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<span>Poor patent quality and patent trolls</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Poor_patent_quality_and_patent_trolls-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Litigation_costs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Litigation_costs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Litigation costs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Litigation_costs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Different_industries_but_one_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Different_industries_but_one_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Different industries but one law</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Different_industries_but_one_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pharmaceutical_patents" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pharmaceutical_patents"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Pharmaceutical patents</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pharmaceutical_patents-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Proposed_alternatives_to_the_patent_system" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Proposed_alternatives_to_the_patent_system"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Proposed alternatives to the patent system</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Proposed_alternatives_to_the_patent_system-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" 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class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"><span class="mw-redirectedfrom">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Societal_views_on_patents&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Societal views on patents">Societal views on patents</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Intellectual property analysis</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output 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0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Unbalanced plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-unbalanced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Unbalanced_scales.svg/45px-Unbalanced_scales.svg.png" decoding="async" width="45" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Unbalanced_scales.svg/68px-Unbalanced_scales.svg.png 1.5x, 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.sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1202158006">.mw-parser-output .law-sidebar .sidebar-heading{background:#aaddff;color:#000}.mw-parser-output .law-sidebar .sidebar-above{font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .law-sidebar .sidebar-below{padding:0.4em;border-top:1px #aaa solid;font-weight:normal;font-size:smaller}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist law-sidebar"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title">Patent law</th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Overviews</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patent" title="Patent">Patent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patent_claim" title="Patent claim">Patent claim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_patent_law" title="History of patent law">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics_and_patents" title="Economics and patents">Economics</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Criticism</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Procedural concepts</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patent_application" title="Patent application">Application</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patent_prosecution" title="Patent prosecution">Prosecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patent_opposition_proceedings" title="Patent opposition proceedings">Opposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patent_valuation" title="Patent valuation">Valuation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/License#Intellectual_property" title="License">Licensing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patent_infringement" title="Patent infringement">Infringement</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Patentability requirements and related concepts</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patentable_subject_matter" title="Patentable subject matter">Patentable subject matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inventor_(patent)" title="Inventor (patent)">Inventorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Novelty_(patent)" title="Novelty (patent)">Novelty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inventive_step_and_non-obviousness" title="Inventive step and non-obviousness">Inventive step and non-obviousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_applicability" title="Industrial applicability">Industrial applicability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utility_(patentability_requirement)" title="Utility (patentability requirement)">Utility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Person_having_ordinary_skill_in_the_art" title="Person having ordinary skill in the art">Person skilled in the art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prior_art" title="Prior art">Prior art</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Other legal requirements</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sufficiency_of_disclosure" title="Sufficiency of disclosure">Sufficiency of disclosure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unity_of_invention" title="Unity of invention">Unity of invention</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> By region / country</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patent_Cooperation_Treaty" title="Patent Cooperation Treaty">Patent Cooperation Treaty</a> (PCT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_patent_law" title="Australian patent law">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_patent_law" title="Canadian patent law">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patent_law_of_China" title="Patent law of China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_patent_law" title="European patent law">Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_patent_law" title="German patent law">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_patent_law" title="Japanese patent law">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patent_law_in_the_Netherlands" title="Patent law in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_patent_law" title="United States patent law">United States</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> By specific subject matter</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_patent" title="Biological patent">Biological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_method_patent" title="Business method patent">Business method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_patent" title="Chemical patent">Chemical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurance_patent" title="Insurance patent">Insurance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_patent" title="Software patent">Software</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_patent" title="Tax patent">Tax</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> See also</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patent_analysis" title="Patent analysis">Patent analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pirate_Party" title="Pirate Party">Pirate Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Patent_law" title="Category:Patent law">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_patent_law_terms" title="Glossary of patent law terms">Glossary</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Patent_law" title="Template:Patent law"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Patent_law" title="Template talk:Patent law"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Patent_law" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Patent law"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Legal scholars, economists, activists, policymakers, industries, and trade organizations have held differing views on patents and engaged in contentious debates on the subject. Critical perspectives emerged in the nineteenth century that were especially based on the principles of <a href="/wiki/Free_trade" title="Free trade">free trade</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Johns_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Johns-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 262–263">: 262–263 </span></sup> Contemporary criticisms have echoed those arguments, claiming that patents block innovation and waste resources that could otherwise be used productively,<sup id="cite_ref-boldrin_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-boldrin-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and also block access to an increasingly important "commons" of enabling technologies (a phenomenon called the <a href="/wiki/Tragedy_of_the_anticommons" title="Tragedy of the anticommons">tragedy of the anticommons</a>),<sup id="cite_ref-anticommons_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-anticommons-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> apply a "one size fits all" model to industries with differing needs,<sup id="cite_ref-Posner_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Posner-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that is especially unproductive for industries other than chemicals and pharmaceuticals and especially unproductive for the software industry.<sup id="cite_ref-BessenMeurer_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BessenMeurer-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Enforcement by <a href="/wiki/Patent_troll" title="Patent troll">patent trolls</a> of poor quality patents has led to criticism of the patent office as well as the system itself.<sup id="cite_ref-Barker_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Barker-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Patents on pharmaceuticals have also been a particular focus of criticism, as the high prices they enable puts life-saving drugs out of reach of many people.<sup id="cite_ref-Banta,_D.H._2001_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Banta,_D.H._2001-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Alternatives to patents have been proposed, such as <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stiglitz" title="Joseph Stiglitz">Joseph Stiglitz</a>'s suggestion of <a href="/wiki/Prizes_as_an_alternative_to_patents" title="Prizes as an alternative to patents">providing "prize money"</a> (from a "prize fund" sponsored by the government) as a substitute for the lost profits associated with abstaining from the monopoly given by a patent.<sup id="cite_ref-Stiglitz_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stiglitz-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>These debates are part of a larger discourse on <a href="/wiki/Societal_views_on_intellectual_property" class="mw-redirect" title="Societal views on intellectual property">intellectual property protection</a> which also reflects differing perspectives on <a href="/wiki/Anti-copyright" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-copyright">copyright</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Criticism_of_patents&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Criticism of patents reached an early peak in Victorian Britain between 1850 and 1880, in a campaign against patenting that expanded to target <a href="/wiki/Copyright" title="Copyright">copyright</a> too and, in the judgment of historian <a href="/wiki/Adrian_Johns_(academic)" title="Adrian Johns (academic)">Adrian Johns</a>, "remains to this day the strongest [campaign] ever undertaken against intellectual property", coming close to abolishing patents.<sup id="cite_ref-Johns_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Johns-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 247">: 247 </span></sup> Its most prominent activists –  <a href="/wiki/Isambard_Kingdom_Brunel" title="Isambard Kingdom Brunel">Isambard Kingdom Brunel</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_Robert_Grove" title="William Robert Grove">William Robert Grove</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_Armstrong,_1st_Baron_Armstrong" title="William Armstrong, 1st Baron Armstrong">William Armstrong</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Andrew_Macfie" title="Robert Andrew Macfie">Robert A. MacFie</a> –  were inventors and entrepreneurs, and it was also supported by radical <a href="/wiki/Laissez-faire" title="Laissez-faire">laissez-faire</a> economists (<i><a href="/wiki/The_Economist" title="The Economist">The Economist</a></i> published anti-patent views), law scholars, scientists (who were concerned that patents were obstructing research) and manufacturers.<sup id="cite_ref-Johns_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Johns-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 249, 267, 270">: 249, 267, 270 </span></sup> Johns summarizes some of their main arguments as follows:<sup id="cite_ref-Johns_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Johns-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 273">: 273 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><i>[Patents] projected an artificial idol of the single inventor, radically denigrated the role of the intellectual commons, and blocked a path to this commons for other citizens –  citizens who were all, on this account, potential inventors too. [...] Patentees were the equivalent of squatters on public land –  or better, of uncouth market traders who planted their barrows in the middle of the highway and barred the way of the people.</i></dd></dl> <p>Similar debates took place during that time in other European countries such as France, <a href="/wiki/Prussia" title="Prussia">Prussia</a>, Switzerland and the Netherlands (but not in the United States).<sup id="cite_ref-Johns_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Johns-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 248">: 248 </span></sup> </p><p>Based on the criticism of patents as state-granted monopolies perceived to be inconsistent with <a href="/wiki/Free_trade" title="Free trade">free trade</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a> abolished patents in 1869 (having established them in 1817) –  but later reversed the action and reintroduced them in 1912.<sup id="cite_ref-kick_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kick-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Switzerland, criticism of patents delayed the introduction of patent laws until 1907.<sup id="cite_ref-Johns_1-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Johns-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 248">: 248 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-kick_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kick-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Contemporary_arguments">Contemporary arguments</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Criticism_of_patents&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Contemporary arguments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Contemporary arguments have focused on ways that patents can slow innovation by: blocking researchers' and companies' access to basic, enabling technology, and particularly following the explosion of patent filings in the 1990s, through the creation of "patent thickets"; wasting productive time and resources fending off enforcement of low-quality patents that should not have existed, particularly by "patent trolls"; and wasting money on patent litigation. Patents on pharmaceuticals have been a particular focus of criticism, as the high prices they enable puts life-saving drugs out of reach of many people. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Blocking_innovation">Blocking innovation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Criticism_of_patents&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Blocking innovation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1224211176">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{text-align:center;font-size:110%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:20em; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> <p>"[Patents] serve merely to stifle progress, entrench the positions of giant corporations and enrich those in the legal profession, rather than the actual inventors." </p> </blockquote> <p style="padding-bottom: 0;"><cite class="left-aligned" style=""><a href="/wiki/Elon_Musk" title="Elon Musk">Elon Musk</a><sup id="cite_ref-Vega_2022_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vega_2022-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></p> </div> <p>The most general argument against patents is that "intellectual property" in all its forms represents an effort to claim something that should not be owned, and harms society by slowing innovation and wasting resources.<sup id="cite_ref-boldrin_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-boldrin-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Law professors <a href="/wiki/Michael_Heller_(law_professor)" title="Michael Heller (law professor)">Michael Heller</a> and Rebecca Sue Eisenberg have described an ongoing <a href="/wiki/Tragedy_of_the_anticommons" title="Tragedy of the anticommons">tragedy of the anticommons</a> with regard to the proliferation of patents in the field of <a href="/wiki/Biotechnology" title="Biotechnology">biotechnology</a>, wherein intellectual property rights have become so fragmented that, effectively, no one can take advantage of them as to do so would require an agreement between the owners of all of the fragments.<sup id="cite_ref-anticommons_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-anticommons-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some public campaigns for improving access to medicines and <a href="/wiki/Genetically_modified_food" title="Genetically modified food">genetically modified food</a> have expressed a concern for "preventing the over-reach" of intellectual property protection including patent protection, and "to retain a public balance in property rights".<sup id="cite_ref-sksell_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sksell-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some economists<sup id="cite_ref-boldrin_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-boldrin-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and scientists<sup id="cite_ref-Pearce_J._M._519–521_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pearce_J._M._519–521-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and law professors<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> have raised concerns that patents retard technical progress and innovation. Others claim that patents have had no effect on research, based on surveys of scientists.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In a 2008 publication, Yi Quan of the <a href="/wiki/Kellogg_School_of_Management" title="Kellogg School of Management">Kellogg School of Management</a> concluded that the imposition of pharmaceutical patents under the <a href="/wiki/TRIPS_Agreement" title="TRIPS Agreement">TRIPS Agreement</a> did not increase innovation in the pharmaceutical industry. The publication also said there appeared to be an optimal level of patent protection that increased domestic innovation.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Poor_patent_quality_and_patent_trolls">Poor patent quality and patent trolls</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Criticism_of_patents&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Poor patent quality and patent trolls"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Patents have also been criticized for being granted on already-known inventions, with some complaining in the United States that the USPTO fails "to do a serious job of examining patents, thus allowing bad patents to slip through the system."<sup id="cite_ref-lemley_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lemley-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the other hand, some argue that because of low number of patents going into litigation, increasing quality of patents at <a href="/wiki/Patent_prosecution" title="Patent prosecution">patent prosecution</a> stage increases overall legal costs associated with patents, and that current USPTO policy is a reasonable compromise between full trial on examination stage on one hand, and pure registration without examination, on the other hand.<sup id="cite_ref-lemley_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lemley-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also, the US offers several options to challenge the validity of (or to correct) an issued patent without going to court, such as a <a href="/w/index.php?title=Postgrant_review&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Postgrant review (page does not exist)">postgrant review</a> within 9 months after issuance, <a href="/wiki/Inter_partes_review" title="Inter partes review">inter partes review</a> following 9 month after issuance, <a href="/wiki/Ex_parte_reexamination" class="mw-redirect" title="Ex parte reexamination">ex parte reexamination</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Supplemental_examination&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Supplemental examination (page does not exist)">supplemental examination</a> and <a href="/wiki/Reissue" title="Reissue">reissue</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Enforcement of patents – especially patents perceived as being overly broad – by <a href="/wiki/Patent_trolls" class="mw-redirect" title="Patent trolls">patent trolls</a>, has brought criticism of the patent system,<sup id="cite_ref-Barker_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Barker-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though some commentators suggest that patent trolls are not bad for the patent system at all but instead realign market participant incentives, make patents more liquid, and clear the patent market.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some patents granted in Russia have been denounced as <a href="/wiki/Pseudoscientific" class="mw-redirect" title="Pseudoscientific">pseudoscientific</a> (for example, health-related patents using lunar phase or religious icons).<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Litigation_costs">Litigation costs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Criticism_of_patents&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Litigation costs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to <a href="/wiki/James_Bessen" title="James Bessen">James Bessen</a>, the costs of patent litigation exceed their investment value in all industries except chemistry and pharmaceuticals. For example, in the software industry, litigation costs are twice the investment value.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bessen and Meurer also note that software and business model litigation accounts for a disproportionate share (almost 40 percent) of patent litigation cost, and the poor performance of the patent system negatively affects these industries.<sup id="cite_ref-BessenMeurer_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BessenMeurer-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-WheelerAllworth_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WheelerAllworth-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Different_industries_but_one_law">Different industries but one law</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Criticism_of_patents&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Different industries but one law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Richard_Posner" title="Richard Posner">Richard Posner</a> noted that the most controversial feature of US patent law is that it covers all industries in the same way, but not all industries benefit from the time-limited monopoly a patent provides in order to spur innovation.<sup id="cite_ref-Posner_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Posner-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He said that while the pharmaceutical industry is "poster child" for the need for a twenty-year monopoly, since costs to bring to a market are high, the time of development is often long, and the risks are high, in other industries like software the cost and risk of innovation is much lower and the cycle of innovation is quicker, and obtaining and enforcing patents and defending against patent litigation is generally a waste of resources in those industries.<sup id="cite_ref-Posner_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Posner-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pharmaceutical_patents">Pharmaceutical patents</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Criticism_of_patents&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Pharmaceutical patents"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some have raised ethical objections specifically with respect to pharmaceutical patents and the high prices for medication that they enable their proprietors to charge, which poor people in the developed world, and developing world, cannot afford.<sup id="cite_ref-Banta,_D.H._2001_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Banta,_D.H._2001-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Critics also question the rationale that exclusive patent rights and the resulting high prices are required for pharmaceutical companies to recoup the large investments needed for research and development.<sup id="cite_ref-Banta,_D.H._2001_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Banta,_D.H._2001-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One study concluded that marketing expenditures for new drugs often doubled the amount that was allocated for research and development.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2003, <a href="/wiki/World_Trade_Organization" title="World Trade Organization">World Trade Organization</a> (WTO) reached an agreement, which provides a developing country with options for obtaining needed medications under <a href="/wiki/Compulsory_licensing" class="mw-redirect" title="Compulsory licensing">compulsory licensing</a> or importation of cheaper versions of the drugs, even before patent expiration.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2007 the government of Brazil declared <a href="/wiki/Merck_%26_Co." title="Merck & Co.">Merck</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Efavirenz" title="Efavirenz">efavirenz</a> anti-retroviral drug a "public interest" medicine, and challenged Merck to negotiate lower prices with the government or have Brazil strip the patent by issuing a compulsory license.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated6_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated6-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-gay_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gay-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It is reported that <a href="/wiki/Ghana" title="Ghana">Ghana</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tanzania" title="Tanzania">Tanzania</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a> have similar plans to produce generic antiviral drugs. <a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">Western</a> pharmaceutical companies initially responded with legal challenges, but some have now promised to introduce alternative pricing structures for developing countries and NGOs.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated6_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated6-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-gay_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gay-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In July 2008 Nobel Prize-winning scientist Sir <a href="/wiki/John_Sulston" title="John Sulston">John Sulston</a> called for an international biomedical treaty to clear up issues over patents.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In response to these criticisms, one review concluded that less than 5 percent of medicines on the <a href="/wiki/Essential_drugs" class="mw-redirect" title="Essential drugs">World Health Organization's list of essential drugs</a> are under patent.<sup id="cite_ref-PoIP_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PoIP-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also, the pharmaceutical industry has contributed US$2 billion for healthcare in developing countries, providing HIV/AIDS drugs at lower cost or even free of charge in certain countries, and has used differential pricing and parallel imports to provide medication to the poor.<sup id="cite_ref-PoIP_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PoIP-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other groups are investigating how social inclusion and equitable distribution of research and development findings can be obtained within the existing intellectual property framework, although these efforts have received less exposure.<sup id="cite_ref-PoIP_36-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PoIP-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Quoting a <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> report, Trevor Jones (director of research and development at the Wellcome Foundation, as of 2006) argued in 2006 that patent monopolies do not create <a href="/wiki/Monopoly_pricing" class="mw-redirect" title="Monopoly pricing">monopoly pricing</a>. He argued that the companies given monopolies "set prices largely on the willingness/ability to pay, also taking into account the country, disease and regulation" instead of receiving competition from legalized generics.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated6_33-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated6-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Proposed_alternatives_to_the_patent_system">Proposed alternatives to the patent system</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Criticism_of_patents&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Proposed alternatives to the patent system"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Alternatives have been discussed to address the issue of financial incentivization to replace patents. Mostly, they are related to some form of direct or indirect government funding. One example is <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stiglitz" title="Joseph Stiglitz">Joseph Stiglitz</a>'s idea of <a href="/wiki/Prizes_as_an_alternative_to_patents" title="Prizes as an alternative to patents">providing "prize money"</a> (from a "prize fund" sponsored by the government) as a substitute for the lost profits associated with abstaining from the monopoly given by a patent.<sup id="cite_ref-Stiglitz_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stiglitz-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another approach is to remove the issue of financing development from the private sphere altogether, and to cover the costs with direct government funding.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Criticism_of_patents&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-copyright" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-copyright">Anti-copyright</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free-culture_movement" title="Free-culture movement">Free-culture movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_patent_law_terms" title="Glossary of patent law terms">Glossary of patent law terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_patent-related_topics" class="mw-redirect" title="List of patent-related topics">List of patent-related topics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USPTO#Criticisms" class="mw-redirect" title="USPTO">Criticism of the United States Patent and Trademark Office</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reexamination#Notable_reexaminations" title="Reexamination">Notable reexaminations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patentleft" title="Patentleft">Patentleft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_patent_debate" title="Software patent debate">Software patent debate</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Criticism_of_patents&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Johns-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Johns_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Johns_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Johns_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Johns_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Johns_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Johns_1-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Johns, Adrian: <i>Piracy. The Intellectual Property Wars from Gutenberg to Gates</i>. The University of Chicago Press, 2009, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780226401188" title="Special:BookSources/9780226401188">9780226401188</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-boldrin-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-boldrin_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-boldrin_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-boldrin_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLevineMichele_Boldrin2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_K._Levine" title="David K. Levine">Levine, David</a>; <a href="/wiki/Michele_Boldrin" title="Michele Boldrin">Michele Boldrin</a> (2008-09-07). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dklevine.com/papers/imbookfinalall.pdf"><i>Against intellectual monopoly</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-87928-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-87928-6"><bdi>978-0-521-87928-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Against+intellectual+monopoly&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2008-09-07&rft.isbn=978-0-521-87928-6&rft.aulast=Levine&rft.aufirst=David&rft.au=Michele+Boldrin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dklevine.com%2Fpapers%2Fimbookfinalall.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACriticism+of+patents" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-anticommons-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-anticommons_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-anticommons_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHellerEisenberg,_Sue1998" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Heller_(law_professor)" title="Michael Heller (law professor)">Heller, Michael</a>; Eisenberg, Sue (May 1, 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.280.5364.698">"Can Patents Deter Innovation? 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"The Reform of Intellectual Property". post-autistic economics review, issue no. 32, 5 July 2005, article 1, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.paecon.net/PAEReview/issue32/Baker32.htm">Paecon.net</a></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output 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.hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Intellectual_property_activism" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Intellectual_property_activism" title="Template:Intellectual property activism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Intellectual_property_activism" title="Template talk:Intellectual property activism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Intellectual_property_activism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Intellectual property activism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Intellectual_property_activism" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Intellectual_property" title="Intellectual property">Intellectual property</a> activism</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Issues</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_scarcity" title="Artificial scarcity">Artificial scarcity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorship_by_copyright" title="Censorship by copyright">Censorship by copyright</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_infringement" title="Copyright infringement">Copyright infringement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_troll" title="Copyright troll">Copyright troll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_rights_management" title="Digital rights management">Digital rights management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gripe_site" title="Gripe site">Gripe site</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_aspects_of_file_sharing" title="Legal aspects of file sharing">Legal aspects of file sharing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mashup_(culture)" title="Mashup (culture)">Mashup</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mashup_(web_application_hybrid)" title="Mashup (web application hybrid)">digital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mashup_(music)" title="Mashup (music)">music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mashup_novel" title="Mashup novel">novel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mashup_(video)" title="Mashup (video)">videos</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopolies_of_knowledge" title="Monopolies of knowledge">Monopolies of knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_piracy" title="Music piracy">Music piracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orphan_work" title="Orphan work">Orphan works</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biopiracy" title="Biopiracy">Biopiracy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioprospecting" title="Bioprospecting">Bioprospecting</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Societal_views_on_patents" class="mw-redirect" title="Societal views on patents">Patents</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_patent" title="Biological patent">biological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_patent" title="Software patent">software</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_patent_debate" title="Software patent debate">software patent debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patent_troll" title="Patent troll">trolling</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">Public domain</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/All_rights_reversed" title="All rights reversed">All rights reversed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_alternatives" title="Copyright alternatives">Alternative compensation system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-copyright_notice" title="Anti-copyright notice">Anti-copyright notice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_models_for_open-source_software" title="Business models for open-source software">Business models for open-source software</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyleft" title="Copyleft">Copyleft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_use_of_copyleft_works" title="Commercial use of copyleft works">Commercial use of copyleft works</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commons-based_peer_production" title="Commons-based peer production">Commons-based peer production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_sell-through" title="Electronic sell-through">Electronic sell-through</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_content" title="Free content">Free content</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free-software_license" title="Free-software license">Free-software license</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_perspectives_on_intellectual_property" title="Libertarian perspectives on intellectual property">Libertarian positions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_content" class="mw-redirect" title="Open content">Open content</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open-design_movement" title="Open-design movement">Open-design movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_music_model" title="Open music model">Open music model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patentleft" title="Patentleft">Open patent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_source" title="Open source">Open source</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Open-source_hardware" title="Open-source hardware">hardware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open-source_software" title="Open-source software">software</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prizes_as_an_alternative_to_patents" title="Prizes as an alternative to patents">Prizes instead of patents</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inducement_prize_contest" title="Inducement prize contest">contests</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Share-alike" title="Share-alike">Share-alike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_on_demand" title="Video on demand">Video on demand</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Movements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Access_to_Knowledge_movement" title="Access to Knowledge movement">Access to Knowledge movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_copyright" title="Criticism of copyright">Anti-copyright</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_environmentalism" title="Cultural environmentalism">Cultural environmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free-culture_movement" title="Free-culture movement">Free-culture movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_software_movement" title="Free software movement">Free software movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pro-copyright</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_Alliance" title="Copyright Alliance">Copyright Alliance</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pro-copyleft</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Creative_Commons" title="Creative Commons">Creative Commons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_Frontier_Foundation" title="Electronic Frontier Foundation">Electronic Frontier Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Software_Foundation" title="Free Software Foundation">Free Software Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_Rights_Group" title="Open Rights Group">Open Rights Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organization_for_Transformative_Works" title="Organization for Transformative Works">Organization for Transformative Works</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Pirate_Bay" title="The Pirate Bay">The Pirate Bay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piratbyr%C3%A5n" title="Piratbyrån">Piratbyrån</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pirate_Party" title="Pirate Party">Pirate Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_Knowledge" title="Public Knowledge">Public Knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sci-Hub" title="Sci-Hub">Sci-Hub</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shadow_library" title="Shadow library">Shadow library</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Students_for_Free_Culture" title="Students for Free Culture">Students for Free Culture</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cory_Doctorow" title="Cory Doctorow">Cory Doctorow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandra_Elbakyan" title="Alexandra Elbakyan">Alexandra Elbakyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rick_Falkvinge" title="Rick Falkvinge">Rick Falkvinge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Lessig" title="Lawrence Lessig">Lawrence Lessig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Stallman" title="Richard Stallman">Richard Stallman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Suber" title="Peter Suber">Peter Suber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Sunde" title="Peter Sunde">Peter Sunde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aaron_Swartz" title="Aaron Swartz">Aaron Swartz</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Documentaries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Steal_This_Film" title="Steal This Film">Steal This Film</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Good_Copy_Bad_Copy" title="Good Copy Bad Copy">Good Copy Bad Copy</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/RiP!:_A_Remix_Manifesto" title="RiP!: A Remix Manifesto">RiP!: A Remix Manifesto</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/TPB_AFK" title="TPB AFK">TPB AFK</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Internet%27s_Own_Boy" title="The Internet's Own Boy">The Internet's Own Boy</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Criticism_of_patents&oldid=1254141081">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Criticism_of_patents&oldid=1254141081</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Patent_law" title="Category:Patent law">Patent law</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Criticism_of_intellectual_property" title="Category:Criticism of intellectual property">Criticism of intellectual property</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_activism" 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