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<li id="toc-18th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#18th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>18th century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-18th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-19th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#19th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>19th century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-19th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Systems_of_inorganic_earth_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Systems_of_inorganic_earth_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.1</span> <span>Systems of inorganic earth history</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Systems_of_inorganic_earth_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lyell" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lyell"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.2</span> <span>Lyell</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lyell-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Methodological_assumptions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Methodological_assumptions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.2.1</span> <span>Methodological assumptions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Methodological_assumptions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Substantive_hypotheses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Substantive_hypotheses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.2.2</span> <span>Substantive hypotheses</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Substantive_hypotheses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-20th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#20th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>20th century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-20th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social_sciences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_sciences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Social sciences</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_sciences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Uniformitarianism</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 44 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-44" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">44 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniformitarianisme" title="Uniformitarianisme – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Uniformitarianisme" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%D8%AA%D9%8A%D8%B1%D8%A9_%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%AD%D8%AF%D8%A9" title="وتيرة واحدة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="وتيرة واحدة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aktualizm_(geologiya)" title="Aktualizm (geologiya) – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Aktualizm (geologiya)" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%B7%D1%8A%D0%BC" title="Униформизъм – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Униформизъм" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actualisme" title="Actualisme – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Actualisme" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniformitarianismus" title="Uniformitarianismus – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Uniformitarianismus" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aktualitetsprincippet" title="Aktualitetsprincippet – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Aktualitetsprincippet" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aktualismus_(Geologie)" title="Aktualismus (Geologie) – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Aktualismus (Geologie)" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniformism" title="Uniformism – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Uniformism" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9F%CE%BC%CE%BF%CE%B9%CE%BF%CE%BC%CE%BF%CF%81%CF%86%CE%B9%CF%83%CE%BC%CF%8C%CF%82_(%CE%B3%CE%B5%CF%89%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%AF%CE%B1)" title="Ομοιομορφισμός (γεωλογία) – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ομοιομορφισμός (γεωλογία)" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniformismo" title="Uniformismo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Uniformismo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unuformismo" title="Unuformismo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Unuformismo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aktualismo" title="Aktualismo – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Aktualismo" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%87%D9%85%D8%AF%DB%8C%D8%B3%E2%80%8C%DA%AF%D8%B1%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C" title="همدیس‌گرایی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="همدیس‌گرایی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniformitarisme" title="Uniformitarisme – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Uniformitarisme" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniformismo" title="Uniformismo – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Uniformismo" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%8F%99%EC%9D%BC%EA%B3%BC%EC%A0%95%EC%84%A4" title="동일과정설 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="동일과정설" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%88%D6%82%D5%B6%D5%AB%D6%86%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%B4%D5%AB%D5%BF%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%AB%D5%A6%D5%B4" title="Ունիֆորմիտարիզմ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ունիֆորմիտարիզմ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniformitarianisme" title="Uniformitarianisme – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Uniformitarianisme" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniformitarismo" title="Uniformitarismo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Uniformitarismo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A2%D7%A7%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%9F_%D7%94%D7%90%D7%97%D7%99%D7%93%D7%95%D7%AA" title="עקרון האחידות – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="עקרון האחידות" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%A4%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%96%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98" title="უნიფორმიზმი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="უნიფორმიზმი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%83%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Актуализм – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Актуализм" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniformizmus" title="Uniformizmus – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Uniformizmus" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniformitarianisme" title="Uniformitarianisme – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Uniformitarianisme" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%96%89%E4%B8%80%E8%AA%AC" title="斉一説 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="斉一説" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aktualitetsprinsippet" title="Aktualitetsprinsippet – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Aktualitetsprinsippet" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aktualitetsprinsippet" title="Aktualitetsprinsippet – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Aktualitetsprinsippet" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniformitarisme" title="Uniformitarisme – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Uniformitarisme" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aktualizm" title="Aktualizm – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Aktualizm" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%AA%D9%87_%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A_%D8%A7%D8%B5%D9%88%D9%84" title="د ورته والي اصول – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د ورته والي اصول" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aktualizm" title="Aktualizm – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Aktualizm" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniformitarismo" title="Uniformitarismo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Uniformitarismo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%83%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC_(%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F)" title="Актуализм (геология) – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Актуализм (геология)" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniformitarianism" title="Uniformitarianism – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Uniformitarianism" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniformitarianism" title="Uniformitarianism – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Uniformitarianism" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princ%C3%ADp_aktualizmu" title="Princíp aktualizmu – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Princíp aktualizmu" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniformitarianismi_(tieteenfilosofia)" title="Uniformitarianismi (tieteenfilosofia) – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Uniformitarianismi (tieteenfilosofia)" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aktualism" title="Aktualism – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Aktualism" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%9Cniformitaryanizm" title="Üniformitaryanizm – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Üniformitaryanizm" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%BC" 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<div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Assumption that the natural laws and processes of the universe are constant through time and space</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hutton_Unconformity,_Jedburgh.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Hutton_Unconformity%2C_Jedburgh.jpg/220px-Hutton_Unconformity%2C_Jedburgh.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="313" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Hutton_Unconformity%2C_Jedburgh.jpg/330px-Hutton_Unconformity%2C_Jedburgh.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Hutton_Unconformity%2C_Jedburgh.jpg/440px-Hutton_Unconformity%2C_Jedburgh.jpg 2x" data-file-width="581" data-file-height="827" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Hutton%27s_Unconformity" title="Hutton's Unconformity">Hutton's Unconformity</a> at <a href="/wiki/Jedburgh" title="Jedburgh">Jedburgh</a>.<br />Above: <a href="/wiki/John_Clerk_of_Eldin" title="John Clerk of Eldin">John Clerk of Eldin</a>'s 1787 illustration.<br />Below: 2003 photograph.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Uniformitarianism</b>, also known as the <b>Doctrine of Uniformity</b> or the <b>Uniformitarian Principle</b>,<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is the assumption that the same natural laws and processes that operate in our present-day scientific observations have always operated in the universe in the past and apply everywhere in the universe.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-gould1965_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gould1965-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It refers to <a href="/wiki/Invariant_(physics)" title="Invariant (physics)">invariance</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysical</a> principles underpinning science, such as the constancy of <a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">cause and effect</a> throughout space-time,<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but has also been used to describe spatiotemporal invariance of <a href="/wiki/Physical_laws" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical laws">physical laws</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Though an unprovable <a href="/wiki/Postulate" class="mw-redirect" title="Postulate">postulate</a> that cannot be verified using the scientific method,<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> some consider that uniformitarianism should be a required <a href="/wiki/First_principle" title="First principle">first principle</a> in scientific research.<sup id="cite_ref-simpson1963_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-simpson1963-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other scientists disagree and consider that nature is not absolutely uniform, even though it does exhibit certain regularities.<sup id="cite_ref-Buffon_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Buffon-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">geology</a>, uniformitarianism has included the <a href="/wiki/Gradualism" title="Gradualism">gradualistic</a> concept that "the present is the key to the past" and that geological events occur at the same rate now as they have always done, though many modern geologists no longer hold to a strict gradualism.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Coined by <a href="/wiki/William_Whewell" title="William Whewell">William Whewell</a>, uniformitarianism was originally proposed in contrast to <a href="/wiki/Catastrophism" title="Catastrophism">catastrophism</a><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> by British <a href="/wiki/Natural_history" title="Natural history">naturalists</a> in the late 18th century, starting with the work of the <a href="/wiki/Geologist" title="Geologist">geologist</a> <a href="/wiki/James_Hutton" title="James Hutton">James Hutton</a> in his many books including <i><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_the_Earth" title="Theory of the Earth">Theory of the Earth</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hutton's work was later refined by scientist <a href="/wiki/John_Playfair" title="John Playfair">John Playfair</a> and popularised by geologist <a href="/wiki/Charles_Lyell" title="Charles Lyell">Charles Lyell</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Principles_of_Geology" title="Principles of Geology">Principles of Geology</a></i> in 1830.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Today, Earth's history is considered to have been a slow, gradual process, punctuated by occasional natural catastrophic events. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Uniformitarianism&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="18th_century">18th century</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Uniformitarianism&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: 18th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Siccar_point_SE_cliff.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Siccar_point_SE_cliff.jpg/220px-Siccar_point_SE_cliff.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Siccar_point_SE_cliff.jpg/330px-Siccar_point_SE_cliff.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Siccar_point_SE_cliff.jpg/440px-Siccar_point_SE_cliff.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2304" /></a><figcaption>Cliff at the east of <a href="/wiki/Siccar_Point" title="Siccar Point">Siccar Point</a> in Berwickshire, showing the gently tilting red sandstone layers above vertically tilted greywacke rocks.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Gottlob_Werner" title="Abraham Gottlob Werner">Abraham Gottlob Werner</a> (1749–1817) proposed <a href="/wiki/Neptunism" title="Neptunism">Neptunism</a>, where <a href="/wiki/Stratum" title="Stratum">strata</a> represented deposits from shrinking seas <a href="/wiki/Precipitation_(chemistry)" title="Precipitation (chemistry)">precipitated</a> onto primordial rocks such as <a href="/wiki/Granite" title="Granite">granite</a>. In 1785 <a href="/wiki/James_Hutton" title="James Hutton">James Hutton</a> proposed an opposing, self-maintaining infinite cycle based on natural history and not on the <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Biblical</a> account.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The solid parts of the present land appear in general, to have been composed of the productions of the sea, and of other materials similar to those now found upon the shores. Hence we find a reason to conclude:<br /> </p><dl><dd>1st, That the land on which we rest is not simple and original, but that it is a composition, and had been formed by the operation of second causes.</dd> <dd>2nd, That before the present land was made, there had subsisted a world composed of sea and land, in which were tides and currents, with such operations at the bottom of the sea as now take place. And,</dd> <dd>Lastly, That while the present land was forming at the bottom of the ocean, the former land maintained plants and animals; at least the sea was then inhabited by animals, in a similar manner as it is at present.</dd></dl> <p>Hence we are led to conclude, that the greater part of our land, if not the whole had been produced by operations natural to this globe; but that in order to make this land a permanent body, resisting the operations of the waters, two things had been required;<br /> </p> <dl><dd>1st, The consolidation of masses formed by collections of loose or incoherent materials;</dd> <dd>2ndly, The elevation of those consolidated masses from the bottom of the sea, the place where they were collected, to the stations in which they now remain above the level of the ocean.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl></blockquote> <p>Hutton then sought evidence to support his idea that there must have been repeated cycles, each involving <a href="/wiki/Deposition_(sediment)" class="mw-redirect" title="Deposition (sediment)">deposition</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Seabed" title="Seabed">seabed</a>, uplift with tilting and <a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">erosion</a>, and then moving undersea again for further layers to be deposited. At <a href="/wiki/Glen_Tilt" title="Glen Tilt">Glen Tilt</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Cairngorms" title="Cairngorms">Cairngorm mountains</a> he found granite penetrating <a href="/wiki/Metamorphic_rock" title="Metamorphic rock">metamorphic</a> <a href="/wiki/Schist" title="Schist">schists</a>, in a way which indicated to him that the presumed primordial rock had been <a href="/wiki/Molten" class="mw-redirect" title="Molten">molten</a> after the strata had formed.<sup id="cite_ref-Macfarlane_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Macfarlane-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-tilt_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tilt-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He had read about <a href="/wiki/Unconformity" title="Unconformity">angular unconformities</a> as interpreted by Neptunists, and found an <a href="/wiki/Hutton%27s_Unconformity" title="Hutton's Unconformity">unconformity</a> at <a href="/wiki/Jedburgh" title="Jedburgh">Jedburgh</a> where layers of <a href="/wiki/Greywacke" title="Greywacke">greywacke</a> in the lower layers of the cliff face have been tilted almost vertically before being eroded to form a level plane, under horizontal layers of <a href="/wiki/Old_Red_Sandstone" title="Old Red Sandstone">Old Red Sandstone</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Unconformity_Jedburgh_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Unconformity_Jedburgh-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the spring of 1788 he took a boat trip along the <a href="/wiki/Berwickshire" title="Berwickshire">Berwickshire</a> coast with <a href="/wiki/John_Playfair" title="John Playfair">John Playfair</a> and the geologist <a href="/wiki/Sir_James_Hall,_4th_Baronet" title="Sir James Hall, 4th Baronet">Sir James Hall</a>, and found a dramatic unconformity showing the same sequence at <a href="/wiki/Siccar_Point" title="Siccar Point">Siccar Point</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Playfair later recalled that "the mind seemed to grow giddy by looking so far into the abyss of time",<sup id="cite_ref-Playfair_RSE_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Playfair_RSE-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Hutton concluded a 1788 paper he presented at the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society_of_Edinburgh" title="Royal Society of Edinburgh">Royal Society of Edinburgh</a>, later rewritten as a book, with the phrase "we find no vestige of a beginning, no prospect of an end".<sup id="cite_ref-KS_Thomson_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KS_Thomson-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Both Playfair and Hall wrote their own books on the theory, and for decades robust debate continued between Hutton's supporters and the Neptunists. <a href="/wiki/Georges_Cuvier" title="Georges Cuvier">Georges Cuvier</a>'s <a href="/wiki/History_of_paleontology" title="History of paleontology">paleontological work</a> in the 1790s, which established the reality of <a href="/wiki/Extinction" title="Extinction">extinction</a>, explained this by local catastrophes, after which other fixed species repopulated the affected areas. In Britain, geologists adapted this idea into "<a href="/wiki/Diluvium" title="Diluvium">diluvial theory</a>" which proposed repeated worldwide annihilation and creation of new fixed species adapted to a changed environment, initially identifying the most recent catastrophe as the <a href="/wiki/Deluge_(mythology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Deluge (mythology)">biblical flood</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="19th_century">19th century</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Uniformitarianism&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: 19th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lyell_1840.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Lyell_1840.jpg/170px-Lyell_1840.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Lyell_1840.jpg/255px-Lyell_1840.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Lyell_1840.jpg/340px-Lyell_1840.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1064" data-file-height="1064" /></a><figcaption>Charles Lyell at the <a href="/wiki/British_Association" class="mw-redirect" title="British Association">British Association</a> meeting in Glasgow 1840</figcaption></figure> <p>From 1830 to 1833 <a href="/wiki/Charles_Lyell" title="Charles Lyell">Charles Lyell</a>'s multi-volume <i><a href="/wiki/Principles_of_Geology" title="Principles of Geology">Principles of Geology</a></i> was published. The work's subtitle was "An attempt to explain the former changes of the Earth's surface by reference to causes now in operation". He drew his explanations from field studies conducted directly before he went to work on the founding geology text,<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and developed Hutton's idea that the earth was shaped entirely by slow-moving forces still in operation today, acting over a very long period of time. The terms <i>uniformitarianism</i> for this idea, and <i><a href="/wiki/Catastrophism" title="Catastrophism">catastrophism</a></i> for the opposing viewpoint, was coined by <a href="/wiki/William_Whewell" title="William Whewell">William Whewell</a> in a review of Lyell's book. <i>Principles of Geology</i> was the most influential geological work in the middle of the 19th century. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Systems_of_inorganic_earth_history">Systems of inorganic earth history</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Uniformitarianism&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Systems of inorganic earth history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Geoscientists support diverse systems of Earth history, the nature of which rests on a certain mixture of views about the process, control, rate, and state which are preferred. Because geologists and <a href="/wiki/Geomorphology" title="Geomorphology">geomorphologists</a> tend to adopt opposite views over process, rate, and state in the inorganic world, there are eight different systems of beliefs in the development of the terrestrial sphere.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHuggett199034_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuggett199034-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All geoscientists stand by the principle of uniformity of law. Most, but not all, are directed by the principle of simplicity. All make definite assertions about the quality of rate and state in the inorganic realm.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHuggett199033_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuggett199033-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Methodological<br />assumption concerning<br />kind of process</th> <th>Substantive claim<br />concerning state</th> <th>Substantive claim<br />Concerning rate</th> <th>System of Inorganic<br />Earth history</th> <th>Promoters<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHuggett199035_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuggett199035-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="4">Same Kind of processes<br />that exist today<br /><i>Actualism</i> </td> <td rowspan="2">Steady State<br /><i>Non-directionalism</i> </td> <td>Constant Rate<br /><i>Gradualism</i> </td> <td>Actualistic<br />Non-directional<br />Gradualism </td> <td>Most of Hutton, Playfair, Lyell </td></tr> <tr> <td>Changing Rate<br /><i>Catastrophism</i> </td> <td>Actualistic<br />Non-directional<br />Catastrophism </td> <td>Hall </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">Changing State<br /><i>Directionalism</i> </td> <td>Constant Rate<br /><i>Gradualism</i> </td> <td>Actualistic<br />Directional<br />Gradualism </td> <td>Small part of Hutton, Cotta, Darwin </td></tr> <tr> <td>Changing Rate<br /><i>Catastrophism</i> </td> <td>Actualistic<br />Directional<br />Catastrophism </td> <td>Hooke, Steno, Lehmann, Pallas,<br />de Saussure, Werner, and geognosists,<br />Elis de Beaumont and followers </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="4">Different Kind of processes<br />than exist today<br /><i>Non-Actualism</i> </td> <td rowspan="2">Steady State<br /><i>Non-directionalism</i> </td> <td>Constant Rate<br /><i>Gradualism</i> </td> <td>Non-Actualistic<br />Non-directional<br />Gradualism </td> <td>Carpenter </td></tr> <tr> <td>Changing Rate<br /><i>Catastrophism</i> </td> <td>Non-Actualistic<br />Non-directional<br />Catastrophism </td> <td>Bonnet, Cuvier </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">Changing State<br /><i>Directionalism</i> </td> <td>Constant Rate<br /><i>Gradualism</i> </td> <td>Non-Actualistic<br />directional<br />Gradualism </td> <td>De Mallet, Buffon </td></tr> <tr> <td>Changing Rate<br /><i>Catastrophism</i> </td> <td>Non-Actualistic<br />Directional<br />Catastrophism </td> <td>Restoration cosmogonists,<br />English diluvialists,<br />Scriptural geologists </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Lyell">Lyell</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Uniformitarianism&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Lyell"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Lyell's uniformitarianism is a family of four related propositions, not a single idea:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHooykaas1963_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHooykaas1963-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Uniformity of law – the laws of nature are constant across time and space.</li> <li>Uniformity of methodology – the appropriate hypotheses for explaining the geological past are those with analogy today.</li> <li>Uniformity of kind – past and present causes are all of the same kind, have the same energy, and produce the same effects.</li> <li>Uniformity of degree – geological circumstances have remained the same over time.</li></ul> <p>None of these connotations requires another, and they are not all equally inferred by uniformitarians.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Jay_Gould" title="Stephen Jay Gould">Gould</a> explained Lyell's propositions in <i><a href="/wiki/Time%27s_Arrow,_Time%27s_Cycle" title="Time's Arrow, Time's Cycle">Time's Arrow, Time's Cycle</a></i> (1987), stating that Lyell conflated two different types of propositions: a pair of <i><b>methodological assumptions</b></i> with a pair of <i><b>substantive hypotheses</b></i>. The four together make up Lyell's uniformitarianism.<sup id="cite_ref-Gould118_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gould118-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Methodological_assumptions">Methodological assumptions</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Uniformitarianism&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Methodological assumptions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The two methodological assumptions below are accepted to be true by the majority of scientists and geologists. Gould claims that these philosophical propositions must be assumed before you can proceed as a scientist doing science. "You cannot go to a rocky outcrop and observe either the constancy of nature's laws or the working of unknown processes. It works the other way around." You first assume these propositions and "then you go to the outcrop."<sup id="cite_ref-Gould120_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gould120-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><ul><li><b>Uniformity of law across time and space</b>: Natural laws are constant across space and time.<sup id="cite_ref-gould1987_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gould1987-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <dl><dd>The axiom of uniformity of law <sup id="cite_ref-gould1965_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gould1965-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-simpson1963_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-simpson1963-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-gould1987_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gould1987-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is necessary in order for scientists to extrapolate (by inductive inference) into the unobservable past.<sup id="cite_ref-gould1965_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gould1965-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-gould1987_31-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gould1987-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The constancy of natural laws must be assumed in the study of the past; else we cannot meaningfully study it.<sup id="cite_ref-gould1965_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gould1965-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-simpson1963_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-simpson1963-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-gould1987_31-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gould1987-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dd><ul><li><b>Uniformity of process across time and space</b>: Natural processes are constant across time and space.</li></ul></dd></dl> <dl><dd><dl><dd>Though similar to uniformity of law, this second <i>a priori</i> assumption, shared by the vast majority of scientists, deals with geological causes, not physicochemical laws.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The past is to be explained by processes acting currently in time and space rather than inventing extra esoteric or unknown processes <i>without good reason</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> otherwise known as parsimony or <a href="/wiki/Occam%27s_razor" title="Occam's razor">Occam's razor</a>.</dd></dl></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Substantive_hypotheses">Substantive hypotheses</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Uniformitarianism&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Substantive hypotheses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The substantive hypotheses were controversial and, in some cases, accepted by few.<sup id="cite_ref-Gould118_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gould118-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These hypotheses are judged true or false on empirical grounds through scientific observation and repeated experimental data. This is in contrast with the previous two philosophical assumptions<sup id="cite_ref-Gould120_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gould120-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that come before one can do science and so cannot be tested or falsified by science. </p> <dl><dd><ul><li><b>Uniformity of rate across time and space</b>: Change is typically slow, steady, and gradual.<sup id="cite_ref-Gould120_30-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gould120-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></dd></dl> <dl><dd><dl><dd>Uniformity of rate (or <a href="/wiki/Gradualism" title="Gradualism">gradualism</a>) is what most people (including geologists) think of when they hear the word "uniformitarianism", confusing this hypothesis with the entire definition. As late as 1990, Lemon, in his textbook of stratigraphy, affirmed that "The uniformitarian view of earth history held that all geologic processes proceed continuously and at a very slow pace."<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dd><dl><dd>Gould explained Hutton's view of uniformity of rate; mountain ranges or grand canyons are built by the accumulation of nearly insensible changes added up through vast time. Some major events such as floods, earthquakes, and eruptions, do occur. But these catastrophes are strictly local. They neither occurred in the past nor shall happen in the future, at any greater frequency or extent than they display at present. In particular, the whole earth is never convulsed at once.<sup id="cite_ref-Gould120s_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gould120s-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dd><ul><li><b>Uniformity of state across time and space</b>: Change is evenly distributed throughout space and time.<sup id="cite_ref-Gould123_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gould123-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></dd></dl> <dl><dd><dl><dd>The uniformity of state hypothesis implies that throughout the history of our earth there is no progress in any inexorable direction. The planet has almost always looked and behaved as it does now. Change is continuous but leads nowhere. The earth is in balance: a dynamic <a href="/wiki/Steady_state" title="Steady state">steady state</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Gould123_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gould123-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="20th_century">20th century</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Uniformitarianism&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: 20th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Jay_Gould" title="Stephen Jay Gould">Stephen Jay Gould</a>'s first scientific paper, "Is uniformitarianism necessary?" (1965), reduced these four assumptions to two.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He dismissed the first principle, which asserted spatial and temporal invariance of natural laws, as no longer an issue of debate. He rejected the third (uniformity of rate) as an unjustified limitation on scientific inquiry, as it constrains past geologic rates and conditions to those of the present. So, Lyell's uniformitarianism was deemed unnecessary. </p><p>Uniformitarianism was proposed in contrast to <a href="/wiki/Catastrophism" title="Catastrophism">catastrophism</a>, which states that the distant past "consisted of epochs of paroxysmal and catastrophic action interposed between periods of comparative tranquility"<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Especially in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, most geologists took this interpretation to mean that catastrophic events are not important in geologic time; one example of this is the debate of the formation of the <a href="/wiki/Channeled_Scablands" title="Channeled Scablands">Channeled Scablands</a> due to the catastrophic <a href="/wiki/Missoula_floods" title="Missoula floods">Missoula</a> glacial outburst floods. An important result of this debate and others was the re-clarification that, while the same principles operate in geologic time, catastrophic events that are infrequent on human time-scales can have important consequences in geologic history.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Derek Ager has noted that "geologists do not deny uniformitarianism in its true sense, that is to say, of interpreting the past by means of the processes that are seen going on at the present day, so long as we remember that the periodic catastrophe is one of those processes. Those periodic catastrophes make more showing in the stratigraphical record than we have hitherto assumed."<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><br /> Modern geologists do not apply uniformitarianism in the same way as Lyell. They question if rates of processes were uniform through time and only those values measured during the <a href="/wiki/History_of_geology" title="History of geology">history of geology</a> are to be accepted.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The present may not be a long enough key to penetrating the deep lock of the past.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Geologic processes may have been active at different rates in the past that humans have not observed. "By force of popularity, uniformity of rate has persisted to our present day. For more than a century, Lyell's rhetoric conflating axiom with hypotheses has descended in unmodified form. Many geologists have been stifled by the belief that proper methodology includes an a priori commitment to gradual change, and by a preference for explaining large-scale phenomena as the concatenation of innumerable tiny changes."<sup id="cite_ref-Gould174_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gould174-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The current consensus is that <a href="/wiki/History_of_Earth" title="History of Earth">Earth's history</a> is a slow, gradual process punctuated by occasional natural catastrophic events that have affected Earth and its inhabitants.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In practice it is reduced from Lyell's conflation, or blending, to simply the two philosophical assumptions. This is also known as the principle of geological actualism, which states that all past geological action was like all present geological action. The principle of <a href="/wiki/Actualism" title="Actualism">actualism</a> is the cornerstone of <a href="/wiki/Paleoecology" title="Paleoecology">paleoecology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Social_sciences">Social sciences</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Uniformitarianism&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Social sciences"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Uniformitarianism has also been applied in <a href="/wiki/Historical_linguistics" title="Historical linguistics">historical linguistics</a>, where it is considered a foundational principle of the field.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Linguist <a href="/wiki/Donald_Ringe" title="Donald Ringe">Donald Ringe</a> gives the following definition:<sup id="cite_ref-:0_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p><i>If</i> language was normally acquired in the past in the same way as it is today – usually by native acquisition in early childhood – and <i>if</i> it was used in the same ways – to transmit information, to express solidarity with family, friends, and neighbors, to mark one's social position, etc. – <i>then</i> it must have had the same <i>general</i> structure and organization in the past as it does today, and it must have changed in the same ways as it does today.</p></blockquote><p>The principle is known in linguistics, after <a href="/wiki/William_Labov" title="William Labov">William Labov</a> and associates, as the <a href="/wiki/Uniformitarian_Principle_(linguistics)" title="Uniformitarian Principle (linguistics)">Uniformitarian Principle</a> or Unifomitarian Hypothesis.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Uniformitarianism&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_law" title="Conservation law">Conservation law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noether%27s_theorem" title="Noether's theorem">Noether's theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_law_of_universal_gravitation" title="Newton's law of universal gravitation">Law of universal gravitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astronomical_spectroscopy" title="Astronomical spectroscopy">Astronomical spectroscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmological_principle" title="Cosmological principle">Cosmological principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_paleontology" title="History of paleontology">History of paleontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradigm_shift" title="Paradigm shift">Paradigm shift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_constant" title="Physical constant">Physical constant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_cosmology" title="Physical cosmology">Physical cosmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_consensus" title="Scientific consensus">Scientific consensus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time-variation_of_fundamental_constants" title="Time-variation of fundamental constants">Time-variation of fundamental constants</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Uniformitarianism&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFScott1963" class="citation journal cs1">Scott, G. H. (1963). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00288306.1963.10420063">"Uniformitarianism, the uniformity of nature, and paleoecology"</a>. <i>New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics</i>. <b>6</b> (4): 510–527. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1963NZJGG...6..510S">1963NZJGG...6..510S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00288306.1963.10420063">10.1080/00288306.1963.10420063</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0028-8306">0028-8306</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+Zealand+Journal+of+Geology+and+Geophysics&rft.atitle=Uniformitarianism%2C+the+uniformity+of+nature%2C+and+paleoecology&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=510-527&rft.date=1963&rft.issn=0028-8306&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00288306.1963.10420063&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1963NZJGG...6..510S&rft.aulast=Scott&rft.aufirst=G.+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1080%252F00288306.1963.10420063&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniformitarianism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGordon2013">Gordon 2013</a>, p. 79</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-gould1965-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-gould1965_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-gould1965_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-gould1965_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-gould1965_3-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGould1965">Gould 1965</a>, pp. 223–228, "<i>The assumption of spatial and temporal invariance of natural laws is by no means unique to geology since it amounts to a warrant for inductive inference</i> which, as Bacon showed nearly four hundred years ago, is <i>the basic mode of reasoning in empirical science. Without assuming this spatial and temporal invariance, we have no basis for extrapolating from the known to the unknown</i> and, therefore, no way of reaching general conclusions from a finite number of observations."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGordon2013">Gordon 2013</a>, p. 82; "The uniformitarian principle assumes that <i>the behavior of nature is regular and indicative of an objective causal structure in which presently operative causes may be projected into the past</i> to explain the historical development of the physical world and projected into the future for the purposes of prediction and control. In short, it involves the process of inferring past causes from presently observable effects under the assumption that <i>the fundamental causal regularities of the world have not changed over time</i>."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Strahler, A.N. 1987. Science and Earth History- The Evolution/Creation Controversy, Prometheus Books, Amherst, New York, USA. p. 194: “Under the updated statement of a useful principle of uniformitarianism it boils down essentially to <i>affirmation of the validity of universal scientific laws through time and space</i>, coupled with a rejection of supernatural causes.” p. 62: “In cosmology, the study of the structure and evolution of the universe, <i>it is assumed that the laws of physics are similar throughout the entire universe</i>.”</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rosenberg, Alex. Philosophy of science: A contemporary introduction, 4th ed. Routledge, 2019, 173</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-simpson1963-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-simpson1963_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-simpson1963_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-simpson1963_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSimpson1963">Simpson 1963</a>, pp. 24–48, "<i>Uniformity is an unprovable postulate</i> justified, or indeed required, on two grounds. First, nothing in our incomplete but extensive knowledge of history disagrees with it. Second, <i>only with this postulate is a rational interpretation of history possible</i>, and we are justified in seeking—as scientists we must seek—such a rational interpretation."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Buffon-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Buffon_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBuffon,_G._L._L.1778" class="citation book cs1">Buffon, G. L. L. (1778). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://play.google.com/store/books/details?id=gm2IOlUb_SMC&rdid=book-gm2IOlUb_SMC&rdot=1"><i>Histoire naturelle, générale et particulière, contenant les epoques de la nature</i></a>. Paris: L'Imprimerie Royale. pp. 3–4<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 July</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Histoire+naturelle%2C+g%C3%A9n%C3%A9rale+et+particuli%C3%A8re%2C+contenant+les+epoques+de+la+nature&rft.place=Paris&rft.pages=3-4&rft.pub=L%27Imprimerie+Royale&rft.date=1778&rft.au=Buffon%2C+G.+L.+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplay.google.com%2Fstore%2Fbooks%2Fdetails%3Fid%3Dgm2IOlUb_SMC%26rdid%3Dbook-gm2IOlUb_SMC%26rdot%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniformitarianism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">FARIA, Felipe. Actualismo,Catastrofismo y Uniformitarismo. In: Pérez, María Luisa Bacarlett & Caponi, Gustavo. <i>Pensar la vida: Filosofía, naturaleza y evolución</i>. Toluca: Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México, p. 55–80, 2015.<a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Felipe_Faria2">[1]</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPidwirnyJones1999">Pidwirny & Jones 1999</a>, "the idea that Earth was shaped by a series of sudden, short-lived, violent events."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJames1785" class="citation book cs1">James, Hutton (1785). <i>Theory of the Earth</i>. CreateSpace Independent Publishing.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Theory+of+the+Earth&rft.pub=CreateSpace+Independent+Publishing&rft.date=1785&rft.aulast=James&rft.aufirst=Hutton&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniformitarianism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.enotes.com/earth-science/uniformitarianism">"Uniformitarianism: World of Earth Science"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Uniformitarianism%3A+World+of+Earth+Science&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.enotes.com%2Fearth-science%2Funiformitarianism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniformitarianism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBowler2003">Bowler 2003</a>, pp. 57–62</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHutton,_J.1785" class="citation web cs1">Hutton, J. (1785). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080907225227/http://www.uwmc.uwc.edu/geography/hutton/Abstract-facsimile/abstract1.htm">"Abstract, The System of the Earth, Its Duration and Stability"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uwmc.uwc.edu/geography/hutton/Abstract-facsimile/abstract1.htm">the original</a> on 2008-09-07. <q>As <i>it is not in human record, but in natural history</i>, that we are to look for the means of ascertaining what has already been, it is here proposed to examine the appearances of the earth, in order to be informed of operations which have been transacted in time past. It is thus that, from principles of natural philosophy, <i>we may arrive at some knowledge</i> of order and system in the economy of this globe, and may <i>form a rational opinion</i> with regard to the course of nature, or to events which are in time to happen.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Abstract%2C+The+System+of+the+Earth%2C+Its+Duration+and+Stability&rft.date=1785&rft.au=Hutton%2C+J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.uwmc.uwc.edu%2Fgeography%2Fhutton%2FAbstract-facsimile%2Fabstract1.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniformitarianism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uwmc.uwc.edu/geography/hutton/Abstract-facsimile/abstract1.htm"><i>Concerning the System of the Earth</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080907225227/http://www.uwmc.uwc.edu/geography/hutton/Abstract-facsimile/abstract1.htm">Archived</a> 2008-09-07 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> abstract, as read by <a href="/wiki/James_Hutton" title="James Hutton">James Hutton</a> at a meeting of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society_of_Edinburgh" title="Royal Society of Edinburgh">Royal Society of Edinburgh</a> on 4 July 1785, printed and circulated privately.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Macfarlane-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Macfarlane_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobert_Macfarlane2003" class="citation news cs1">Robert Macfarlane (13 September 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071101110825/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3724/is_200309/ai_n9253355">"Glimpses into the abyss of time"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Spectator" title="The Spectator">The Spectator</a></i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3724/is_200309/ai_n9253355">the original</a> on 1 November 2007. <q>Hutton possessed an instinctive ability to reverse physical processes – to read landscapes backwards, as it were. Fingering the white quartz which seamed the grey granite boulders in a Scottish glen, for instance, he understood the confrontation that had once occurred between the two types of rock, and he perceived how, under fantastic pressure, the molten quartz had forced its way into the weaknesses in the mother granite.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Spectator&rft.atitle=Glimpses+into+the+abyss+of+time&rft.date=2003-09-13&rft.au=Robert+Macfarlane&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffindarticles.com%2Fp%2Farticles%2Fmi_qa3724%2Fis_200309%2Fai_n9253355&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniformitarianism" class="Z3988"></span> Review of Repcheck's <i>The Man Who Found Time</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-tilt-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-tilt_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20060616043401/http://www.scottishgeology.com/outandabout/classic_sites/locations/glen_tilt.html">"Scottish Geology – Glen Tilt"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scottishgeology.com/outandabout/classic_sites/locations/glen_tilt.html">the original</a> on 2006-06-16.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Scottish+Geology+%E2%80%93+Glen+Tilt&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.scottishgeology.com%2Foutandabout%2Fclassic_sites%2Flocations%2Fglen_tilt.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniformitarianism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Unconformity_Jedburgh-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Unconformity_Jedburgh_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090729030536/http://www.jedburgh-online.org.uk/aroundjedburgh.asp">"Jedburgh: Hutton's Unconformity"</a>. <i>Jedburgh online</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jedburgh-online.org.uk/aroundjedburgh.asp">the original</a> on 2009-07-29. <q>Whilst visiting Allar's Mill on the Jed Water, Hutton was delighted to see horizontal bands of red sandstone lying 'unconformably' on top of near vertical and folded bands of rock.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Jedburgh+online&rft.atitle=Jedburgh%3A+Hutton%27s+Unconformity&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jedburgh-online.org.uk%2Faroundjedburgh.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniformitarianism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150924104617/http://www.snh.org.uk/publications/on-line/geology/elothian_borders/hutton.asp">"Hutton's Unconformity"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.snh.org.uk/publications/on-line/geology/elothian_borders/hutton.asp">the original</a> on 2015-09-24.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Hutton%27s+Unconformity&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.snh.org.uk%2Fpublications%2Fon-line%2Fgeology%2Felothian_borders%2Fhutton.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniformitarianism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Playfair_RSE-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Playfair_RSE_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_Playfair1999" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Playfair" title="John Playfair">John Playfair</a> (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050107022523/http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1134/is_5_108/ai_54830705">"Hutton's Unconformity"</a>. <i>Transactions of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society_of_Edinburgh" title="Royal Society of Edinburgh">Royal Society of Edinburgh</a>, vol. V, pt. III, 1805, quoted in <a href="/wiki/Natural_History_(magazine)" title="Natural History (magazine)">Natural History</a>, June 1999</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1134/is_5_108/ai_54830705">the original</a> on 2005-01-07.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Transactions+of+the+Royal+Society+of+Edinburgh%2C+vol.+V%2C+pt.+III%2C+1805%2C+quoted+in+Natural+History%2C+June+1999&rft.atitle=Hutton%27s+Unconformity&rft.date=1999&rft.au=John+Playfair&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffindarticles.com%2Fp%2Farticles%2Fmi_m1134%2Fis_5_108%2Fai_54830705&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniformitarianism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-KS_Thomson-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-KS_Thomson_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeith_Stewart_Thomson2001" class="citation journal cs1">Keith Stewart Thomson (May–June 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110611161755/http://www.americanscientist.org/issues/id.3275,y.0,no.,content.true,page.2,css.print/issue.aspx">"Vestiges of James Hutton"</a>. <i>American Scientist</i>. <b>89</b> (3): 212. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1511%2F2001.3.212">10.1511/2001.3.212</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.americanscientist.org/issues/id.3275,y.0,no.,content.true,page.2,css.print/issue.aspx">the original</a> on 2011-06-11. <q>It is ironic that Hutton, the man whose prose style is usually dismissed as unreadable, should have coined one of the most memorable, and indeed lyrical, sentences in all science: "(in geology) we find no vestige of a beginning,—no prospect of an end". In those simple words, Hutton framed a concept that no one had previously contemplated, that the rocks making up the earth today have not, after all, been here since Creation.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Scientist&rft.atitle=Vestiges+of+James+Hutton&rft.volume=89&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=212&rft.date=2001-05%2F2001-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1511%2F2001.3.212&rft.au=Keith+Stewart+Thomson&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.americanscientist.org%2Fissues%2Fid.3275%2Cy.0%2Cno.%2Ccontent.true%2Cpage.2%2Ccss.print%2Fissue.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniformitarianism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <a href="#CITEREFBowler2003">Bowler 2003</a>, pp. 111–117</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wilson, Leonard G. "Charles Lyell" <i>Dictionary of Scientific Biography</i>. Ed. Charles Coulston Gillispie. Vol. VIII. Pennsylvania, Charles Scribner's Sons, 1973</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuggett199034-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHuggett199034_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHuggett1990">Huggett 1990</a>, p. 34.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuggett199033-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHuggett199033_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHuggett1990">Huggett 1990</a>, p. 33.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuggett199035-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHuggett199035_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHuggett1990">Huggett 1990</a>, p. 35.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHooykaas1963-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHooykaas1963_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHooykaas1963">Hooykaas 1963</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">David Cahan, 2003, <i>From Natural Philosophy to the Sciences</i>, p 95 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-08928-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-08928-7">978-0-226-08928-7</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gould118-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gould118_29-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gould118_29-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGould1987">Gould 1987</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/timesarrowtimesc00step_0/page/118">118</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gould120-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gould120_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gould120_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gould120_30-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGould1987">Gould 1987</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/timesarrowtimesc00step_0/page/120">120</a>. "You first assume."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-gould1987-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-gould1987_31-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-gould1987_31-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-gould1987_31-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-gould1987_31-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGould1987">Gould 1987</a>, p. 119, "<i>Making inferences about the past is wrapped up in the difference between studying the observable and the unobservable.</i> In the observable, erroneous beliefs can be proven wrong and be inductively corrected by other observations. This is Popper's principle of <a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">falsifiability</a>. However, <i>past processes are not observable by their very nature.</i> Therefore, '<i>the invariance of nature's laws must be assumed to come to conclusions about the past.</i>"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHutton1795" class="citation book cs1">Hutton, J. (1795). <i>Theory of the Earth with Proofs and Illustrations</i>. p. 297. <q>If the stone, for example, which fell today, were to rise again tomorrow, there would be an end of natural philosophy [i.e., science], <i>our principles would fail, and we would no longer investigate the rules of nature from our observations</i>.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Theory+of+the+Earth+with+Proofs+and+Illustrations&rft.pages=297&rft.date=1795&rft.aulast=Hutton&rft.aufirst=J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniformitarianism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGould1984">Gould 1984</a>, p. 11, "As such, it is another <i>a priori</i> methodological assumption shared by most scientists and not a statement about the empirical world."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGould1987">Gould 1987</a>, p. 120, "We should try to explain the past by causes now in operation without inventing extra, fancy, or unknown causes, however plausible in logic, if available processes suffice."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHooykaas1963">Hooykaas 1963</a>, p. 38, "Strict uniformitarianism may often be a guarantee against pseudo-scientific phantasies and loose conjectures, but it makes one easily forget that the principle of uniformity is not a law, not a rule established after comparison of facts, but a methodological principle, preceding the observation of facts ... It is the logical principle of parsimony of causes and of the economy of scientific notions. By explaining past changes by analogy with present phenomena, a limit is set to conjecture, for there is only one way in which two things are equal, but there is an infinity of ways in which they could be supposed different."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lemon, R. R. 1990. <i>Principles of stratigraphy</i>. Columbus, Ohio: Merrill Publishing Company. p. 30</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gould120s-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gould120s_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGould1987">Gould 1987</a>, pp. 120–121</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gould123-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gould123_38-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gould123_38-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGould1987">Gould 1987</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/timesarrowtimesc00step_0/page/123">123</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGould1965">Gould 1965</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">William J. Whewell, <i>Principles of Geology</i>, Charles Leyell, vol. II, London, 1832: Quart. Rev., v. 47, p. 103-123.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Allen, E. A., et al., 1986, Cataclysms on the Columbia, Timber Press, Portland, OR. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88192-067-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88192-067-3">978-0-88192-067-3</a> <ul><li>"Bretz knew that the very idea of catastrophic flooding would threaten and anger <i>the geological community</i>. And here's why: among geologists in the 1920s, catastrophic explanations for geological events (other than volcanos or earthquakes) were considered wrong-minded to the point of heresy." p. 42.</li> <li>"Consider, then, what Bretz was up against. The very word 'Catastrophism' was heinous in the ears of geologists. ... It was a step backward, a betrayal of <i>all that geological science had fought to gain</i>. It was a heresy of the worst order." p. 44</li> <li>"It was inevitable that sooner or later <i>the geological community would rise up</i> and attempt to defeat Bretz's 'outrageous hypothesis.'" p 49</li> <li>"Nearly 50 years had passed since Bretz first proposed the idea of catastrophic flooding, and now in 1971 <i>his arguments had become a standard of geological thinking</i>." p. 71</li></ul> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAger1993" class="citation book cs1">Ager, Derek V. (1993). <i>The Nature of the Stratigraphical Record</i> (3rd ed.). Chichester, New York, Brisbane, Toronto, Singapore: John Wiley & Sons. pp. 83–84. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-471-93808-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-471-93808-4"><bdi>0-471-93808-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Nature+of+the+Stratigraphical+Record&rft.place=Chichester%2C+New+York%2C+Brisbane%2C+Toronto%2C+Singapore&rft.pages=83-84&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=0-471-93808-4&rft.aulast=Ager&rft.aufirst=Derek+V.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniformitarianism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmithAurora_Pun2006" class="citation book cs1">Smith, Gary A; Aurora Pun (2006). <i>How Does Earth Work: Physical Geology and the Process of Science (textbook)</i>. New Jersey: Pearson/Prentice Hall. p. 12. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-13-034129-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-13-034129-0"><bdi>0-13-034129-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=How+Does+Earth+Work%3A+Physical+Geology+and+the+Process+of+Science+%28textbook%29&rft.place=New+Jersey&rft.pages=12&rft.pub=Pearson%2FPrentice+Hall&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-13-034129-0&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Gary+A&rft.au=Aurora+Pun&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniformitarianism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAger1993" class="citation book cs1">Ager, Derek V. (1993). <i>The Nature of the Stratigraphical Record</i> (3rd ed.). Chichester, New York, Brisbane, Toronto, Singapore: John Wiley & Sons. p. 81. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-471-93808-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-471-93808-4"><bdi>0-471-93808-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Nature+of+the+Stratigraphical+Record&rft.place=Chichester%2C+New+York%2C+Brisbane%2C+Toronto%2C+Singapore&rft.pages=81&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=0-471-93808-4&rft.aulast=Ager&rft.aufirst=Derek+V.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniformitarianism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gould174-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gould174_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGould1987">Gould 1987</a>, p. 174</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Columbia Encyclopedia Sixth Edition, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bartleby.com/65/un/uniformi.html">uniformitarianism</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060624122338/http://www.bartleby.com/65/un/uniformi.html">Archived</a> 2006-06-24 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></i> © 2007 Columbia University Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFForster2010" class="citation book cs1">Forster, Geoffrey P. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jS7CAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA62"><i>Half Life: Extending the Effective Lifespan of the Corporation</i></a>. APAC Press. p. 62.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Half+Life%3A+Extending+the+Effective+Lifespan+of+the+Corporation&rft.pages=62&rft.pub=APAC+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Forster&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjS7CAAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA62&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniformitarianism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_48-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_48-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRinge2012" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Donald_Ringe" title="Donald Ringe">Ringe, Donald</a> (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ling.upenn.edu/~beatrice/110/pdf/ringe/uniformitarian-principle.html">"The Uniformitarian Principle in linguistics"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/University_of_Pennsylvania_School_of_Arts_and_Sciences" title="University of Pennsylvania School of Arts and Sciences">University of Pennsylvania School of Arts and Sciences</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-03-22</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=University+of+Pennsylvania+School+of+Arts+and+Sciences&rft.atitle=The+Uniformitarian+Principle+in+linguistics&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Ringe&rft.aufirst=Donald&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ling.upenn.edu%2F~beatrice%2F110%2Fpdf%2Fringe%2Funiformitarian-principle.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniformitarianism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalkden2019" class="citation journal cs1">Walkden, George (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5334%2Fgjgl.888">"The many faces of uniformitarianism in linguistics"</a>. <i>Glossa: A Journal of General Linguistics</i>. <b>4</b> (1): 52. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5334%2Fgjgl.888">10.5334/gjgl.888</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2397-1835">2397-1835</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Glossa%3A+A+Journal+of+General+Linguistics&rft.atitle=The+many+faces+of+uniformitarianism+in+linguistics&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=52&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5334%2Fgjgl.888&rft.issn=2397-1835&rft.aulast=Walkden&rft.aufirst=George&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.5334%252Fgjgl.888&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniformitarianism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRomaine1988" class="citation book cs1">Romaine, Suzanne (1988). Ammon, Ulrich (ed.). <i>Historical Sociolinguistics: problems and methodology</i>. Berlin: De Gruyter. pp. II: 1452-1468.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+Sociolinguistics%3A+problems+and+methodology&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pages=II%3A+1452-1468&rft.pub=De+Gruyter&rft.date=1988&rft.aulast=Romaine&rft.aufirst=Suzanne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniformitarianism" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">|work=</code> ignored (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Uniformitarianism&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBowler2003" class="citation book cs1">Bowler, Peter J. (2003). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/evolutionhistory0000bowl_n7y8"><i>Evolution: The History of an Idea</i></a></span> (3rd ed.). University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-23693-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-520-23693-9"><bdi>0-520-23693-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Evolution%3A+The+History+of+an+Idea&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-520-23693-9&rft.aulast=Bowler&rft.aufirst=Peter+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fevolutionhistory0000bowl_n7y8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniformitarianism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGordon2013" class="citation journal cs1">Gordon, B. L. (2013). "In Defense of Uniformitarianism". <i><a href="/wiki/Perspectives_on_Science_and_Christian_Faith" title="Perspectives on Science and Christian Faith">Perspectives on Science and Christian Faith</a></i>. <b>65</b>: 79–86.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Perspectives+on+Science+and+Christian+Faith&rft.atitle=In+Defense+of+Uniformitarianism&rft.volume=65&rft.pages=79-86&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Gordon&rft.aufirst=B.+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniformitarianism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGould1965" class="citation journal cs1">Gould, S. J. (1965). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2475%2Fajs.263.3.223">"Is uniformitarianism necessary?"</a>. <i>American Journal of Science</i>. <b>263</b> (3): 223–228. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1965AmJS..263..223G">1965AmJS..263..223G</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2475%2Fajs.263.3.223">10.2475/ajs.263.3.223</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Science&rft.atitle=Is+uniformitarianism+necessary%3F&rft.volume=263&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=223-228&rft.date=1965&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2475%2Fajs.263.3.223&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1965AmJS..263..223G&rft.aulast=Gould&rft.aufirst=S.+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.2475%252Fajs.263.3.223&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniformitarianism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGould1984" class="citation book cs1">Gould, S. J. (1984). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/catastropheseart00berg">"Toward the vindication of punctuational change in catastrophes and earth history"</a></span>. In Berggren, W. A.; Van Couvering, J. A. (eds.). <i>In Catastrophes and Earth History</i>. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/catastropheseart00berg/page/11">11</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Toward+the+vindication+of+punctuational+change+in+catastrophes+and+earth+history&rft.btitle=In+Catastrophes+and+Earth+History&rft.place=Princeton%2C+New+Jersey&rft.pages=11&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1984&rft.aulast=Gould&rft.aufirst=S.+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcatastropheseart00berg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniformitarianism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGould1987" class="citation book cs1">Gould, Stephen J. (1987). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/timesarrowtimesc00step_0"><i>Time's Arrow, Time's Cycle: Myth and Metaphor in the Discovery of Geological Time</i></a></span>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Time%27s+Arrow%2C+Time%27s+Cycle%3A+Myth+and+Metaphor+in+the+Discovery+of+Geological+Time&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.aulast=Gould&rft.aufirst=Stephen+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftimesarrowtimesc00step_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniformitarianism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHooykaas1963" class="citation book cs1">Hooykaas, Reijer (1963). <i>The Principle of Uniformity in Geology, Biology, and Theology</i>. Natural Law and Divine Miracle. London: <a href="/wiki/E.J._Brill" class="mw-redirect" title="E.J. Brill">E.J. Brill</a>. p. 38.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Principle+of+Uniformity+in+Geology%2C+Biology%2C+and+Theology&rft.place=London&rft.series=Natural+Law+and+Divine+Miracle&rft.pages=38&rft.pub=E.J.+Brill&rft.date=1963&rft.aulast=Hooykaas&rft.aufirst=Reijer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniformitarianism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHuggett1990" class="citation book cs1">Huggett, Richard (1990). <i>Catastophism: Systems of Earth History</i>. London: Edward Arnold.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Catastophism%3A+Systems+of+Earth+History&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Edward+Arnold&rft.date=1990&rft.aulast=Huggett&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniformitarianism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimpson1963" class="citation book cs1">Simpson, G. G. (1963). "Historical science". In Albritton, C. C. Jr. (ed.). <i>Fabric of geology</i>. Stanford, California: Freeman, Cooper, and Company. pp. 24–48.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Historical+science&rft.btitle=Fabric+of+geology&rft.place=Stanford%2C+California&rft.pages=24-48&rft.pub=Freeman%2C+Cooper%2C+and+Company&rft.date=1963&rft.aulast=Simpson&rft.aufirst=G.+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniformitarianism" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <dl><dt>Web</dt></dl> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPidwirnyJones1999" class="citation web cs1">Pidwirny, Michael; Jones, Scott (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/10c.html">"Fundamentals of Physical Geography, (2 Edition). Chapter 10: Introduction to the Lithosphere, Section C: Concept of Uniformitarianism"</a>. University of British Columbia, Okanagan.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Fundamentals+of+Physical+Geography%2C+%282+Edition%29.+Chapter+10%3A+Introduction+to+the+Lithosphere%2C+Section+C%3A+Concept+of+Uniformitarianism&rft.pub=University+of+British+Columbia%2C+Okanagan&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Pidwirny&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft.au=Jones%2C+Scott&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.physicalgeography.net%2Ffundamentals%2F10c.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniformitarianism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomson,_1st_Baron_Kelvin1866" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lord_Kelvin" title="Lord Kelvin">Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin, William</a> (1866). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zapatopi.net/kelvin/papers/the_doctrine_of_uniformity_in_geology_briefly_refuted.html">"The "Doctrine of Uniformity" in Geology Briefly Refuted"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh</i>. pp. 512–13.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+Royal+Society+of+Edinburgh&rft.atitle=The+%22Doctrine+of+Uniformity%22+in+Geology+Briefly+Refuted&rft.pages=512-13&rft.date=1866&rft.aulast=Thomson%2C+1st+Baron+Kelvin&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fzapatopi.net%2Fkelvin%2Fpapers%2Fthe_doctrine_of_uniformity_in_geology_briefly_refuted.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniformitarianism" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_numeric_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list">link</a>)</span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading 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title="wikibooks:Historical Geology/Actualism">Actualism</a></b></i></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/10c.html">Uniformitarianism</a> at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://physicalgeography.net">Physical Geography</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://geography.about.com/od/physicalgeography/a/uniformitarian.htm">"Uniformitarianism"</a>. <i>Physical Geography</i>. 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J. Ayer">A. J. Ayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">George Berkeley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laurence_BonJour" title="Laurence BonJour">Laurence BonJour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Gilles Deleuze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keith_DeRose" title="Keith DeRose">Keith DeRose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">John Dewey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Dretske" title="Fred Dretske">Fred Dretske</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Gettier" title="Edmund Gettier">Edmund Gettier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Goldman" title="Alvin Goldman">Alvin Goldman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nelson_Goodman" title="Nelson Goodman">Nelson Goodman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Grice" title="Paul Grice">Paul Grice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anil_Gupta_(philosopher)" title="Anil Gupta (philosopher)">Anil Gupta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susan_Haack" title="Susan Haack">Susan Haack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Søren Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_D._Klein" title="Peter D. Klein">Peter Klein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Saul Kripke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Kornblith" title="Hilary Kornblith">Hilary Kornblith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Lewis_(philosopher)" title="David Lewis (philosopher)">David Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">G. E. Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_McDowell" title="John McDowell">John McDowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Robert Nozick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Alvin Plantinga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duncan_Pritchard" title="Duncan Pritchard">Duncan Pritchard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Pryor" title="James Pryor">James Pryor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Hilary Putnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">W. V. O. Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Reid" title="Thomas Reid">Thomas Reid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Gilbert Ryle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilfrid_Sellars" title="Wilfrid Sellars">Wilfrid Sellars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susanna_Siegel" title="Susanna Siegel">Susanna Siegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Sosa" title="Ernest Sosa">Ernest Sosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P._F._Strawson" title="P. F. Strawson">P. F. Strawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Williamson" title="Timothy Williamson">Timothy Williamson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Wolterstorff" title="Nicholas Wolterstorff">Nicholas Wolterstorff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_epistemologists" title="List of epistemologists">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Epistemological_theories" title="Category:Epistemological theories">Theories</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructivist_epistemology" class="mw-redirect" title="Constructivist epistemology">Constructivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contextualism" title="Contextualism">Contextualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_epistemology" title="Evolutionary epistemology">Evolutionary epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallibilism" title="Fallibilism">Fallibilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_epistemology" title="Feminist epistemology">Feminist epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_holism" title="Semantic holism">Holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infinitism" title="Infinitism">Infinitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Innatism" title="Innatism">Innatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Na%C3%AFve_realism" title="Naïve realism">Naïve realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Naturalized epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenalism" title="Phenomenalism">Phenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reliabilism" title="Reliabilism">Reliabilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_and_indirect_realism" title="Direct and indirect realism">Representational realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental idealism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Concepts_in_epistemology" title="Category:Concepts in epistemology">Concepts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori"><i>A priori</i> knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori"><i>A posteriori</i> knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_analysis" title="Philosophical analysis">Analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction" title="Analytic–synthetic distinction">Analytic–synthetic distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belief" title="Belief">Belief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_sense" title="Common sense">Common sense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Descriptive_knowledge" class="mw-redirect" title="Descriptive knowledge">Descriptive knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exploratory_thought" title="Exploratory thought">Exploratory thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemic_injustice" title="Epistemic injustice">Epistemic injustice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemic_virtue" title="Epistemic virtue">Epistemic virtue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gettier_problem" title="Gettier problem">Gettier problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">Induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalism_and_externalism" title="Internalism and externalism">Internalism and externalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justification_(epistemology)" title="Justification (epistemology)">Justification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">Knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privileged_access" class="mw-redirect" title="Privileged access">Privileged access</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_induction" title="Problem of induction">Problem of induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_other_minds" title="Problem of other minds">Problem of other minds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">Perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procedural_knowledge" title="Procedural knowledge">Procedural knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proposition" title="Proposition">Proposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regress_argument" class="mw-redirect" title="Regress argument">Regress argument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simplicity" title="Simplicity">Simplicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">Truth</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Index_of_epistemology_articles" title="Index of epistemology articles">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_epistemology" title="Outline of epistemology">Outline of epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_and_rationality" title="Faith and rationality">Faith and rationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formal_epistemology" title="Formal epistemology">Formal epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaepistemology" title="Metaepistemology">Metaepistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_perception" title="Philosophy of perception">Philosophy of perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_epistemology" title="Social epistemology">Social epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_epistemology" title="Virtue epistemology">Virtue epistemology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Epistemology" title="Category:Epistemology">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Philosophy/Epistemology" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Philosophy/Epistemology">Task Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_stubs" title="Category:Philosophy stubs">Stubs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia_talk:WikiProject_Philosophy" title="Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Philosophy">Discussion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Philosophy_of_science" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_of_science" title="Template:Philosophy of science"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_of_science" title="Template talk:Philosophy of science"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy_of_science" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy of science"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Philosophy_of_science" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_analysis" title="Philosophical analysis">Analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction" title="Analytic–synthetic distinction">Analytic–synthetic distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori"><i>A priori</i> and <i>a posteriori</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">Causality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mill%27s_Methods" title="Mill's Methods">Mill's Methods</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commensurability_(philosophy_of_science)" title="Commensurability (philosophy of science)">Commensurability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consilience" title="Consilience">Consilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construct_(philosophy)" title="Construct (philosophy)">Construct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Correlation" title="Correlation">Correlation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Correlation_function" title="Correlation function">function</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creative_synthesis" title="Creative synthesis">Creative synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demarcation_problem" title="Demarcation problem">Demarcation problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empirical_evidence" title="Empirical evidence">Empirical evidence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experiment" title="Experiment">Experiment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Design_of_experiments" title="Design of experiments">design</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Explanatory_power" title="Explanatory power">Explanatory power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fact" title="Fact">Fact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsifiability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_method" title="Feminist method">Feminist method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_contextualism" title="Functional contextualism">Functional contextualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">Hypothesis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_hypothesis" title="Alternative hypothesis">alternative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Null_hypothesis" title="Null hypothesis">null</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ignoramus_et_ignorabimus" title="Ignoramus et ignorabimus">Ignoramus et ignorabimus</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">Inductive reasoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertheoretic_reduction" title="Intertheoretic reduction">Intertheoretic reduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inquiry" title="Inquiry">Inquiry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_(philosophy)" title="Nature (philosophy)">Nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Observation" title="Observation">Observation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradigm" title="Paradigm">Paradigm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_induction" title="Problem of induction">Problem of induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_evidence" title="Scientific evidence">Scientific evidence</a> <ul><li><a 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title="Unity of science">Unity of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variable_and_attribute_(research)" title="Variable and attribute (research)">Variable</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Control_variable" title="Control variable">control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dependent_and_independent_variables" title="Dependent and independent variables">dependent and independent</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy_of_science_articles" title="Index of philosophy of science articles">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confirmation_holism" title="Confirmation holism">Confirmation holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructive_empiricism" title="Constructive empiricism">Constructive empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructive_realism" title="Constructive realism">Constructive realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructivist_epistemology" class="mw-redirect" title="Constructivist epistemology">Constructivist epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contextualism" title="Contextualism">Contextualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conventionalism" title="Conventionalism">Conventionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deductive-nomological_model" title="Deductive-nomological model">Deductive-nomological model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_anarchism" class="mw-redirect" title="Epistemological anarchism">Epistemological anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionism" title="Evolutionism">Evolutionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallibilism" title="Fallibilism">Fallibilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypothetico-deductive_model" title="Hypothetico-deductive model">Hypothetico-deductive model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductionism" title="Inductionism">Inductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instrumentalism" title="Instrumentalism">Instrumentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Model-dependent_realism" title="Model-dependent realism">Model-dependent realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Received_view_of_theories" title="Received view of theories">Received view</a> / <a 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</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophy of...</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_biology" title="Philosophy of biology">Biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_chemistry" title="Philosophy of chemistry">Chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_physics" title="Philosophy of physics">Physics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_space_and_time" title="Philosophy of space and time">Space and time</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">Social science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_archaeology" title="Philosophy of archaeology">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of economics">Economics‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_geography" title="Philosophy of geography">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_linguistics" title="Philosophy of linguistics">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">Psychology</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_science" title="Criticism of science">Criticism of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Descriptive_research" title="Descriptive research">Descriptive science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exact_sciences" title="Exact sciences">Exact sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_and_rationality" title="Faith and rationality">Faith and rationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hard_and_soft_science" title="Hard and soft science">Hard and soft science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_and_philosophy_of_science" title="History and philosophy of science">History and philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-science" title="Non-science">Non-science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normative_science" title="Normative science">Normative science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protoscience" title="Protoscience">Protoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Questionable_cause" title="Questionable cause">Questionable cause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Relationship between religion and science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_of_science" title="Rhetoric of science">Rhetoric of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_studies" title="Science studies">Science studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_ignorance" title="Sociology of scientific ignorance">Sociology of scientific ignorance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Sociology of scientific knowledge">Sociology of scientific knowledge</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophers_of_science" title="List of philosophers of science">Philosophers of science</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Precursors" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Precursors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Bacon" title="Roger Bacon">Roger Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Francis Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Auguste Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Poincar%C3%A9" title="Henri Poincaré">Henri Poincaré</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Duhem" title="Pierre Duhem">Pierre Duhem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Steiner" title="Rudolf Steiner">Rudolf Steiner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Pearson" title="Karl Pearson">Karl Pearson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Charles Sanders Peirce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Windelband" title="Wilhelm Windelband">Wilhelm Windelband</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Alfred North Whitehead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Neurath" title="Otto Neurath">Otto Neurath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._D._Broad" title="C. D. Broad">C. D. Broad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Polanyi" title="Michael Polanyi">Michael Polanyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Reichenbach" title="Hans Reichenbach">Hans Reichenbach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Rudolf Carnap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Gustav_Hempel" title="Carl Gustav Hempel">Carl Gustav Hempel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">W. V. O. 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