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<li id="toc-Brachiopod_fold_hypothesis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Brachiopod_fold_hypothesis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Brachiopod fold hypothesis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Brachiopod_fold_hypothesis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tommotiids" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tommotiids"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Tommotiids</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tommotiids-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Appearance_of_the_brachiopod_crown-group" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Appearance_of_the_brachiopod_crown-group"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Appearance of the brachiopod crown-group</span> </div> </a> <ul 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Evolutionary history subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Evolutionary_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Palaeozoic_dominance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Palaeozoic_dominance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Palaeozoic dominance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Palaeozoic_dominance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mesozoic_decline" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mesozoic_decline"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Mesozoic decline</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mesozoic_decline-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Tylothyris.jpg/220px-Tylothyris.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Tylothyris.jpg/330px-Tylothyris.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Tylothyris.jpg/440px-Tylothyris.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1396" data-file-height="1012" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Devonian" title="Devonian">Devonian</a> brachiopod <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tylothyris&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tylothyris (page does not exist)">Tylothyris</a></i> from the Milwaukee Formation, Milwaukee County, Wisconsin</figcaption></figure> <p>The origin of the <a href="/wiki/Brachiopod" title="Brachiopod">brachiopods</a> is uncertain; they either arose from reduction of a multi-plated tubular organism, or from the folding of a slug-like organism with a protective shell on either end. Since their <a href="/wiki/Cambrian" title="Cambrian">Cambrian</a> origin, the phylum rose to a <a href="/wiki/Palaeozoic" class="mw-redirect" title="Palaeozoic">Palaeozoic</a> dominance, but dwindled during the <a href="/wiki/Mesozoic" title="Mesozoic">Mesozoic</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origins">Origins</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evolution_of_brachiopods&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Origins"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Brachiopod_fold_hypothesis">Brachiopod fold hypothesis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evolution_of_brachiopods&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Brachiopod fold hypothesis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The long-standing hypothesis of brachiopod origins, which has recently come under fire,<sup id="cite_ref-Skovsted2009_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Skovsted2009-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> suggests that the brachiopods arose by the folding of a <i><a href="/wiki/Halkieria" class="mw-redirect" title="Halkieria">Halkieria</a></i>-like organism, which bore two protective shells at either end of a scaled body.<sup id="cite_ref-Sigwart2007_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sigwart2007-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/w/index.php?title=Tannuolinid&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tannuolinid (page does not exist)">tannuolinids</a> were thought to represent an intermediate form, although the fact that they do not, as thought, possess a <a href="/wiki/Scleritome" class="mw-redirect" title="Scleritome">scleritome</a> means that this is now considered unlikely.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under this hypothesis, the <a href="/wiki/Phoronid" title="Phoronid">Phoronid</a> worms share a similar evolutionary history; molecular data also appear to indicate their membership of Brachiopoda.<sup id="cite_ref-Cohen2003_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cohen2003-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Under the Brachiopod Fold Hypothesis, the "dorsal" and "ventral" valves would in fact represent an anterior and posterior shell. This would make the axes of symmetry consistent with that of other <a href="/wiki/Bilaterian" class="mw-redirect" title="Bilaterian">bilaterian</a> phyla<sup id="cite_ref-Cohen2003_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cohen2003-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and appears to be consistent with the embryological development, in which the body axis folds to bring the shells from the dorsal surface to their mature position.<sup id="cite_ref-Cohen2003_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cohen2003-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Further support has been identified from the gene expression pattern during development,<sup id="cite_ref-Cohen2003_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cohen2003-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but on balance, developmental evidence speaks against the BFH.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>More recent developmental studies have cast doubt on the BFH. Most significantly, the dorsal and ventral valves have significantly different origins; the dorsal (branchial) valve is secreted by dorsal epithelia, whereas the ventral (pedicle) valve corresponds to the cuticle of the pedicle, which becomes mineralized during development.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moreover, the dorsal and ventral valves of <i>Lingula</i> do not display the <i>Hox</i> gene expression patterns that would be expected if they were ancestrally 'anterior' and 'posterior'.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tommotiids">Tommotiids</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evolution_of_brachiopods&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Tommotiids"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The '<a href="/wiki/Tommotiid" title="Tommotiid">tommotiids</a>' are an informal group of animals thought to be <a href="/wiki/Lophotrochozoa" title="Lophotrochozoa">lophotrochozoans</a>. Their remains are usually found as <a href="/wiki/Microfossil" title="Microfossil">microfossils</a>, entombed in carbonate as phosphatic sclerites(armor plates). While the sclerites are disarticulated in their fossil state, in life a huge number of them would have articulated and attached onto a soft-bodied animal. The taxonomical affinities of such animal have long been uncertain - they had been compared to other fossils known from armor plates/scales, such as <i><a href="/wiki/Halkieriid" title="Halkieriid">Halkieria</a></i> and the <a href="/wiki/Machaeridia_(annelid)" title="Machaeridia (annelid)">machaeridian</a> worms.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Continuing research in the current century has brought on a new exciting perspective on the affinities of <a href="/wiki/Tommotiid" title="Tommotiid">tommotiids</a>: they are now being regarded as <a href="/wiki/Stem-group" class="mw-redirect" title="Stem-group">stem-group</a> brachiopods. One crucial fossil linking the tommotiids with brachiopods is <i><a href="/wiki/Micrina" title="Micrina">Micrina</a></i>. Analysis on the microscopic inner structure of the phosphatic shell has shown similarities to the <a href="/wiki/Organophosphate" title="Organophosphate">organophosphatic</a> brachiopods, one of them being tubes - that must have housed <a href="/wiki/Seta" title="Seta">setae</a> in life - perforating the shell layers. Setigerous tubes have also been found in early brachiopods, like the <a href="/wiki/Paterinata" title="Paterinata">Paterinates</a> for example.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A later publication (Holmer <i>et al.</i> 2008) asserted that <i><a href="/wiki/Micrina" title="Micrina">Micrina</a></i> was a bivalved animal not unlike a brachiopod, having only two armor plates in life. <a href="/wiki/Tommotiid" title="Tommotiid">Tommotiid</a> sclerites can be classified by their shape, and most had two types of them: the sellate sclerite and the mitral sclerite. In this model <i><a href="/wiki/Micrina" title="Micrina">Micrina</a></i> had one of each. The sellate and mitral sclerites of <a href="/wiki/Tommotiid" title="Tommotiid">tommotiids</a> would end up becoming dorsal(brachial) and ventral(pedicle) valves respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another crucial find would be the discovery of (partially) articulated tommotiids. The first of these is <i><a href="/wiki/Eccentrotheca" title="Eccentrotheca">Eccentrotheca</a></i>, and the second <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paterimitra&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Paterimitra (page does not exist)">Paterimitra</a></i>. Unlike the traditional view of them being slug-like animals comparable to Halkieria, the articulated exoskeleton suggest that they were sessile filter feeders,<sup id="cite_ref-Skovsted2009_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Skovsted2009-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Skovsted2008_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Skovsted2008-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> just like the brachiopods and their sister-group phoronids. Their shell microstructure, again, show similarity to the <a href="/wiki/Paterinata" title="Paterinata">Paterinate</a> brachiopods, especially in their primary mineralised layer.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Appearance_of_the_brachiopod_crown-group">Appearance of the brachiopod crown-group</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evolution_of_brachiopods&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Appearance of the brachiopod crown-group"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The earliest unequivocal brachiopod fossils appeared in the early <a href="/wiki/Cambrian" title="Cambrian">Cambrian</a> Period.<sup id="cite_ref-Williams1998_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams1998-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Valentine2004_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Valentine2004-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The oldest known brachiopod is <i>Aldanotreta sunnaginensis</i> from the lowest <a href="/wiki/Tommotian" class="mw-redirect" title="Tommotian">Tommotian</a> Stage, early Cambrian of the <a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a> was confidently identified as a paterinid linguliforms. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_question_of_Paterinata">The question of Paterinata</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evolution_of_brachiopods&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: The question of Paterinata"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The brachiopod class <a href="/wiki/Paterinata" title="Paterinata">Paterinata</a> is an organophosphatic-shelled group that includes some of the oldest brachiopods known. They are usually considered as members of <a href="/wiki/Linguliformea" title="Linguliformea">Linguliformea</a>, being <a href="/wiki/Sister_group" title="Sister group">sister-groups</a> with the similarly organophosphatic <a href="/wiki/Lingulata" title="Lingulata">lingulates</a>. However, paterinates possess a number of traits that resemble the 'articulate' brachiopods more than <a href="/wiki/Lingulata" title="Lingulata">lingulates</a>. Their adductor muscle scars are oriented postero-medially like the rhynchonelliforms. They have a strophic(straight) hinge line, which resemble early articulate groups like the <a href="/wiki/Orthida" title="Orthida">orthids</a>. Their mantle canal system houses gonads(like the <a href="/wiki/Craniata_(brachiopod)" title="Craniata (brachiopod)">craniiforms</a>) and have exclusively marginal <i>vascula terminalia</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This mosaic of traits lead to a repeated suggestion of the possibility that paterinates<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>(or at least a few of them<sup id="cite_ref-Williams1998_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams1998-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) could be very early diverging members separate from the lingulates. Their shell microstructure also seems to be closer to the stem-brachiopod tommotiids,<sup id="cite_ref-:0_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though this is something that was brought up later down the line. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Evolutionary_history">Evolutionary history</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evolution_of_brachiopods&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Evolutionary history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Palaeozoic_dominance">Palaeozoic dominance</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evolution_of_brachiopods&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Palaeozoic dominance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Brachiopods are extremely common fossils throughout the <a href="/wiki/Palaeozoic" class="mw-redirect" title="Palaeozoic">Palaeozoic</a>. During the <a href="/wiki/Ordovician" title="Ordovician">Ordovician</a> and <a href="/wiki/Silurian" title="Silurian">Silurian</a> periods, brachiopods became adapted to life in most marine environments and became particularly numerous in shallow water habitats, in some cases forming whole banks in much the same way as bivalves (such as <a href="/wiki/Mussel" title="Mussel">mussels</a>) do today. In some places, large sections of <a href="/wiki/Limestone" title="Limestone">limestone</a> <a href="/wiki/Stratum" title="Stratum">strata</a> and reef deposits are composed largely of their shells. </p><p>The major shift came with the <a href="/wiki/Permian%E2%80%93Triassic_extinction_event" title="Permian–Triassic extinction event">Permian extinction</a>, as a result of the <a href="/wiki/Mesozoic_marine_revolution" title="Mesozoic marine revolution">Mesozoic marine revolution</a>. Before the <a href="/wiki/Extinction_event" title="Extinction event">extinction event</a>, brachiopods were more numerous and diverse than bivalve mollusks. Afterwards, in the <a href="/wiki/Mesozoic" title="Mesozoic">Mesozoic</a>, their diversity and numbers were drastically reduced and they were largely replaced by bivalve molluscs. Molluscs continue to dominate today, and the remaining orders of brachiopods survive largely in fringe environments. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mesozoic_decline">Mesozoic decline</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evolution_of_brachiopods&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Mesozoic decline"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Throughout their long geological history, the brachiopods have gone through several major proliferations and diversifications, and have also suffered from major <a href="/wiki/Extinction" title="Extinction">extinctions</a> as well. </p><p>It has been suggested that the slow decline of the brachiopods over the last 100 million years or so is a direct result of the rise in diversity of filter-feeding bivalves, which have ousted the brachiopods from their former habitats; however, the bivalves have undergone a steady rise in diversity from the mid-Paleozoic onwards, and their abundance is unrelated to that of the brachiopods; further, many bivalves occupy niches (e.g. burrowing) which brachiopods never inhabited.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Alternative possibilities for their demise include the increasing disturbance of sediments by roving deposit feeders (including many burrowing bivalves); the increased intensity and variety of shell-crushing predation; or even chance demise – they were hard hit in the <a href="/wiki/End-Permian_extinction" class="mw-redirect" title="End-Permian extinction">End-Permian extinction</a> and may simply never have recovered. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evolution_of_brachiopods&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_of_the_Brachiopoda" class="mw-redirect" title="Taxonomy of the Brachiopoda">Taxonomy of the Brachiopoda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Brachiopods" title="Category:Brachiopods">Brachiopods−related topics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Paleozoic_brachiopods" title="Category:Paleozoic brachiopods">Paleozoic brachiopods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Mesozoic_brachiopods" title="Category:Mesozoic brachiopods">Mesozoic brachiopods</a></li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evolution_of_brachiopods&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Skovsted2009-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Skovsted2009_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Skovsted2009_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFSkovstedHolmerLarssonHogstrom2009" class="citation journal cs1">Skovsted, C. B.; Holmer, E.; Larsson, M.; Hogstrom, E.; Brock, A.; Topper, P.; Balthasar, U.; Stolk, P.; Paterson, R. (May 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2660981">"The scleritome of Paterimitra: an Early Cambrian stem group brachiopod from South Australia"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences</i>. <b>276</b> (1662): 1651–1656. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspb.2008.1655">10.1098/rspb.2008.1655</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0962-8452">0962-8452</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2660981">2660981</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19203919">19203919</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+Royal+Society+B%3A+Biological+Sciences&rft.atitle=The+scleritome+of+Paterimitra%3A+an+Early+Cambrian+stem+group+brachiopod+from+South+Australia&rft.volume=276&rft.issue=1662&rft.pages=1651-1656&rft.date=2009-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2660981%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=0962-8452&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19203919&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frspb.2008.1655&rft.aulast=Skovsted&rft.aufirst=C.+B.&rft.au=Holmer%2C+E.&rft.au=Larsson%2C+M.&rft.au=Hogstrom%2C+E.&rft.au=Brock%2C+A.&rft.au=Topper%2C+P.&rft.au=Balthasar%2C+U.&rft.au=Stolk%2C+P.&rft.au=Paterson%2C+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2660981&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+brachiopods" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sigwart2007-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sigwart2007_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSigwartSutton2007" class="citation journal cs1">Sigwart, J. D.; Sutton, M. D. (Oct 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2274978">"Deep molluscan phylogeny: synthesis of palaeontological and neontological data"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences</i>. <b>274</b> (1624): 2413–2419. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspb.2007.0701">10.1098/rspb.2007.0701</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2274978">2274978</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17652065">17652065</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+Royal+Society+B%3A+Biological+Sciences&rft.atitle=Deep+molluscan+phylogeny%3A+synthesis+of+palaeontological+and+neontological+data&rft.volume=274&rft.issue=1624&rft.pages=2413-2419&rft.date=2007-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2274978%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17652065&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frspb.2007.0701&rft.aulast=Sigwart&rft.aufirst=J.+D.&rft.au=Sutton%2C+M.+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2274978&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+brachiopods" class="Z3988"></span> For a summary, see <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/taxa/inverts/mollusca/mollusca.php">"The Mollusca"</a>. University of California Museum of Paleontology<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 October</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Mollusca&rft.pub=University+of+California+Museum+of+Paleontology&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ucmp.berkeley.edu%2Ftaxa%2Finverts%2Fmollusca%2Fmollusca.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+brachiopods" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFG._Giribet_C._W._Dunn_G._D._Edgecombe_A._Hejnol_M._Q._Martindale_G._W._Rouse" class="citation book cs1">G. Giribet C. W. Dunn G. D. Edgecombe A. Hejnol M. Q. Martindale G. W. Rouse. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nhm.ac.uk/resources-rx/files/giribet-et-al-2009-spiralia-94074.pdf">"Assembling the spiralian tree of life"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. In M. J. Telford; D. T. J. 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Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 638. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-84548-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-84548-7"><bdi>978-0-226-84548-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=On+the+origin+of+phyla&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=638&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-226-84548-7&rft.aulast=Valentine&rft.aufirst=James+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDMBkmHm5fe4C%26pg%3DPA354&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+brachiopods" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarperPopovHolmer2017" class="citation journal cs1">Harper, David A. T.; Popov, Leonid E.; Holmer, Lars E. (September 2017). Smith, Andrew (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/pala.12307">"Brachiopods: origin and early history"</a>. <i>Palaeontology</i>. <b>60</b> (5): 609–631. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fpala.12307">10.1111/pala.12307</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0031-0239">0031-0239</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Palaeontology&rft.atitle=Brachiopods%3A+origin+and+early+history&rft.volume=60&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=609-631&rft.date=2017-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fpala.12307&rft.issn=0031-0239&rft.aulast=Harper&rft.aufirst=David+A.+T.&rft.au=Popov%2C+Leonid+E.&rft.au=Holmer%2C+Lars+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fonlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2F10.1111%2Fpala.12307&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+brachiopods" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRowell1982" class="citation journal cs1">Rowell, Albert J. (1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idunn.no/doi/10.1111/j.1502-3931.1982.tb01695.x">"The monophyletic origin of the Brachiopoda"</a>. <i>Lethaia</i>. <b>15</b> (4): 299–307. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1502-3931.1982.tb01695.x">10.1111/j.1502-3931.1982.tb01695.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0024-1164">0024-1164</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Lethaia&rft.atitle=The+monophyletic+origin+of+the+Brachiopoda&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=299-307&rft.date=1982&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1502-3931.1982.tb01695.x&rft.issn=0024-1164&rft.aulast=Rowell&rft.aufirst=Albert+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.idunn.no%2Fdoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1502-3931.1982.tb01695.x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+brachiopods" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGouldCalloway1980" class="citation journal cs1">Gould, S. J.; Calloway, C. B. (1 October 1980). "Clams and Brachiopods — Ships that Pass in the Night". <i>Paleobiology</i>. <b>6</b> (4): 383–396. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0094837300003572">10.1017/s0094837300003572</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0094-8373">0094-8373</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2400538">2400538</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Paleobiology&rft.atitle=Clams+and+Brachiopods+%E2%80%94+Ships+that+Pass+in+the+Night&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=383-396&rft.date=1980-10-01&rft.issn=0094-8373&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2400538%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fs0094837300003572&rft.aulast=Gould&rft.aufirst=S.+J.&rft.au=Calloway%2C+C.+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvolution+of+brachiopods" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline 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template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Evolution" title="Template talk:Evolution"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Evolution" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Evolution"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Evolutionary_biology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Introduction_to_evolution" title="Introduction to evolution">Introduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_evolution" title="Outline of evolution">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_evolutionary_history_of_life" title="Timeline of the evolutionary history of life">Timeline of evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_life" title="History of life">History of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_evolutionary_biology_articles" title="Index of evolutionary biology articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">Evolution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">Abiogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">Adaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adaptive_radiation" title="Adaptive radiation">Adaptive radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Altruism_(biology)" title="Altruism (biology)">Altruism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cheating_(biology)" title="Cheating (biology)">Cheating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reciprocal_altruism" title="Reciprocal altruism">Reciprocal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baldwin_effect" title="Baldwin effect">Baldwin effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cladistics" title="Cladistics">Cladistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coevolution" title="Coevolution">Coevolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(biology)" title="Mutualism (biology)">Mutualism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_descent" title="Common descent">Common descent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convergent_evolution" title="Convergent evolution">Convergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divergent_evolution" title="Divergent evolution">Divergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earliest_known_life_forms" title="Earliest known life forms">Earliest known life forms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence_of_common_descent" title="Evidence of common descent">Evidence of evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_arms_race" title="Evolutionary arms race">Evolutionary arms race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_pressure" title="Evolutionary pressure">Evolutionary pressure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exaptation" title="Exaptation">Exaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinction" title="Extinction">Extinction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_event" title="Extinction event">Event</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homology_(biology)" title="Homology (biology)">Homology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Last_universal_common_ancestor" title="Last universal common ancestor">Last universal common ancestor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macroevolution" title="Macroevolution">Macroevolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microevolution" title="Microevolution">Microevolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_mismatch" title="Evolutionary mismatch">Mismatch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonadaptive_radiation" title="Nonadaptive radiation">Non-adaptive radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">Origin of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panspermia" title="Panspermia">Panspermia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parallel_evolution" title="Parallel evolution">Parallel evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Signalling_theory" title="Signalling theory">Signalling theory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Handicap_principle" title="Handicap principle">Handicap principle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speciation" title="Speciation">Speciation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">Species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_complex" title="Species complex">Species complex</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_taxonomy" title="Evolutionary taxonomy">Taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unit_of_selection" title="Unit of selection">Unit of selection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gene-centered_view_of_evolution" title="Gene-centered view of evolution">Gene-centered view of evolution</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">Population<br />genetics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Selective_breeding" title="Selective breeding">Artificial selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionarily_stable_strategy" title="Evolutionarily stable strategy">Evolutionarily stable strategy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisher%27s_principle" title="Fisher's principle">Fisher's principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fitness_(biology)" title="Fitness (biology)">Fitness</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inclusive_fitness" title="Inclusive fitness">Inclusive</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene_flow" title="Gene flow">Gene flow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_drift" title="Genetic drift">Genetic drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kin_selection" title="Kin selection">Kin selection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parental_investment" title="Parental investment">Parental investment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parent%E2%80%93offspring_conflict" title="Parent–offspring conflict">Parent–offspring conflict</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">Mutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population" title="Population">Population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">Natural selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_dimorphism" title="Sexual dimorphism">Sexual dimorphism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection" title="Sexual selection">Sexual selection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection_in_flowering_plants" title="Sexual selection in flowering plants">Flowering plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection_in_fungi" title="Sexual selection in fungi">Fungi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mate_choice" title="Mate choice">Mate choice</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_selection" title="Social selection">Social selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trivers%E2%80%93Willard_hypothesis" title="Trivers–Willard hypothesis">Trivers–Willard hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_variation" title="Genetic variation">Variation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Development</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canalisation_(genetics)" title="Canalisation (genetics)">Canalisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_developmental_biology" title="Evolutionary developmental biology">Evolutionary developmental biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_assimilation" title="Genetic assimilation">Genetic assimilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inversion_(evolutionary_biology)" title="Inversion (evolutionary biology)">Inversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modularity_(biology)" title="Modularity (biology)">Modularity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenotypic_plasticity" title="Phenotypic plasticity">Phenotypic plasticity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Of <a href="/wiki/Taxon" title="Taxon">taxa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_bacteria" title="Evolution of bacteria">Bacteria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_birds" title="Evolution of birds">Birds</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_birds" title="Origin of birds">origin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Brachiopods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_molluscs" title="Evolution of molluscs">Molluscs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_cephalopods" title="Evolution of cephalopods">Cephalopods</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dinosaur#Evolutionary_history" title="Dinosaur">Dinosaurs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_fish" title="Evolution of fish">Fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_fungi" title="Evolution of fungi">Fungi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_insects" title="Evolution of insects">Insects</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_butterflies" title="Evolution of butterflies">butterflies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_life" title="History of life">Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_mammals" title="Evolution of mammals">Mammals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cat_gap" title="Cat gap">cats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canidae#Evolution" title="Canidae">canids</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_wolf" title="Evolution of the wolf">wolves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestication_of_the_dog" title="Domestication of the dog">dogs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyena#Evolution" title="Hyena">hyenas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_cetaceans" title="Evolution of cetaceans">dolphins and whales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_horse" title="Evolution of the horse">horses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_Macropodidae" title="Evolution of Macropodidae">Kangaroos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_primates" title="Evolution of primates">primates</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">humans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_lemurs" title="Evolution of lemurs">lemurs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_sirenians" title="Evolution of sirenians">sea cows</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_plants" title="Evolutionary history of plants">Plants</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pollinator-mediated_selection" title="Pollinator-mediated selection">pollinator-mediated</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_reptiles" title="Evolution of reptiles">Reptiles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_spiders" title="Evolution of spiders">Spiders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_tetrapods" title="Evolution of tetrapods">Tetrapods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viral_evolution" title="Viral evolution">Viruses</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Of <a href="/wiki/Organ_(anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Organ (anatomy)">organs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_cells" title="Evolution of cells">Cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Models_of_DNA_evolution" title="Models of DNA evolution">DNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_flagella" title="Evolution of flagella">Flagella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eukaryote#Origin_of_eukaryotes" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryotes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Symbiogenesis" title="Symbiogenesis">symbiogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome#Eukaryotes" title="Chromosome">chromosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endomembrane_system#Evolution" title="Endomembrane system">endomembrane system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitochondrion#Origin_and_evolution" title="Mitochondrion">mitochondria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_nucleus#Evolution" title="Cell nucleus">nucleus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastid#Origin" title="Plastid">plastids</a></li></ul></li> <li>In animals <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_eye" title="Evolution of the eye">eye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hair#Evolution" title="Hair">hair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_mammalian_auditory_ossicles" title="Evolution of mammalian auditory ossicles">auditory ossicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_nervous_systems" title="Evolution of nervous systems">nervous system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_brain" title="Evolution of the brain">brain</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Of <a href="/wiki/Biological_process" title="Biological process">processes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_ageing" title="Evolution of ageing">Aging</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Death#Evolution_of_aging_and_mortality" title="Death">Death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programmed_cell_death#Evolutionary_origin_of_mitochondrial_apoptosis" title="Programmed cell death">Programmed cell death</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_avian_flight" title="Origin of avian flight">Avian flight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_biological_complexity" title="Evolution of biological complexity">Biological complexity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cooperation_(evolution)" title="Cooperation (evolution)">Cooperation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_color_vision" title="Evolution of color vision">Color vision</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_color_vision_in_primates" title="Evolution of color vision in primates">in primates</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_emotion" title="Evolution of emotion">Emotion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empathy#Evolution_across_species" title="Empathy">Empathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ethics" title="Evolutionary ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_eusociality" title="Evolution of eusociality">Eusociality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immune_system#Evolution_and_other_mechanisms" title="Immune system">Immune system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metabolism#Evolution" title="Metabolism">Metabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monogamy_in_animals" title="Monogamy in animals">Monogamy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_morality" title="Evolution of morality">Morality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mosaic_evolution" title="Mosaic evolution">Mosaic evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multicellular_organism#Evolutionary_history" title="Multicellular organism">Multicellularity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_sexual_reproduction" title="Evolution of sexual reproduction">Sexual reproduction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anisogamy#Evolution" title="Anisogamy">Gamete differentiation/sexes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_life_cycle" title="Biological life cycle">Life cycles/nuclear phases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mating_type" title="Mating type">Mating types</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_and_function_of_meiosis" title="Origin and function of meiosis">Meiosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex-determination_system#Evolution" title="Sex-determination system">Sex-determination</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_snake_venom" title="Evolution of snake venom">Snake venom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tempo_and_Mode_in_Evolution" title="Tempo and Mode in Evolution">Tempo and modes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phyletic_gradualism" title="Phyletic gradualism">Gradualism</a>/<a href="/wiki/Punctuated_equilibrium" title="Punctuated equilibrium">Punctuated equilibrium</a>/<a href="/wiki/Saltation_(biology)" title="Saltation (biology)">Saltationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Point_mutation" title="Point mutation">Micromutation</a>/<a href="/wiki/Mutationism#Later_mutationist_theories" title="Mutationism">Macromutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniformitarianism" title="Uniformitarianism">Uniformitarianism</a>/<a href="/wiki/Catastrophism" title="Catastrophism">Catastrophism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Speciation" title="Speciation">Speciation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allopatric_speciation" title="Allopatric speciation">Allopatric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anagenesis" title="Anagenesis">Anagenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catagenesis_(biology)" title="Catagenesis (biology)">Catagenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cladogenesis" title="Cladogenesis">Cladogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cospeciation" title="Cospeciation">Cospeciation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_speciation" title="Ecological speciation">Ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hybrid_speciation" title="Hybrid speciation">Hybrid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonecological_speciation" title="Nonecological speciation">Non-ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parapatric_speciation" title="Parapatric speciation">Parapatric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peripatric_speciation" title="Peripatric speciation">Peripatric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinforcement_(speciation)" title="Reinforcement (speciation)">Reinforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sympatric_speciation" title="Sympatric speciation">Sympatric</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_evolutionary_thought" title="History of evolutionary thought">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ideas_of_the_Renaissance_and_Enlightenment" title="Evolutionary ideas of the Renaissance and Enlightenment">Renaissance and Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmutation_of_species" title="Transmutation of species">Transmutation of species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Dialogues_Concerning_Natural_Religion" title="Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion">Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_Species" title="On the Origin of Species">On the Origin of Species</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_paleontology" title="History of paleontology">History of paleontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transitional_fossil" title="Transitional fossil">Transitional fossil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blending_inheritance" title="Blending inheritance">Blending inheritance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mendelian_inheritance" title="Mendelian inheritance">Mendelian inheritance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_eclipse_of_Darwinism" title="The eclipse of Darwinism">The eclipse of Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Darwinism" title="Neo-Darwinism">Neo-Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_synthesis_(20th_century)" title="Modern synthesis (20th century)">Modern synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_molecular_evolution" title="History of molecular evolution">History of molecular evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extended_evolutionary_synthesis" title="Extended evolutionary synthesis">Extended evolutionary synthesis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Darwinism" title="Darwinism">Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alternatives_to_Darwinian_evolution" title="Alternatives to Darwinian evolution">Alternatives</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catastrophism" title="Catastrophism">Catastrophism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamarckism" title="Lamarckism">Lamarckism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthogenesis" title="Orthogenesis">Orthogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutationism" title="Mutationism">Mutationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saltation_(biology)" title="Saltation (biology)">Saltationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism_(biology)" title="Structuralism (biology)">Structuralism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spandrel_(biology)" title="Spandrel (biology)">Spandrel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theistic_evolution" title="Theistic evolution">Theistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitalism" title="Vitalism">Vitalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teleology_in_biology" title="Teleology in biology">Teleology in biology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_genetics" title="Ecological genetics">Ecological genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_medicine" title="Evolutionary medicine">Evolutionary medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_selection" title="Group selection">Group selection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_evolution" title="Cultural evolution">Cultural evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_group_selection" title="Cultural group selection">Cultural group selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual_inheritance_theory" title="Dual inheritance theory">Dual inheritance theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hologenome_theory_of_evolution" title="Hologenome theory of evolution">Hologenome theory of evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missing_heritability_problem" title="Missing heritability problem">Missing heritability problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_evolution" title="Molecular evolution">Molecular evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrobiology" title="Astrobiology">Astrobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">Phylogenetics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_tree" title="Phylogenetic tree">Tree</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymorphism_(biology)" title="Polymorphism (biology)">Polymorphism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protocell" title="Protocell">Protocell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systematics" title="Systematics">Systematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgenerational_epigenetic_inheritance" title="Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance">Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance</a></li></ul> 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