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data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Calculating_the_amount_of_available_power" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Calculating_the_amount_of_available_power"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Calculating the amount of available power</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Calculating_the_amount_of_available_power-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Disadvantages_and_limitations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Disadvantages_and_limitations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Disadvantages and limitations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Disadvantages_and_limitations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Applications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Applications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Applications</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Applications-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Applications subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Applications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mechanical_power" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mechanical_power"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Mechanical power</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mechanical_power-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Watermills" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Watermills"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.1</span> <span>Watermills</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Watermills-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Compressed_air" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Compressed_air"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.2</span> <span>Compressed air</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Compressed_air-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Electricity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electricity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Electricity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electricity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rain_power" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rain_power"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Rain power</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rain_power-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ancient_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancient_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Ancient history</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ancient_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-19th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#19th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>19th century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-19th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-20th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#20th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>20th century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-20th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3.1</span> <span>United States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3.2</span> <span>Africa</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3.3</span> <span>Europe</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Hydropower</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 76 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-76" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">76 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterkrag" title="Waterkrag – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Waterkrag" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wasserkraft" title="Wasserkraft – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Wasserkraft" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B7%D8%A7%D9%82%D8%A9_%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="طاقة مائية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="طاقة مائية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enerch%C3%ADa_hidraulica" title="Enerchía hidraulica – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Enerchía hidraulica" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enerx%C3%ADa_hidr%C3%A1ulico" title="Enerxía hidráulico – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Enerxía hidráulico" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidroelektrik_enerji" title="Hidroelektrik enerji – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Hidroelektrik enerji" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%B2_%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF" title="জল শক্তি – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="জল শক্তি" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%C3%BAi-le%CC%8Dk" title="Chúi-le̍k – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Chúi-le̍k" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%96%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%8D%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Гідраэнергія – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Гідраэнергія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%96%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%8D%D0%BD%D1%8D%D1%80%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Гідраэнэргія – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Гідраэнэргія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B8%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Хидроенергетика – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Хидроенергетика" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidroenergija" title="Hidroenergija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Hidroenergija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energia_hidr%C3%A0ulica" title="Energia hidràulica – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Energia hidràulica" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vodn%C3%AD_energie" title="Vodní energie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Vodní energie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egni_hydro" title="Egni hydro – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Egni hydro" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vandkraft" title="Vandkraft – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Vandkraft" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wasserkraft" title="Wasserkraft – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Wasserkraft" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%BCdroenergia" title="Hüdroenergia – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Hüdroenergia" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A5%CE%B4%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%85%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%B5%CE%BD%CE%AD%CF%81%CE%B3%CE%B5%CE%B9%CE%B1" title="Υδραυλική ενέργεια – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Υδραυλική ενέργεια" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energ%C3%ADa_hidr%C3%A1ulica" title="Energía hidráulica – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Energía hidráulica" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akvoenergio" title="Akvoenergio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Akvoenergio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energia_hidrauliko" title="Energia hidrauliko – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Energia hidrauliko" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B1%DA%98%DB%8C_%D8%A2%D8%A8%DB%8C" title="انرژی آبی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="انرژی آبی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vatnorka" title="Vatnorka – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Vatnorka" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Føroyskt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89nergie_hydraulique" title="Énergie hydraulique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Énergie hydraulique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuinneamh_hiodr%C3%A1lach" title="Fuinneamh hiodrálach – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Fuinneamh hiodrálach" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cumhachd-uisge" title="Cumhachd-uisge – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Cumhachd-uisge" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enerx%C3%ADa_hidr%C3%A1ulica" title="Enerxía hidráulica – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Enerxía hidráulica" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B0%B4%E5%8A%9B" title="水力 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="水力" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>贛語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%88%98%EB%A0%A5" title="수력 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="수력" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF" title="जलशक्ति – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="जलशक्ति" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidroenergija" title="Hidroenergija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Hidroenergija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tenaga_air" title="Tenaga air – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Tenaga air" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vatnsafl" title="Vatnsafl – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Vatnsafl" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energia_idraulica" title="Energia idraulica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Energia idraulica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%A8%D7%92%D7%99%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%9D" title="אנרגיית מים – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אנרגיית מים" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B8%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%8D%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Гидроэнергия – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Гидроэнергия" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidroener%C4%A3ija" title="Hidroenerģija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Hidroenerģija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidroenergija" title="Hidroenergija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Hidroenergija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%ADzenergia" title="Vízenergia – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Vízenergia" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B8%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Хидроенергија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Хидроенергија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9B%E1%80%B1%E1%80%A1%E1%80%AC%E1%80%B8" title="ရေအား – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ရေအား" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterkracht" title="Waterkracht – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Waterkracht" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A4" title="जलविद्युत – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="जलविद्युत" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B0%B4%E5%8A%9B" title="水力 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="水力" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vannkraft" title="Vannkraft – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Vannkraft" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vassenergi" title="Vassenergi – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Vassenergi" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energia_idraulica" title="Energia idraulica – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Energia idraulica" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%88_%DA%85%D8%AE%D9%87_%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B1%DA%98%DB%8D_%D8%AA%D8%B1_%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%87_%DA%A9%D9%88%D9%84_(%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%A8%D9%88_%D8%AF_%DA%81%D9%88%D8%A7%DA%A9_%D9%BE%D9%87_%D9%85%D9%BC_%DA%81%D9%8A%D9%86%DB%90_%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%86%D9%87_%DA%A9%D9%88%D9%84)" title="د ابو څخه د انرژۍ تر لاسه کول (د اوبو د ځواک په مټ ځينې کارونه کول) – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د ابو څخه د انرژۍ تر لاسه کول (د اوبو د ځواک په مټ ځينې کارونه کول)" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aijropowa" title="Aijropowa – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Aijropowa" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energia_wodna" title="Energia wodna – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Energia wodna" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energia_hidr%C3%A1ulica" title="Energia hidráulica – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Energia hidráulica" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energie_hidraulic%C4%83" title="Energie hidraulică – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Energie hidraulică" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B8%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%8D%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Гидроэнергия – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Гидроэнергия" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydropouer" title="Hydropouer – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Hydropouer" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidroenergjia" title="Hidroenergjia – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Hidroenergjia" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%A2%E0%B6%BD_%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%94%E0%B6%BD%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%BA" title="ජල විදුලිය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ජල විදුලිය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydropower" title="Hydropower – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Hydropower" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vodn%C3%A1_energia" title="Vodná energia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Vodná energia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vodna_energija" title="Vodna energija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Vodna energija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%D8%B2%DB%95%DB%8C_%D8%A6%D8%A7%D9%88" title="وزەی ئاو – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="وزەی ئاو" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B8%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Хидроенергија – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Хидроенергија" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidroenergija" title="Hidroenergija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Hidroenergija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vesivoima" title="Vesivoima – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Vesivoima" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vattenkraft" title="Vattenkraft – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Vattenkraft" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A8%E0%AF%80%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%86%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B1%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="நீர் ஆற்றல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="நீர் ஆற்றல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%9C%E0%B0%B2%E0%B0%B6%E0%B0%95%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%A4%E0%B0%BF" title="జలశక్తి – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="జలశక్తి" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%B3" title="พลังงานน้ำ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="พลังงานน้ำ" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidrolik_g%C3%BC%C3%A7" title="Hidrolik güç – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Hidrolik güç" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%96%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Гідроенергія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Гідроенергія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%81%D8%A7%D8%A6%DB%8C%DA%88%D8%B1%D9%88_%D9%BE%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%B1" title="ہائیڈرو پاور – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="ہائیڈرو پاور" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%E1%BB%A7y_n%C4%83ng" title="Thủy năng – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Thủy năng" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kusog_han_tubig" title="Kusog han tubig – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Kusog han tubig" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B0%B4%E5%8A%9B%E8%B5%84%E6%BA%90" title="水力资源 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="水力资源" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B0%B4%E5%8A%9B" title="水力 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="水力" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B0%B4%E5%8A%9B" title="水力 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="水力" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q170196#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" 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searchaux" style="display:none">Power generation via movement of water</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the general concept of hydropower. 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<li><a href="/wiki/Rail_transport" title="Rail transport">Rail transport</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tram" title="Tram">Tram</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapid_transit" title="Rapid transit">Rapid transit</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Personal_rapid_transit" title="Personal rapid transit">Personal rapid transit</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Renewable_energy" title="Category:Renewable energy">Category</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wind-turbine-icon.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Wind-turbine-icon.svg/16px-Wind-turbine-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Wind-turbine-icon.svg/24px-Wind-turbine-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Wind-turbine-icon.svg/32px-Wind-turbine-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Renewable_energy" title="Portal:Renewable energy">Renewable energy portal</a></span></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Sustainable_energy" title="Template:Sustainable energy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Sustainable_energy" title="Template talk:Sustainable energy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Sustainable_energy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Sustainable energy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Hydropower</b> (from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Ancient Greek</a> <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">ὑδρο</span></span>-, "water"), also known as <b>water power</b>, is the use of falling or fast-running <a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</a> to <a href="/wiki/Electricity_generation" title="Electricity generation">produce electricity</a> or to power machines. This is achieved by <a href="/wiki/Energy_transformation" title="Energy transformation">converting</a> the <a href="/wiki/Potential_energy" title="Potential energy">gravitational potential</a> or <a href="/wiki/Kinetic_energy" title="Kinetic energy">kinetic energy</a> of a water source to produce power.<sup id="cite_ref-Egré-2002_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Egré-2002-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hydropower is a method of <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_energy" title="Sustainable energy">sustainable energy</a> production. Hydropower is now used principally for <a href="/wiki/Hydroelectricity" title="Hydroelectricity">hydroelectric power generation</a>, and is also applied as one half of an energy storage system known as <a href="/wiki/Pumped-storage_hydroelectricity" title="Pumped-storage hydroelectricity">pumped-storage hydroelectricity</a>. </p><p>Hydropower is an attractive alternative to <a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">fossil fuels</a> as it does not directly produce <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth%27s_atmosphere" title="Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere">carbon dioxide</a> or other <a href="/wiki/Air_pollution" title="Air pollution">atmospheric pollutants</a> and it provides a relatively consistent source of power. Nonetheless, it has economic, sociological, and environmental downsides and requires a sufficiently energetic source of water, such as a <a href="/wiki/River" title="River">river</a> or elevated <a href="/wiki/Lake" title="Lake">lake</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> International institutions such as the <a href="/wiki/World_Bank" title="World Bank">World Bank</a> view hydropower as a low-carbon means for <a href="/wiki/Economic_development" title="Economic development">economic development</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-WP58132_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WP58132-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since ancient times, hydropower from <a href="/wiki/Watermill" title="Watermill">watermills</a> has been used as a <a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">renewable energy</a> source for <a href="/wiki/Irrigation" title="Irrigation">irrigation</a> and the operation of mechanical devices, such as <a href="/wiki/Gristmill" title="Gristmill">gristmills</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sawmill" title="Sawmill">sawmills</a>, <a href="/wiki/Textile" title="Textile">textile</a> mills, <a href="/wiki/Trip_hammer" title="Trip hammer">trip hammers</a>, dock <a href="/wiki/Crane_(machine)" title="Crane (machine)">cranes</a>, domestic <a href="/wiki/Elevator" title="Elevator">lifts</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ore_mill" class="mw-redirect" title="Ore mill">ore mills</a>. A <a href="/wiki/Trompe" title="Trompe">trompe</a>, which produces compressed air from falling water, is sometimes used to power other machinery at a distance.<sup id="cite_ref-Hill-2013_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hill-2013-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Egré-2002_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Egré-2002-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Calculating_the_amount_of_available_power">Calculating the amount of available power</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydropower&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Calculating the amount of available power"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Dam_(2890371280).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/The_Dam_%282890371280%29.jpg/290px-The_Dam_%282890371280%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="194" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/The_Dam_%282890371280%29.jpg/435px-The_Dam_%282890371280%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/The_Dam_%282890371280%29.jpg/580px-The_Dam_%282890371280%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3872" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Three_Gorges_Dam" title="Three Gorges Dam">Three Gorges Dam</a> in China; the hydroelectric dam is the world's largest power station by <a href="/wiki/Installed_capacity" class="mw-redirect" title="Installed capacity">installed capacity</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>A hydropower resource can be evaluated by its available <a href="/wiki/Power_(physics)" title="Power (physics)">power</a>. Power is a function of the <a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_head" title="Hydraulic head">hydraulic head</a> and <a href="/wiki/Volumetric_flow_rate" title="Volumetric flow rate">volumetric flow rate</a>. The head is the energy per unit weight (or unit mass) of water.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The static head is proportional to the difference in height through which the water falls. Dynamic head is related to the velocity of moving water. Each unit of water can do an amount of work equal to its weight times the head. </p><p>The power available from falling water can be calculated from the flow rate and density of water, the height of fall, and the local acceleration due to gravity: </p> <dl><dd><dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\dot {W}}_{\text{out}}=-\eta \ {\dot {m}}g\ \Delta h=-\eta \ \rho {\dot {V}}\ g\ \Delta h}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mi>W</mi> <mo>˙</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>out</mtext> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mo>−</mo> <mi>η</mi> <mtext> </mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mi>m</mi> <mo>˙</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mrow> <mi>g</mi> <mtext> </mtext> <mi mathvariant="normal">Δ</mi> <mi>h</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mo>−</mo> <mi>η</mi> <mtext> </mtext> <mi>ρ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mi>V</mi> <mo>˙</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mrow> <mtext> </mtext> <mi>g</mi> <mtext> </mtext> <mi mathvariant="normal">Δ</mi> <mi>h</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\dot {W}}_{\text{out}}=-\eta \ {\dot {m}}g\ \Delta h=-\eta \ \rho {\dot {V}}\ g\ \Delta h}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a6a4d7a3895ee5f44f8453626d709c28b92a8a45" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:33.91ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\dot {W}}_{\text{out}}=-\eta \ {\dot {m}}g\ \Delta h=-\eta \ \rho {\dot {V}}\ g\ \Delta h}"></span></dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dd>where <dl><dd><ul><li><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\dot {W}}_{\text{out}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mi>W</mi> <mo>˙</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>out</mtext> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\dot {W}}_{\text{out}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/e54397dbc236411f7793420394e307b7c3e81028" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:5.043ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\dot {W}}_{\text{out}}}"></span> (<a href="/wiki/Work_(physics)" title="Work (physics)">work</a> flow rate out) is the useful power output (SI unit: <a href="/wiki/Watt" title="Watt">watts</a>)</li> <li><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \eta }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>η</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \eta }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/e4d701857cf5fbec133eebaf94deadf722537f64" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:1.169ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \eta }"></span> ("<a href="/wiki/Eta_(Greek_letter)" class="mw-redirect" title="Eta (Greek letter)">eta</a>") is the efficiency of the turbine (<a href="/wiki/Dimensionless" class="mw-redirect" title="Dimensionless">dimensionless</a>)</li> <li><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\dot {m}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mi>m</mi> <mo>˙</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\dot {m}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ad59b9876301e8fb75b9ddbf08de594b87251d3b" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.04ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\dot {m}}}"></span> is the <a href="/wiki/Mass_flow_rate" title="Mass flow rate">mass flow rate</a> (SI unit: <a href="/wiki/Kilogram" title="Kilogram">kilograms</a> per second)</li> <li><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \rho }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>ρ</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \rho }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1f7d439671d1289b6a816e6af7a304be40608d64" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:1.202ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \rho }"></span> ("<a href="/wiki/Rho_(Greek_letter)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rho (Greek letter)">rho</a>") is the <a href="/wiki/Density" title="Density">density</a> of water (SI unit: kilograms per <a href="/wiki/Cubic_metre" title="Cubic metre">cubic metre</a>)</li> <li><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\dot {V}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mi>V</mi> <mo>˙</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\dot {V}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/49ef9fa9f410331b94e4578bab90e9edda5c919b" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.787ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\dot {V}}}"></span> is the <a href="/wiki/Volumetric_flow_rate" title="Volumetric flow rate">volumetric flow rate</a> (SI unit: cubic metres per second)</li> <li><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle g}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>g</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle g}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/d3556280e66fe2c0d0140df20935a6f057381d77" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.116ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle g}"></span> is the <a href="/wiki/Standard_gravity" title="Standard gravity">acceleration due to gravity</a> (SI unit: <a href="/wiki/Meter_(unit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Meter (unit)">metres</a> per second per second)</li> <li><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \Delta h}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi mathvariant="normal">Δ</mi> <mi>h</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \Delta h}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/af7b7e75abcd97007405341555a3958cc020265e" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:3.275ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \Delta h}"></span> ("<a href="/wiki/Delta_(Greek_letter)" class="mw-redirect" title="Delta (Greek letter)">Delta</a> h") is the difference in height between the outlet and inlet (SI unit: metres)</li></ul></dd></dl></dd></dl> <p>To illustrate, the power output of a turbine that is 85% efficient, with a flow rate of 80 cubic metres per second (2800 cubic feet per second) and a head of 145 metres (476 feet), is 97 megawatts:<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\dot {W}}_{\text{out}}=0.85\times 1000\ ({\text{kg}}/{\text{m}}^{3})\times 80\ ({\text{m}}^{3}/{\text{s}})\times 9.81\ ({\text{m}}/{\text{s}}^{2})\times 145\ {\text{m}}=97\times 10^{6}\ ({\text{kg}}\ {\text{m}}^{2}/{\text{s}}^{3})=97\ {\text{MW}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mi>W</mi> <mo>˙</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>out</mtext> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mn>0.85</mn> <mo>×</mo> <mn>1000</mn> <mtext> </mtext> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>kg</mtext> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>m</mtext> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>×</mo> <mn>80</mn> <mtext> </mtext> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>m</mtext> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>s</mtext> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>×</mo> <mn>9.81</mn> <mtext> </mtext> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>m</mtext> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>s</mtext> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>×</mo> <mn>145</mn> <mtext> </mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>m</mtext> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mn>97</mn> <mo>×</mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>6</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mtext> </mtext> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>kg</mtext> </mrow> <mtext> </mtext> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>m</mtext> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>s</mtext> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>=</mo> <mn>97</mn> <mtext> </mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>MW</mtext> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\dot {W}}_{\text{out}}=0.85\times 1000\ ({\text{kg}}/{\text{m}}^{3})\times 80\ ({\text{m}}^{3}/{\text{s}})\times 9.81\ ({\text{m}}/{\text{s}}^{2})\times 145\ {\text{m}}=97\times 10^{6}\ ({\text{kg}}\ {\text{m}}^{2}/{\text{s}}^{3})=97\ {\text{MW}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b9f8f55f515ac96baf340d6ac996d99809b0212b" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:98.251ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\dot {W}}_{\text{out}}=0.85\times 1000\ ({\text{kg}}/{\text{m}}^{3})\times 80\ ({\text{m}}^{3}/{\text{s}})\times 9.81\ ({\text{m}}/{\text{s}}^{2})\times 145\ {\text{m}}=97\times 10^{6}\ ({\text{kg}}\ {\text{m}}^{2}/{\text{s}}^{3})=97\ {\text{MW}}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>Operators of hydroelectric stations compare the total electrical energy produced with the theoretical potential energy of the water passing through the turbine to calculate efficiency. Procedures and definitions for calculation of efficiency are given in test codes such as <a href="/wiki/ASME" class="mw-redirect" title="ASME">ASME</a> PTC 18 and <a href="/wiki/International_Electrotechnical_Commission" title="International Electrotechnical Commission">IEC</a> 60041. Field testing of turbines is used to validate the manufacturer's efficiency guarantee. Detailed calculation of the efficiency of a hydropower turbine accounts for the head lost due to flow friction in the power canal or penstock, rise in tailwater level due to flow, the location of the station and effect of varying gravity, the air temperature and barometric pressure, the density of the water at ambient temperature, and the relative altitudes of the forebay and tailbay. For precise calculations, errors due to rounding and the number of <a href="/wiki/Significant_digit" class="mw-redirect" title="Significant digit">significant digits</a> of constants must be considered.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some hydropower systems such as <a href="/wiki/Water_wheel" title="Water wheel">water wheels</a> can draw power from the flow of a body of water without necessarily changing its height. In this case, the available power is the <a href="/wiki/Kinetic_energy" title="Kinetic energy">kinetic energy</a> of the flowing water. Over-shot water wheels can efficiently capture both types of energy.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The flow in a stream can vary widely from season to season. The development of a hydropower site requires analysis of <a href="/wiki/Streamflow" title="Streamflow">flow records</a>, sometimes spanning decades, to assess the reliable annual energy supply. Dams and reservoirs provide a more dependable source of power by smoothing seasonal changes in water flow. However, reservoirs have a significant <a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_reservoirs" title="Environmental impact of reservoirs">environmental impact</a>, as does alteration of naturally occurring streamflow. Dam design must account for the worst-case, "probable maximum flood" that can be expected at the site; a <a href="/wiki/Spillway" title="Spillway">spillway</a> is often included to route flood flows around the dam. A computer <a href="/wiki/Hydrological_model" title="Hydrological model">model of the hydraulic basin</a> and rainfall and snowfall records are used to predict the maximum flood.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2014)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Disadvantages_and_limitations">Disadvantages and limitations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydropower&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Disadvantages and limitations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Hydroelectricity#Disadvantages" title="Hydroelectricity">Hydroelectricity § Disadvantages</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_debate#Hydroelectricity" title="Renewable energy debate">Renewable energy debate § Hydroelectricity</a></div> <p>Some disadvantages of hydropower have been identified. <a href="/wiki/Dam_failure" title="Dam failure">Dam failures</a> can have catastrophic effects, including loss of life, property and pollution of land. </p> <p><a href="/wiki/Dam" title="Dam">Dams</a> and <a href="/wiki/Reservoir" title="Reservoir">reservoirs</a> can have major negative impacts on river <a href="/wiki/Ecosystems" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecosystems">ecosystems</a> such as preventing some animals traveling upstream, cooling and de-oxygenating of water released downstream, and loss of nutrients due to settling of particulates.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> River sediment builds river deltas and dams prevent them from restoring what is lost from erosion.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, studies found that the construction of dams and reservoirs can result in habitat loss for some aquatic species.<sup id="cite_ref-Breeze-2018_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Breeze-2018-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Garwnant_Hydropower_Scheme%2C_Breckon_Beacons%2C_Cymru%2C_%28Wales%29.webm/220px--Garwnant_Hydropower_Scheme%2C_Breckon_Beacons%2C_Cymru%2C_%28Wales%29.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="124" data-durationhint="264" data-mwtitle="Garwnant_Hydropower_Scheme,_Breckon_Beacons,_Cymru,_(Wales).webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Garwnant_Hydropower_Scheme,_Breckon_Beacons,_Cymru,_(Wales).webm"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/e/e6/Garwnant_Hydropower_Scheme%2C_Breckon_Beacons%2C_Cymru%2C_%28Wales%29.webm/Garwnant_Hydropower_Scheme%2C_Breckon_Beacons%2C_Cymru%2C_%28Wales%29.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/e/e6/Garwnant_Hydropower_Scheme%2C_Breckon_Beacons%2C_Cymru%2C_%28Wales%29.webm/Garwnant_Hydropower_Scheme%2C_Breckon_Beacons%2C_Cymru%2C_%28Wales%29.webm.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e6/Garwnant_Hydropower_Scheme%2C_Breckon_Beacons%2C_Cymru%2C_%28Wales%29.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/e/e6/Garwnant_Hydropower_Scheme%2C_Breckon_Beacons%2C_Cymru%2C_%28Wales%29.webm/Garwnant_Hydropower_Scheme%2C_Breckon_Beacons%2C_Cymru%2C_%28Wales%29.webm.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="256" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/e/e6/Garwnant_Hydropower_Scheme%2C_Breckon_Beacons%2C_Cymru%2C_%28Wales%29.webm/Garwnant_Hydropower_Scheme%2C_Breckon_Beacons%2C_Cymru%2C_%28Wales%29.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /></video></span><figcaption>A hydropower scheme which harnesses the power of the water which pours down from the Brecon Beacons mountains, <a href="/wiki/Wales" title="Wales">Wales</a>; 2017</figcaption></figure><p>Large and deep dam and reservoir plants cover large areas of land which causes <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">greenhouse gas emissions</a> from underwater rotting vegetation. Furthermore, although at lower levels than other <a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">renewable energy</a> sources,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> it was found that hydropower produces <a href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane">methane</a> equivalent to almost a billion tonnes of CO2 greenhouse gas a year.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This occurs when organic matters accumulate at the bottom of the reservoir because of the <a href="/wiki/Deoxygenation" title="Deoxygenation">deoxygenation</a> of water which triggers <a href="/wiki/Anaerobic_digestion" title="Anaerobic digestion">anaerobic digestion</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Breeze-2019_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Breeze-2019-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>People who live near a <a href="/wiki/Hydro_plant" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydro plant">hydro plant</a> site are displaced during construction or when <a href="/wiki/Reservoir" title="Reservoir">reservoir</a> banks become unstable.<sup id="cite_ref-Breeze-2018_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Breeze-2018-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another potential disadvantage is cultural or <a href="/wiki/List_of_religious_sites" title="List of religious sites">religious sites</a> may block construction.<sup id="cite_ref-Breeze-2018_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Breeze-2018-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Applications">Applications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydropower&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Applications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Higashiyama_Botanical_Garden_Shishiodoshi_20170617.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Higashiyama_Botanical_Garden_Shishiodoshi_20170617.gif/220px-Higashiyama_Botanical_Garden_Shishiodoshi_20170617.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Higashiyama_Botanical_Garden_Shishiodoshi_20170617.gif/330px-Higashiyama_Botanical_Garden_Shishiodoshi_20170617.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Higashiyama_Botanical_Garden_Shishiodoshi_20170617.gif/440px-Higashiyama_Botanical_Garden_Shishiodoshi_20170617.gif 2x" data-file-width="972" data-file-height="648" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Shishi-odoshi" title="Shishi-odoshi">shishi-odoshi</a> powered by falling water breaks the quietness of a Japanese garden with the sound of a bamboo rocker arm hitting a rock.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mechanical_power">Mechanical power</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydropower&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Mechanical power"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Watermills">Watermills</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydropower&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Watermills"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Watermill" title="Watermill">Watermill</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watermill&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Braine-le-Ch%C3%A2teau_JPG02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Braine-le-Ch%C3%A2teau_JPG02.jpg/220px-Braine-le-Ch%C3%A2teau_JPG02.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Braine-le-Ch%C3%A2teau_JPG02.jpg/330px-Braine-le-Ch%C3%A2teau_JPG02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Braine-le-Ch%C3%A2teau_JPG02.jpg/440px-Braine-le-Ch%C3%A2teau_JPG02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2272" data-file-height="1704" /></a><figcaption>Watermill of <a href="/wiki/Braine-le-Ch%C3%A2teau" title="Braine-le-Château">Braine-le-Château</a>, Belgium (12th century)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:WaterMill_Interior_MotionBlur.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/WaterMill_Interior_MotionBlur.jpg/220px-WaterMill_Interior_MotionBlur.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/WaterMill_Interior_MotionBlur.jpg/330px-WaterMill_Interior_MotionBlur.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/WaterMill_Interior_MotionBlur.jpg/440px-WaterMill_Interior_MotionBlur.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4272" data-file-height="2848" /></a><figcaption>Interior of the <a href="/wiki/Lyme_Regis" title="Lyme Regis">Lyme Regis</a> watermill, UK (14th century)</figcaption></figure> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Watermill" title="Watermill">watermill</a> or water mill is a mill that uses hydropower. It is a structure that uses a <a href="/wiki/Water_wheel" title="Water wheel">water wheel</a> or <a href="/wiki/Water_turbine" title="Water turbine">water turbine</a> to drive a mechanical process such as <a href="/wiki/Mill_(grinding)" title="Mill (grinding)">milling (grinding)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rolling" title="Rolling">rolling</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Hammer" title="Hammer">hammering</a>. Such processes are needed in the production of many material goods, including <a href="/wiki/Flour" title="Flour">flour</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lumber" title="Lumber">lumber</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paper" title="Paper">paper</a>, <a href="/wiki/Textile" title="Textile">textiles</a>, and many <a href="/wiki/Metal" title="Metal">metal</a> products. These watermills may comprise <a href="/wiki/Gristmill" title="Gristmill">gristmills</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sawmill" title="Sawmill">sawmills</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paper_mill" title="Paper mill">paper mills</a>, <a href="/wiki/Textile_mill" class="mw-redirect" title="Textile mill">textile mills</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hammermill" title="Hammermill">hammermills</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trip_hammer" title="Trip hammer">trip hammering</a> mills, <a href="/wiki/Rolling_mill" class="mw-redirect" title="Rolling mill">rolling mills</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Wire_drawing" title="Wire drawing">wire drawing</a> mills. </p><p>One major way to classify watermills is by wheel orientation (vertical or horizontal), one powered by a vertical waterwheel through a <a href="/wiki/Gear_train" title="Gear train">gear</a> mechanism, and the other equipped with a horizontal waterwheel without such a mechanism. The former type can be further subdivided, depending on where the water hits the wheel paddles, into undershot, overshot, breastshot and pitchback (backshot or reverse shot) waterwheel mills. Another way to classify water mills is by an essential trait about their location: <a href="/wiki/Tide_mill" title="Tide mill">tide mills</a> use the movement of the tide; <a href="/wiki/Ship_mill" title="Ship mill">ship mills</a> are water mills onboard (and constituting) a ship. </p> Watermills impact the river dynamics of the watercourses where they are installed. During the time watermills operate channels tend to <a href="/wiki/Sedimentation" title="Sedimentation">sedimentate</a>, particularly <a href="/wiki/Backwater_(river)" title="Backwater (river)">backwater</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Watermill_MaasSchuttrumpf2019_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Watermill_MaasSchuttrumpf2019-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also in the backwater area, <a href="/wiki/Flood" title="Flood">inundation events</a> and sedimentation of adjacent <a href="/wiki/Floodplain" title="Floodplain">floodplains</a> increase. Over time however these effects are cancelled by river banks becoming higher.<sup id="cite_ref-Watermill_MaasSchuttrumpf2019_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Watermill_MaasSchuttrumpf2019-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Where mills have been removed, <a href="/wiki/River_incision" title="River incision">river incision</a> increases and <a href="/wiki/Channel_(geography)" title="Channel (geography)">channels</a> deepen.<sup id="cite_ref-Watermill_MaasSchuttrumpf2019_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Watermill_MaasSchuttrumpf2019-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Compressed_air">Compressed air</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydropower&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Compressed air"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Trompe" title="Trompe">Trompe</a></div> <p>A plentiful head of water can be made to generate <a href="/wiki/Compressed_air" title="Compressed air">compressed air</a> directly without moving parts. In these designs, a falling column of water is deliberately mixed with air bubbles generated through turbulence or a <a href="/wiki/Venturi_effect" title="Venturi effect">venturi</a> pressure reducer at the high-level intake. This allows it to fall down a shaft into a subterranean, high-roofed chamber where the now-compressed air separates from the water and becomes trapped. The height of the falling water column maintains compression of the air in the top of the chamber, while an outlet, submerged below the water level in the chamber allows water to flow back to the surface at a lower level than the intake. A separate outlet in the roof of the chamber supplies the compressed air. A facility on this principle was built on the <a href="/wiki/Montreal_River_(Timiskaming_District)" title="Montreal River (Timiskaming District)">Montreal River</a> at Ragged Shutes near <a href="/wiki/Cobalt,_Ontario" title="Cobalt, Ontario">Cobalt, Ontario</a>, in 1910 and supplied 5,000 horsepower to nearby mines.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Electricity">Electricity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydropower&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Electricity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Hydroelectricity" title="Hydroelectricity">Hydroelectricity</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Share_of_electricity_production_from_hydropower.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4c/Share_of_electricity_production_from_hydropower.png/350px-Share_of_electricity_production_from_hydropower.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="247" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4c/Share_of_electricity_production_from_hydropower.png/525px-Share_of_electricity_production_from_hydropower.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4c/Share_of_electricity_production_from_hydropower.png/700px-Share_of_electricity_production_from_hydropower.png 2x" data-file-width="3400" data-file-height="2400" /></a><figcaption> Share of electricity production from hydropower, 2023<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Hydroelectricity is the biggest hydropower application. Hydroelectricity generates about 15% of global electricity and provides at least 50% of the total electricity supply for more than 35 countries.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2021, global installed hydropower electrical capacity reached almost 1400 GW, the highest among all renewable energy technologies.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Hydroelectricity" title="Hydroelectricity">Hydroelectricity</a> generation starts with converting either the <a href="/wiki/Potential_energy" title="Potential energy">potential energy</a> of water that is present due to the site's elevation or the <a href="/wiki/Kinetic_energy" title="Kinetic energy">kinetic energy</a> of moving water into electrical energy.<sup id="cite_ref-Breeze-2019_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Breeze-2019-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Hydroelectric power plants vary in terms of the way they harvest energy. One type involves a dam and a <a href="/wiki/Reservoir" title="Reservoir">reservoir</a>. The water in the reservoir is available on demand to be used to generate electricity by passing through channels that connect the dam to the reservoir. The water spins a turbine, which is connected to the generator that produces electricity.<sup id="cite_ref-Breeze-2019_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Breeze-2019-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The other type is called a run-of-river plant. In this case, a barrage is built to control the flow of water, absent a <a href="/wiki/Reservoir" title="Reservoir">reservoir</a>. The run-of river power plant needs continuous water flow and therefore has less ability to provide power on demand. The kinetic energy of flowing water is the main source of energy.<sup id="cite_ref-Breeze-2019_14-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Breeze-2019-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Both designs have limitations. For example, dam construction can result in discomfort to nearby residents. The dam and reservoirs occupy a relatively large amount of space that may be opposed by nearby communities.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moreover, reservoirs can potentially have major environmental consequences such as harming downstream habitats.<sup id="cite_ref-Breeze-2019_14-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Breeze-2019-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the other hand, the limitation of the run-of-river project is the decreased efficiency of electricity generation because the process depends on the speed of the seasonal river flow. This means that the rainy season increases electricity generation compared to the dry season.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The size of hydroelectric plants can vary from small plants called <a href="/wiki/Micro_hydro" title="Micro hydro">micro hydro</a>, to large plants that supply power to a whole country. As of 2019, the <a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_power_stations" title="List of largest power stations">five largest power stations in the world</a> are conventional hydroelectric power stations with dams.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Hydroelectricity can also be used to store energy in the form of <a href="/wiki/Potential_energy" title="Potential energy">potential energy</a> between two reservoirs at different heights with <a href="/wiki/Pumped-storage_hydroelectricity" title="Pumped-storage hydroelectricity">pumped-storage</a>. Water is pumped uphill into reservoirs during periods of low demand to be released for generation when demand is high or system generation is low.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> Other forms of electricity generation with hydropower include <a href="/wiki/Tidal_stream_generator" title="Tidal stream generator">tidal stream generators</a> using energy from <a href="/wiki/Tidal_power" title="Tidal power">tidal power</a> generated from oceans, rivers, and human-made canal systems to generating electricity.<sup id="cite_ref-Breeze-2019_14-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Breeze-2019-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 179.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 177.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Hydroelectric_dam.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="A conventional dammed-hydro facility (hydroelectric dam) is the most common type of hydroelectric power generation."><img alt="A conventional dammed-hydro facility (hydroelectric dam) is the most common type of hydroelectric power generation." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Hydroelectric_dam.svg/266px-Hydroelectric_dam.svg.png" decoding="async" width="178" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Hydroelectric_dam.svg/398px-Hydroelectric_dam.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Hydroelectric_dam.svg/531px-Hydroelectric_dam.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="575" data-file-height="390" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">A <a href="/wiki/Hydroelectricity#Generating_methods" title="Hydroelectricity">conventional</a> dammed-hydro facility (hydroelectric dam) is the most common type of hydroelectric power generation.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 183.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 181.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Chief_Joseph_Dam.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Chief Joseph Dam near Bridgeport, Washington, is a major run-of-the-river station without a sizeable reservoir."><img alt="Chief Joseph Dam near Bridgeport, Washington, is a major run-of-the-river station without a sizeable reservoir." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Chief_Joseph_Dam.jpg/272px-Chief_Joseph_Dam.jpg" decoding="async" width="182" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Chief_Joseph_Dam.jpg/408px-Chief_Joseph_Dam.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Chief_Joseph_Dam.jpg/544px-Chief_Joseph_Dam.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="993" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Chief_Joseph_Dam" title="Chief Joseph Dam">Chief Joseph Dam</a> near <a href="/wiki/Bridgeport,_Washington" title="Bridgeport, Washington">Bridgeport, Washington</a>, is a major <a href="/wiki/Run-of-the-river_hydroelectricity" title="Run-of-the-river hydroelectricity">run-of-the-river station</a> without a sizeable reservoir.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 176.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 174.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Nw_vietnam_hydro.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Micro hydro in Northwest Vietnam"><img alt="Micro hydro in Northwest Vietnam" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Nw_vietnam_hydro.jpg/262px-Nw_vietnam_hydro.jpg" decoding="async" width="175" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Nw_vietnam_hydro.jpg/392px-Nw_vietnam_hydro.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Nw_vietnam_hydro.jpg/523px-Nw_vietnam_hydro.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="551" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Micro_hydro" title="Micro hydro">Micro hydro</a> in Northwest Vietnam</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 188.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 186.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Stwlan.dam.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The upper reservoir and dam of the Ffestiniog Pumped Storage Scheme in Wales. The lower power station can generate 360 MW of electricity."><img alt="The upper reservoir and dam of the Ffestiniog Pumped Storage Scheme in Wales. The lower power station can generate 360 MW of electricity." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Stwlan.dam.jpg/280px-Stwlan.dam.jpg" decoding="async" width="187" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Stwlan.dam.jpg/420px-Stwlan.dam.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Stwlan.dam.jpg/559px-Stwlan.dam.jpg 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="483" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The upper reservoir and dam of the <a href="/wiki/Ffestiniog_Power_Station" title="Ffestiniog Power Station">Ffestiniog Pumped Storage Scheme</a> in <a href="/wiki/Wales" title="Wales">Wales</a>. The lower power station can generate 360 MW of electricity.</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Rain_power">Rain power</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydropower&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Rain power"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Rain has been referred to as "one of the last unexploited energy sources in nature. When it rains, billions of litres of water can fall, which have an enormous electric potential if used in the right way."<sup id="cite_ref-IrishTimes_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IrishTimes-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Research is being done into the different methods of generating power from rain, such as by using the energy in the impact of raindrops. This is in its very early stages with new and emerging technologies being tested, prototyped and created. Such power has been called rain power.<sup id="cite_ref-guardian1_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-guardian1-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-gadget_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gadget-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One method in which this has been attempted is by using hybrid solar panels called "all-weather solar panels" that can generate electricity from both the sun and the rain.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to zoologist and science and technology educator, Luis Villazon, "A 2008 French study estimated that you could use piezoelectric devices, which generate power when they move, to extract 12 milliwatts from a raindrop. Over a year, this would amount to less than 0.001kWh per square metre – enough to power a remote sensor." Villazon suggested a better application would be to collect the water from fallen rain and use it to drive a turbine, with an estimated energy generation of 3 kWh of energy per year for a 185 m<sup>2</sup> roof.<sup id="cite_ref-ScienceFocus_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ScienceFocus-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A microturbine-based system created by three students from the Technological University of Mexico has been used to generate electricity. The Pluvia system "uses the stream of rainwater runoff from houses' rooftop rain gutters to spin a microturbine in a cylindrical housing. Electricity generated by that turbine is used to charge 12-volt batteries."<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The term rain power has also been applied to hydropower systems which include the process of capturing the rain.<sup id="cite_ref-IrishTimes_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IrishTimes-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ScienceFocus_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ScienceFocus-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydropower&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient_history">Ancient history</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydropower&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Ancient history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E6%B0%B4%E5%87%BB%E9%9D%A2%E7%BD%97.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/%E6%B0%B4%E5%87%BB%E9%9D%A2%E7%BD%97.jpg/220px-%E6%B0%B4%E5%87%BB%E9%9D%A2%E7%BD%97.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="328" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/%E6%B0%B4%E5%87%BB%E9%9D%A2%E7%BD%97.jpg/330px-%E6%B0%B4%E5%87%BB%E9%9D%A2%E7%BD%97.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/%E6%B0%B4%E5%87%BB%E9%9D%A2%E7%BD%97.jpg/440px-%E6%B0%B4%E5%87%BB%E9%9D%A2%E7%BD%97.jpg 2x" data-file-width="553" data-file-height="824" /></a><figcaption>A water piston from the <i>Nongshu</i> by <a href="/wiki/Wang_Zhen_(inventor)" title="Wang Zhen (inventor)">Wang Zhen</a> (fl. 1290–1333)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SaintAnthonyFalls.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/SaintAnthonyFalls.jpg/220px-SaintAnthonyFalls.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/SaintAnthonyFalls.jpg/330px-SaintAnthonyFalls.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/SaintAnthonyFalls.jpg/440px-SaintAnthonyFalls.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Saint_Anthony_Falls" title="Saint Anthony Falls">Saint Anthony Falls</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>; hydropower was used here to mill flour.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:WATER-POWERED_ORE_MILL,_TAKEN_FROM_SOUTH_-_Liberty_Historic_District,_Water_Powered_Ore_Mill,_Route_2,_Cle_Elum,_Liberty,_Kittitas_County,_WA_HABS_WASH,19-LIB,1W-1.tif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/WATER-POWERED_ORE_MILL%2C_TAKEN_FROM_SOUTH_-_Liberty_Historic_District%2C_Water_Powered_Ore_Mill%2C_Route_2%2C_Cle_Elum%2C_Liberty%2C_Kittitas_County%2C_WA_HABS_WASH%2C19-LIB%2C1W-1.tif/lossy-page1-220px-thumbnail.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/WATER-POWERED_ORE_MILL%2C_TAKEN_FROM_SOUTH_-_Liberty_Historic_District%2C_Water_Powered_Ore_Mill%2C_Route_2%2C_Cle_Elum%2C_Liberty%2C_Kittitas_County%2C_WA_HABS_WASH%2C19-LIB%2C1W-1.tif/lossy-page1-330px-thumbnail.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/WATER-POWERED_ORE_MILL%2C_TAKEN_FROM_SOUTH_-_Liberty_Historic_District%2C_Water_Powered_Ore_Mill%2C_Route_2%2C_Cle_Elum%2C_Liberty%2C_Kittitas_County%2C_WA_HABS_WASH%2C19-LIB%2C1W-1.tif/lossy-page1-440px-thumbnail.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4993" data-file-height="4021" /></a><figcaption>Directly water-powered ore mill, late nineteenth century</figcaption></figure> <p>Evidence suggests that the fundamentals of hydropower date to <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">ancient Greek civilization</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Munoz-Hernandez-2013_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Munoz-Hernandez-2013-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other evidence indicates that the waterwheel independently emerged in China around the same period.<sup id="cite_ref-Munoz-Hernandez-2013_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Munoz-Hernandez-2013-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Evidence of <a href="/wiki/Water_wheel" title="Water wheel">water wheels</a> and <a href="/wiki/Watermill" title="Watermill">watermills</a> date to the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Near_East" title="Ancient Near East">ancient Near East</a> in the 4th century BC.<sup id="cite_ref-Reynolds_1983_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Reynolds_1983-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 14">: 14 </span></sup> Moreover, evidence indicates the use of hydropower using irrigation machines to ancient civilizations such as <a href="/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer">Sumer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Breeze-2018_12-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Breeze-2018-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Studies suggest that the water wheel was the initial form of water power and it was driven by either humans or animals.<sup id="cite_ref-Breeze-2018_12-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Breeze-2018-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>, water-powered mills were described by <a href="/wiki/Vitruvius" title="Vitruvius">Vitruvius</a> by the first century BC.<sup id="cite_ref-Oleson2_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oleson2-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Barbegal_mill" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbegal mill">Barbegal mill</a>, located in modern-day France, had 16 water wheels processing up to 28 tons of grain per day.<sup id="cite_ref-Hill-2013_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hill-2013-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Roman waterwheels were also used for sawing marble such as the <a href="/wiki/Hierapolis_sawmill" title="Hierapolis sawmill">Hierapolis sawmill</a> of the late 3rd century AD.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such sawmills had a waterwheel that drove two crank-and-connecting rods to power two saws. It also appears in two 6th century <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Eastern Roman</a> <a href="/wiki/Sawmill" title="Sawmill">sawmills</a> excavated at <a href="/wiki/Ephesus" title="Ephesus">Ephesus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gerasa" class="mw-redirect" title="Gerasa">Gerasa</a> respectively. The <a href="/wiki/Crank_(mechanism)" title="Crank (mechanism)">crank</a> and connecting rod mechanism of these <a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_watermills" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Roman watermills">Roman watermills</a> converted the rotary motion of the waterwheel into the linear movement of the saw blades.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Water-powered trip hammers and bellows in China, during the <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a> (202 BC – 220 AD), were initially thought to be powered by <a href="/wiki/Water_scoop_(hydropower)" title="Water scoop (hydropower)">water scoops</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Reynolds_1983_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Reynolds_1983-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 26–30">: 26–30 </span></sup> However, some historians suggested that they were powered by waterwheels. This is since it was theorized that water scoops would not have had the motive force to operate their <a href="/wiki/Blast_furnace" title="Blast furnace">blast furnace</a> bellows.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many texts describe the Hun waterwheel; some of the earliest ones are the <i><a href="/wiki/Jijiupian" title="Jijiupian">Jijiupian</a></i> dictionary of 40 BC, <a href="/wiki/Yang_Xiong_(author)" title="Yang Xiong (author)">Yang Xiong</a>'s text known as the <i><a href="/wiki/Fangyan_(book)" title="Fangyan (book)">Fangyan</a></i> of 15 BC, as well as <i>Xin Lun,</i> written by <a href="/wiki/Huan_Tan" title="Huan Tan">Huan Tan</a> about 20 AD.<sup id="cite_ref-Needham-1986_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Needham-1986-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was also during this time that the engineer <a href="/wiki/Du_Shi" title="Du Shi">Du Shi</a> (c. AD 31) applied the power of <a href="/wiki/Waterwheel" class="mw-redirect" title="Waterwheel">waterwheels</a> to <a href="/wiki/Piston" title="Piston">piston</a>-<a href="/wiki/Bellows" title="Bellows">bellows</a> in forging cast iron.<sup id="cite_ref-Needham-1986_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Needham-1986-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ancient Indian texts dating back to the 4th century BC refer to the term <i>cakkavattaka</i> (turning wheel), which commentaries explain as <i>arahatta-ghati-yanta</i> (machine with wheel-pots attached), however whether this is water or hand powered is disputed by scholars <sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> India received Roman water mills and baths in the early 4th century AD when a certain according to Greek sources.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dams, spillways, reservoirs, channels, and water balance would develop in India during the <a href="/wiki/Maurya_Empire" title="Maurya Empire">Mauryan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gupta_Empire" title="Gupta Empire">Gupta</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chola_Empire" title="Chola Empire">Chola</a> empires.<sup id="cite_ref-Hill2008_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hill2008-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another example of the early use of hydropower is seen in <a href="/wiki/Hushing" title="Hushing">hushing</a>, a historic method of mining that uses flood or torrent of water to reveal mineral veins. The method was first used at the <a href="/wiki/Dolaucothi_Gold_Mines" title="Dolaucothi Gold Mines">Dolaucothi Gold Mines</a> in <a href="/wiki/Wales" title="Wales">Wales</a> from 75 AD onwards. This method was further developed in Spain in mines such as <a href="/wiki/Las_M%C3%A9dulas" title="Las Médulas">Las Médulas</a>. Hushing was also widely used in <a href="/wiki/Great_Britain" title="Great Britain">Britain</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Medieval</a> and later periods to extract <a href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">lead</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tin" title="Tin">tin</a> ores. It later evolved into <a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_mining" title="Hydraulic mining">hydraulic mining</a> when used during the <a href="/wiki/California_Gold_Rush" class="mw-redirect" title="California Gold Rush">California Gold Rush</a> in the 19th century.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic Empire">Islamic Empire</a> spanned a large region, mainly in Asia and Africa, along with other surrounding areas.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic Golden Age</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Arab_Agricultural_Revolution" title="Arab Agricultural Revolution">Arab Agricultural Revolution</a> (8th–13th centuries), hydropower was widely used and developed. Early uses of <a href="/wiki/Tidal_power" title="Tidal power">tidal power</a> emerged along with large hydraulic <a href="/wiki/Factory" title="Factory">factory</a> complexes.<sup id="cite_ref-al-Hassan-1976_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-al-Hassan-1976-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A wide range of water-powered industrial mills were used in the region including <a href="/wiki/Fulling" title="Fulling">fulling</a> mills, <a href="/wiki/Gristmill" title="Gristmill">gristmills</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paper_mill" title="Paper mill">paper mills</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rice_huller" title="Rice huller">hullers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sawmill" title="Sawmill">sawmills</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ship_mill" title="Ship mill">ship mills</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stamp_mill" title="Stamp mill">stamp mills</a>, <a href="/wiki/Steel_mill" title="Steel mill">steel mills</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sugar_refinery" title="Sugar refinery">sugar mills</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tide_mill" title="Tide mill">tide mills</a>. By the 11th century, every province throughout the Islamic Empire had these industrial mills in operation, from <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Al-Andalus</a> and <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a> and <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Lucas2_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lucas2-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 10">: 10 </span></sup> Muslim engineers also used <a href="/wiki/Water_turbine" title="Water turbine">water turbines</a> while employing <a href="/wiki/Gear" title="Gear">gears</a> in watermills and water-raising machines. They also pioneered the use of <a href="/wiki/Dams" class="mw-redirect" title="Dams">dams</a> as a source of water power, used to provide additional power to watermills and water-raising machines.<sup id="cite_ref-Hassan2_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hassan2-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Islamic irriguation techniques including <a href="/wiki/Saqiyah" title="Saqiyah">Persian Wheels</a> would be introduced to India, and would be combined with local methods, during the <a href="/wiki/Delhi_Sultanate" title="Delhi Sultanate">Delhi Sultanate</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal Empire</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Furthermore, in his book, <i>The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices</i>, the Muslim mechanical engineer, <a href="/wiki/Al-Jazari" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Jazari">Al-Jazari</a> (1136–1206) described designs for 50 devices. Many of these devices were water-powered, including clocks, a device to serve wine, and five devices to lift water from rivers or pools, where three of them are animal-powered and one can be powered by animal or water. Moreover, they included an endless belt with jugs attached, a cow-powered <a href="/wiki/Shadoof" title="Shadoof">shadoof</a> (a crane-like irrigation tool), and a reciprocating device with hinged valves.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Beno%C3%AEt_Fourneyron_portrait.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Beno%C3%AEt_Fourneyron_portrait.jpg/220px-Beno%C3%AEt_Fourneyron_portrait.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="271" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/Beno%C3%AEt_Fourneyron_portrait.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="322" data-file-height="397" /></a><figcaption>Benoît Fourneyron, the French engineer who developed the first hydropower turbine</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="19th_century">19th century</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydropower&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: 19th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the 19th century, French engineer <a href="/wiki/Beno%C3%AEt_Fourneyron" title="Benoît Fourneyron">Benoît Fourneyron</a> developed the first hydropower turbine. This device was implemented in the commercial plant of <a href="/wiki/Niagara_Falls" title="Niagara Falls">Niagara Falls</a> in 1895 and it is still operating.<sup id="cite_ref-Breeze-2018_12-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Breeze-2018-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the early 20th century, English engineer <a href="/wiki/William_Armstrong,_1st_Baron_Armstrong" title="William Armstrong, 1st Baron Armstrong">William Armstrong</a> built and operated the first private electrical power station which was located in his house in <a href="/wiki/Cragside" title="Cragside">Cragside</a> in <a href="/wiki/Northumberland" title="Northumberland">Northumberland</a>, England.<sup id="cite_ref-Breeze-2018_12-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Breeze-2018-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1753, the French engineer <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Forest_de_B%C3%A9lidor" title="Bernard Forest de Bélidor">Bernard Forest de Bélidor</a> published his book, <i>Architecture Hydraulique</i>, which described vertical-axis and horizontal-axis hydraulic machines.<sup id="cite_ref-doehis_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-doehis-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The growing demand for the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a> would drive development as well.<sup id="cite_ref-watenc_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-watenc-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the beginning of the Industrial Revolution in Britain, water was the main power source for new inventions such as <a href="/wiki/Richard_Arkwright" title="Richard Arkwright">Richard Arkwright</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Water_frame" title="Water frame">water frame</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Perkin-1969_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Perkin-1969-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although water power gave way to steam power in many of the larger mills and factories, it was still used during the 18th and 19th centuries for many smaller operations, such as driving the bellows in small <a href="/wiki/Blast_furnace" title="Blast furnace">blast furnaces</a> (e.g. the <a href="/wiki/Dyfi_Furnace" title="Dyfi Furnace">Dyfi Furnace</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Gristmill" title="Gristmill">gristmills</a>, such as those built at <a href="/wiki/Saint_Anthony_Falls" title="Saint Anthony Falls">Saint Anthony Falls</a>, which uses the 50-foot (15 m) drop in the <a href="/wiki/Mississippi_River" title="Mississippi River">Mississippi River</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-River_of_History_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-River_of_History-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Perkin-1969_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Perkin-1969-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Technological advances moved the open water wheel into an enclosed <a href="/wiki/Turbine" title="Turbine">turbine</a> or <a href="/wiki/Water_engine" title="Water engine">water motor</a>. In 1848, the British-American engineer <a href="/wiki/James_B._Francis" title="James B. Francis">James B. Francis</a>, head engineer of Lowell's Locks and Canals company, improved on these designs to create a turbine with 90% efficiency.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He applied scientific principles and testing methods to the problem of turbine design. His mathematical and graphical calculation methods allowed the confident design of high-efficiency turbines to exactly match a site's specific flow conditions. The <a href="/wiki/Francis_turbine" title="Francis turbine">Francis reaction turbine</a> is still in use. In the 1870s, deriving from uses in the California mining industry, <a href="/wiki/Lester_Allan_Pelton" title="Lester Allan Pelton">Lester Allan Pelton</a> developed the high-efficiency <a href="/wiki/Pelton_wheel" title="Pelton wheel">Pelton wheel impulse turbine</a>, which used hydropower from the high head streams characteristic of the <a href="/wiki/Sierra_Nevada" title="Sierra Nevada">Sierra Nevada</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="20th_century">20th century</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydropower&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: 20th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The modern history of hydropower begins in the 1900s, with large dams built not simply to power neighboring mills or factories<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but provide extensive electricity for increasingly distant groups of people. Competition drove much of the global hydroelectric craze: Europe competed amongst itself to electrify first, and the United States' hydroelectric plants in <a href="/wiki/Niagara_Falls" title="Niagara Falls">Niagara Falls</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Sierra_Nevada" title="Sierra Nevada">Sierra Nevada</a> inspired bigger and bolder creations across the globe.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> American and USSR financers and hydropower experts also spread the gospel of dams and hydroelectricity across the globe during the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>, contributing to projects such as the <a href="/wiki/Three_Gorges_Dam" title="Three Gorges Dam">Three Gorges Dam</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Aswan_Dam" title="Aswan Dam">Aswan High Dam</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Feeding desire for large scale electrification with water inherently required large dams across powerful rivers,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCully2001227_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCully2001227-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which impacted public and private interests downstream and in flood zones.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlackbourn2006222–24_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlackbourn2006222–24-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Inevitably smaller communities and marginalized groups suffered. They were unable to successfully resist companies flooding them out of their homes or blocking traditional <a href="/wiki/Salmon" title="Salmon">salmon</a> passages.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The stagnant water created by hydroelectric dams provides breeding ground for pests and <a href="/wiki/Pathogens" class="mw-redirect" title="Pathogens">pathogens</a>, leading to local <a href="/wiki/Epidemics" class="mw-redirect" title="Epidemics">epidemics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCully200193_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCully200193-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, in some cases, a mutual need for hydropower could lead to cooperation between otherwise adversarial nations.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Hydropower technology and attitude began to shift in the second half of the 20th century. While countries had largely abandoned their small hydropower systems by the 1930s, the smaller hydropower plants began to make a comeback in the 1970s, boosted by government subsidies and a push for more independent energy producers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCully2001227_58-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCully2001227-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some politicians who once advocated for large hydropower projects in the first half of the 20th century began to speak out against them, and citizen groups organizing against dam projects increased.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 1980s and 90s the international anti-dam movement had made finding government or private investors for new large hydropower projects incredibly difficult, and given rise to NGOs devoted to fighting dams.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, while the cost of other energy sources fell, the cost of building new hydroelectric dams increased 4% annually between 1965 and 1990, due both to the increasing costs of construction and to the decrease in high quality building sites.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCully2001274_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCully2001274-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 1990s, only 18% of the world's electricity came from hydropower.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCully2001134_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCully2001134-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Tidal_power" title="Tidal power">Tidal power</a> production also emerged in the 1960s as a burgeoning alternative hydropower system, though still has not taken hold as a strong energy contender.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="United_States">United States</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydropower&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Especially at the start of the American hydropower experiment, engineers and politicians began major hydroelectricity projects to solve a problem of 'wasted potential' rather than to power a population that needed the electricity. When the <a href="/wiki/Niagara_Falls_Power_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="Niagara Falls Power Company">Niagara Falls Power Company</a> began looking into damming Niagara, the first major hydroelectric project in the United States, in the 1890s they struggled to transport electricity from the falls far enough away to actually reach enough people and justify installation. The project succeeded in large part due to <a href="/wiki/Nikola_Tesla" title="Nikola Tesla">Nikola Tesla's</a> invention of the <a href="/wiki/Alternating_current_motor" class="mw-redirect" title="Alternating current motor">alternating current motor</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBerton2009216_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBerton2009216-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the other side of the country, <a href="/wiki/San_Francisco" title="San Francisco">San Francisco</a> engineers, the <a href="/wiki/Sierra_Club" title="Sierra Club">Sierra Club</a>, and the federal government fought over acceptable use of the <a href="/wiki/Hetch_Hetchy_Valley" class="mw-redirect" title="Hetch Hetchy Valley">Hetch Hetchy Valley</a>. Despite ostensible protection within a national park, city engineers successfully won the rights to both water and power in the Hetch Hetchy Valley in 1913. After their victory they delivered Hetch Hetchy hydropower and water to San Francisco a decade later and at twice the promised cost, selling power to <a href="/wiki/PG%26E" class="mw-redirect" title="PG&E">PG&E</a> which resold to San Francisco residents at a profit.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlackbourn2006218_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlackbourn2006218-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The American West, with its mountain rivers and lack of coal, turned to hydropower early and often, especially along the <a href="/wiki/Columbia_River" title="Columbia River">Columbia River</a> and its tributaries. The <a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Reclamation" class="mw-redirect" title="Bureau of Reclamation">Bureau of Reclamation</a> built the <a href="/wiki/Hoover_Dam" title="Hoover Dam">Hoover Dam</a> in 1931, symbolically linking the job creation and economic growth priorities of the <a href="/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal">New Deal</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The federal government quickly followed Hoover with the <a href="/wiki/Shasta_Dam" title="Shasta Dam">Shasta Dam</a> and <a href="/wiki/Grand_Coulee_Dam" title="Grand Coulee Dam">Grand Coulee Dam</a>. Power demand in <a href="/wiki/Oregon" title="Oregon">Oregon</a> did not justify damming the Columbia until <a href="/wiki/WWI" class="mw-redirect" title="WWI">WWI</a> revealed the weaknesses of a coal-based energy economy. The federal government then began prioritizing interconnected power—and lots of it.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Electricity from all three dams poured into war production during <a href="/wiki/WWII" class="mw-redirect" title="WWII">WWII</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCully200116_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCully200116-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After the war, the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Coulee_Dam" title="Grand Coulee Dam">Grand Coulee Dam</a> and accompanying hydroelectric projects electrified almost all of the rural <a href="/wiki/Columbia_Plateau" title="Columbia Plateau">Columbia Basin</a>, but failed to improve the lives of those living and farming there the way its boosters had promised and also damaged the river ecosystem and migrating salmon populations. In the 1940s as well, the federal government took advantage of the sheer amount of unused power and flowing water from the Grand Coulee to build a <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">nuclear</a> site placed on the banks of the Columbia. The nuclear site leaked radioactive matter into the river, contaminating the entire area.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhite199571-72,_85,_89-111_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite199571-72,_85,_89-111-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Post-WWII Americans, especially engineers from the <a href="/wiki/Tennessee_Valley_Authority" title="Tennessee Valley Authority">Tennessee Valley Authority</a>, refocused from simply building domestic dams to promoting hydropower abroad.<sup id="cite_ref-Big_Dam_Era_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Big_Dam_Era-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hydropolitics,_Economy,_and_the_Asw_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hydropolitics,_Economy,_and_the_Asw-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While domestic dam building continued well into the 1970s, with the Reclamation Bureau and <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Corps_of_Engineers" title="United States Army Corps of Engineers">Army Corps of Engineers</a> building more than 150 new dams across the American West,<sup id="cite_ref-Big_Dam_Era_77-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Big_Dam_Era-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> organized opposition to hydroelectric dams sparked up in the 1950s and 60s based on environmental concerns. Environmental movements successfully shut down proposed hydropower dams in <a href="/wiki/Dinosaur_National_Monument" title="Dinosaur National Monument">Dinosaur National Monument</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Canyon" title="Grand Canyon">Grand Canyon</a>, and gained more hydropower-fighting tools with 1970s environmental legislation. As nuclear and fossil fuels grew in the 70s and 80s and environmental activists push for river restoration, hydropower gradually faded in American importance.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Africa">Africa</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydropower&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Africa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p> Foreign powers and <a href="/wiki/Intergovernmental_organization" class="mw-redirect" title="Intergovernmental organization">IGOs</a> have frequently used hydropower projects in Africa as a tool to interfere in the economic development of African countries, such as the <a href="/wiki/World_Bank" title="World Bank">World Bank</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Kariba_Dam" title="Kariba Dam">Kariba</a> and <a href="/wiki/Akosombo_Dam" title="Akosombo Dam">Akosombo Dams</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Aswan_Dam" title="Aswan Dam">Aswan Dam</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Nile_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Nile River">Nile River</a> especially has borne the consequences of countries both along the Nile and distant foreign actors using the river to expand their economic power or national force. After the British occupation of <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> in 1882, the British worked with Egypt to construct the first Aswan Dam,<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which they heightened in 1912 and 1934 to try to hold back the Nile floods. Egyptian engineer <a href="/w/index.php?title=Adriano_Daninos&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Adriano Daninos (page does not exist)">Adriano Daninos</a> developed a plan for the Aswan High Dam, inspired by the Tennessee Valley Authority's multipurpose dam. </p><p>When <a href="/wiki/Gamal_Abdel_Nasser" title="Gamal Abdel Nasser">Gamal Abdel Nasser</a> took power in the 1950s, his government decided to undertake the High Dam project, publicizing it as an economic development project.<sup id="cite_ref-Hydropolitics,_Economy,_and_the_Asw_78-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hydropolitics,_Economy,_and_the_Asw-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After American refusal to help fund the dam, and anti-British sentiment in Egypt and British interests in neighboring <a href="/wiki/Sudan" title="Sudan">Sudan</a> combined to make the United Kingdom pull out as well, the Soviet Union funded the Aswan High Dam.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Between 1977 and 1990 the dam's turbines generated one third of Egypt's electricity.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The building of the Aswan Dam triggered a dispute between Sudan and Egypt over the sharing of the Nile, especially since the dam flooded part of Sudan and decreased the volume of water available to them. <a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a>, also located on the Nile, took advantage of the Cold War tensions to request assistance from the United States for their own irrigation and hydropower investments in the 1960s.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While progress stalled due to the <a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Revolution" title="Ethiopian Revolution">coup d'état of 1974</a> and following 17-year-long <a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Civil_War" title="Ethiopian Civil War">Ethiopian Civil War</a> Ethiopia began construction on the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Ethiopian_Renaissance_Dam" title="Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam">Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam</a> in 2011.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Beyond the Nile, hydroelectric projects cover the rivers and lakes of Africa. The <a href="/wiki/Inga_dams" title="Inga dams">Inga powerplant</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Congo_River" title="Congo River">Congo River</a> had been discussed since Belgian colonization in the late 19th century, and was successfully built after independence. <a href="/wiki/Mobuto_Sese_Seko" class="mw-redirect" title="Mobuto Sese Seko">Mobutu's</a> government failed to regularly maintain the plants and their capacity declined until the 1995 formation of the <a href="/wiki/Southern_African_Power_Pool" title="Southern African Power Pool">Southern African Power Pool</a> created a multi-national power grid and plant maintenance program.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> States with an abundance of hydropower, such as the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ghana" title="Ghana">Ghana</a>, frequently sell excess power to neighboring countries.<sup id="cite_ref-Tsikudo_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tsikudo-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Foreign actors such as Chinese hydropower companies have proposed a significant amount of new hydropower projects in Africa,<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and already funded and consulted on many others in countries like <a href="/wiki/Mozambique" title="Mozambique">Mozambique</a> and Ghana.<sup id="cite_ref-Tsikudo_87-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tsikudo-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Small hydropower also played an important role in early 20th century electrification across Africa. In South Africa, small turbines powered gold mines and the first electric railway in the 1890s, and Zimbabwean farmers installed small hydropower stations in the 1930s. While interest faded as national grids improved in the second half of the century, 21st century national governments in countries including South Africa and Mozambique, as well as NGOs serving countries like Zimbabwe, have begun re-exploring small-scale hydropower to diversify power sources and improve rural electrification.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Europe">Europe</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydropower&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Europe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the early 20th century, two major factors motivated the expansion of hydropower in Europe: in the northern countries of <a href="/wiki/Norway" title="Norway">Norway</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">Sweden</a> high rainfall and mountains proved exceptional resources for abundant hydropower, and in the south coal shortages pushed governments and utility companies to seek alternative power sources.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Early on, <a href="/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a> dammed the Alpine rivers and the <a href="/wiki/Rhine" title="Rhine">Swiss Rhine</a>, creating, along with <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Scandinavia" title="Scandinavia">Scandinavia</a>, a Southern Europe hydropower race.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlackbourn2006217_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlackbourn2006217-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Italy's <a href="/wiki/Po_Valley" title="Po Valley">Po Valley</a>, the main 20th century transition was not the creation of hydropower but the transition from mechanical to electrical hydropower. 12,000 watermills churned in the Po watershed in the 1890s, but the first commercial hydroelectric plant, completed in 1898, signaled the end of the mechanical reign.<sup id="cite_ref-Parrinello_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Parrinello-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These new large plants moved power away from rural mountainous areas to urban centers in the lower plain. Italy prioritized early near-nationwide electrification, almost entirely from hydropower, which powered their rise as a dominant European and imperial force. However, they failed to reach any conclusive standard for determining water rights before WWI.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcNeill2000174-175_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcNeill2000174-175-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Parrinello_92-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Parrinello-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Modern German hydropower dam construction built off a history of small dams powering mines and mills going back to the 15th century. Some parts of Germany industry even relied more on waterwheels than steam until the 1870s.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlackbourn2006198-207_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlackbourn2006198-207-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The German government did not set out building large dams such as the prewar <a href="/wiki/Urft_Dam" title="Urft Dam">Urft</a>, <a href="/wiki/M%C3%B6hne_Reservoir" title="Möhne Reservoir">Mohne</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Edersee_Dam" title="Edersee Dam">Eder</a> dams to expand hydropower: they mostly wanted to reduce flooding and improve navigation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlackbourn2006212-213_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlackbourn2006212-213-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, hydropower quickly emerged as an added bonus for all these dams, especially in the coal-poor south. <a href="/wiki/Bavaria" title="Bavaria">Bavaria</a> even achieved a statewide power grid by damming the <a href="/wiki/Walchensee" title="Walchensee">Walchensee</a> in 1924, inspired in part by loss of coal reserves after WWI.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Hydropower became a symbol of regional pride and distaste for northern 'coal barons', although the north also held strong enthusiasm for hydropower.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlackbourn2006219_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlackbourn2006219-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dam building rapidly increased after WWII, this time with the express purpose of increasing hydropower.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlackbourn2006327_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlackbourn2006327-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, conflict accompanied the dam building and spread of hydropower: agrarian interests suffered from decreased irrigation, small mills lost water flow, and different interest groups fought over where dams should be located, controlling who benefited and whose homes they drowned.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlackbourn2006222-236_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlackbourn2006222-236-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydropower&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 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class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Crystal_energy.svg/29px-Crystal_energy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="29" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Crystal_energy.svg/44px-Crystal_energy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Crystal_energy.svg/59px-Crystal_energy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="124" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Energy" title="Portal:Energy">Energy portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wind-turbine-icon.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Wind-turbine-icon.svg/28px-Wind-turbine-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" 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vortex power plant">Gravitation water vortex power plant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_ram" title="Hydraulic ram">Hydraulic ram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydropower_Sustainability_Assessment_Protocol" title="Hydropower Sustainability Assessment Protocol">Hydropower Sustainability Assessment Protocol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Hydropower_Association" title="International Hydropower Association">International Hydropower Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low-head_hydro_power" title="Low-head hydro power">Low-head hydro power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_current_power" title="Marine current power">Marine current power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_energy" title="Marine energy">Marine energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_thermal_energy_conversion" title="Ocean thermal energy conversion">Ocean thermal energy conversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osmotic_power" title="Osmotic power">Osmotic power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pumped-storage_hydroelectricity" title="Pumped-storage hydroelectricity">Pumped-storage hydroelectricity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Run-of-the-river_hydroelectricity" title="Run-of-the-river hydroelectricity">Run-of-the-river hydroelectricity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_power" title="Tidal power">Tidal power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_stream_generator" title="Tidal stream generator">Tidal stream generator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_power" title="Wave power">Wave power</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydropower&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Taking the density of water to be 1000 kilograms per cubic metre (62.5 pounds per cubic foot) and the acceleration due to gravity to be 9.81 metres per second per second.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See the <a href="/wiki/World_Commission_on_Dams" title="World Commission on Dams">World Commission on Dams</a> (WCD) for international standards on the development of large dams.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydropower&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Egré-2002-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Egré-2002_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Egré-2002_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription 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.cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFEgréMilewski2002" class="citation journal cs1">Egré, Dominique; Milewski, Joseph (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301421502000836">"The diversity of hydropower projects"</a>. <i>Energy Policy</i>. <b>30</b> (14): 1225–1230. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Energy+Policy&rft.atitle=Hydropower+potential+and+development+activities&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=14&rft.pages=1231-1239&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0301-4215%2802%2900084-8&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2002EnPol..30.1231B&rft.aulast=Bartle&rft.aufirst=Alison&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fpii%2FS0301421502000848&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydropower" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-WP58132-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-WP58132_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoward_Schneider2013" class="citation news cs1">Howard Schneider (8 May 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 July</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=BBC+Science+Focus&rft.atitle=Is+it+possible+to+harness+the+power+of+falling+rain%3F&rft.aulast=Villazon&rft.aufirst=Luis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencefocus.com%2Fplanet-earth%2Fis-it-possible-to-harness-the-power-of-falling-rain%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydropower" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoxworth2014" class="citation news cs1">Coxworth, Ben (26 March 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://newatlas.com/pluvia-rainwater-microturbine/31379/">"Rainwater used to generate electricity"</a>. <i>New Atlas</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 July</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+Atlas&rft.atitle=Rainwater+used+to+generate+electricity&rft.date=2014-03-26&rft.aulast=Coxworth&rft.aufirst=Ben&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnewatlas.com%2Fpluvia-rainwater-microturbine%2F31379%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydropower" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Munoz-Hernandez-2013-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Munoz-Hernandez-2013_31-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Munoz-Hernandez-2013_31-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMunoz-HernandezMansoorJones2013" class="citation book cs1">Munoz-Hernandez, German Ardul; Mansoor, Sa'ad Petrous; Jones, Dewi Ieuan (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9781447122906"><i>Modelling and Controlling Hydropower Plants</i></a>. London: Springer London. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4471-2291-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4471-2291-3"><bdi>978-1-4471-2291-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modelling+and+Controlling+Hydropower+Plants&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Springer+London&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-4471-2291-3&rft.aulast=Munoz-Hernandez&rft.aufirst=German+Ardul&rft.au=Mansoor%2C+Sa%27ad+Petrous&rft.au=Jones%2C+Dewi+Ieuan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.springer.com%2Fgp%2Fbook%2F9781447122906&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydropower" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Reynolds_1983-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Reynolds_1983_32-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Reynolds_1983_32-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReynolds1983" class="citation book cs1">Reynolds, Terry S. (1983). <i>Stronger than a Hundred Men: A History of the Vertical Water Wheel</i>. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8018-7248-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-8018-7248-0"><bdi>0-8018-7248-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Stronger+than+a+Hundred+Men%3A+A+History+of+the+Vertical+Water+Wheel&rft.place=Baltimore&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=0-8018-7248-0&rft.aulast=Reynolds&rft.aufirst=Terry+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydropower" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Oleson2-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Oleson2_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOleson1984" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Peter_Oleson" title="John Peter Oleson">Oleson, John Peter</a> (30 June 1984). <i>Greek and Roman mechanical water-lifting devices: the history of a technology</i>. Springer. p. 373. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-277-1693-5" title="Special:BookSources/90-277-1693-5"><bdi>90-277-1693-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/Amazon_Standard_Identification_Number" title="Amazon Standard Identification Number">ASIN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.co.uk/dp/9027716935">9027716935</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Greek+and+Roman+mechanical+water-lifting+devices%3A+the+history+of+a+technology&rft.pages=373&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=1984-06-30&rft.isbn=90-277-1693-5&rft.aulast=Oleson&rft.aufirst=John+Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydropower" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreene1990" class="citation journal cs1">Greene, Kevin (1990). "Perspectives on Roman technology". <i>Oxford Journal of Archaeology</i>. <b>9</b> (2): 209–219. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1468-0092.1990.tb00223.x">10.1111/j.1468-0092.1990.tb00223.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:109650458">109650458</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Oxford+Journal+of+Archaeology&rft.atitle=Perspectives+on+Roman+technology&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=209-219&rft.date=1990&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1468-0092.1990.tb00223.x&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A109650458%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Greene&rft.aufirst=Kevin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydropower" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMagnusson2002" class="citation book cs1">Magnusson, Roberta J. (2002). <i>Water Technology in the Middle Ages: Cities, Monasteries, and Waterworks after the Roman Empire</i>. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0801866265" title="Special:BookSources/978-0801866265"><bdi>978-0801866265</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Water+Technology+in+the+Middle+Ages%3A+Cities%2C+Monasteries%2C+and+Waterworks+after+the+Roman+Empire&rft.place=Baltimore&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0801866265&rft.aulast=Magnusson&rft.aufirst=Roberta+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydropower" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLucas2006" class="citation book cs1">Lucas, Adam (2006). <i>Wind, Water, Work: Ancient and Medieval Milling Technology</i>. Leiden: Brill. p. 55.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Wind%2C+Water%2C+Work%3A+Ancient+and+Medieval+Milling+Technology&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pages=55&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Lucas&rft.aufirst=Adam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydropower" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Needham-1986-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Needham-1986_37-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Needham-1986_37-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeedham1986" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Needham" title="Joseph Needham">Needham, Joseph</a> (1986). <i>Science and Civilisation in China, Volume 4: Physics and Physical Technology, Part 2, Mechanical Engineering</i>. Taipei: Cambridge University Press. p. 370. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-05803-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-05803-1"><bdi>0-521-05803-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science+and+Civilisation+in+China%2C+Volume+4%3A+Physics+and+Physical+Technology%2C+Part+2%2C+Mechanical+Engineering&rft.place=Taipei&rft.pages=370&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=0-521-05803-1&rft.aulast=Needham&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydropower" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Reynolds, p. 14 "On this basis, <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Needham" title="Joseph Needham">Joseph Needham</a> suggested that the machine was a <a href="/wiki/Noria" title="Noria">noria</a>. Terry S. Reynolds, however, argues that the "term used in Indian texts is ambiguous and does not clearly indicate a water-powered device." Thorkild Schiøler argued that it is "more likely that these passages refer to some type of tread- or hand-operated water-lifting device, instead of a water-powered water-lifting wheel."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWikander2000">Wikander 2000</a>, p. 400: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>This is also the period when water-mills started to spread outside the former Empire. According to <a href="/wiki/Cedrenus" class="mw-redirect" title="Cedrenus">Cedrenus</a> (Historiarum compendium), a certain Metrodoros who went to India in c. A.D. 325 "constructed water-mills and baths, unknown among them [the Brahmans] till then".</p></blockquote></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hill2008-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hill2008_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChristopher_V._Hill2008" class="citation book cs1">Christopher V. Hill (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=f9D4Ob1YcJgC&pg=PA33"><i>South Asia: An Environmental History</i></a>. 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(1911-1936)"</a>. <i>Hispania</i>. <b>71</b> (239): 789–818. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3989%2Fhispania.2011.v71.i239.360">10.3989/hispania.2011.v71.i239.360</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1988-8368">1988-8368</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Hispania&rft.atitle=%C2%BFFue+el+sector+el%C3%A9ctrico+un+gran+beneficiario+de+%C2%ABla+pol%C3%ADtica+hidr%C3%A1ulica%C2%BB+anterior+a+la+Guerra+Civil%3F+%281911-1936%29&rft.volume=71&rft.issue=239&rft.pages=789-818&rft.date=2011-12-30&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3989%2Fhispania.2011.v71.i239.360&rft.issn=1988-8368&rft.au=Rodr%C3%ADguez%2C+I.+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3989%252Fhispania.2011.v71.i239.360&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydropower" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlackbourn2006217-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlackbourn2006217_91-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBlackbourn2006">Blackbourn 2006</a>, p. 217.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Parrinello-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Parrinello_92-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Parrinello_92-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParrinello,_G.2018" class="citation journal cs1">Parrinello, G. (2018). "Systems of Power: A Spatial Envirotechnical Approach to Water Power and Industrialization in the Po Valley of Italy, ca.1880–1970". <i>Technology and Culture</i>. <b>59</b> (3). Johns Hopkins University Press: 652–688. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Ftech.2018.0062">10.1353/tech.2018.0062</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1097-3729">1097-3729</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30245498">30245498</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:52350633">52350633</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Technology+and+Culture&rft.atitle=Systems+of+Power%3A+A+Spatial+Envirotechnical+Approach+to+Water+Power+and+Industrialization+in+the+Po+Valley+of+Italy%2C+ca.1880%E2%80%931970&rft.volume=59&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=652-688&rft.date=2018&rft.issn=1097-3729&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A52350633%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F30245498&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Ftech.2018.0062&rft.au=Parrinello%2C+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydropower" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcNeill2000174-175-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcNeill2000174-175_93-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcNeill2000">McNeill 2000</a>, p. 174-175.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlackbourn2006198-207-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlackbourn2006198-207_94-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBlackbourn2006">Blackbourn 2006</a>, p. 198-207.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlackbourn2006212-213-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlackbourn2006212-213_95-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBlackbourn2006">Blackbourn 2006</a>, p. 212-213.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLandry,_M.2015" class="citation journal cs1">Landry, M. (2015). "Environmental Consequences of the Peace: The Great War, Dammed Lakes, and Hydraulic History in the Eastern Alps". <i>Environmental History</i>. <b>20</b> (3). [Oxford University Press, Forest History Society, American Society for Environmental History]: 422–448. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fenvhis%2Femv053">10.1093/envhis/emv053</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1084-5453">1084-5453</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Environmental+History&rft.atitle=Environmental+Consequences+of+the+Peace%3A+The+Great+War%2C+Dammed+Lakes%2C+and+Hydraulic+History+in+the+Eastern+Alps&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=422-448&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fenvhis%2Femv053&rft.issn=1084-5453&rft.au=Landry%2C+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydropower" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlackbourn2006219-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlackbourn2006219_97-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBlackbourn2006">Blackbourn 2006</a>, p. 219.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlackbourn2006327-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlackbourn2006327_98-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBlackbourn2006">Blackbourn 2006</a>, p. 327.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlackbourn2006222-236-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlackbourn2006222-236_99-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBlackbourn2006">Blackbourn 2006</a>, p. 222-236.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydropower&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWikander2000" class="citation cs2">Wikander, Örjan (2000), "The Water-Mill", in Wikander, Örjan (ed.), <i>Handbook of Ancient Water Technology</i>, Technology and Change in History, vol. 2, Leiden: Brill, pp. 371–400, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-11123-9" title="Special:BookSources/90-04-11123-9"><bdi>90-04-11123-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Water-Mill&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Ancient+Water+Technology&rft.place=Leiden&rft.series=Technology+and+Change+in+History&rft.pages=371-400&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=90-04-11123-9&rft.aulast=Wikander&rft.aufirst=%C3%96rjan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydropower" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydropower&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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href="http://tc4.iec.ch/index-tc4.html">TC 4 website</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150427003621/http://tc4.iec.ch/index-tc4.html">Archived</a> 27 April 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090325212454/http://www.itdg.org/docs/technical_information_service/micro_hydro_power.pdf">Micro-hydro power</a>, Adam Harvey, 2004, Intermediate Technology Development Group. Retrieved 1 January 2005</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eere.energy.gov/consumer/your_home/electricity/index.cfm/mytopic=11050">Microhydropower Systems</a>, US Department of Energy, Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, 2005</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output 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.hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Energy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist 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style="width:1%">Fundamental <br />concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_of_energy" title="Conservation of energy">Conservation of energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">Energetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">Energy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Units_of_energy" title="Units of energy">Units</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_condition" title="Energy condition">Energy condition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_level" title="Energy level">Energy level</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_system" title="Energy system">Energy system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_transformation" title="Energy transformation">Energy transformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_transition" title="Energy transition">Energy transition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass" title="Mass">Mass</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Negative_mass" title="Negative mass">Negative mass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass%E2%80%93energy_equivalence" title="Mass–energy equivalence">Mass–energy equivalence</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_(physics)" title="Power (physics)">Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">Thermodynamics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enthalpy" title="Enthalpy">Enthalpy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entropic_force" title="Entropic force">Entropic force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entropy" title="Entropy">Entropy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exergy" title="Exergy">Exergy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_entropy" title="Free entropy">Free entropy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_capacity" title="Heat capacity">Heat capacity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_transfer" title="Heat transfer">Heat transfer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irreversible_process" title="Irreversible process">Irreversible process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isolated_system" title="Isolated system">Isolated system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laws_of_thermodynamics" title="Laws of thermodynamics">Laws of thermodynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negentropy" title="Negentropy">Negentropy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_thermodynamics" title="Quantum thermodynamics">Quantum thermodynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_equilibrium" title="Thermal equilibrium">Thermal equilibrium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_reservoir" title="Thermal reservoir">Thermal reservoir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_equilibrium" title="Thermodynamic equilibrium">Thermodynamic equilibrium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_free_energy" title="Thermodynamic free energy">Thermodynamic free energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_potential" title="Thermodynamic potential">Thermodynamic potential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_state" title="Thermodynamic state">Thermodynamic state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_system" title="Thermodynamic system">Thermodynamic system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_temperature" title="Thermodynamic temperature">Thermodynamic temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volume_(thermodynamics)" title="Volume (thermodynamics)">Volume (thermodynamics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Work_(physics)" title="Work (physics)">Work</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Binding_energy" title="Binding energy">Binding</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_binding_energy" title="Nuclear binding energy">Nuclear</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_energy" title="Chemical energy">Chemical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark_energy" title="Dark energy">Dark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elastic_energy" title="Elastic energy">Elastic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_potential_energy" title="Electric potential energy">Electric potential energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_energy" title="Electrical energy">Electrical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravitational_energy" title="Gravitational energy">Gravitational</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gravitational_binding_energy" title="Gravitational binding energy">Binding</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interatomic_potential" title="Interatomic potential">Interatomic potential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_energy" title="Internal energy">Internal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ionization_energy" title="Ionization energy">Ionization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinetic_energy" title="Kinetic energy">Kinetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_energy" title="Magnetic energy">Magnetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanical_energy" title="Mechanical energy">Mechanical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negative_energy" title="Negative energy">Negative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phantom_energy" title="Phantom energy">Phantom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potential_energy" title="Potential energy">Potential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_chromodynamics_binding_energy" title="Quantum chromodynamics binding energy">Quantum chromodynamics binding energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_fluctuation" title="Quantum fluctuation">Quantum fluctuation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_potential" title="Quantum potential">Quantum potential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintessence_(physics)" title="Quintessence (physics)">Quintessence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiant_energy" title="Radiant energy">Radiant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rest_energy" class="mw-redirect" title="Rest energy">Rest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sound_energy" title="Sound energy">Sound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_energy" title="Surface energy">Surface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_energy" title="Thermal energy">Thermal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vacuum_energy" title="Vacuum energy">Vacuum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zero-point_energy" title="Zero-point energy">Zero-point</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Energy_carrier" title="Energy carrier">Energy carriers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electric_battery" title="Electric battery">Battery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capacitor" title="Capacitor">Capacitor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electricity" title="Electricity">Electricity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enthalpy" title="Enthalpy">Enthalpy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuel" title="Fuel">Fuel</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">Fossil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuel_oil" title="Fuel oil">Oil</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat" title="Heat">Heat</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latent_heat" title="Latent heat">Latent heat</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">Hydrogen</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_fuel" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrogen fuel">Hydrogen fuel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanical_wave" title="Mechanical wave">Mechanical wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation" title="Radiation">Radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sound_wave" class="mw-redirect" title="Sound wave">Sound wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Work_(physics)" title="Work (physics)">Work</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Primary_energy" title="Primary energy">Primary energy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioenergy" title="Bioenergy">Bioenergy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">Fossil fuel</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coal" title="Coal">Coal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_gas" title="Natural gas">Natural gas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum" title="Petroleum">Petroleum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geothermal_energy" title="Geothermal energy">Geothermal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravitational_energy" title="Gravitational energy">Gravitational</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Hydropower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_energy" title="Marine energy">Marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fuel" title="Nuclear fuel">Nuclear fuel</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_uranium" title="Natural uranium">Natural uranium</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiant_energy" title="Radiant energy">Radiant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_energy" title="Solar energy">Solar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_power" title="Wind power">Wind</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Energy_system" title="Energy system">Energy system</a><br />components</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biomass" title="Biomass">Biomass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_power" title="Electric power">Electric power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electricity_delivery" title="Electricity delivery">Electricity delivery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_engineering" title="Energy engineering">Energy engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel_power_station" title="Fossil fuel power station">Fossil fuel power station</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cogeneration" title="Cogeneration">Cogeneration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_gasification_combined_cycle" title="Integrated gasification combined cycle">Integrated gasification combined cycle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geothermal_power" title="Geothermal power">Geothermal power</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Hydropower</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hydroelectricity" title="Hydroelectricity">Hydroelectricity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_power" title="Tidal power">Tidal power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_farm" class="mw-redirect" title="Wave farm">Wave farm</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">Nuclear power</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_plant" title="Nuclear power plant">Nuclear power plant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioisotope_thermoelectric_generator" title="Radioisotope thermoelectric generator">Radioisotope thermoelectric generator</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_refinery" title="Oil refinery">Oil refinery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power" title="Solar power">Solar power</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Concentrated_solar_power" title="Concentrated solar power">Concentrated solar power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_system" title="Photovoltaic system">Photovoltaic system</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_thermal_energy" title="Solar thermal energy">Solar thermal energy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar_furnace" title="Solar furnace">Solar furnace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_tower" title="Solar power tower">Solar power tower</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_power" title="Wind power">Wind power</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Airborne_wind_energy" title="Airborne wind energy">Airborne wind energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_farm" title="Wind farm">Wind farm</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Use and<br /><a href="/wiki/Energy_supply" title="Energy supply">supply</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Efficient_energy_use" title="Efficient energy use">Efficient energy use</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Energy_efficiency_in_agriculture" title="Energy efficiency in agriculture">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_usage_effectiveness" title="Power usage effectiveness">Computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_efficiency_in_transport" title="Energy efficiency in transport">Transport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_conservation" title="Energy conservation">Energy conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_consumption" title="Energy consumption">Energy consumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_policy" title="Energy policy">Energy policy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Energy_development" title="Energy development">Energy development</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_security" title="Energy security">Energy security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_storage" title="Energy storage">Energy storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">Renewable energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_energy" title="Sustainable energy">Sustainable energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_energy_supply_and_consumption" title="World energy supply and consumption">World energy supply and consumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_Africa" title="Energy in Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Energy in Asia">Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_Australia" title="Energy in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_policy_of_Canada" title="Energy policy of Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_Europe" title="Energy in Europe">Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_Mexico" title="Energy in Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_South_America" title="Energy in South America">South America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_the_United_States" title="Energy in the United States">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Misc.</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_footprint" title="Carbon footprint">Carbon footprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_democracy" title="Energy democracy">Energy democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_recovery" title="Energy recovery">Energy recovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_recycling" title="Energy recycling">Energy recycling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jevons_paradox" title="Jevons paradox">Jevons paradox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste-to-energy" title="Waste-to-energy">Waste-to-energy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Waste-to-energy_plant" title="Waste-to-energy plant">Waste-to-energy plant</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Energy" title="Category:Energy">Category</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Energy" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Energy">Commons</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Portal:Energy" title="Portal:Energy">Portal</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="WikiProject"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Energy" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Energy">WikiProject</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Hydropower" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Hydropower" title="Template:Hydropower"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Hydropower" title="Template talk:Hydropower"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Hydropower" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Hydropower"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Hydropower" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Hydropower</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hydroelectricity" title="Hydroelectricity">Hydroelectricity</a> generation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dam" title="Dam">Dam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_conventional_hydroelectric_power_stations" title="List of conventional hydroelectric power stations">List of conventional hydroelectric power stations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pumped-storage_hydroelectricity" title="Pumped-storage hydroelectricity">Pumped-storage hydroelectricity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_hydro" title="Small hydro">Small hydro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micro_hydro" title="Micro hydro">Micro hydro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pico_hydro" title="Pico hydro">Pico hydro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Run-of-the-river_hydroelectricity" title="Run-of-the-river hydroelectricity">Run-of-the-river hydroelectricity</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="2" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:ThreeGorgesDam-China2009.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/ThreeGorgesDam-China2009.jpg/100px-ThreeGorgesDam-China2009.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="62" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/ThreeGorgesDam-China2009.jpg/150px-ThreeGorgesDam-China2009.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/ThreeGorgesDam-China2009.jpg/200px-ThreeGorgesDam-China2009.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2847" data-file-height="1768" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hydroelectricity" title="Hydroelectricity">Hydroelectricity</a> equipment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Francis_turbine" title="Francis turbine">Francis turbine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaplan_turbine" title="Kaplan turbine">Kaplan turbine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyson_turbine" title="Tyson turbine">Tyson turbine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gorlov_helical_turbine" title="Gorlov helical turbine">Gorlov helical turbine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelton_wheel" title="Pelton wheel">Pelton wheel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turgo_turbine" title="Turgo turbine">Turgo turbine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-flow_turbine" title="Cross-flow turbine">Cross-flow turbine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_wheel" title="Water wheel">Water wheel</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Natural_resources" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Natural_resources" title="Template:Natural resources"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Natural_resources" title="Template talk:Natural resources"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Natural_resources" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Natural resources"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Natural_resources" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Natural_resource" title="Natural resource">Natural resources</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Earth" title="Atmosphere of Earth">Air</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.0em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Air_pollution" title="Air pollution">Pollution / quality</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Ambient_Air_Quality_Standards" title="National Ambient Air Quality Standards">Ambient standards <span style="font-size:85%;">(US)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_quality_index" title="Air quality index">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indoor_air_quality" title="Indoor air quality">Indoor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_quality_law" title="Air quality law">Law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clean_Air_Act_(United_States)" title="Clean Air Act (United States)">Clean Air Act <span style="font-size:85%;">(US)</span></a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ozone_depletion" title="Ozone depletion">Ozone depletion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.0em;font-weight:normal;">Emissions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Airshed" title="Airshed">Airshed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emissions_trading" title="Emissions trading">Trading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reducing_emissions_from_deforestation_and_forest_degradation" class="mw-redirect" title="Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation">Deforestation (REDD)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">Energy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioenergy" title="Bioenergy">Bio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_law" title="Energy law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_resources" class="mw-redirect" title="Energy resources">Resources</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">Fossil fuels</a> (<a href="/wiki/Fuel_gas" title="Fuel gas">gas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peak_coal" title="Peak coal">peak coal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peak_gas" title="Peak gas">peak gas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peak_oil" title="Peak oil">peak oil</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geothermal_energy" title="Geothermal energy">Geothermal</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Hydro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">Nuclear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_energy" title="Solar energy">Solar</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sunlight" title="Sunlight">sunlight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shade_(shadow)" title="Shade (shadow)">shade</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_power" title="Wind power">Wind</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Land" title="Land">Land</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_land" title="Agricultural land">Agricultural</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arable_land" title="Arable land">arable</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peak_farmland" title="Peak farmland">peak farmland</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_degradation" title="Land degradation">Degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field_(agriculture)" title="Field (agriculture)">Field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape" title="Landscape">Landscape</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cityscape" title="Cityscape">cityscape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seascape" title="Seascape">seascape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soundscape" title="Soundscape">soundscape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viewshed" title="Viewshed">viewshed</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_law" title="Land law">Law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Property_law" title="Property law">property</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_management" title="Land management">Management</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Habitat_conservation" title="Habitat conservation">habitat conservation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mineral" title="Mineral">Minerals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gemstone" title="Gemstone">gemstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_mineral" title="Industrial mineral">industrial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ore" title="Ore">ore</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metal" title="Metal">metal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining" title="Mining">mining</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mining_law" title="Mining law">law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sand_mining" title="Sand mining">sand</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peak_minerals" title="Peak minerals">peak</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peak_copper" class="mw-redirect" title="Peak copper">copper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peak_phosphorus" class="mw-redirect" title="Peak phosphorus">phosphorus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mineral_rights" title="Mineral rights">rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">Soil</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soil_conservation" title="Soil conservation">conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_fertility" title="Soil fertility">fertility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_health" title="Soil health">health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_resilience" title="Soil resilience">resilience</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_use" title="Land use">Use</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Land-use_planning" title="Land-use planning">planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_space_reserve" title="Open space reserve">reserve</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Life" title="Life">Life</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioprospecting" title="Bioprospecting">Bioprospecting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biopiracy" title="Biopiracy">biopiracy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">Biosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bushfood" class="mw-redirect" title="Bushfood">Bushfood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bushmeat" title="Bushmeat">Bushmeat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fishery" title="Fishery">Fisheries</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_fisheries" title="Climate change and fisheries">climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisheries_law" title="Fisheries law">law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisheries_management" title="Fisheries management">management</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest" title="Forest">Forests</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Forest_genetic_resources" title="Forest genetic resources">genetic resources</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestry_law" title="Forestry law">law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_management" title="Forest management">management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-timber_forest_product" title="Non-timber forest product">non-timber products</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Game_(food)" class="mw-redirect" title="Game (food)">Game</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Game_law" title="Game law">law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_conservation" title="Marine conservation">Marine conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meadow" title="Meadow">Meadow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pasture" title="Pasture">Pasture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">Plants</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_Treaty" class="mw-redirect" title="Plant Treaty">FAO Plant Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food" title="Food">food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_genetic_resources" title="Plant genetic resources">genetic resources</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene_bank" title="Gene bank">gene banks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_plants_used_in_herbalism" title="List of plants used in herbalism">herbal medicines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UPOV" class="mw-redirect" title="UPOV">UPOV Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wood" title="Wood">wood</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rangeland" title="Rangeland">Rangeland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seed_bank" title="Seed bank">Seed bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife" title="Wildlife">Wildlife</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_conservation" title="Wildlife conservation">conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_management" title="Wildlife management">management</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">Water</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.0em;font-weight:normal;">Types / location</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aquifer" title="Aquifer">Aquifer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aquifer_storage_and_recovery" title="Aquifer storage and recovery">storage and recovery</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drinking_water" title="Drinking water">Drinking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fresh_water" title="Fresh water">Fresh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater">Groundwater</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Groundwater_pollution" title="Groundwater pollution">pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groundwater_recharge" title="Groundwater recharge">recharge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groundwater_remediation" title="Groundwater remediation">remediation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrosphere" title="Hydrosphere">Hydrosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice" title="Ice">Ice</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iceberg" title="Iceberg">bergs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glacier" title="Glacier">glacial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polar_ice_cap" title="Polar ice cap">polar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irrigation" title="Irrigation">Irrigation</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Huerta" title="Huerta">huerta</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_resources" title="Marine resources">Marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rain" title="Rain">Rain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rainwater_harvesting" title="Rainwater harvesting">harvesting</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stormwater" title="Stormwater">Stormwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_water" title="Surface water">Surface water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewage" title="Sewage">Sewage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reclaimed_water" title="Reclaimed water">reclaimed water</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drainage_basin" title="Drainage basin">Watershed</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.0em;font-weight:normal;">Aspects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Desalination" title="Desalination">Desalination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flood" title="Flood">Floods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Water law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leaching_(agriculture)" title="Leaching (agriculture)">Leaching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitation" title="Sanitation">Sanitation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Improved_sanitation" title="Improved sanitation">improved</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_scarcity" title="Water scarcity">Scarcity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_security" title="Water security">Security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply" title="Water supply">Supply</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_efficiency" title="Water efficiency">Efficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_conflict" title="Water conflict">Conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_conservation" title="Water conservation">Conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peak_water" title="Peak water">Peak water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">Pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_privatization" title="Water privatization">Privatization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_quality" title="Water quality">Quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_right" title="Water right">Right</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_resources" title="Water resources">Resources</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Improved_water_source" title="Improved water source">improved</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_resource_policy" title="Water resource policy">policy</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commons" title="Commons">Commons</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enclosure" title="Enclosure">enclosure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_commons" title="Global commons">global</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_land" title="Common land">land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tragedy_of_the_commons" title="Tragedy of the commons">tragedy of</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_resource_economics" title="Natural resource economics">Economics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_economics" title="Ecological economics">ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_(economics)" title="Land (economics)">land</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_services" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecosystem services">Ecosystem services</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exploitation_of_natural_resources" title="Exploitation of natural resources">Exploitation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Overexploitation" title="Overexploitation">overexploitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_Overshoot_Day" title="Earth Overshoot Day">Earth Overshoot Day</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_resource_management" title="Natural resource management">Management</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adaptive_management" title="Adaptive management">adaptive</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_capital" title="Natural capital">Natural capital</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_capital_accounting" title="Natural capital accounting">accounting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_good" title="Environmental good">good</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_heritage" title="Natural heritage">Natural heritage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_reserve" title="Nature reserve">Nature reserve</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Remnant_natural_area" title="Remnant natural area">remnant natural area</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_ecology" title="Systems ecology">Systems ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_ecology" title="Urban ecology">Urban ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilderness" title="Wilderness">Wilderness</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.0em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Resource" title="Resource">Resource</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Common-pool_resource" title="Common-pool resource">Common-pool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_resource" class="mw-redirect" title="Conflict resource">Conflict <span style="font-size:85%;">(perpetuation)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_curse" title="Resource curse">Curse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_depletion" title="Resource depletion">Depletion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_extraction" class="mw-redirect" title="Resource extraction">Extraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_nationalism" title="Resource nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_resource" title="Renewable resource">Renewable</a> / <a href="/wiki/Non-renewable_resource" title="Non-renewable resource">Non-renewable</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Natural_resources" title="Category:Natural resources">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q170196#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q170196#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q170196#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4189214-8">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85145596">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="vodní energie"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph808998&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007551273305171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hls-dhs-dss.ch/fr/articles/026221">Historical Dictionary of Switzerland</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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