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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-A_priori" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#A_priori"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span><i>A priori</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-A_priori-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-A_posteriori" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#A_posteriori"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span><i>A posteriori</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-A_posteriori-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aprioricity,_analyticity_and_necessity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aprioricity,_analyticity_and_necessity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Aprioricity, analyticity and necessity</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Aprioricity,_analyticity_and_necessity-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Aprioricity, analyticity and necessity subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Aprioricity,_analyticity_and_necessity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Relation_to_the_analytic–synthetic_distinction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relation_to_the_analytic–synthetic_distinction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Relation to the analytic–synthetic distinction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relation_to_the_analytic–synthetic_distinction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Relation_to_the_necessary_truths_and_contingent_truths" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relation_to_the_necessary_truths_and_contingent_truths"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Relation to the necessary truths and contingent truths</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relation_to_the_necessary_truths_and_contingent_truths-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Separation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Separation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Separation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Separation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_uses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_uses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Early uses</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_uses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Immanuel_Kant" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Immanuel_Kant"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Immanuel Kant</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Immanuel_Kant-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Johann_Fichte" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Johann_Fichte"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Johann Fichte</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Johann_Fichte-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" 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Available in 30 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-30" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">30 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%A8%D9%84%D9%8A_%D9%88%D8%A8%D8%B9%D8%AF%D9%8A" title="قبلي وبعدي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="قبلي وبعدي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_priori_y_a_posteriori" title="A priori y a posteriori – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="A priori y a posteriori" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%85%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BE-%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B7_%E0%A6%93_%E0%A6%85%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BE-%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B7" title="অভিজ্ঞতা-নিরপেক্ষ ও অভিজ্ঞতা-সাপেক্ষ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="অভিজ্ঞতা-নিরপেক্ষ ও অভিজ্ঞতা-সাপেক্ষ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_priori_a_posteriori" title="A priori a posteriori – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="A priori a posteriori" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_priori_%CE%BA%CE%B1%CE%B9_a_posteriori_%CE%B3%CE%BD%CF%8E%CF%83%CE%B7" title="A priori και a posteriori γνώση – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="A priori και a posteriori γνώση" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_priori_y_a_posteriori" title="A priori y a posteriori – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="A priori y a posteriori" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_priori_kaj_a_posteriori" title="A priori kaj a posteriori – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="A priori kaj a posteriori" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_priori_eta_a_posteriori" title="A priori eta a posteriori – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="A priori eta a posteriori" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%B3%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%8C_%D9%88_%D9%BE%DB%8C%D8%B4%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%8C" title="پسینی و پیشینی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="پسینی و پیشینی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_priori_et_a_posteriori" title="A priori et a posteriori – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="A priori et a posteriori" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%95%84_%ED%94%84%EB%A6%AC%EC%98%A4%EB%A6%AC%EC%99%80_%EC%95%84_%ED%8F%AC%EC%8A%A4%ED%85%8C%EB%A6%AC%EC%98%A4%EB%A6%AC" title="아 프리오리와 아 포스테리오리 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="아 프리오리와 아 포스테리오리" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%94%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4" title="प्रागनुभविक और अनुभवाश्रित – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="प्रागनुभविक और अनुभवाश्रित" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_priori_e_a_posteriori" title="A priori e a posteriori – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="A priori e a posteriori" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%99_%D7%95%D7%90%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%A1%D7%98%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%99" title="אפריורי ואפוסטריורי – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אפריורי ואפוסטריורי" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_priori_un_a_posteriori" title="A priori un a posteriori – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="A priori un a posteriori" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%85%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%AD%E0%B4%B5_%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%87%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B7%E0%B4%82,_%E0%B4%85%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%AD%E0%B4%B5_%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%87%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B7%E0%B4%82" title="അനുഭവ നിരപേക്ഷം, അനുഭവ സാപേക്ഷം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="അനുഭവ നിരപേക്ഷം, അനുഭവ സാപേക്ഷം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_priori_og_a_posteriori" title="A priori og a posteriori – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="A priori og a posteriori" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aposteriori_va_apriori" title="Aposteriori va apriori – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Aposteriori va apriori" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_priori_y_a_posteriori" title="A priori y a posteriori – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="A priori y a posteriori" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Papiamentu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_priori_e_a_posteriori" title="A priori e a posteriori – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="A priori e a posteriori" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_priori_%C8%99i_a_posteriori" title="A priori și a posteriori – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="A priori și a posteriori" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_priuri_e_a_pustiriuri" title="A priuri e a pustiriuri – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="A priuri e a pustiriuri" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="A priori and a posteriori" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%DB%8E%D8%B4%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%8C_%D9%88_%D9%BE%D8%A7%D8%B4%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%8C" title="پێشینی و پاشینی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="پێشینی و پاشینی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_priori_ja_a_posteriori" title="A priori ja a posteriori – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="A priori ja a posteriori" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_priori_ve_a_posteriori" title="A priori ve a posteriori – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="A priori ve a posteriori" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_priori_%D1%96_a_posteriori" title="A priori і a posteriori – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="A priori і a posteriori" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%86%D9%81%D8%B3%DB%8C%DB%81_%D9%88_%D8%A8%D9%85%D8%AB%D9%84%DB%8C%DB%81" title="بنفسیہ و بمثلیہ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="بنفسیہ و بمثلیہ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%85%88%E9%A9%97%E5%90%8C%E5%BE%8C%E9%A9%97" title="先驗同後驗 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="先驗同後驗" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%85%88%E9%A9%97%E8%88%87%E5%BE%8C%E9%A9%97" title="先驗與後驗 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="先驗與後驗" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q178161#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit 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<div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Two types of knowledge, justification, or argument</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"A priori" and "A posteriori" redirect here. 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class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; text-align:center; font-size:100%;;color: var(--color-base);padding-top:0.5em;"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Schools</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.25em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contextualism" title="Contextualism">Contextualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dogmatism" class="mw-redirect" title="Dogmatism">Dogmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallibilism" title="Fallibilism">Fallibilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infallibilism" title="Infallibilism">Infallibilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infinitism" title="Infinitism">Infinitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perspectivism" title="Perspectivism">Perspectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism_(philosophy_of_science)" title="Structuralism (philosophy of science)">Structuralism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; text-align:center; font-size:100%;;color: var(--color-base);border-top:1px solid #A2A9B1; padding-top:0.5em;"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Concepts</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.25em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Unity_of_knowledge_and_action" title="Unity of knowledge and action">Action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction" title="Analytic–synthetic distinction">Analytic–synthetic distinction</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink"><i>A priori</i> and <i>a posteriori</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belief" title="Belief">Belief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belief#Full_and_partial" title="Belief">Credence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Certainty" title="Certainty">Certainty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data" title="Data">Data</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experience" title="Experience">Experience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information" title="Information">Information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justification_(epistemology)" title="Justification (epistemology)">Justification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_induction" title="Problem of induction">Induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">Knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meaning_(philosophy)" title="Meaning (philosophy)">Meaning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationality" title="Rationality">Rationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">Reason</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">Truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wisdom" title="Wisdom">Wisdom</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; text-align:center; font-size:100%;;color: var(--color-base);border-top:1px solid #A2A9B1; padding-top:0.5em;"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Domains</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.25em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_epistemology" title="Applied epistemology">Applied epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_epistemology" title="Evolutionary epistemology">Evolutionary epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formal_epistemology" title="Formal epistemology">Formal epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_epistemology" class="mw-redirect" title="Historical epistemology">Historical epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaepistemology" title="Metaepistemology">Metaepistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_epistemology" title="Social epistemology">Social epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_epistemology" title="Virtue epistemology">Virtue epistemology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; text-align:center; font-size:100%;;color: var(--color-base);border-top:1px solid #A2A9B1; padding-top:0.5em;"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Epistemologists</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.25em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sextus_Empiricus" title="Sextus Empiricus">Sextus Empiricus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Gettier" title="Edmund Gettier">Edmund Gettier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Yangming" title="Wang Yangming">Wang Yangming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">W. V. O. Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_epistemologists" title="List of epistemologists">more...</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; text-align:center; font-size:100%;;color: var(--color-base);border-top:1px solid #A2A9B1; padding-top:0.5em;"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Related fields</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.25em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epistemic_cognition" title="Epistemic cognition">Epistemic cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemic_modal_logic" title="Epistemic modal logic">Epistemic logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_perception" title="Philosophy of perception">Philosophy of perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Epistemology_sidebar" title="Template:Epistemology sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Epistemology_sidebar" title="Template talk:Epistemology sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Epistemology_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Epistemology sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">A priori</i></span></b> ('from the earlier') and <b><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">a posteriori</i></span></b> ('from the later') are <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> phrases used in <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a> to distinguish types of <a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">knowledge</a>, <a href="/wiki/Justification_(epistemology)" title="Justification (epistemology)">justification</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Argument" title="Argument">argument</a> by their reliance on experience. <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">A priori</i></span> knowledge is independent from any <a href="/wiki/Experience" title="Experience">experience</a>. Examples include <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>i<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Tautology_(logic)" title="Tautology (logic)">tautologies</a> and <a href="/wiki/Deductive_reasoning" title="Deductive reasoning">deduction</a> from <a href="/wiki/Pure_reason" class="mw-redirect" title="Pure reason">pure reason</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>ii<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">A posteriori</i></span> knowledge depends on <a href="/wiki/Empirical_evidence" title="Empirical evidence">empirical evidence</a>. Examples include most fields of <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">science</a> and aspects of <a href="/wiki/Anecdotal_evidence" title="Anecdotal evidence">personal knowledge</a>. </p><p>The terms originate from the analytic methods found in <i><a href="/wiki/Organon" title="Organon">Organon</a></i>, a collection of works by <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>. <a href="/wiki/Prior_analytics" class="mw-redirect" title="Prior analytics">Prior analytics</a> (<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">a priori</i></span>) is about <a href="/wiki/Deductive_reasoning" title="Deductive reasoning">deductive logic</a>, which comes from definitions and first principles. <a href="/wiki/Posterior_analytics" class="mw-redirect" title="Posterior analytics">Posterior analytics</a> (<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">a posteriori</i></span>) is about <a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">inductive logic</a>, which comes from observational evidence. </p><p>Both terms appear in <a href="/wiki/Euclid" title="Euclid">Euclid</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Euclid%27s_Elements" title="Euclid's Elements">Elements</a></i> and were popularized by <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Pure_Reason" title="Critique of Pure Reason">Critique of Pure Reason</a></i>, an influential work in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy" title="History of philosophy">history of philosophy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBird1995[httpsarchiveorgdetailsoxfordcompaniont00hondpage439_439]_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBird1995[httpsarchiveorgdetailsoxfordcompaniont00hondpage439_439]-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both terms are primarily used as <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_modifier" title="Grammatical modifier">modifiers</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Noun" title="Noun">noun</a> <i>knowledge</i> (e.g., <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">a priori</i></span> knowledge). <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">A priori</i></span> can be used to modify other nouns such as <i>truth</i>. Philosophers may use <i>apriority</i>, <i>apriorist</i> and <i>aprioricity</i> as nouns referring to the quality of being <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">a priori</i></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Examples">Examples</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=A_priori_and_a_posteriori&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Examples"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="A_priori"><i>A priori</i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=A_priori_and_a_posteriori&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: A priori"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Consider the <a href="/wiki/Proposition_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Proposition (philosophy)">proposition</a>: "If <a href="/wiki/George_V" title="George V">George V</a> reigned at least four days, then he reigned more than three days." This is something that one knows <i>a priori</i> because it expresses a statement that one can derive by reason alone. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="A_posteriori"><i>A posteriori</i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=A_priori_and_a_posteriori&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: A posteriori"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Consider the proposition: "George V reigned from 1910 to 1936." This is something that (if true) one must come to know <i>a posteriori</i> because it expresses an empirical fact unknowable by reason alone. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Aprioricity,_analyticity_and_necessity"><span id="Aprioricity.2C_analyticity_and_necessity"></span>Aprioricity, analyticity and necessity</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=A_priori_and_a_posteriori&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Aprioricity, analyticity and necessity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Relation_to_the_analytic–synthetic_distinction"><span id="Relation_to_the_analytic.E2.80.93synthetic_distinction"></span>Relation to the analytic–synthetic distinction</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=A_priori_and_a_posteriori&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Relation to the analytic–synthetic distinction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction" title="Analytic–synthetic distinction">Analytic–synthetic distinction</a></div> <p>Several philosophers, in reaction to <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a>, sought to explain <i>a priori</i> knowledge without appealing to, as <a href="/wiki/Paul_Boghossian" title="Paul Boghossian">Paul Boghossian</a> describes as "a special faculty [intuition]<span class="nowrap"> </span>... that has never been described in satisfactory terms."<sup id="cite_ref-Boghossianj_1996_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Boghossianj_1996-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One theory, popular among the <a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">logical positivists</a> of the early 20th century, is what Boghossian calls the "analytic explanation of the a priori."<sup id="cite_ref-Boghossianj_1996_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Boghossianj_1996-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The distinction between <a href="/wiki/Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction" title="Analytic–synthetic distinction">analytic and synthetic propositions</a> was first introduced by Kant. While his original distinction was primarily drawn in terms of conceptual containment, the contemporary version of such distinction primarily involves, as American philosopher <a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">W. V. O. Quine</a> put it, the notions of "true by virtue of meanings and independently of fact."<sup id="cite_ref-Q21_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Q21-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><b>Analytic propositions</b> are considered true by virtue of their meaning alone, while <i>a posteriori</i> propositions by virtue of their meaning and of certain facts about the world. According to the analytic explanation of the <i>a priori</i>, all <i>a priori</i> knowledge is analytic; so <i>a priori</i> knowledge need not require a special faculty of pure <a href="/wiki/Intuition" title="Intuition">intuition</a>, since it can be accounted for simply by one's ability to understand the meaning of the proposition in question. More simply, proponents of this explanation claimed to have reduced a dubious <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysical</a> faculty of pure reason to a legitimate linguistic notion of analyticity. </p><p> The analytic explanation of <i>a priori</i> knowledge has undergone several criticisms. Most notably, Quine argues that the analytic–synthetic distinction is illegitimate:<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><blockquote><p>But for all its a priori reasonableness, a boundary between analytic and synthetic statements simply has not been drawn. That there is such a distinction to be drawn at all is an unempirical dogma of empiricists, a metaphysical article of faith.</p></blockquote> <p>Although the soundness of Quine's proposition remains uncertain, it had a powerful effect on the project of explaining the <i>a priori</i> in terms of the analytic.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Relation_to_the_necessary_truths_and_contingent_truths">Relation to the necessary truths and contingent truths</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=A_priori_and_a_posteriori&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Relation to the necessary truths and contingent truths"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The metaphysical distinction between <i>necessary</i> and <i>contingent</i> truths has also been related to <i>a priori</i> and <i>a posteriori</i> knowledge. </p><p>A proposition that is <a href="/wiki/Modal_logic" title="Modal logic">necessarily true</a> is one in which its negation is self-contradictory; it is true in every <a href="/wiki/Possible_world" title="Possible world">possible world</a>. For example, considering the proposition "all bachelors are unmarried:" its negation (i.e. the proposition that some bachelors are married) is incoherent due to the concept of being unmarried (or the meaning of the word "unmarried") being tied to part of the concept of being a bachelor (or part of the definition of the word "bachelor"). To the extent that contradictions are impossible, self-contradictory propositions are necessarily false as it is impossible for them to be true. The negation of a self-contradictory proposition is, therefore, supposed to be necessarily true. </p><p>By contrast, a proposition that is <b>contingently true</b> is one in which its negation is not self-contradictory. Thus, it is said <i>not</i> to be true in every possible world. As Jason Baehr suggests, it seems plausible that all necessary propositions are known <i>a priori</i>, because "[s]ense experience can tell us only about the actual world and hence about what is the case; it can say nothing about what must or must not be the case."<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Following Kant, some philosophers have considered the relationship between <i>aprioricity</i>, <i>analyticity</i> and <i>necessity</i> to be extremely close. According to <a href="/wiki/Jerry_Fodor" title="Jerry Fodor">Jerry Fodor</a>, "<a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">positivism</a>, in particular, took it for granted that <i>a priori</i> truths must be necessary."<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since Kant, the distinction between analytic and synthetic propositions has slightly changed. <a href="/wiki/Analytic-synthetic_distinction" class="mw-redirect" title="Analytic-synthetic distinction">Analytic propositions</a> were largely taken to be "true by virtue of meanings and independently of fact",<sup id="cite_ref-Q21_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Q21-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while synthetic propositions were not—one must conduct some sort of empirical investigation, looking to the world, to determine the <a href="/wiki/Truth-value" class="mw-redirect" title="Truth-value">truth-value</a> of synthetic propositions. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Separation">Separation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=A_priori_and_a_posteriori&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Separation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Aprioricity, analyticity and necessity have since been more clearly separated from each other. American philosopher <a href="/wiki/Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Saul Kripke</a> (1972), for example, provides strong arguments against this position, whereby he contends that there are necessary <i>a posteriori</i> truths. For example, the proposition that water is H<sub>2</sub>O (if it is true): According to Kripke, this statement is both <i>necessarily true</i>, because water and H<sub>2</sub>O are the same thing, they are identical in every possible world, and truths of identity are logically necessary; and <i>a posteriori</i>, because it is known only through empirical investigation. Following such considerations of Kripke and others (see <a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Hilary Putnam</a>), philosophers tend to distinguish the notion of aprioricity more clearly from that of necessity and analyticity. </p><p>Kripke's definitions of these terms diverge in subtle ways from Kant's. Taking these differences into account, Kripke's controversial analysis of naming as contingent and <i>a priori</i> would, according to <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Palmquist" title="Stephen Palmquist">Stephen Palmquist</a>, best fit into Kant's epistemological framework by calling it "analytic a posteriori."<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>iii<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Aaron_Sloman" title="Aaron Sloman">Aaron Sloman</a> presented a brief defence of Kant's three distinctions (analytic/synthetic, apriori/empirical and necessary/contingent), in that it did not assume "possible world semantics" for the third distinction, merely that some part of <i>this</i> world might have been different.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESloman1965_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESloman1965-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The relationship between aprioricity, necessity and analyticity is not easy to discern. Most philosophers at least seem to agree that while the various distinctions may overlap, the notions are clearly not identical: the <i>a priori</i>/<i>a posteriori</i> distinction is <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemological</a>; the analytic/synthetic distinction is <a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistic</a>; and the necessary/contingent distinction is <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysical</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=A_priori_and_a_posteriori&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_uses">Early uses</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=A_priori_and_a_posteriori&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Early uses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The term <i>a priori</i> is <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> for 'from what comes before' (or, less literally, 'from first principles, before experience'). In contrast, the term <i>a posteriori</i> is <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> for 'from what comes later' (or 'after experience'). </p><p>They appear in Latin translations of <a href="/wiki/Euclid" title="Euclid">Euclid</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Euclid%27s_Elements" title="Euclid's Elements">Elements</a></i>, a work widely considered during the <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_Europe" title="Early modern Europe">early European modern</a> period as the model for precise thinking. </p><p>An early philosophical use of what might be considered a notion of <i>a priori</i> knowledge (though not called by that name) is <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Innatism" title="Innatism"><i>theory of recollection</i></a>, related in the dialogue <i><a href="/wiki/Meno" title="Meno">Meno</a></i>, according to which something like <i>a priori</i> knowledge is knowledge inherent, <a href="/wiki/Intrinsic_and_extrinsic_properties_(philosophy)" title="Intrinsic and extrinsic properties (philosophy)">intrinsic</a> in the human mind.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Albert_of_Saxony_(philosopher)" title="Albert of Saxony (philosopher)">Albert of Saxony</a>, a 14th-century logician, wrote on both <i>a priori</i> and <i>a posteriori</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-EB_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The early modern <a href="/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomistic philosopher</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Sergeant_(priest)" title="John Sergeant (priest)">John Sergeant</a> differentiates the terms by the direction of inference regarding proper causes and effects. To demonstrate something <i>a priori</i> is to "Demonstrate Proper Effects from Proper Efficient Causes" and likewise to demonstrate <i>a posteriori</i> is to demonstrate "Proper Efficient Causes from Proper Effects", according to his 1696 work <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Method_to_Science&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="The Method to Science (page does not exist)">The Method to Science</a></i> Book III, Lesson IV, Section 7. </p><p><a href="/wiki/G._W._Leibniz" class="mw-redirect" title="G. W. Leibniz">G. W. Leibniz</a> introduced a distinction between <i>a priori</i> and <i>a posteriori</i> criteria for the possibility of a notion in his (1684) short treatise "Meditations on Knowledge, Truth, and Ideas".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELook2007_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELook2007-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>A priori</i> and <i>a posteriori</i> arguments for the existence of God appear in his <i><a href="/wiki/Monadology" title="Monadology">Monadology</a></i> (1714).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELook2007_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELook2007-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">George Berkeley</a> outlined the distinction in his 1710 work <i><a href="/wiki/A_Treatise_Concerning_the_Principles_of_Human_Knowledge" title="A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge">A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge</a></i> (para. XXI). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Immanuel_Kant">Immanuel Kant</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=A_priori_and_a_posteriori&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Immanuel Kant"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><p> The 18th-century German philosopher <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a> (1781) advocated a blend of <a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">rationalist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empiricist</a> theories. Kant says, "Although all our cognition begins with experience, it does not follow that it arises from [is caused by] experience."<sup id="cite_ref-kant_1781_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kant_1781-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Kant, <i>a priori</i> cognition is <a href="/wiki/Transcendence_(philosophy)" title="Transcendence (philosophy)">transcendental</a>, or based on the <i>form</i> of all possible experience, while <i>a posteriori</i> cognition is empirical, based on the <i>content</i> of experience:<sup id="cite_ref-kant_1781_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kant_1781-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><blockquote><p>It is quite possible that our empirical knowledge is a compound of that which we receive through impressions, and that which the faculty of cognition supplies from itself sensuous impressions [sense data] giving merely the <i>occasion</i> [opportunity for a cause to produce its effect]. </p></blockquote><p>Contrary to contemporary usages of the term, Kant believes that <i>a priori</i> knowledge is not entirely independent of the content of experience. Unlike the <a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">rationalists</a>, Kant thinks that <i>a priori</i> cognition, in its pure form, that is without the admixture of any empirical content, is limited to the deduction of the <a href="/wiki/Condition_of_possibility" title="Condition of possibility">conditions of possible experience</a>. These <i>a priori</i>, or transcendental, conditions are seated in one's cognitive faculties, and are not provided by experience in general or any experience in particular (although an argument exists that <i>a priori</i> intuitions can be "triggered" by experience). </p><p>Kant nominated and explored the possibility of a <a href="/wiki/Transcendental_logic" class="mw-redirect" title="Transcendental logic">transcendental logic</a> with which to consider the deduction of the <i>a priori</i> in its pure form. <a href="/wiki/Space" title="Space">Space</a>, <a href="/wiki/Time" title="Time">time</a> and <a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">causality</a> are considered pure <i>a priori</i> intuitions. Kant reasoned that the pure <i>a priori</i> intuitions are established via his <a href="/wiki/Transcendental_aesthetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Transcendental aesthetic">transcendental aesthetic</a> and transcendental logic. He claimed that the human subject would not have the kind of experience that it has were these <i>a priori</i> forms not in some way constitutive of him as a human subject. For instance, a person would not experience the world as an orderly, rule-governed place unless time, space and causality were determinant functions in the form of perceptual faculties, i. e., there can be no experience in general without space, time or causality as particular determinants thereon. The claim is more formally known as Kant's <a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">transcendental deduction</a> and it is the central argument of his major work, the <i><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Pure_Reason" title="Critique of Pure Reason">Critique of Pure Reason</a></i>. The transcendental deduction argues that time, space and causality are ideal as much as real. In consideration of a possible logic of the <i>a priori</i>, this most famous of Kant's deductions has made the successful attempt in the case for the fact of <a href="/wiki/Subjectivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Subjectivity">subjectivity</a>, what constitutes subjectivity and what relation it holds with objectivity and the empirical. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Johann_Fichte">Johann Fichte</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=A_priori_and_a_posteriori&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Johann Fichte"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After Kant's death, a number of philosophers saw themselves as correcting and expanding his philosophy, leading to the various forms of <a href="/wiki/German_Idealism" class="mw-redirect" title="German Idealism">German Idealism</a>. One of these philosophers was <a href="/wiki/Johann_Fichte" class="mw-redirect" title="Johann Fichte">Johann Fichte</a>. His student (and critic), <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Arthur Schopenhauer</a>, accused him of rejecting the distinction between <i>a priori</i> and <i>a posteriori</i> knowledge: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>... Fichte who, because the <a href="/wiki/Thing-in-itself" title="Thing-in-itself">thing-in-itself</a> had just been discredited, at once prepared a system without any thing-in-itself. Consequently, he rejected the assumption of anything that was not through and through merely our <a href="/wiki/Representation_(psychology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Representation (psychology)">representation</a>, and therefore let the knowing <a href="/wiki/Subject_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Subject (philosophy)">subject</a> be all in all or at any rate produce everything from its own resources. For this purpose, he at once did away with the essential and most meritorious part of the <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kantian</a> doctrine, the distinction between <i>a priori</i> and <i>a posteriori</i> and thus that between the <a href="/wiki/Phenomenon" title="Phenomenon">phenomenon</a> and the thing-in-itself. For he declared everything to be <i>a priori</i>, naturally without any evidence for such a monstrous assertion; instead of these, he gave sophisms and even crazy sham demonstrations whose absurdity was concealed under the mask of profundity and of the incomprehensibility ostensibly arising therefrom. Moreover, he appealed boldly and openly to <a href="/wiki/Intellectual" title="Intellectual">intellectual</a> <a href="/wiki/Intuition_(knowledge)" class="mw-redirect" title="Intuition (knowledge)">intuition</a>, that is, really to <a href="/wiki/Invention" title="Invention">inspiration</a>.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Schopenhauer, <i><a href="/wiki/Parerga_and_Paralipomena" title="Parerga and Paralipomena">Parerga and Paralipomena</a></i>, Vol. I, §13</cite></div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=A_priori_and_a_posteriori&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 18em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/A_priori_probability" class="mw-redirect" title="A priori probability">A priori probability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_posteriori_necessity" title="A posteriori necessity">A posteriori necessity</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ab_initio" title="Ab initio">Ab initio</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abductive_reasoning" title="Abductive reasoning">Abductive reasoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deductive_reasoning" title="Deductive reasoning">Deductive reasoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">Inductive reasoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Off_the_verandah" title="Off the verandah">Off the verandah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativized_a_priori" class="mw-redirect" title="Relativized a priori">Relativized a priori</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tabula_rasa" title="Tabula rasa">Tabula rasa</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_empiricism" class="mw-redirect" title="Transcendental empiricism">Transcendental empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_hermeneutic_phenomenology" class="mw-redirect" title="Transcendental hermeneutic phenomenology">Transcendental hermeneutic phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_nominalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Transcendental nominalism">Transcendental nominalism</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=A_priori_and_a_posteriori&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes">Notes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=A_priori_and_a_posteriori&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-roman"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Some <a href="/wiki/Associationist" class="mw-redirect" title="Associationist">associationist</a> philosophers have contended that mathematics comes from experience and is not a form of any <i>a priori</i> knowledge (<a href="#CITEREFMacleod2016">Macleod 2016</a>)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Galen_Strawson" title="Galen Strawson">Galen Strawson</a> has stated that an <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">a priori</i></span> argument is one in which "you can see that it is <a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">true</a> just lying on your couch. You don't have to get up off your couch and go outside and examine the way things are in the physical world. You don't have to do any science." (<a href="#CITEREFSommers2003">Sommers 2003</a>)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In this pair of articles, Stephen Palmquist demonstrates that the context often determines how a particular proposition should be classified. A proposition that is synthetic <i>a posteriori</i> in one context might be analytic <i>a priori</i> in another. (<a href="#CITEREFPalmquist1987b">Palmquist 1987b</a>, pp. 269, 273)</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=A_priori_and_a_posteriori&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBird1995[httpsarchiveorgdetailsoxfordcompaniont00hondpage439_439]-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBird1995[httpsarchiveorgdetailsoxfordcompaniont00hondpage439_439]_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBird1995">Bird 1995</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont00hond/page/439">439</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKitcher2001">Kitcher 2001</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Boghossianj_1996-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Boghossianj_1996_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Boghossianj_1996_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBoghossian2003">Boghossian 2003</a>, p. 363</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Q21-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Q21_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Q21_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFQuine1951">Quine 1951</a>, p. 21</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFQuine1951">Quine 1951</a>, p. 34</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFFred-Rivera2022" class="citation book cs1">Fred-Rivera, Ivette (10 August 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MamAEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA43"><i>A Historical and Systematic Perspective on A Priori Knowledge and Justification</i></a>. Springer Nature. pp. 40–45. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-031-06874-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-031-06874-4"><bdi>978-3-031-06874-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Historical+and+Systematic+Perspective+on+A+Priori+Knowledge+and+Justification&rft.pages=40-45&rft.pub=Springer+Nature&rft.date=2022-08-10&rft.isbn=978-3-031-06874-4&rft.aulast=Fred-Rivera&rft.aufirst=Ivette&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMamAEAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA43&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AA+priori+and+a+posteriori" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBaehr2006">Baehr 2006</a>, §3</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFodor1998">Fodor 1998</a>, p. 86</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESloman1965-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESloman1965_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSloman1965">Sloman 1965</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBaehr2006">Baehr 2006</a>, §2-3</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-EB-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-EB_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHoiberg2010">Hoiberg 2010</a>, p. 1</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELook2007-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELook2007_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELook2007_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLook2007">Look 2007</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-kant_1781-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-kant_1781_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-kant_1781_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKant1781">Kant 1781</a>, p. 1</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=A_priori_and_a_posteriori&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaehr2006" class="citation web cs1">Baehr, Jason S. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/apriori/">"A Priori and A Posteriori"</a>. <i>Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=A+Priori+and+A+Posteriori&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Baehr&rft.aufirst=Jason+S.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Fapriori%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AA+priori+and+a+posteriori" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBird1995" class="citation book cs1">Bird, Graham (1995). Honderich, Ted (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont00hond/page/439"><i>The Oxford Companion to Philosophy</i></a>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-866132-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-866132-0"><bdi>0-19-866132-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Companion+to+Philosophy&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=0-19-866132-0&rft.aulast=Bird&rft.aufirst=Graham&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Foxfordcompaniont00hond%2Fpage%2F439&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AA+priori+and+a+posteriori" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoghossian2003" class="citation book cs1">Boghossian, Paul Artin (2003) [1997]. "14: Analyticity". In Hale, Bob; Wright, Crispin (eds.). <i>A Companion to the Philosophy of Language</i>. Blackwell Companions to Philosophy. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0631213260" title="Special:BookSources/978-0631213260"><bdi>978-0631213260</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=14%3A+Analyticity&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+the+Philosophy+of+Language&rft.place=Malden%2C+MA&rft.series=Blackwell+Companions+to+Philosophy&rft.pub=Blackwell+Publishing&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0631213260&rft.aulast=Boghossian&rft.aufirst=Paul+Artin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AA+priori+and+a+posteriori" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFodor1998" class="citation book cs1">Fodor, Jerry (1998). <i>Concepts: Where Cognitive Science Went Wrong</i>. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0198236368" title="Special:BookSources/978-0198236368"><bdi>978-0198236368</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Concepts%3A+Where+Cognitive+Science+Went+Wrong&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0198236368&rft.aulast=Fodor&rft.aufirst=Jerry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AA+priori+and+a+posteriori" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoiberg2010" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Hoiberg, Dale H., ed. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/newencyclopaedia2009ency">"a priori knowledge"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Britannica, Vol. I: A-Ak – Bayes</i> (15th ed.). Chicago, Illinois. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59339-837-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59339-837-8"><bdi>978-1-59339-837-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=a+priori+knowledge&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica%2C+Vol.+I%3A+A-Ak+%E2%80%93+Bayes&rft.place=Chicago%2C+Illinois&rft.edition=15th&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-59339-837-8&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnewencyclopaedia2009ency&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AA+priori+and+a+posteriori" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_encyclopedia" title="Template:Cite encyclopedia">cite encyclopedia</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKant1781" class="citation book cs1">Kant, Immanuel (1781). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=b7w8AAAAYAAJ&q=critique+of+pure+reason&pg=PA15"><i>Kritik der reinen Vernunft</i></a> [<i>Critique of Pure Reason</i>]. Im Insel-Verlag.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kritik+der+reinen+Vernunft&rft.pub=Im+Insel-Verlag&rft.date=1781&rft.aulast=Kant&rft.aufirst=Immanuel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Db7w8AAAAYAAJ%26q%3Dcritique%2Bof%2Bpure%2Breason%26pg%3DPA15&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AA+priori+and+a+posteriori" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKitcher2001" class="citation book cs1">Kitcher, Philip (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AKwmGycd6yYC&pg=PA65">"A Priori Knowledge Revisited"</a>. In Boghossian, Paul; Peacocke, Christopher (eds.). <i>New Essays on the A Priori</i>. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0199241279" title="Special:BookSources/978-0199241279"><bdi>978-0199241279</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=A+Priori+Knowledge+Revisited&rft.btitle=New+Essays+on+the+A+Priori&rft.place=Oxford%2C+England&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0199241279&rft.aulast=Kitcher&rft.aufirst=Philip&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAKwmGycd6yYC%26pg%3DPA65&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AA+priori+and+a+posteriori" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="The material near this tag failed verification of its source citation(s). (February 2014)">failed verification</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLook2007" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Look, Brandon C. (22 December 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2020/entries/leibniz/">"Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz"</a>. In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i> (Spring 2020 ed.)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 May</span> 2020</span> – via Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Gottfried+Wilhelm+Leibniz&rft.btitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.edition=Spring+2020&rft.date=2007-12-22&rft.aulast=Look&rft.aufirst=Brandon+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Farchives%2Fspr2020%2Fentries%2Fleibniz%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AA+priori+and+a+posteriori" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacleod2016" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Macleod, Christopher (25 August 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2020/entries/mill/">"John Stuart Mill"</a>. In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i> (Summer 2020 ed.) – via Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=John+Stuart+Mill&rft.btitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.edition=Summer+2020&rft.date=2016-08-25&rft.aulast=Macleod&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Farchives%2Fsum2020%2Fentries%2Fmill%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AA+priori+and+a+posteriori" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPalmquist1987b" class="citation journal cs1">Palmquist, Stephen (December 1987b). "<i>A Priori</i> Knowledge in Perspective: (II) Naming, Necessity and the Analytic A Posteriori". <i>The Review of Metaphysics</i>. <b>41</b> (2): 255–282.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Review+of+Metaphysics&rft.atitle=A+Priori+Knowledge+in+Perspective%3A+%28II%29+Naming%2C+Necessity+and+the+Analytic+A+Posteriori&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=255-282&rft.date=1987-12&rft.aulast=Palmquist&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AA+priori+and+a+posteriori" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFQuine1951" class="citation journal cs1">Quine, Willard Van Orman (1951). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ditext.com/quine/quine.html">"Two Dogmas of Empiricism"</a>. <i>The Philosophical Review</i>. <b>60</b> (1): 20–43. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2181906">10.2307/2181906</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2181906">2181906</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Philosophical+Review&rft.atitle=Two+Dogmas+of+Empiricism&rft.volume=60&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=20-43&rft.date=1951&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2181906&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2181906%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Quine&rft.aufirst=Willard+Van+Orman&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ditext.com%2Fquine%2Fquine.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AA+priori+and+a+posteriori" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSloman1965" class="citation journal cs1">Sloman, A. (1 October 1965). "<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'Necessary', 'a priori' and 'analytic'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>". <i>Analysis</i>. <b>26</b> (1): 12–16. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fanalys%2F26.1.12">10.1093/analys/26.1.12</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:17118371">17118371</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Analysis&rft.atitle=%27Necessary%27%2C+%27a+priori%27+and+%27analytic%27&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=12-16&rft.date=1965-10-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fanalys%2F26.1.12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A17118371%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Sloman&rft.aufirst=A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AA+priori+and+a+posteriori" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSommers2003" class="citation journal cs1">Sommers, Tamler (March 2003). Jarman, Casey (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.believermag.com/issues/200303/?read=interview_strawson">"Galen Strawson (interview)"</a>. <i>Believer Magazine</i>. <b>1</b> (1). San Francisco, CA: McSweeney's McMullens<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 July</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Believer+Magazine&rft.atitle=Galen+Strawson+%28interview%29&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=1&rft.date=2003-03&rft.aulast=Sommers&rft.aufirst=Tamler&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.believermag.com%2Fissues%2F200303%2F%3Fread%3Dinterview_strawson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AA+priori+and+a+posteriori" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=A_priori_and_a_posteriori&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDescartes1641" class="citation book cs1">Descartes, René (1641). In Cottingham; et al. (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130715042128/http://www.wright.edu/cola/descartes/"><i>Meditationes de prima philosophia, in qua Dei existentia et animæ immortalitas demonstratur</i></a> [<i>Meditations on First Philosophy</i>]. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wright.edu/cola/descartes/">the original</a> on 15 July 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 August</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Meditationes+de+prima+philosophia%2C+in+qua+Dei+existentia+et+anim%C3%A6+immortalitas+demonstratur&rft.date=1641&rft.aulast=Descartes&rft.aufirst=Ren%C3%A9&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wright.edu%2Fcola%2Fdescartes%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AA+priori+and+a+posteriori" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDescartes1984" class="citation book cs1">— (1984). <i>The Philosophical Writings of Descartes</i>. Vol. 2. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521288088" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521288088"><bdi>978-0521288088</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Philosophical+Writings+of+Descartes&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0521288088&rft.aulast=Descartes&rft.aufirst=Ren%C3%A9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AA+priori+and+a+posteriori" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFodor2004" class="citation journal cs1">Fodor, Jerry (21 October 2004). "Water's Water Everywhere". <i>London Review of Books</i>. <b>26</b> (21).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=London+Review+of+Books&rft.atitle=Water%27s+Water+Everywhere&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=21&rft.date=2004-10-21&rft.aulast=Fodor&rft.aufirst=Jerry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AA+priori+and+a+posteriori" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreenberg2001" class="citation book cs1">Greenberg, Robert (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060901081051/http://www.psupress.psu.edu/books/titles/0-271-02083-0.html"><i>Kant's Theory of a Priori Knowledge</i></a>. University Park, PA: Penn State Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0271020839" title="Special:BookSources/978-0271020839"><bdi>978-0271020839</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.psupress.psu.edu/books/titles/0-271-02083-0.html">the original</a> on 1 September 2006<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 May</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kant%27s+Theory+of+a+Priori+Knowledge&rft.place=University+Park%2C+PA&rft.pub=Penn+State+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0271020839&rft.aulast=Greenberg&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.psupress.psu.edu%2Fbooks%2Ftitles%2F0-271-02083-0.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AA+priori+and+a+posteriori" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeisenberg2007" class="citation book cs1">Heisenberg, Werner (2007) [1958]. <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/physicsphilosoph00heis_128"><i>Physics and Philosophy: The Revolution in Modern Science</i></a></span>. New York, NY: Harper Perennial Modern Classics. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/physicsphilosoph00heis_128/page/n94">76</a>–92. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0061209192" title="Special:BookSources/978-0061209192"><bdi>978-0061209192</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Physics+and+Philosophy%3A+The+Revolution+in+Modern+Science&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pages=76-92&rft.pub=Harper+Perennial+Modern+Classics&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0061209192&rft.aulast=Heisenberg&rft.aufirst=Werner&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fphysicsphilosoph00heis_128&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AA+priori+and+a+posteriori" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHume2008" class="citation book cs1">Hume, David (2008) [1777]. Millican, Peter (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081007110136/http://eserver.org/18th/hume-enquiry.html"><i>An Enquiry concerning Human Understanding</i></a>. Oxford, UK: Oxford university Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0199549900" title="Special:BookSources/978-0199549900"><bdi>978-0199549900</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://eserver.org/18th/hume-enquiry.html">the original</a> on 7 October 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 August</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Enquiry+concerning+Human+Understanding&rft.place=Oxford%2C+UK&rft.pub=Oxford+university+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0199549900&rft.aulast=Hume&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Feserver.org%2F18th%2Fhume-enquiry.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AA+priori+and+a+posteriori" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJenkins2008" class="citation journal cs1">Jenkins, C. S. (May 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20130105084101/http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/119423031/abstract?CRETRY=1&SRETRY=0">"A Priori Knowledge: Debates and Developments"</a>. <i>Philosophy Compass</i>. <b>3</b> (3): 436–450. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1747-9991.2008.00136.x">10.1111/j.1747-9991.2008.00136.x</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/119423031/abstract?CRETRY=1&SRETRY=0">the original</a> on 5 January 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophy+Compass&rft.atitle=A+Priori+Knowledge%3A+Debates+and+Developments&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=436-450&rft.date=2008-05&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1747-9991.2008.00136.x&rft.aulast=Jenkins&rft.aufirst=C.+S.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww3.interscience.wiley.com%2Fjournal%2F119423031%2Fabstract%3FCRETRY%3D1%26SRETRY%3D0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AA+priori+and+a+posteriori" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKant1783" class="citation book cs1">Kant, Immanuel (1783). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20000831211542/http://eserver.org/philosophy/kant-prolegomena.txt"><i>Prolegomena zu einer jeden künftigen Metaphysik</i></a> [<i>Prolegomena to any Future Metaphysics</i>]. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://eserver.org/philosophy/kant-prolegomena.txt">the original</a> on 31 August 2000.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Prolegomena+zu+einer+jeden+k%C3%BCnftigen+Metaphysik&rft.date=1783&rft.aulast=Kant&rft.aufirst=Immanuel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Feserver.org%2Fphilosophy%2Fkant-prolegomena.txt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AA+priori+and+a+posteriori" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKripke2013" class="citation book cs1">Kripke, Saul (2013) [1972]. "Naming and Necessity". <i>Semantics of Natural Language</i>. Synthese Library (2nd ed.). Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9027703101" title="Special:BookSources/978-9027703101"><bdi>978-9027703101</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Naming+and+Necessity&rft.btitle=Semantics+of+Natural+Language&rft.series=Synthese+Library&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-9027703101&rft.aulast=Kripke&rft.aufirst=Saul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AA+priori+and+a+posteriori" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeibniz1976" class="citation book cs1">Leibniz, Gottfried (1976) [1714]. <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/philosophicalpap0000leib">"Monadology"</a></span>. In Loemker, Leroy E. (ed.). <i>Philosophical Papers and Letters: A Selection</i>. Synthese Historical Library. Vol. 2 (2nd ed.). Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9027706935" title="Special:BookSources/978-9027706935"><bdi>978-9027706935</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Monadology&rft.btitle=Philosophical+Papers+and+Letters%3A+A+Selection&rft.place=Dordrecht&rft.series=Synthese+Historical+Library&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Kluwer+Academic+Publishers&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=978-9027706935&rft.aulast=Leibniz&rft.aufirst=Gottfried&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fphilosophicalpap0000leib&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AA+priori+and+a+posteriori" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLocke1689" class="citation book cs1">Locke, John (1689). Nidditch, Peter H. (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060829173733/http://www.ilt.columbia.edu/Publications/locke_understanding.html"><i>An Essay Concerning Human Understanding</i></a>. Clarendon Edition of the Works of John Locke. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0198245957" title="Special:BookSources/978-0198245957"><bdi>978-0198245957</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ilt.columbia.edu/publications/locke_understanding.html">the original</a> on 29 August 2006<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 August</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Essay+Concerning+Human+Understanding&rft.place=Oxford%2C+UK&rft.series=Clarendon+Edition+of+the+Works+of+John+Locke&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1689&rft.isbn=978-0198245957&rft.aulast=Locke&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ilt.columbia.edu%2Fpublications%2Flocke_understanding.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AA+priori+and+a+posteriori" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPalmquist1987a" class="citation journal cs1">Palmquist, Stephen (September 1987a). "<i>A Priori</i> Knowledge in Perspective: (I) Mathematics, Method and Pure Intuition". <i>The Review of Metaphysics</i>. <b>41</b> (1): 3–22.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Review+of+Metaphysics&rft.atitle=A+Priori+Knowledge+in+Perspective%3A+%28I%29+Mathematics%2C+Method+and+Pure+Intuition&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=3-22&rft.date=1987-09&rft.aulast=Palmquist&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AA+priori+and+a+posteriori" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPlato1997" class="citation book cs1">Plato (1997) [380 B.C.]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/completeworks00plat">"Meno"</a>. In Cooper, John M.; Hutchinson, D. S. (eds.). <i>Plato: Complete Works</i>. Indianapolis, IN: Hackett Publishing Co. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0872203495" title="Special:BookSources/978-0872203495"><bdi>978-0872203495</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Meno&rft.btitle=Plato%3A+Complete+Works&rft.place=Indianapolis%2C+IN&rft.pub=Hackett+Publishing+Co.&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0872203495&rft.au=Plato&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcompleteworks00plat&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AA+priori+and+a+posteriori" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=A_priori_and_a_posteriori&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:A_priori" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:A priori">A priori</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/A priori and a posteriori">A priori and a posteriori</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZalta" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edward_N._Zalta" title="Edward N. Zalta">Zalta, Edward N.</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/apriori/">"<i>A Priori</i> Justification and Knowledge"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=A+Priori+Justification+and+Knowledge&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fapriori%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AA+priori+and+a+posteriori" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.inphoproject.org/taxonomy/2381"><i>A priori</i> and <i>a posteriori</i></a> at the <a href="/wiki/Indiana_Philosophy_Ontology_Project" class="mw-redirect" title="Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project">Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project</a></li> <li><a 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href="http://www.philosophypages.com/dy/a5.htm#a-pr"><i>A priori</i> / <i>a posteriori</i></a> – in the Philosophical Dictionary online.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/rationalism-empiricism/">"Rationalism vs. Empiricism"</a> – an article by <a href="/wiki/Peter_Markie" class="mw-redirect" title="Peter Markie">Peter Markie</a> in the <i>Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>.</li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output 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Klein">Peter Klein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Saul Kripke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Kornblith" title="Hilary Kornblith">Hilary Kornblith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Lewis_(philosopher)" title="David Lewis (philosopher)">David Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">G. E. Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_McDowell" title="John McDowell">John McDowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Robert Nozick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Alvin Plantinga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duncan_Pritchard" title="Duncan Pritchard">Duncan Pritchard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Pryor" title="James Pryor">James Pryor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Hilary Putnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">W. V. O. Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Reid" title="Thomas Reid">Thomas Reid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Gilbert Ryle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilfrid_Sellars" title="Wilfrid Sellars">Wilfrid Sellars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susanna_Siegel" title="Susanna Siegel">Susanna Siegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Sosa" title="Ernest Sosa">Ernest Sosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P._F._Strawson" title="P. F. Strawson">P. F. Strawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Williamson" title="Timothy Williamson">Timothy Williamson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Wolterstorff" title="Nicholas Wolterstorff">Nicholas Wolterstorff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_epistemologists" title="List of epistemologists">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Epistemological_theories" title="Category:Epistemological theories">Theories</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructivist_epistemology" class="mw-redirect" title="Constructivist epistemology">Constructivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contextualism" title="Contextualism">Contextualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_epistemology" title="Evolutionary epistemology">Evolutionary epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallibilism" title="Fallibilism">Fallibilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_epistemology" title="Feminist epistemology">Feminist epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_holism" title="Semantic holism">Holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infinitism" title="Infinitism">Infinitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Innatism" title="Innatism">Innatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Na%C3%AFve_realism" title="Naïve realism">Naïve realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Naturalized epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenalism" title="Phenomenalism">Phenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reliabilism" title="Reliabilism">Reliabilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_and_indirect_realism" title="Direct and indirect realism">Representational realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental idealism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Concepts_in_epistemology" title="Category:Concepts in epistemology">Concepts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink"><i>A priori</i> knowledge</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink"><i>A posteriori</i> knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_analysis" title="Philosophical analysis">Analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction" title="Analytic–synthetic distinction">Analytic–synthetic distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belief" title="Belief">Belief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_sense" title="Common sense">Common sense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Descriptive_knowledge" class="mw-redirect" title="Descriptive knowledge">Descriptive knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exploratory_thought" title="Exploratory thought">Exploratory thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemic_injustice" title="Epistemic injustice">Epistemic injustice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemic_virtue" title="Epistemic virtue">Epistemic virtue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gettier_problem" title="Gettier problem">Gettier problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">Induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalism_and_externalism" title="Internalism and externalism">Internalism and externalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justification_(epistemology)" title="Justification (epistemology)">Justification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">Knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privileged_access" class="mw-redirect" title="Privileged access">Privileged access</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_induction" title="Problem of induction">Problem of induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_other_minds" title="Problem of other minds">Problem of other minds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">Perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procedural_knowledge" title="Procedural knowledge">Procedural knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proposition" title="Proposition">Proposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regress_argument" class="mw-redirect" title="Regress argument">Regress argument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simplicity" title="Simplicity">Simplicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">Truth</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Index_of_epistemology_articles" title="Index of epistemology articles">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_epistemology" title="Outline of epistemology">Outline of epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_and_rationality" title="Faith and rationality">Faith and rationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formal_epistemology" title="Formal epistemology">Formal epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaepistemology" title="Metaepistemology">Metaepistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_perception" title="Philosophy of perception">Philosophy of perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_epistemology" title="Social epistemology">Social epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_epistemology" title="Virtue epistemology">Virtue epistemology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Epistemology" title="Category:Epistemology">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Philosophy/Epistemology" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Philosophy/Epistemology">Task Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_stubs" title="Category:Philosophy stubs">Stubs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia_talk:WikiProject_Philosophy" title="Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Philosophy">Discussion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Logic" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Logic" title="Template:Logic"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Logic" title="Template talk:Logic"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Logic" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Logic"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Logic" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">Logic</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_logic" title="Outline of logic">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_logic" title="History of logic">History</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Major fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Logic_in_computer_science" title="Logic in computer science">Computer science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formal_semantics_(natural_language)" title="Formal semantics (natural language)">Formal semantics (natural language)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inference" title="Inference">Inference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_logic" title="Philosophy of logic">Philosophy of logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formal_proof" title="Formal proof">Proof</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantics_of_logic" title="Semantics of logic">Semantics of logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syntax_(logic)" title="Syntax (logic)">Syntax</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Logics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_logic" title="Classical logic">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Informal_logic" title="Informal logic">Informal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Critical_thinking" title="Critical thinking">Critical thinking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">Reason</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_logic" title="Mathematical logic">Mathematical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-classical_logic" title="Non-classical logic">Non-classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_logic" title="Philosophical logic">Philosophical</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argumentation_theory" title="Argumentation theory">Argumentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metalogic" title="Metalogic">Metalogic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metamathematics" title="Metamathematics">Metamathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Set_theory" title="Set theory">Set</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Foundations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abductive_reasoning" title="Abductive reasoning">Abduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction" title="Analytic–synthetic distinction">Analytic and synthetic propositions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antecedent_(logic)" title="Antecedent (logic)">Antecedent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consequent" title="Consequent">Consequent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contradiction" title="Contradiction">Contradiction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paradox" title="Paradox">Paradox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antinomy" title="Antinomy">Antinomy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deductive_reasoning" title="Deductive reasoning">Deduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deductive_closure" title="Deductive closure">Deductive closure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Definition" title="Definition">Definition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Description" title="Description">Description</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_consequence" title="Logical consequence">Entailment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Entailment_(linguistics)" title="Entailment (linguistics)">Linguistic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_form" title="Logical form">Form</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">Induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_truth" title="Logical truth">Logical truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Name" title="Name">Name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Necessity_and_sufficiency" title="Necessity and sufficiency">Necessity and sufficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Premise" title="Premise">Premise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Probability" title="Probability">Probability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proposition" title="Proposition">Proposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reference" title="Reference">Reference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statement_(logic)" title="Statement (logic)">Statement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substitution_(logic)" title="Substitution (logic)">Substitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">Truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Validity_(logic)" title="Validity (logic)">Validity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Index_of_logic_articles" title="Index of logic articles">topics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mathematical_logic_topics" title="List of mathematical logic topics">Mathematical logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Boolean_algebra_topics" title="List of Boolean algebra topics">Boolean algebra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_set_theory_topics" title="List of set theory topics">Set theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_logicians" title="List of logicians">Logicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rules_of_inference" title="List of rules of inference">Rules of inference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_paradoxes" title="List of paradoxes">Paradoxes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fallacies" title="List of fallacies">Fallacies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_logic_symbols" title="List of logic symbols">Logic symbols</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/18px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/27px-Socrates.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/36px-Socrates.png 2x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Logic" title="Category:Logic">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Logic" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Logic">WikiProject</a> (<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia_talk:WikiProject_Logic" title="Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Logic">talk</a>)</li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Recentchangeslinked&target=Template:Logic&hidebots=0">changes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Philosophy_of_science" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_of_science" title="Template:Philosophy of science"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_of_science" title="Template talk:Philosophy of science"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy_of_science" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy of science"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Philosophy_of_science" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_analysis" title="Philosophical analysis">Analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction" title="Analytic–synthetic distinction">Analytic–synthetic distinction</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink"><i>A priori</i> and <i>a posteriori</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">Causality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mill%27s_Methods" title="Mill's Methods">Mill's Methods</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commensurability_(philosophy_of_science)" title="Commensurability (philosophy of science)">Commensurability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consilience" title="Consilience">Consilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construct_(philosophy)" title="Construct (philosophy)">Construct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Correlation" title="Correlation">Correlation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Correlation_function" title="Correlation function">function</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creative_synthesis" title="Creative synthesis">Creative synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demarcation_problem" title="Demarcation problem">Demarcation problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empirical_evidence" title="Empirical evidence">Empirical evidence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experiment" title="Experiment">Experiment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Design_of_experiments" title="Design of experiments">design</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Explanatory_power" title="Explanatory power">Explanatory power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fact" title="Fact">Fact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsifiability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_method" title="Feminist method">Feminist method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_contextualism" title="Functional contextualism">Functional contextualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">Hypothesis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_hypothesis" title="Alternative hypothesis">alternative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Null_hypothesis" title="Null hypothesis">null</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ignoramus_et_ignorabimus" title="Ignoramus et ignorabimus">Ignoramus et ignorabimus</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">Inductive reasoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertheoretic_reduction" title="Intertheoretic reduction">Intertheoretic reduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inquiry" title="Inquiry">Inquiry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_(philosophy)" title="Nature (philosophy)">Nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Observation" title="Observation">Observation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradigm" title="Paradigm">Paradigm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_induction" title="Problem of induction">Problem of induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_evidence" title="Scientific evidence">Scientific evidence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_practice" title="Evidence-based practice">Evidence-based practice</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_law" title="Scientific law">Scientific law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Scientific method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_pluralism" title="Scientific pluralism">Scientific pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Testability" title="Testability">Testability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory" title="Theory">Theory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theory_choice" title="Theory choice">choice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory-ladenness" title="Theory-ladenness">ladenness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_theory" title="Scientific theory">scientific</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underdetermination" title="Underdetermination">Underdetermination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unity_of_science" title="Unity of science">Unity of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variable_and_attribute_(research)" title="Variable and attribute (research)">Variable</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Control_variable" title="Control variable">control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dependent_and_independent_variables" title="Dependent and independent variables">dependent and independent</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy_of_science_articles" title="Index of philosophy of science articles">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confirmation_holism" title="Confirmation holism">Confirmation holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructive_empiricism" title="Constructive empiricism">Constructive empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructive_realism" title="Constructive realism">Constructive realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructivist_epistemology" class="mw-redirect" title="Constructivist epistemology">Constructivist epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contextualism" title="Contextualism">Contextualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conventionalism" title="Conventionalism">Conventionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deductive-nomological_model" title="Deductive-nomological model">Deductive-nomological model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_anarchism" class="mw-redirect" title="Epistemological anarchism">Epistemological anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionism" title="Evolutionism">Evolutionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallibilism" title="Fallibilism">Fallibilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypothetico-deductive_model" title="Hypothetico-deductive model">Hypothetico-deductive model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductionism" title="Inductionism">Inductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instrumentalism" title="Instrumentalism">Instrumentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Model-dependent_realism" title="Model-dependent realism">Model-dependent realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Received_view_of_theories" title="Received view of theories">Received view</a> / <a href="/wiki/Semantic_view_of_theories" title="Semantic view of theories">Semantic view of theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_essentialism" title="Scientific essentialism">Scientific essentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_formalism" title="Scientific formalism">Scientific formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">Scientific skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism_(philosophy_of_science)" title="Structuralism (philosophy of science)">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniformitarianism" title="Uniformitarianism">Uniformitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verificationism" title="Verificationism">Verificationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitalism" title="Vitalism">Vitalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophy of...</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_biology" title="Philosophy of biology">Biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_chemistry" title="Philosophy of chemistry">Chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_physics" title="Philosophy of physics">Physics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_space_and_time" title="Philosophy of space and time">Space and time</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">Social science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_archaeology" title="Philosophy of archaeology">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of economics">Economics‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_geography" title="Philosophy of geography">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_linguistics" title="Philosophy of linguistics">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">Psychology</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_science" title="Criticism of science">Criticism of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Descriptive_research" title="Descriptive research">Descriptive science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exact_sciences" title="Exact sciences">Exact sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_and_rationality" title="Faith and rationality">Faith and rationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hard_and_soft_science" title="Hard and soft science">Hard and soft science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_and_philosophy_of_science" title="History and philosophy of science">History and philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-science" title="Non-science">Non-science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normative_science" title="Normative science">Normative science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protoscience" title="Protoscience">Protoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Questionable_cause" title="Questionable cause">Questionable cause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Relationship between religion and science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_of_science" title="Rhetoric of science">Rhetoric of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_studies" title="Science studies">Science studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_ignorance" title="Sociology of scientific ignorance">Sociology of scientific ignorance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Sociology of scientific knowledge">Sociology of scientific knowledge</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophers_of_science" title="List of philosophers of science">Philosophers of science</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Precursors" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Precursors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Bacon" title="Roger Bacon">Roger Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Francis Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Auguste Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Poincar%C3%A9" title="Henri Poincaré">Henri Poincaré</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Duhem" title="Pierre Duhem">Pierre Duhem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Steiner" title="Rudolf Steiner">Rudolf Steiner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Pearson" title="Karl Pearson">Karl Pearson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Charles Sanders Peirce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Windelband" title="Wilhelm Windelband">Wilhelm Windelband</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Alfred North Whitehead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Neurath" title="Otto Neurath">Otto Neurath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._D._Broad" title="C. D. Broad">C. D. Broad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Polanyi" title="Michael Polanyi">Michael Polanyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Reichenbach" title="Hans Reichenbach">Hans Reichenbach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Rudolf Carnap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Gustav_Hempel" title="Carl Gustav Hempel">Carl Gustav Hempel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">W. V. O. Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kuhn" title="Thomas Kuhn">Thomas Kuhn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imre_Lakatos" title="Imre Lakatos">Imre Lakatos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Feyerabend" title="Paul Feyerabend">Paul Feyerabend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ian_Hacking" title="Ian Hacking">Ian Hacking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bas_van_Fraassen" title="Bas van Fraassen">Bas van Fraassen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larry_Laudan" title="Larry Laudan">Larry Laudan</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_of_science" title="Category:Philosophy of science">Category</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/18px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/27px-Socrates.png 1.5x, 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class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Jurisprudence" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Jurisprudence" title="Template:Jurisprudence"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Jurisprudence" title="Template talk:Jurisprudence"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li 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href="/wiki/Comparative_law" title="Comparative law">Comparative law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_and_economics" title="Law and economics">Economic analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_norms" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal norms">Legal norms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_legal_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="International legal theory">International legal theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_history" title="Legal history">Legal history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of law">Philosophy of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_law" title="Sociology of law">Sociology of law</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophers_of_law" title="Category:Philosophers of law">Philosophers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Alexy" title="Robert Alexy">Alexy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Austin_(legal_philosopher)" title="John Austin (legal philosopher)">Austin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Bastiat" title="Frédéric Bastiat">Bastiat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cesare_Beccaria" title="Cesare Beccaria">Beccaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Blackstone" title="William Blackstone">Blackstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norberto_Bobbio" title="Norberto Bobbio">Bobbio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Bork" title="Robert Bork">Bork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bartosz_Bro%C5%BCek" title="Bartosz Brożek">Brożek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_N._Cardozo" title="Benjamin N. Cardozo">Cardozo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Durkheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Dworkin" title="Ronald Dworkin">Dworkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugen_Ehrlich" title="Eugen Ehrlich">Ehrlich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Finnis" title="John Finnis">Finnis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lon_L._Fuller" title="Lon L. Fuller">Fuller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Grotius" title="Hugo Grotius">Grotius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Gurvitch" title="Georges Gurvitch">Gurvitch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Ludwig_von_Haller" title="Karl Ludwig von Haller">Haller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_Fei" title="Han Fei">Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H._L._A._Hart" title="H. L. A. Hart">Hart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Hobbes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axel_H%C3%A4gerstr%C3%B6m" title="Axel Hägerström">Hägerström</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Jellinek" title="Georg Jellinek">Jellinek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_von_Jhering" title="Rudolf von Jhering">Jhering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Kelsen" title="Hans Kelsen">Kelsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruno_Leoni" title="Bruno Leoni">Leoni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Llewellyn" title="Karl Llewellyn">Llewellyn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niklas_Luhmann" title="Niklas Luhmann">Luhmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_de_Maistre" title="Joseph de Maistre">Maistre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_M%C3%BCller" title="Adam Müller">Müller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Olivecrona" title="Karl Olivecrona">Olivecrona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evgeny_Pashukanis" title="Evgeny Pashukanis">Pashukanis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cha%C3%AFm_Perelman" title="Chaïm Perelman">Perelman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leon_Petra%C5%BCycki" title="Leon Petrażycki">Petrażycki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Posner" title="Richard Posner">Posner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roscoe_Pound" title="Roscoe Pound">Pound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_von_Pufendorf" title="Samuel von Pufendorf">Pufendorf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustav_Radbruch" title="Gustav Radbruch">Radbruch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Raz" title="Joseph Raz">Raz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adolf_Reinach" title="Adolf Reinach">Reinach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Renner" title="Karl Renner">Renner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alf_Ross" title="Alf Ross">Ross</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rumi" title="Rumi">Rumi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Carl_von_Savigny" title="Friedrich Carl von Savigny">Savigny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Mucius_Scaevola_Pontifex" title="Quintus Mucius Scaevola Pontifex">Scaevola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Schmitt" title="Carl Schmitt">Schmitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shang_Yang" title="Shang Yang">Shang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez" title="Francisco Suárez">Suárez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Julius_Stahl" title="Friedrich Julius Stahl">Stahl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roberto_Mangabeira_Unger" title="Roberto Mangabeira Unger">Unger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Voegelin" title="Eric Voegelin">Voegelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Walzer" title="Michael Walzer">Walzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Books_about_jurisprudence" title="Category:Books about jurisprudence">Works</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Laws_(dialogue)" title="Laws (dialogue)">Laws</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 355 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Treatise_on_Law" title="Treatise on Law">Treatise on Law</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 1270)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Spirit_of_Law" title="The Spirit of Law">The Spirit of Law</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1748)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Elements_of_the_Philosophy_of_Right" title="Elements of the Philosophy of Right">Elements of the Philosophy of Right</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1820)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pure_Theory_of_Law" title="Pure Theory of Law">Pure Theory of Law</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1934)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Concept_of_Law" title="The Concept of Law">The Concept of Law</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1961)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Natural_Law_and_Natural_Rights" title="Natural Law and Natural Rights">Natural Law and Natural Rights</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1980)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Law%27s_Empire" title="Law's Empire">Law's Empire</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1986)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Theories_of_law" title="Category:Theories of law">Theories</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_jurisprudence" title="Analytical 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title="Libertarian theories of law">Libertarian theories of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paternalism" title="Paternalism">Paternalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_jurisprudence" title="Virtue jurisprudence">Virtue jurisprudence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharma</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fa_(concept)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fa (concept)">Fa</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_interpretation" title="Judicial interpretation">Judicial interpretation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_without_the_state" title="Law 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