car">Water-fueled car</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alchemy" title="Alchemy">Alchemy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_ape_hypothesis" title="Aquatic ape hypothesis">Aquatic ape hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrology" title="Astrology">Astrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biodynamic_agriculture" title="Biodynamic agriculture">Biodynamic agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_transmutation" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological transmutation">Biological transmutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creation_science" title="Creation science">Creation science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryptozoology" title="Cryptozoology">Cryptozoology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dianetics" title="Dianetics">Dianetics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auditing_(Scientology)" title="Auditing (Scientology)">Auditing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dowsing" title="Dowsing">Dowsing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_voice_phenomenon" title="Electronic voice phenomenon">Electronic voice phenomenon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugenics" title="Eugenics">Eugenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Facilitated_communication" title="Facilitated communication">Facilitated communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feng_shui" title="Feng shui">Feng shui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flat_Earth" title="Flat Earth">Flat Earth theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graphology" title="Graphology">Graphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligent_design" title="Intelligent design">Intelligent design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laundry_ball" title="Laundry ball">Laundry ball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_attraction_(New_Thought)" title="Law of attraction (New Thought)">Law of attraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levitation_(paranormal)" title="Levitation (paranormal)">Levitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lysenkoism" title="Lysenkoism">Lysenkoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numerology" title="Numerology">Numerology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orgone" title="Orgone">Orgone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polygraph" title="Polygraph">Polygraph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoscientific_metrology" title="Pseudoscientific metrology">Pseudoscientific metrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapid_prompting_method" title="Rapid prompting method">Rapid prompting method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statement_analysis" title="Statement analysis">Statement analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ufology" title="Ufology">Ufology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voice_stress_analysis" title="Voice stress analysis">Voice stress analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_memory" title="Water memory">Water memory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Promoters of<br />pseudoscience</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sucharit_Bhakdi" title="Sucharit Bhakdi">Sucharit Bhakdi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Del_Bigtree" title="Del Bigtree">Del Bigtree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Igor_and_Grichka_Bogdanoff" title="Igor and Grichka Bogdanoff">Igor and Grichka Bogdanoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brigitte_Boisselier" title="Brigitte Boisselier">Brigitte Boisselier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhonda_Byrne" title="Rhonda Byrne">Rhonda Byrne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Charroux" title="Robert Charroux">Robert Charroux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deepak_Chopra" title="Deepak Chopra">Deepak Chopra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clonaid" title="Clonaid">Clonaid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernon_Coleman" title="Vernon Coleman">Vernon Coleman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignatius_L._Donnelly" title="Ignatius L. Donnelly">Ignatius L. Donnelly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaia,_Inc." title="Gaia, Inc.">Gaia, Inc.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Gerson" title="Max Gerson">Max Gerson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Gonzalez_(physician)" title="Nicholas Gonzalez (physician)">Nicholas Gonzalez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goop_(company)" title="Goop (company)">Goop (company)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graham_Hancock" title="Graham Hancock">Graham Hancock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Icke" title="David Icke">David Icke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Donald_Kelley" title="William Donald Kelley">William Donald Kelley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_F._Kennedy_Jr." title="Robert F. Kennedy Jr.">Robert F. Kennedy Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corentin_Louis_Kervran" title="Corentin Louis Kervran">Corentin Louis Kervran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Light_(newspaper)" title="The Light (newspaper)">The Light (newspaper)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mike_Lindell" title="Mike Lindell">Mike Lindell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jenny_McCarthy" title="Jenny McCarthy">Jenny McCarthy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Mercola" title="Joseph Mercola">Joseph Mercola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judy_Mikovits" title="Judy Mikovits">Judy Mikovits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Ayush" title="Ministry of Ayush">Ministry of Ayush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_Morell" title="Theodor Morell">Theodor Morell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Alfred_Nieper" title="Hans Alfred Nieper">Hans Alfred Nieper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mehmet_Oz" title="Mehmet Oz">Mehmet Oz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ra%C3%ABl" title="Raël">Raël</a> (<a href="/wiki/Claude_Vorilhon" class="mw-redirect" title="Claude Vorilhon">Claude Vorilhon</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robby_Starbuck" title="Robby Starbuck">Robby Starbuck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Randolph_Stone" title="Randolph Stone">Randolph Stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Joseph_Watson" title="Paul Joseph Watson">Paul Joseph Watson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Wakefield" title="Andrew Wakefield">Andrew Wakefield</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bogdanov_affair" title="Bogdanov affair">Bogdanov affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bourgeois_pseudoscience" title="Bourgeois pseudoscience">Bourgeois pseudoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demarcation_problem" title="Demarcation problem">Demarcation problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Scientific method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suppressed_research_in_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Suppressed research in the Soviet Union">Suppressed research in the Soviet Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Resources</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Committee_for_Skeptical_Inquiry" title="Committee for Skeptical Inquiry">Committee for Skeptical Inquiry</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cults_of_Unreason" title="Cults of Unreason">Cults of Unreason</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/An_Encyclopedia_of_Claims,_Frauds,_and_Hoaxes_of_the_Occult_and_Supernatural" title="An Encyclopedia of Claims, Frauds, and Hoaxes of the Occult and Supernatural">An Encyclopedia of Claims, Frauds, and Hoaxes of the Occult and Supernatural</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fads_and_Fallacies_in_the_Name_of_Science" title="Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science">Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fortean_Times" title="Fortean Times">Fortean Times</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Randi_Educational_Foundation" title="James Randi Educational Foundation">James Randi Educational Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quackwatch" title="Quackwatch">Quackwatch</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Skeptical_Inquirer" title="Skeptical Inquirer">Skeptical Inquirer</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Demon-Haunted_World" title="The Demon-Haunted World">The Demon-Haunted World</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Natural_History_of_Quackery" class="mw-redirect" title="The Natural History of Quackery">The Natural History of Quackery</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Psychology_of_the_Occult" title="The Psychology of the Occult">The Psychology of the Occult</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Ragged_Edge_of_Science" title="The Ragged Edge of Science">The Ragged Edge of Science</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Skeptic_Encyclopedia_of_Pseudoscience" title="The Skeptic Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience">The Skeptic Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Skeptic%27s_Dictionary" title="The Skeptic's Dictionary">The Skeptic's Dictionary</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" 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