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class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konzervacijska_genetika" title="Konzervacijska genetika – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Konzervacijska genetika" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gen%C3%A9tica_de_la_conservaci%C3%B3n" title="Genética de la conservación – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Genética de la conservación" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%98%D9%86%D8%AA%DB%8C%DA%A9_%D8%AD%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%B8%D8%AA" title="ژنتیک حفاظت – Persian" lang="fa" 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dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Interdisciplinary study of extinction avoidance</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For molecular conservation in genetics, see <a href="/wiki/Conservation_(genetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservation (genetics)">Conservation (genetics)</a>. 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.mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks" style="width:17em;border:2px solid #90db90"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#90db90;font-size:175%;font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">Genetics</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Hybridogenesis_in_water_frogs_gametes.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Hybridogenesis_in_water_frogs_gametes.svg/150px-Hybridogenesis_in_water_frogs_gametes.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="74" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Hybridogenesis_in_water_frogs_gametes.svg/225px-Hybridogenesis_in_water_frogs_gametes.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Hybridogenesis_in_water_frogs_gametes.svg/300px-Hybridogenesis_in_water_frogs_gametes.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="225" data-file-height="111" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:#e7f4e7;padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;background:#90db90;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Key components</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome" title="Chromosome">Chromosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RNA" title="RNA">RNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">Genome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heredity" title="Heredity">Heredity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nucleotide" title="Nucleotide">Nucleotide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">Mutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_variation" title="Genetic variation">Genetic variation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allele" title="Allele">Allele</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">Amino acid</a></li></ul></div></div> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_genetics" title="Outline of genetics">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_genetics_articles" title="Index of genetics articles">Index</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:#e7f4e7;padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;background:#90db90;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">History and topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Introduction_to_genetics" title="Introduction to genetics">Introduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_genetics" title="History of genetics">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">Evolution</a> (<a href="/wiki/Molecular_evolution" title="Molecular evolution">molecular</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">Population genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mendelian_inheritance" title="Mendelian inheritance">Mendelian inheritance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_genetics" title="Quantitative genetics">Quantitative genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_genetics" title="Molecular genetics">Molecular genetics</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:#e7f4e7;padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;background:#90db90;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Research</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geneticist" title="Geneticist">Geneticist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DNA_sequencing" title="DNA sequencing">DNA sequencing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_engineering" title="Genetic engineering">Genetic engineering</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Genomics" title="Genomics">Genomics</a> (<span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Template"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Symbol_template_class_pink.svg/12px-Symbol_template_class_pink.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Symbol_template_class_pink.svg/18px-Symbol_template_class_pink.svg.png 1.5x, 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title="Classical genetics">Classical</a></li> <li>Conservation</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytogenetics" title="Cytogenetics">Cytogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_genetics" title="Ecological genetics">Ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunogenetics" title="Immunogenetics">Immunogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_genetics" title="Microbial genetics">Microbial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_genetics" title="Molecular genetics">Molecular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">Population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_genetics" title="Quantitative genetics">Quantitative</a></li></ul></div></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:#e7f4e7;padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;background:#90db90;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Personalized medicine</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Personalized_medicine" title="Personalized medicine">Personalized medicine</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below hlist"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Genetics" title="Category:Genetics">Category</a></span></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Genetics_sidebar" title="Template:Genetics sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Genetics_sidebar" title="Template talk:Genetics sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Genetics_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Genetics sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Conservation genetics</b> is an <a href="/wiki/Interdisciplinary" class="mw-redirect" title="Interdisciplinary">interdisciplinary</a> subfield of <a href="/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">population genetics</a> that aims to understand the dynamics of <a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">genes</a> in a population for the purpose of <a href="/wiki/Natural_resource_management" title="Natural resource management">natural resource management</a>, conservation of <a href="/wiki/Genetic_diversity" title="Genetic diversity">genetic diversity</a>, and the prevention of species <a href="/wiki/Extinction" title="Extinction">extinction</a>. Scientists involved in conservation genetics come from a variety of fields including <a href="/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">population genetics</a>, research in <a href="/wiki/Natural_resource_management" title="Natural resource management">natural resource management</a>, <a href="/wiki/Molecular_ecology" title="Molecular ecology">molecular ecology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">molecular biology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">evolutionary biology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Systematics" title="Systematics">systematics</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Genetic_diversity" title="Genetic diversity">genetic diversity</a> within species is one of the three fundamental components of <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a> (along with <a href="/wiki/Species_diversity" title="Species diversity">species diversity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_diversity" title="Ecosystem diversity">ecosystem diversity</a>),<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> so it is an important consideration in the wider field of <a href="/wiki/Conservation_biology" title="Conservation biology">conservation biology</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Genetic_diversity">Genetic diversity</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conservation_genetics&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Genetic diversity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Genetic_diversity" title="Genetic diversity">Genetic diversity</a> is the total amount of genetic variability within a species. It can be measured in several ways, including: observed <a href="/wiki/Zygosity#Heterozygous" title="Zygosity">heterozygosity</a>, expected heterozygosity, the mean number of <a href="/wiki/Alleles" class="mw-redirect" title="Alleles">alleles</a> per <a href="/wiki/Locus_(genetics)" title="Locus (genetics)">locus</a>, the percentage of loci that are <a href="/wiki/Polymorphism_(biology)" title="Polymorphism (biology)">polymorphic</a>, and estimated <a href="/wiki/Effective_population_size" title="Effective population size">effective population size</a>. Genetic diversity on the population level is a crucial focus for conservation genetics as it influences both the health of individuals and the long-term survival of populations: decreased genetic diversity has been associated with reduced average <a href="/wiki/Fitness_(biology)" title="Fitness (biology)">fitness</a> of individuals, such as high juvenile mortality, reduced immunity,<sup id="cite_ref-:1_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> diminished population growth,<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and ultimately, higher extinction risk.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Heterozygosity" class="mw-redirect" title="Heterozygosity">Heterozygosity</a>, a fundamental measurement of genetic diversity in <a href="/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">population genetics</a>, plays an important role in determining the chance of a population surviving environmental change, novel pathogens not previously encountered, as well as the average fitness within a population over successive generations. Heterozygosity is also deeply connected, in population genetics theory, to <a href="/wiki/Population_size" title="Population size">population size</a> (which itself clearly has a fundamental importance to conservation). All things being equal, small populations will be less heterozygous<span class="nowrap"> </span>– across their whole genomes<span class="nowrap"> </span>– than comparable, but larger, populations. This lower heterozygosity (i.e. low genetic diversity) renders small populations more susceptible to the challenges mentioned above.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In a small population, over successive generations and without <a href="/wiki/Gene_flow" title="Gene flow">gene flow</a>, the probability of mating with close relatives becomes very high, leading to <a href="/wiki/Inbreeding_depression" title="Inbreeding depression">inbreeding depression</a><span class="nowrap"> </span>– a reduction in average fitness of individuals within a population. The reduced fitness of the offspring of closely related individuals is fundamentally tied to the concept of heterozygosity, as the offspring of these kinds of pairings are, by necessity, less heterozygous (more homozygous) across their whole genomes than outbred individuals. A diploid individual with the same maternal and paternal grandfather, for example, will have a much higher chance of being homozygous at any loci inherited from the paternal copies of each of their parents' genomes than would an individual with unrelated maternal and paternal grandfathers (each diploid individual inherits one copy of their genome from their mother and one from their father). </p><p>High homozygosity (low heterozygosity) reduces fitness because it exposes the phenotypic effects of recessive alleles at homozygous sites. Selection can favour the maintenance of alleles which reduce the fitness of homozygotes, the textbook example being the sickle-cell beta-globin allele, which is maintained at high frequencies in populations where malaria is endemic due to the highly adaptive heterozygous phenotype (resistance to the malarial parasite <i><a href="/wiki/Plasmodium_falciparum" title="Plasmodium falciparum">Plasmodium falciparum</a></i>). </p><p>Low genetic diversity also reduces the opportunities for <a href="/wiki/Chromosomal_crossover" title="Chromosomal crossover">chromosomal crossover</a> during <a href="/wiki/Meiosis" title="Meiosis">meiosis</a> to create new combinations of alleles on chromosomes, effectively increasing the average length of unrecombined tracts of chromosomes inherited from parents. This in turn reduces the efficacy of selection, across successive generations, to remove fitness-reducing alleles and promote fitness-enhancing alleles from a population. A simple hypothetical example would be two adjacent genes<span class="nowrap"> </span>– A and B<span class="nowrap"> </span>– on the same chromosome in an individual. If the allele at A promotes fitness "one point", while the allele at B reduces fitness "one point", but the two genes are inherited together, then selection cannot favour the allele at A while penalising the allele at B<span class="nowrap"> </span>– the fitness balance is "zero points". Recombination can swap out alternative alleles at A and B, allowing selection to promote the optimal alleles to the optimal frequencies in the population<span class="nowrap"> </span>– but only if there are alternative alleles to choose between. </p><p>The fundamental connection between genetic diversity and population size in population genetics theory can be clearly seen in the classic population genetics measure of genetic diversity, the <a href="/wiki/Watterson_estimator" title="Watterson estimator">Watterson estimator</a>, in which genetic diversity is measured as a function of <a href="/wiki/Effective_population_size" title="Effective population size">effective population size</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mutation_rate" title="Mutation rate">mutation rate</a>. Given the relationship between population size, mutation rate, and genetic diversity, it is clearly important to recognise populations at risk of losing genetic diversity before problems arise as a result of the loss of that genetic diversity. Once lost, genetic diversity can only be restored by <a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">mutation</a> and gene flow. If a species is already on the brink of extinction there will likely be no populations to use to restore diversity by gene flow, and any given population will be small and therefore diversity will accumulate in that population by mutation much more slowly than it would in a comparable, but bigger, population (since there are fewer individuals whose genomes are mutating in a smaller population than a bigger population). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Contributors_to_extinction">Contributors to extinction</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conservation_genetics&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Contributors to extinction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ol><li><a href="/wiki/Inbreeding" title="Inbreeding">Inbreeding</a> and inbreeding depression<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The accumulation of deleterious <a href="/wiki/Mutations" class="mw-redirect" title="Mutations">mutations</a><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>A decrease in frequency of heterozygotes in a population, or <a href="/wiki/Heterozygosity" class="mw-redirect" title="Heterozygosity">heterozygosity</a>, which decreases a species' ability to evolve to deal with change in the environment</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outbreeding_depression" title="Outbreeding depression">Outbreeding depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat_fragmentation" title="Habitat fragmentation">Fragmented populations</a><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Taxonomic</a> uncertainties, which can lead to a reprioritization of conservation efforts<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_drift" title="Genetic drift">Genetic drift</a> as the main evolutionary process, instead of <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a></li> <li>Management units within species</li> <li>Hybridization with allochthonous species, with the progressive substitution of the initial endemic species</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Techniques">Techniques</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conservation_genetics&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Techniques"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Specific genetic techniques are used to assess the genomes of a species regarding specific conservation issues as well as general population structure.<sup id="cite_ref-Haig_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haig-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This analysis can be done in two ways, with current DNA of individuals or historic DNA.<sup id="cite_ref-Wayne_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wayne-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Techniques for analysing the differences between individuals and populations include </p> <ol><li><a href="/wiki/Alloenzymes" class="mw-redirect" title="Alloenzymes">Alloenzymes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restriction_fragment_length_polymorphism" title="Restriction fragment length polymorphism">Random fragment length polymorphisms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amplified_fragment_length_polymorphism" title="Amplified fragment length polymorphism">Amplified fragment length polymorphisms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Random_amplification_of_polymorphic_DNA" title="Random amplification of polymorphic DNA">Random amplification of polymorphic DNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single_strand_conformation_polymorphism" class="mw-redirect" title="Single strand conformation polymorphism">Single strand conformation polymorphism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minisatellite" title="Minisatellite">Minisatellites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microsatellite_(genetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Microsatellite (genetics)">Microsatellites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single-nucleotide_polymorphism" title="Single-nucleotide polymorphism">Single-nucleotide polymorphisms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DNA_sequencing" title="DNA sequencing">DNA sequencing</a></li></ol> <p>These different techniques focus on different variable areas of the genomes within animals and plants. The specific information that is required determines which techniques are used and which parts of the genome are analysed. For example, <a href="/wiki/Mitochondrial_DNA" title="Mitochondrial DNA">mitochondrial DNA</a> in animals has a high substitution rate, which makes it useful for identifying differences between individuals. However, it is only inherited in the female line, and the mitochondrial genome is relatively small. In plants, the mitochondrial DNA has very high rates of structural mutations, so is rarely used for genetic markers, as the <a href="/wiki/Chloroplast_genome" class="mw-redirect" title="Chloroplast genome">chloroplast genome</a> can be used instead. Other sites in the genome that are subject to high mutation rates such as the <a href="/wiki/Major_histocompatibility_complex" title="Major histocompatibility complex">major histocompatibility complex</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Microsatellite_(genetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Microsatellite (genetics)">microsatellites</a> and <a href="/wiki/Minisatellite" title="Minisatellite">minisatellites</a> are also frequently used. </p><p>These techniques can provide information on long-term conservation of genetic diversity and expound demographic and ecological matters such as taxonomy.<sup id="cite_ref-Haig_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haig-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another technique is using historic DNA for genetic analysis. Historic DNA is important because it allows geneticists to understand how species reacted to changes to conditions in the past. This is a key to understanding the reactions of similar species in the future.<sup id="cite_ref-Wayne_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wayne-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Techniques using historic DNA include looking at preserved remains found in museums and caves.<sup id="cite_ref-Robert,_pp._89–97_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robert,_pp._89–97-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Museums are used because there is a wide range of species that are available to scientists all over the world. The problem with museums is that, historical perspectives are important because understanding how species reacted to changes in conditions in the past is a key to understanding reactions of similar species in the future.<sup id="cite_ref-Robert,_pp._89–97_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robert,_pp._89–97-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Evidence found in caves provides a longer perspective and does not disturb the animals.<sup id="cite_ref-Robert,_pp._89–97_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robert,_pp._89–97-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another technique that relies on specific genetics of an individual is noninvasive monitoring, which uses extracted DNA from organic material that an individual leaves behind, such as a feather.<sup id="cite_ref-Robert,_pp._89–97_16-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robert,_pp._89–97-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Environmental DNA (eDNA) can be extracted from soil, water, and air. Organisms deposit tissue cells into the environment and the degradation of these cells results in DNA being released into the environment.<b><sup id="cite_ref-:02_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></b>This too avoids disrupting the animals and can provide information about the sex, movement, kinship and diet of an individual.<sup id="cite_ref-Robert,_pp._89–97_16-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robert,_pp._89–97-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other more general techniques can be used to correct genetic factors that lead to extinction and risk of extinction. For example, when minimizing inbreeding and increasing genetic variation multiple steps can be taken. Increasing <a href="/wiki/Heterozygosity" class="mw-redirect" title="Heterozygosity">heterozygosity</a> through immigration, increasing the generational interval through <a href="/wiki/Cryopreservation" title="Cryopreservation">cryopreservation</a> or breeding from older animals, and increasing the <a href="/wiki/Effective_population_size" title="Effective population size">effective population size</a> through equalization of family size all helps minimize inbreeding and its effects.<sup id="cite_ref-Franklin_1995_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Franklin_1995-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Deleterious alleles arise through mutation, however certain recessive ones can become more prevalent due to inbreeding.<sup id="cite_ref-Franklin_1995_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Franklin_1995-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Deleterious mutations that arise from inbreeding can be removed by <a href="/wiki/Genetic_purging" title="Genetic purging">purging</a>, or natural selection.<sup id="cite_ref-Franklin_1995_18-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Franklin_1995-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Populations raised in captivity with the intent of being reintroduced in the wild suffer from adaptations to captivity.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Inbreeding depression, loss of genetic diversity, and genetic adaptation to captivity are disadvantageous in the wild, and many of these issues can be dealt with through the aforementioned techniques aimed at increasing heterozygosity. In addition creating a captive environment that closely resembles the wild and fragmenting the populations so there is less response to selection also help reduce adaptation to captivity.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Solutions to minimize the factors that lead to extinction and risk of extinction often overlap because the factors themselves overlap. For example, deleterious mutations are added to populations through mutation, however the deleterious mutations conservation biologists are concerned with are ones that are brought about by inbreeding, because those are the ones that can be taken care of by reducing inbreeding. Here the techniques to reduce inbreeding also help decrease the accumulation of deleterious mutations. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Applications">Applications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conservation_genetics&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Applications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>These techniques have wide-ranging applications. One example is in <a href="/wiki/Species_concept" class="mw-redirect" title="Species concept">defining species</a> and subspecies of <a href="/wiki/Salmonidae" title="Salmonidae">salmonids</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Haig_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haig-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Hybrid_(biology)" title="Hybrid (biology)">Hybridization</a> is an especially important issue in salmonids and this has wide-ranging conservation, political, social and economic implications. </p><p>More specific example, the <a href="/wiki/Cutthroat_Trout" class="mw-redirect" title="Cutthroat Trout">Cutthroat Trout</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">analysis</a> of its <a href="/wiki/MtDNA" class="mw-redirect" title="MtDNA">mtDNA</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alloenzyme" title="Alloenzyme">alloenzymes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hybrid_(biology)" title="Hybrid (biology)">hybridization</a> between native and non-native species has been shown to be one of the major factors contributing to the decline in its populations. This has led to efforts to remove some hybridized populations so native populations could breed more readily. Cases like these impact everything from the economy of local fishermen to larger companies, such as timber. </p><p>Defining species and subspecies has conservation implication in mammals, too. For example, the <a href="/wiki/Northern_white_rhinoceros" title="Northern white rhinoceros">northern white rhino</a> and <a href="/wiki/Southern_white_rhinoceros" title="Southern white rhinoceros">southern white rhino</a> were previously mistakenly identified as the same species given their <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(biology)" title="Morphology (biology)">morphological</a> similarities, but recent mtDNA analyses showed that the species are genetically distinct.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result, the northern white rhino population has dwindled to near-extinction due to poaching crisis, and the prior assumption that it could freely breed with the southern population is revealed to be a misguided approach in conservation efforts. </p><p>More recent applications include using forensic genetic identification to identify species in cases of <a href="/wiki/Poaching" title="Poaching">poaching</a>. Wildlife DNA registers are used to regulate trade of protected species, species laundering, and poaching.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Conservation genetics techniques can be used alongside a variety of scientific disciplines. For example, landscape genetics has been used in conjunction with conservation genetics to identify corridors and population dispersal barriers to give insight into conservation management.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Implications">Implications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conservation_genetics&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Implications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>New technology in conservation genetics has many implications for the future of conservation biology. At the molecular level, new technologies are advancing. Some of these techniques include the analysis of <a href="/wiki/Minisatellite" title="Minisatellite">minisatellites</a> and <a href="/wiki/Major_histocompatibility_complex" title="Major histocompatibility complex">MHC</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Haig_14-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haig-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These molecular techniques have wider effects from clarifying taxonomic relationships, as in the previous example, to determining the best individuals to reintroduce to a population for recovery by determining kinship. These effects then have consequences that reach even further. Conservation of species has implications for humans in the economic, social, and political realms.<sup id="cite_ref-Haig_14-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haig-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the biological realm increased genotypic diversity has been shown to help ecosystem recovery, as seen in a community of grasses which was able to resist disturbance to grazing geese through greater genotypic diversity.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because species diversity increases ecosystem function, increasing biodiversity through new conservation genetic techniques has wider reaching effects than before. </p><p>A short list of studies a conservation geneticist may research include: </p> <ol><li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">Phylogenetic</a> classification of species, subspecies, geographic races, and populations, and measures of <a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_diversity" title="Phylogenetic diversity">phylogenetic diversity</a> and uniqueness.</li> <li>Identifying <a href="/wiki/Hybrid_(biology)" title="Hybrid (biology)">hybrid</a> species, hybridization in natural populations, and assessing the history and extent of introgression between species.</li> <li>Population genetic structure of natural and managed populations, including identification of <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_Significant_Unit" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolutionary Significant Unit">Evolutionary Significant Units</a> (ESUs) and management units for conservation.</li> <li>Assessing genetic variation within a species or population, including small or <a href="/wiki/Endangered" class="mw-redirect" title="Endangered">endangered</a> populations, and estimates such as effective population size (Ne).</li> <li>Measuring the impact of <a href="/wiki/Inbreeding_depression" title="Inbreeding depression">inbreeding</a> and <a href="/wiki/Outbreeding_depression" title="Outbreeding depression">outbreeding depression</a>, and the relationship between heterozygosity and measures of fitness (see <a href="/wiki/Fisher%27s_fundamental_theorem_of_natural_selection" title="Fisher's fundamental theorem of natural selection">Fisher's fundamental theorem of natural selection</a>).</li> <li>Evidence of disrupted <a href="/wiki/Mate_choice" title="Mate choice">mate choice</a> and <a href="/wiki/Reproductive_strategy#Reproductive_strategies" class="mw-redirect" title="Reproductive strategy">reproductive strategy</a> in disturbed populations.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic" class="mw-redirect" title="Forensic">Forensic</a> applications, especially for the control of trade in endangered species.</li> <li>Practical methods for monitoring and maximizing genetic diversity during captive breeding programs and re-introduction schemes, including mathematical models and case studies.</li> <li>Conservation issues related to the introduction of <a href="/wiki/Genetically_modified_organisms" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetically modified organisms">genetically modified organisms</a>.</li> <li>The interaction between environmental contaminants and the biology and health of an organism, including changes in mutation rates and <a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">adaptation</a> to local changes in the environment (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Industrial_melanism" title="Industrial melanism">industrial melanism</a>).</li> <li>New techniques for noninvasive genotyping, see <a href="/wiki/Noninvasive_genotyping_for_conservation" class="mw-redirect" title="Noninvasive genotyping for conservation">noninvasive genotyping for conservation</a>.</li> <li>Monitor <a href="/wiki/Genetic_variability" title="Genetic variability">genetic variability</a> in populations and assess <a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">genes</a> of fitness amongst organism populations.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conservation_genetics&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_genetic_resources_for_food_and_agriculture" title="Animal genetic resources for food and agriculture">Animal genetic resources</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_genetic_resources" title="Forest genetic resources">Forest genetic resources</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_State_of_the_World%27s_Animal_Genetic_Resources_for_Food_and_Agriculture" title="The State of the World's Animal Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture">The State of the World's Animal Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture</a></i></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conservation_genetics&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFRedfordRichter1999" class="citation journal cs1">Redford, Kent H.; Richter, Brian D. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://izt.ciens.ucv.ve/ecologia/Archivos/ECO_POB_2005/ECOPO7_2005/Frankham%202005.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2016-07-01<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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(March 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://doi.wiley.com/10.1890/1540-9295(2004)002%5b0089:CGITNM%5d2.0.CO;2">"Conservation genetics in the new molecular age"</a>. <i>Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment</i>. <b>2</b> (2): 89–97. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1890%2F1540-9295%282004%29002%5B0089%3ACGITNM%5D2.0.CO%3B2">10.1890/1540-9295(2004)002[0089:CGITNM]2.0.CO;2</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1540-9295">1540-9295</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Frontiers+in+Ecology+and+the+Environment&rft.atitle=Conservation+genetics+in+the+new+molecular+age&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=89-97&rft.date=2004-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1890%2F1540-9295%282004%29002%5B0089%3ACGITNM%5D2.0.CO%3B2&rft.issn=1540-9295&rft.aulast=Wayne&rft.aufirst=Robert+K.&rft.au=Morin%2C+Phillip+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdoi.wiley.com%2F10.1890%2F1540-9295%282004%29002%5B0089%3ACGITNM%5D2.0.CO%3B2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConservation+genetics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conservation_genetics&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAvise,_John_CHamrick_James_L1996" class="citation book cs1">Avise, John C; Hamrick James L, eds. (1996-01-31). <i>Conservation Genetics</i>. Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-412-05581-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-412-05581-2"><bdi>978-0-412-05581-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Conservation+Genetics&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=1996-01-31&rft.isbn=978-0-412-05581-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConservation+genetics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrankham,_Richard2003" class="citation journal cs1">Frankham, Richard (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/9052387">"Genetics and Conservation Biology"</a>. <i>Comptes Rendus Biologies</i>. <b>326</b>: S22–S29. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS1631-0691%2803%2900023-4">10.1016/S1631-0691(03)00023-4</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14558445">14558445</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Comptes+Rendus+Biologies&rft.atitle=Genetics+and+Conservation+Biology&rft.volume=326&rft.pages=S22-S29&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS1631-0691%2803%2900023-4&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F14558445&rft.au=Frankham%2C+Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F9052387&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConservation+genetics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllendorf,_F.W.G._Luikart2007" class="citation book cs1">Allendorf, F.W.; G. Luikart (2007). <i>Conservation and the Genetics of Populations</i>. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 642.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Conservation+and+the+Genetics+of+Populations&rft.pages=642&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=2007&rft.au=Allendorf%2C+F.W.&rft.au=G.+Luikart&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConservation+genetics" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conservation_genetics&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060901223155/http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/units/basics/conservation/whatisit.cfm">What is Conservation Genetics?</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051025165929/http://www.science.mcmaster.ca/biology/CBCN/genetics/">Science</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051029174532/http://gslc.genetics.utah.edu/units/basics/conservation/">Genetics</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-8286.2006.01482.x">Blackwell - synergy</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070327142641/http://www.utm.edu/departments/cens/biology/rirwin/NatSelModIntro.htm">UTM Departments</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uwyo.edu/dbmcd/molmark/McDGloss.html">UWYO</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/102/8/2826">PNAS</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120529185835/http://science.org.au/nova/044/044key.htm"><i>Science</i></a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080202084405/http://www.esf.org/activities/research-networking-programmes/life-earth-and-environmental-sciences-lesc/current-esf-research-networking-programmes-in-life-earth-and-environmental-sciences/integrating-population-genetics-and-conservation-biology-merging-theoretical-experimental-and-applied-approaches-congen/more-information.html">ESF</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output 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.navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Conservation_of_species" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Conservation_of_species" title="Template:Conservation of species"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Conservation_of_species" title="Template talk:Conservation of species"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Conservation_of_species" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Conservation of species"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Conservation_of_species" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Conservation_biology" title="Conservation biology">Conservation of species</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_conservation_articles" title="Index of conservation articles">Index of conservation articles</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Conservation_biology" title="Conservation biology">Conservation<br />biology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity#Conservation" title="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captive_breeding" title="Captive breeding">Captive breeding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compassionate_conservation" title="Compassionate conservation">Compassionate conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_behavior" title="Conservation behavior">Conservation behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation-dependent_species" title="Conservation-dependent species">Conservation-dependent species</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Conservation genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation-induced_extinction" title="Conservation-induced extinction">Conservation-induced extinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_status" title="Conservation status">Conservation status</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endemism" title="Endemism">Endemism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ex-situ_conservation" class="mw-redirect" title="Ex-situ conservation">Ex-situ conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_threshold" title="Extinction threshold">Extinction threshold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In-situ_conservation" title="In-situ conservation">In-situ conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latent_extinction_risk" title="Latent extinction risk">Latent extinction risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_conservation" title="Marine conservation">Marine conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutualisms_and_conservation" title="Mutualisms and conservation">Mutualisms and conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_conservation" title="Nature conservation">Nature conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_biology_of_parasites" title="Conservation biology of parasites">Conservation biology of parasites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_translocation" title="Species translocation">Species translocation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_welfare" title="Conservation welfare">Conservation welfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Threatened_species" title="Threatened species">Threatened species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulnerability_and_susceptibility_in_conservation_biology" title="Vulnerability and susceptibility in conservation biology">Vulnerability and susceptibility</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Approaches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_agriculture" title="Conservation agriculture">Conservation agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_development" title="Conservation development">Conservation development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_finance" title="Conservation finance">Conservation finance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_grazing" title="Conservation grazing">Conservation grazing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_management_system" title="Conservation management system">Conservation management system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_movement" title="Conservation movement">Conservation movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_photography" title="Conservation photography">Conservation photography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_psychology" title="Conservation psychology">Conservation psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conspicuous_conservation" title="Conspicuous conservation">Conspicuous conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community-based_conservation" title="Community-based conservation">Community-based conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecoregion_conservation_status" title="Ecoregion conservation status">Ecoregion conservation status</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_protection" title="Environmental protection">Environmental protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_conservation" title="Evidence-based conservation">Evidence-based conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flagship_species" title="Flagship species">Flagship species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_forest_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Sustainable forest management">Forest management</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Forest_protection" title="Forest protection">Forest protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_rainforest_conservation" title="Tropical rainforest conservation">Tropical rainforest conservation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_Conservation_and_Development_Project" title="Integrated Conservation and Development Project">Integrated Conservation and Development Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Other_effective_area-based_conservation_measures" title="Other effective area-based conservation measures">Other effective area-based conservation measures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riparian_buffer" title="Riparian buffer">Riparian buffer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roadless_area_conservation" title="Roadless area conservation">Roadless area conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roadside_conservation" title="Roadside conservation">Roadside conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Site-based_conservation" title="Site-based conservation">Site-based conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wetland_conservation" title="Wetland conservation">Wetland conservation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Protected_area" title="Protected area">Protected<br />areas</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_designation" title="Conservation designation">Conservation designation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_district" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservation district">Conservation district</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_easement" title="Conservation easement">Conservation easement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_reserve" title="Conservation reserve">Conservation reserve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gap_analysis_(conservation)" title="Gap analysis (conservation)">Gap analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat_conservation" title="Habitat conservation">Habitat conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_conservation_value_area" class="mw-redirect" title="High conservation value area">High conservation value area</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape-scale_conservation" title="Landscape-scale conservation">Landscape-scale conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_protected_area" title="Marine protected area">Marine protected area</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxan" title="Marxan">Marxan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_space_reserve" title="Open space reserve">Open space reserve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_corridor" title="Wildlife corridor">Wildlife corridor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/30_by_30" title="30 by 30">30 by 30 target</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Key issues</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_refugee" title="Conservation refugee">Conservation refugee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fortress_conservation" title="Fortress conservation">Fortress conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat_fragmentation" title="Habitat fragmentation">Habitat fragmentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human%E2%80%93wildlife_conflict" title="Human–wildlife conflict">Human–wildlife conflict</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Restoration_ecology" class="mw-redirect" title="Restoration ecology">Restoration</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assisted_natural_regeneration" title="Assisted natural regeneration">Assisted natural regeneration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_restoration" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecosystem restoration">Ecosystem restoration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Island_restoration" title="Island restoration">Island restoration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reforestation" title="Reforestation">Reforestation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afforestation" title="Afforestation">afforestation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rewilding" title="Rewilding">Rewilding</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sea_rewilding" title="Sea rewilding">marine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_reintroduction" title="Species reintroduction">Species reintroduction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By taxon</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Insect_hotel" title="Insect hotel">Arthropod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bird_conservation" title="Bird conservation">Bird</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_honeycreeper_conservation" title="Hawaiian honeycreeper conservation">Hawaiian honeycreeper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raptor_conservation" title="Raptor conservation">Raptor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Status_and_conservation_of_the_golden_eagle" title="Status and conservation of the golden eagle">Golden eagle</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_of_fungi" title="Conservation of fungi">Fungi</a></li> <li>Land mammal <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_of_American_bison" title="Conservation of American bison">American bison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabian_oryx_reintroduction" title="Arabian oryx reintroduction">Arabian oryx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bear_conservation" title="Bear conservation">Bear</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Polar_bear_conservation" title="Polar bear conservation">Polar bear</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cheetah_reintroduction_in_India" title="Cheetah reintroduction in India">Cheetah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_of_elephants" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservation of elephants">Elephant</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Project_Elephant" title="Project Elephant">Indian elephant</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_of_slow_lorises" title="Conservation of slow lorises">Slow loris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiger_conservation" title="Tiger conservation">Tiger</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Project_Tiger" title="Project Tiger">Bengal Tiger</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolf_reintroduction" title="Wolf reintroduction">Wolf</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_conservation" title="Marine conservation">Marine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Project_Dolphin_(India)" title="Project Dolphin (India)">Dolphin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grey_nurse_shark_conservation" title="Grey nurse shark conservation">Gray nurse shark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manatee_conservation" title="Manatee conservation">Manatee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_of_painted_turtles" title="Conservation of painted turtles">Painted turtle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salmon_conservation" title="Salmon conservation">Salmon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_otter_conservation" title="Sea otter conservation">Sea otter</a></li></ul></li> <li>Plant <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seed_bank" title="Seed bank">Seed bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_cryopreservation" title="Plant cryopreservation">Cryopreservation</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By country</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_Angola" title="Conservation in Angola">Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_Australia" title="Conservation in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_Belize" title="Conservation in Belize">Belize</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_Brazil" title="Conservation in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservation in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_the_Central_African_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservation in the Central African Republic">Central African Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_Costa_Rica" title="Conservation in Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_Hong_Kong" title="Conservation in Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_Iceland" title="Conservation in Iceland">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_India" title="Conservation in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_Indonesia" title="Conservation in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="Conservation in the Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_Italy" title="Conservation in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_Malaysia" title="Conservation in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_Mauritius" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservation in Mauritius">Mauritius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communal_Wildlife_Conservancies_in_Namibia" class="mw-redirect" title="Communal Wildlife Conservancies in Namibia">Namibia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_New_Zealand" title="Conservation in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_Pakistan" title="Conservation in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_Papua_New_Guinea" title="Conservation in Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_South_Sudan" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservation in South Sudan">South Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_Sweden" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservation in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_Uganda" title="Conservation in Uganda">Uganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Conservation in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_Scotland" title="Conservation in Scotland">Scotland</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_the_United_States" title="Conservation in the United States">United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Forest_conservation_in_the_United_States" title="Forest conservation in the United States">forests</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_officer" title="Conservation officer">Conservation officer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/De-extinction" title="De-extinction">De-extinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_boundaries" title="Planetary boundaries">Planetary boundaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IUCN_Red_List" title="IUCN Red List">IUCN Red List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NatureServe_conservation_status" title="NatureServe conservation status">NatureServe conservation status</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Area_of_Conservation" title="Special Area of Conservation">Special Area of Conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_conservation" title="Soil conservation">Soil conservation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_conservation_issues" class="mw-redirect" title="List of conservation issues">List of conservation issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nature_conservation_organizations" title="List of nature conservation organizations">List of organisations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_conservationists" title="List of conservationists">List of people</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Conservation_biology" title="Category:Conservation biology">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Genetics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Genetics" title="Template:Genetics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Genetics" title="Template talk:Genetics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Genetics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Genetics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Genetics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">Genetics</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Introduction_to_genetics" title="Introduction to genetics">Introduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_genetics" title="Outline of genetics">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_genetics" title="History of genetics">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_history_of_genetics" title="Timeline of the history of genetics">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_genetics_articles" title="Index of genetics articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_genetics" class="mw-redirect" title="Glossary of genetics">Glossary</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Key components</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome" title="Chromosome">Chromosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RNA" title="RNA">RNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">Genome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heredity" title="Heredity">Heredity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nucleotide" title="Nucleotide">Nucleotide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">Mutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_variation" title="Genetic variation">Genetic variation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allele" title="Allele">Allele</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">Amino acid</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_genetics" title="Classical genetics">Classical</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytogenetics" title="Cytogenetics">Cytogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_genetics" title="Ecological genetics">Ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunogenetics" title="Immunogenetics">Immunogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_genetics" title="Microbial genetics">Microbial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_genetics" title="Molecular genetics">Molecular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">Population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_genetics" title="Quantitative genetics">Quantitative</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Archaeogenetics" title="Archaeogenetics">Archaeogenetics</a> of</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_Africa" title="Genetic history of Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic history of indigenous peoples of the Americas">the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_the_British_Isles" title="Genetic history of the British Isles">the British Isles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_Europe" title="Genetic history of Europe">Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_Italy" title="Genetic history of Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_the_Middle_East" title="Genetic history of the Middle East">the Middle East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetics_and_archaeogenetics_of_South_Asia" title="Genetics and archaeogenetics of South Asia">South Asia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioural_genetics" title="Behavioural genetics">Behavioural genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epigenetics" title="Epigenetics">Epigenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geneticist" title="Geneticist">Geneticist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genome_editing" title="Genome editing">Genome editing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genomics" title="Genomics">Genomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_code" title="Genetic code">Genetic code</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_engineering" title="Genetic engineering">Genetic engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_diversity" title="Genetic diversity">Genetic diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_monitoring" title="Genetic monitoring">Genetic monitoring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_genealogy" title="Genetic genealogy">Genetic genealogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heredity" title="Heredity">Heredity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/He_Jiankui_affair" title="He Jiankui affair">He Jiankui affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_genetics" title="Medical genetics">Medical genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missing_heritability_problem" title="Missing heritability problem">Missing heritability problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_evolution" title="Molecular evolution">Molecular evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_genetics" title="Plant genetics">Plant genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_genomics" title="Population genomics">Population genomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_genetics" title="Reverse genetics">Reverse genetics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_genetic_codes" title="List of genetic codes">List of genetic codes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_genetics_research_organizations" title="List of genetics research organizations">List of genetics research organizations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Genetics" title="Category:Genetics">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Extinction" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Extinction" title="Template:Extinction"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Extinction" title="Template talk:Extinction"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Extinction" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Extinction"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Extinction" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Extinction" title="Extinction">Extinction</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Phenomena</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Background_extinction_rate" title="Background extinction rate">Background extinction rate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coextinction" title="Coextinction">Coextinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/De-extinction" title="De-extinction">De-extinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_extinction" title="Ecological extinction">Ecological extinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinct_in_the_wild" title="Extinct in the wild">Extinct in the wild</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_extinction" title="Functional extinction">Functional extinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_pollution" title="Genetic pollution">Genetic pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lazarus_taxon" title="Lazarus taxon">Lazarus taxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Local_extinction" title="Local extinction">Local extinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoextinction" title="Pseudoextinction">Pseudoextinction</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="8" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Golden_toad" title="Golden toad"><img alt="The species Bufo periglenes (Golden Toad) was last reported in 1989" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Bufo_periglenes2_cropped.jpg/140px-Bufo_periglenes2_cropped.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="111" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Bufo_periglenes2_cropped.jpg/210px-Bufo_periglenes2_cropped.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Bufo_periglenes2_cropped.jpg/280px-Bufo_periglenes2_cropped.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2509" data-file-height="1986" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Models</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_vortex" title="Extinction vortex">Extinction vortex</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Causes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_variability_and_change" title="Climate variability and change">Climate variability and change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_erosion" title="Genetic erosion">Genetic erosion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">Invasive species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat_destruction" title="Habitat destruction">Habitat destruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">Human impact on the environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muller%27s_ratchet" title="Muller's ratchet">Muller's ratchet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutational_meltdown" title="Mutational meltdown">Mutational meltdown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overabundant_species" title="Overabundant species">Overabundant species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overexploitation" title="Overexploitation">Overexploitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overshoot_(population)" title="Overshoot (population)">Overshoot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradox_of_enrichment" title="Paradox of enrichment">Paradox of enrichment</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories<br />and concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_debt" title="Extinction debt">Extinction debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change" title="Extinction risk from climate change">Extinction risk from climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_threshold" title="Extinction threshold">Extinction threshold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field_of_Bullets" class="mw-redirect" title="Field of Bullets">Field of Bullets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypothetical_species" title="Hypothetical species">Hypothetical species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latent_extinction_risk" title="Latent extinction risk">Latent extinction risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Living_fossil" title="Living fossil">Living fossil</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Extinction_event" title="Extinction event">Extinction events</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Major</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Late_Ordovician_mass_extinction" title="Late Ordovician mass extinction">Ordovician–Silurian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Devonian_extinction" title="Late Devonian extinction">Late Devonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permian%E2%80%93Triassic_extinction_event" title="Permian–Triassic extinction event">Permian–Triassic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triassic%E2%80%93Jurassic_extinction_event" title="Triassic–Jurassic extinction event">Triassic–Jurassic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cretaceous%E2%80%93Paleogene_extinction_event" title="Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event">Cretaceous–Paleogene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocene_extinction" title="Holocene extinction">Holocene</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_extinctions_in_the_Holocene" title="Timeline of extinctions in the Holocene">Timeline</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Oxidation_Event" title="Great Oxidation Event">Great Oxidation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/End-Ediacaran_extinction" title="End-Ediacaran extinction">End-Ediacaran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/End-Botomian_mass_extinction" title="End-Botomian mass extinction">End-Botomian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dresbachian" title="Dresbachian">Dresbachian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambrian%E2%80%93Ordovician_extinction_event" title="Cambrian–Ordovician extinction event">Cambrian–Ordovician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ireviken_event" title="Ireviken event">Ireviken</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mulde_event" title="Mulde event">Mulde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lau_event" title="Lau event">Lau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carboniferous_rainforest_collapse" title="Carboniferous rainforest collapse">Carboniferous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olson%27s_Extinction" title="Olson's Extinction">Olson's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emeishan_Traps" title="Emeishan Traps">End-Capitanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnian_pluvial_episode" title="Carnian pluvial episode">Carnian Pluvial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toarcian_turnover" class="mw-redirect" title="Toarcian turnover">Toarcian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jurassic" title="Jurassic">End-Jurassic or Tithonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aptian_extinction" title="Aptian extinction">Aptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cenomanian-Turonian_boundary_event" title="Cenomanian-Turonian boundary event">Cenomanian-Turonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eocene%E2%80%93Oligocene_extinction_event" title="Eocene–Oligocene extinction event">Eocene–Oligocene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Miocene_disruption" title="Middle Miocene disruption">Middle Miocene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pliocene#Supernovae" title="Pliocene">Pliocene–Pleistocene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quaternary_extinction_event" class="mw-redirect" title="Quaternary extinction event">Quaternary</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Extinct_species" title="Category:Extinct species">Extinct species</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_extinct_species" title="Lists of extinct species">Lists of extinct species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:IUCN_Red_List_extinct_species" title="Category:IUCN Red List extinct species">IUCN Red List extinct species</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_Union_for_Conservation_of_Nature" title="International Union for Conservation of Nature">International Union for Conservation of Nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IUCN_Species_Survival_Commission" title="IUCN Species Survival Commission">IUCN Species Survival Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_Rebellion" title="Extinction Rebellion">Extinction Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voluntary_Human_Extinction_Movement" title="Voluntary Human Extinction Movement">Voluntary Human Extinction Movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropocene" title="Anthropocene">Anthropocene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decline_in_amphibian_populations" title="Decline in amphibian populations">Decline in amphibian populations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decline_in_insect_populations" title="Decline in insect populations">Decline in insect populations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_symbol" title="Extinction symbol">Extinction symbol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_extinction" title="Human extinction">Human extinction</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Sixth_Extinction:_An_Unnatural_History" title="The Sixth Extinction: An Unnatural History">The Sixth Extinction: An Unnatural History</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" 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