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class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Direct and indirect bandgap semiconductors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Direct_and_indirect_bandgap_semiconductors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Generation_of_stimulated_emission" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Generation_of_stimulated_emission"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Generation of stimulated emission</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Generation_of_stimulated_emission-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Optical_cavity_and_laser_modes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Optical_cavity_and_laser_modes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Optical cavity and laser modes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Optical_cavity_and_laser_modes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Formation_of_laser_beam" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Formation_of_laser_beam"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6</span> <span>Formation of laser beam</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Formation_of_laser_beam-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Types" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Types"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Types</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Types-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Types subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Types-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Double_heterostructure_lasers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Double_heterostructure_lasers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Double heterostructure lasers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Double_heterostructure_lasers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Quantum_well_lasers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Quantum_well_lasers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Quantum well lasers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Quantum_well_lasers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Quantum_cascade_lasers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Quantum_cascade_lasers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Quantum cascade lasers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Quantum_cascade_lasers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Interband_cascade_lasers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interband_cascade_lasers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Interband cascade lasers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interband_cascade_lasers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Separate_confinement_heterostructure_lasers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Separate_confinement_heterostructure_lasers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Separate confinement heterostructure lasers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Separate_confinement_heterostructure_lasers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Distributed_Bragg_reflector_lasers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Distributed_Bragg_reflector_lasers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Distributed Bragg reflector lasers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Distributed_Bragg_reflector_lasers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Distributed-feedback_lasers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Distributed-feedback_lasers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7</span> <span>Distributed-feedback lasers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Distributed-feedback_lasers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vertical-cavity_surface-emitting_laser" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vertical-cavity_surface-emitting_laser"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.8</span> <span>Vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vertical-cavity_surface-emitting_laser-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vertical-external-cavity_surface-emitting-laser" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vertical-external-cavity_surface-emitting-laser"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.9</span> <span>Vertical-external-cavity surface-emitting-laser</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vertical-external-cavity_surface-emitting-laser-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External-cavity_diode_lasers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External-cavity_diode_lasers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.10</span> <span>External-cavity diode lasers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External-cavity_diode_lasers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reliability" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reliability"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Reliability</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reliability-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Applications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Applications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Applications</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Applications-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Applications subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Applications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Telecommunications,_scanning,_and_spectrometry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Telecommunications,_scanning,_and_spectrometry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Telecommunications, scanning, and spectrometry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Telecommunications,_scanning,_and_spectrometry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medical_uses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medical_uses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Medical uses</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medical_uses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Maskless_photolithography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Maskless_photolithography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Maskless photolithography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Maskless_photolithography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Common_wavelengths" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Common_wavelengths"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Common wavelengths</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Common_wavelengths-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Common wavelengths subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Common_wavelengths-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Visible_light" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Visible_light"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Visible light</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Visible_light-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Infrared" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Infrared"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Infrared</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Infrared-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Laser diode</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 39 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-39" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">39 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AB%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%8A_%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%B2%D8%B1%D9%8A" title="ثنائي ليزري – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="ثنائي ليزري" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lazer_diodu" title="Lazer diodu – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Lazer diodu" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%A1%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%A1" title="লেজার ডায়োড – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="লেজার ডায়োড" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D1%8B_%D0%B4%D1%8B%D1%91%D0%B4" title="Лазерны дыёд – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Лазерны дыёд" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B4" title="Лазерен диод – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Лазерен диод" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%ADode_l%C3%A0ser" title="Díode làser – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Díode làser" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laserov%C3%A1_dioda" title="Laserová dioda – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Laserová dioda" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laserdiode" title="Laserdiode – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Laserdiode" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laserdiode" title="Laserdiode – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Laserdiode" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laserdiood" title="Laserdiood – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Laserdiood" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diodo_l%C3%A1ser" title="Diodo láser – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Diodo láser" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%B2%D8%B1_%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%AF%DB%8C" title="لیزر دیودی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="لیزر دیودی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diode_laser" title="Diode laser – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Diode laser" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A9asar_leathsheolt%C3%B3ra" title="Léasar leathsheoltóra – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Léasar leathsheoltóra" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B0%98%EB%8F%84%EC%B2%B4_%EB%A0%88%EC%9D%B4%EC%A0%80" title="반도체 레이저 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="반도체 레이저" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A1" title="लेजर डायोड – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="लेजर डायोड" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dioda_laser" title="Dioda laser – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Dioda laser" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diodo_laser" title="Diodo laser – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Diodo laser" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%99%D7%96%D7%A8_%D7%93%D7%99%D7%95%D7%93%D7%94" title="לייזר דיודה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="לייזר דיודה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BB%D1%96_%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B4" title="Лазерлі диод – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Лазерлі диод" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C4%81zerdiode" title="Lāzerdiode – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Lāzerdiode" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lazerinis_diodas" title="Lazerinis diodas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Lazerinis diodas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diodelaser" title="Diodelaser – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Diodelaser" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8D%8A%E5%B0%8E%E4%BD%93%E3%83%AC%E3%83%BC%E3%82%B6%E3%83%BC" title="半導体レーザー – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="半導体レーザー" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser_p%C3%B3%C5%82przewodnikowy" title="Laser półprzewodnikowy – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Laser półprzewodnikowy" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser_d%C3%ADodo" title="Laser díodo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Laser díodo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diod%C4%83_laser" title="Diodă laser – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Diodă laser" 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screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><caption class="infobox-title">Laser diode</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Diode_laser.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Diode_laser.jpg/220px-Diode_laser.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Diode_laser.jpg/330px-Diode_laser.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Diode_laser.jpg/440px-Diode_laser.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3060" data-file-height="2036" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">A packaged laser diode shown with a <a href="/wiki/Penny" title="Penny">penny</a> for scale: a 488 nm <a href="/wiki/InGaN" class="mw-redirect" title="InGaN">InGaN</a> green-blue laser, which became widely available in mid-2018.</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Type</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor">semiconductor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Light-emitting_diode" title="Light-emitting diode">light-emitting diode</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><span class="nowrap">Working principle<span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span></span></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor">semiconductor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carrier_generation_and_recombination" title="Carrier generation and recombination">carrier generation and recombination</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Inventor</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Robert_N._Hall" title="Robert N. Hall">Robert N. Hall</a>, 1962; <a href="/wiki/Nick_Holonyak" title="Nick Holonyak">Nick Holonyak, Jr.</a>, 1962</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><span class="nowrap">Pin names</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Anode" title="Anode">Anode</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cathode" title="Cathode">cathode</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Laser_diode_chip.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Laser_diode_chip.jpg/250px-Laser_diode_chip.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Laser_diode_chip.jpg/330px-Laser_diode_chip.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Laser_diode_chip.jpg/500px-Laser_diode_chip.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2720" data-file-height="1925" /></a><figcaption>The laser diode chip removed and placed on the eye of a needle for scale</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Laser_diode_with_the_case_and_window_removed-powered_off.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Laser_diode_with_the_case_and_window_removed-powered_off.jpg/220px-Laser_diode_with_the_case_and_window_removed-powered_off.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="196" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Laser_diode_with_the_case_and_window_removed-powered_off.jpg/330px-Laser_diode_with_the_case_and_window_removed-powered_off.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Laser_diode_with_the_case_and_window_removed-powered_off.jpg/440px-Laser_diode_with_the_case_and_window_removed-powered_off.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2547" data-file-height="2272" /></a><figcaption>A laser diode with the case cut away. The laser diode chip is the small black chip at the front; a photodiode at the back is used to control output power.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Laser_diode_with_case_cut_away.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Laser_diode_with_case_cut_away.jpg/220px-Laser_diode_with_case_cut_away.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Laser_diode_with_case_cut_away.jpg/330px-Laser_diode_with_case_cut_away.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Laser_diode_with_case_cut_away.jpg/440px-Laser_diode_with_case_cut_away.jpg 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="437" /></a><figcaption>SEM (<a href="/wiki/Scanning_electron_microscope" title="Scanning electron microscope">scanning electron microscope</a>) image of a commercial laser diode with its case and window cut away. The anode connection on the right has been accidentally broken by the case cut process.</figcaption></figure> <p>A <b>laser diode</b> (<b>LD</b>, also <b>injection laser diode</b> or <b>ILD</b> or <b>semiconductor laser</b> or <b>diode laser</b>) is a <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor">semiconductor</a> device similar to a <a href="/wiki/Light-emitting_diode" title="Light-emitting diode">light-emitting diode</a> in which a diode pumped directly with electrical current can create <a href="/wiki/Active_laser_medium" title="Active laser medium">lasing</a> conditions at the diode's <a href="/wiki/P%E2%80%93n_junction" title="P–n junction">junction</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ColdrenCorzine2012_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ColdrenCorzine2012-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 3">: 3 </span></sup> </p><p>Driven by voltage, the doped p–n-transition allows for <a href="/wiki/Carrier_generation_and_recombination" title="Carrier generation and recombination">recombination</a> of an electron with a <a href="/wiki/Electron_hole" title="Electron hole">hole</a>. Due to the drop of the electron from a higher energy level to a lower one, radiation is generated in the form of an emitted photon. This is spontaneous emission. Stimulated emission can be produced when the process is continued and further generates light with the same phase, coherence, and wavelength. </p><p>The choice of the semiconductor material determines the wavelength of the emitted beam, which in today's laser diodes range from the <a href="/wiki/Infrared" title="Infrared">infrared</a> (IR) to the <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet" title="Ultraviolet">ultraviolet</a> (UV) spectra. Laser diodes are the most common type of lasers produced, with a wide range of uses that include <a href="/wiki/Fiber-optic_communication" title="Fiber-optic communication">fiber-optic communications</a>, <a href="/wiki/Barcode_reader" title="Barcode reader">barcode readers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Laser_pointer" title="Laser pointer">laser pointers</a>, <a href="/wiki/CD" class="mw-redirect" title="CD">CD</a>/<a href="/wiki/DVD" title="DVD">DVD</a>/<a href="/wiki/Blu-ray" title="Blu-ray">Blu-ray</a> disc reading/recording, <a href="/wiki/Laser_printing" title="Laser printing">laser printing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Laser_scanning" title="Laser scanning">laser scanning</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Light_beam" title="Light beam">light beam</a> illumination. With the use of a phosphor like that found on white <a href="/wiki/LED" class="mw-redirect" title="LED">LEDs</a>, laser diodes can be used for general illumination. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Theory">Theory</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Laser_diode&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Laser_diode" title="Special:EditPage/Laser diode">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">July 2011</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lasers.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Lasers.JPG/250px-Lasers.JPG" decoding="async" width="250" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Lasers.JPG/500px-Lasers.JPG 1.5x" data-file-width="4032" data-file-height="3024" /></a><figcaption>Semi-conductor lasers (Bottom to Top: 660 nm, 635 nm, 532 nm, 520 nm, 445 nm, 405 nm)</figcaption></figure> <p>A laser diode is electrically a <a href="/wiki/PIN_diode" title="PIN diode">PIN diode</a>. The active region of the laser diode is in the intrinsic (I) region, and the carriers (electrons and holes) are pumped into that region from the N and P regions respectively. While initial diode laser research was conducted on simple P–N diodes, all modern lasers use the double-hetero-structure implementation, where the carriers and the photons are confined in order to maximize their chances for recombination and light generation. Unlike a regular diode, the goal for a laser diode is to recombine all carriers in the I region, and produce light. Thus, laser diodes are fabricated using <a href="/wiki/Direct_and_indirect_band_gaps" title="Direct and indirect band gaps">direct band-gap</a> semiconductors. The laser diode epitaxial structure is grown using one of the <a href="/wiki/Crystal_growth" title="Crystal growth">crystal growth</a> techniques, usually starting from an N-<a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_doping" class="mw-redirect" title="Semiconductor doping">doped</a> substrate, and growing the I (undoped) active layer, followed by the P-doped <a href="/wiki/Cladding_(fiber_optics)" title="Cladding (fiber optics)">cladding</a>, and a contact layer. The active layer most often consists of <a href="/wiki/Quantum_well" title="Quantum well">quantum wells</a>, which provide lower threshold current and higher efficiency.<sup id="cite_ref-ColdrenCorzine2012_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ColdrenCorzine2012-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Electrical_and_optical_pumping">Electrical and optical pumping</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Laser_diode&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Electrical and optical pumping"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Laser diodes form a subset of the larger classification of semiconductor <i>p</i>–<i>n</i> junction diodes. Forward electrical bias across the laser diode causes the two species of <a href="/wiki/Charge_carrier" title="Charge carrier">charge carrier</a> – <a href="/wiki/Electron_hole" title="Electron hole">holes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a> – to be <i>injected</i> from opposite sides of the PIN junction into the depletion region. Holes are injected from the <i>p</i>-doped into the undoped (i) semiconductor, and electrons vice versa. (A <a href="/wiki/Depletion_zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Depletion zone">depletion region</a>, devoid of any charge carriers, forms as a result of the difference in electrical potential between <i>n</i>- and <i>p</i>-type semiconductors wherever they are in physical contact.) Due to the use of charge injection in powering most diode lasers, this class of lasers is sometimes termed <i>injection lasers</i>, or <i>injection laser diodes</i> (ILD). As diode lasers are semiconductor devices, they may also be classified as semiconductor lasers. Either designation distinguishes diode lasers from <a href="/wiki/Solid-state_laser" title="Solid-state laser">solid-state lasers</a>. </p><p>Another method of powering some diode lasers is the use of <a href="/wiki/Optical_pumping" title="Optical pumping">optical pumping</a>. Optically pumped semiconductor lasers (OPSL) use a III-V semiconductor chip as the gain medium, and another laser (often another diode laser) as the pump source. OPSLs offer several advantages over ILDs, particularly in wavelength selection and lack of interference from internal electrode structures.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A further advantage of OPSLs is invariance of the beam parameters – divergence, shape, and pointing – as pump power (and hence output power) is varied, even over a 10:1 output power ratio.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Generation_of_spontaneous_emission">Generation of spontaneous emission</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Laser_diode&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Generation of spontaneous emission"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>When an electron and a hole are present in the same region, they may <a href="/wiki/Recombination_(physics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Recombination (physics)">recombine</a> or <i>annihilate</i> producing a <a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_emission" title="Spontaneous emission">spontaneous emission</a> — that is, the electron may re-occupy the energy state of the hole, emitting a photon with energy equal to the difference between the electron's original state and hole's state. (In a conventional semiconductor junction diode, the energy released from the recombination of electrons and holes is carried away as <a href="/wiki/Phonon" title="Phonon">phonons</a> (lattice vibrations) rather than as photons.) Spontaneous emission below the <a href="/wiki/Lasing_threshold" title="Lasing threshold">lasing threshold</a> produces similar properties to an <a href="/wiki/Light-emitting_diode" title="Light-emitting diode">LED</a>. Spontaneous emission is necessary to initiate laser oscillation, but it is one among several sources of inefficiency once the laser is oscillating. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Direct_and_indirect_bandgap_semiconductors">Direct and indirect bandgap semiconductors</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Laser_diode&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Direct and indirect bandgap semiconductors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The difference between the photon-emitting semiconductor laser and a conventional phonon-emitting (non-light-emitting) semiconductor junction diode lies in the type of semiconductor used, one whose physical and atomic structure confers the possibility for photon emission. These photon-emitting semiconductors are the so-called "<a href="/wiki/Direct_and_indirect_band_gaps" title="Direct and indirect band gaps">direct bandgap</a>" semiconductors. The properties of <a href="/wiki/Silicon" title="Silicon">silicon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Germanium" title="Germanium">germanium</a>, which are single-element semiconductors, have bandgaps that do not align in the way needed to allow photon emission and are not considered <i>direct</i>. Other materials, the so-called compound semiconductors, have virtually identical crystalline structures as silicon or germanium but use alternating arrangements of two different atomic species in a checkerboard-like pattern to break the symmetry. The transition between the materials in the alternating pattern creates the critical <a href="/wiki/Direct_bandgap" class="mw-redirect" title="Direct bandgap">direct bandgap</a> property. <a href="/wiki/Gallium_arsenide" title="Gallium arsenide">Gallium arsenide</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indium_phosphide" title="Indium phosphide">indium phosphide</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gallium_antimonide" title="Gallium antimonide">gallium antimonide</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gallium_nitride" title="Gallium nitride">gallium nitride</a> are all examples of compound semiconductor materials that can be used to create junction diodes that emit light. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Frame"><a href="/wiki/File:Simple_laser_diode.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Simple_laser_diode.svg/283px-Simple_laser_diode.svg.png" decoding="async" width="283" height="186" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Simple_laser_diode.svg/425px-Simple_laser_diode.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Simple_laser_diode.svg/566px-Simple_laser_diode.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="283" data-file-height="186" /></a><figcaption>Diagram of a simple laser diode, such as shown above; not to scale</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Metal_covered_Laser_diode_switched_on.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Metal_covered_Laser_diode_switched_on.jpg/220px-Metal_covered_Laser_diode_switched_on.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="241" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Metal_covered_Laser_diode_switched_on.jpg/330px-Metal_covered_Laser_diode_switched_on.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Metal_covered_Laser_diode_switched_on.jpg/440px-Metal_covered_Laser_diode_switched_on.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1779" data-file-height="1945" /></a><figcaption>A simple and low-power metal-enclosed laser diode</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Generation_of_stimulated_emission">Generation of stimulated emission</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Laser_diode&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Generation of stimulated emission"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the absence of stimulated emission (e.g., lasing) conditions, electrons and holes may coexist in proximity to one another, without recombining, for a certain time, termed the <i>upper-state lifetime</i> or <i>recombination time</i> (about a nanosecond for typical diode laser materials), before they recombine. A nearby photon with energy equal to the recombination energy can cause recombination by <a href="/wiki/Stimulated_emission" title="Stimulated emission">stimulated emission</a>. This generates another photon of the same frequency, <a href="/wiki/Polarization_(waves)" title="Polarization (waves)">polarization</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Phase_(waves)" title="Phase (waves)">phase</a>, travelling in the same direction as the first photon. This means that stimulated emission will cause gain in an optical wave (of the correct wavelength) in the injection region, and the gain increases as the number of electrons and holes injected across the junction increases. The spontaneous and stimulated-emission processes are vastly more efficient in <a href="/wiki/Direct_bandgap" class="mw-redirect" title="Direct bandgap">direct bandgap</a> semiconductors than in <a href="/wiki/Indirect_bandgap" class="mw-redirect" title="Indirect bandgap">indirect bandgap</a> semiconductors; therefore, <a href="/wiki/Silicon" title="Silicon">silicon</a> is not a common material for laser diodes. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Optical_cavity_and_laser_modes">Optical cavity and laser modes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Laser_diode&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Optical cavity and laser modes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As in other lasers, the gain region is surrounded by an <a href="/wiki/Optical_cavity" title="Optical cavity">optical cavity</a> to form a laser. In the simplest form of laser diode, an optical waveguide is made on that crystal's surface, such that the light is confined to a relatively narrow line. The two ends of the crystal are cleaved to form perfectly smooth, parallel edges, forming a <a href="/wiki/Fabry%E2%80%93P%C3%A9rot" class="mw-redirect" title="Fabry–Pérot">Fabry–Pérot</a> resonator. Photons emitted into a mode of the waveguide will travel along the waveguide and be reflected several times from each end face before they exit. As a light wave passes through the cavity, it is amplified by <a href="/wiki/Stimulated_emission" title="Stimulated emission">stimulated emission</a>, but light is also lost due to absorption and by incomplete reflection from the end facets. Finally, if there is more amplification than loss, the diode begins to <i><a href="/wiki/Lasing_threshold" title="Lasing threshold">lase</a></i>. </p><p>Some important properties of laser diodes are determined by the geometry of the optical cavity. Generally, the light is contained within a very thin layer, and the structure supports only a single optical mode in the direction perpendicular to the layers. In the transverse direction, if the waveguide is wide compared to the wavelength of the light, then the waveguide can support multiple <a href="/wiki/Transverse_mode" title="Transverse mode">transverse optical modes</a>, and the laser is known as <i>multi-mode</i>. These transversely multi-mode lasers are adequate in cases where one needs a very large amount of power, but not a small <a href="/wiki/Diffraction_limited_beam" class="mw-redirect" title="Diffraction limited beam">diffraction-limited</a> TEM00 beam, such as in printing, activating chemicals, microscopy, or <a href="/wiki/Laser_pumping" title="Laser pumping">pumping</a> other types of lasers. </p><p>In applications where a small, focused beam is needed, the waveguide must be made narrow, on the order of the optical wavelength. This way, only a single transverse mode is supported and one ends up with a diffraction-limited beam. Such single-spatial-mode devices are used for optical storage, laser pointers, and fiber optics. These lasers may still support multiple longitudinal modes, and thus can lase at multiple wavelengths simultaneously. The wavelength emitted is a function of the bandgap of the semiconductor material and the modes of the optical cavity. In general, the maximum gain will occur for photons with energy slightly above the bandgap energy, and the modes nearest the peak of the gain curve will lase most strongly. The width of the gain curve will determine the number of additional <i>side modes</i> that may also lase, depending on the operating conditions. Single-spatial-mode lasers that can support multiple longitudinal modes are called Fabry-Pérot (FP) lasers. An FP laser will lase at multiple cavity modes within the gain bandwidth of the lasing medium. The number of lasing modes in an FP laser is usually unstable and can fluctuate due to changes in current or temperature. </p><p>Single-spatial-mode diode lasers can be designed so as to operate on a single longitudinal mode. These single-frequency diode lasers exhibit a high degree of stability, and are used in spectroscopy and metrology and as frequency references. Single-frequency diode lasers are classed as either distributed-feedback (DFB) lasers or distributed Bragg reflector (DBR) lasers. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Formation_of_laser_beam">Formation of laser beam</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Laser_diode&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Formation of laser beam"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Due to <a href="/wiki/Diffraction" title="Diffraction">diffraction</a>, the beam diverges (expands) rapidly after leaving the chip, typically at 30 degrees vertically by 10 degrees laterally. A <a href="/wiki/Lens_(optics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lens (optics)">lens</a> must be used in order to form a <a href="/wiki/Collimated_beam" title="Collimated beam">collimated beam</a> like that produced by a laser pointer. If a circular beam is required, then cylindrical lenses and other optics are used. For single-spatial-mode lasers, using symmetrical lenses, the collimated beam ends up being elliptical in shape, due to the difference in the vertical and lateral divergences. This is easily observable with a red <a href="/wiki/Laser_pointer" title="Laser pointer">laser pointer</a>. The long axis of the ellipse is at right-angles to the plane of the chip. </p><p>The simple diode described above has been heavily modified in recent years<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="The time period mentioned near this tag is ambiguous. (November 2024)">when?</span></a></i>]</sup> to accommodate modern technology, resulting in a variety of types of laser diodes, as described below. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Laser_diode&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nick_Holonyak_Jr.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Nick_Holonyak_Jr.jpg/220px-Nick_Holonyak_Jr.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="302" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Nick_Holonyak_Jr.jpg/330px-Nick_Holonyak_Jr.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Nick_Holonyak_Jr.jpg/440px-Nick_Holonyak_Jr.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1104" data-file-height="1516" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Nick_Holonyak" title="Nick Holonyak">Nick Holonyak</a>, inventor of first visible-wavelength semiconductor laser diode</figcaption></figure> <p>Following theoretical treatments of M.G. Bernard, G. Duraffourg, and William P. Dumke in the early 1960s, <a href="/wiki/Coherence_(physics)" title="Coherence (physics)">coherent</a> light emission from a <a href="/wiki/Gallium_arsenide" title="Gallium arsenide">gallium arsenide</a> (GaAs) semiconductor diode (a laser diode) was demonstrated in 1962 by two US groups led by <a href="/wiki/Robert_N._Hall" title="Robert N. Hall">Robert N. Hall</a> at the <a href="/wiki/General_Electric" title="General Electric">General Electric</a> research center<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and by Marshall Nathan at the <a href="/wiki/Thomas_J._Watson_Research_Center" title="Thomas J. Watson Research Center">IBM T.J. Watson Research Center</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There has been ongoing debate as to whether IBM or GE invented the first laser diode, which was largely based on theoretical work by William P. Dumke at IBM's Kitchawan Lab (currently known as the Thomas J. Watson Research Center) in <a href="/wiki/Yorktown_Heights,_New_York" title="Yorktown Heights, New York">Yorktown Heights</a>, NY. The priority is given to the General Electric group, who submitted their results earlier; they also went further and made a resonant cavity for their diode.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was initially speculated, by <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">MIT</a>'s Ben Lax among other leading physicists, that silicon or germanium could be used to create a lasing effect, but theoretical analyses convinced William P. Dumke that these materials would not work. Instead, he suggested gallium arsenide as a good candidate. The first visible-wavelength laser diode was demonstrated by <a href="/wiki/Nick_Holonyak,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Nick Holonyak, Jr.">Nick Holonyak, Jr.</a> later in 1962; he used <a href="/wiki/Gallium_arsenide_phosphide" title="Gallium arsenide phosphide">gallium arsenide phosphide</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-afterglow_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-afterglow-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other teams at <a href="/wiki/MIT_Lincoln_Laboratory" title="MIT Lincoln Laboratory">MIT Lincoln Laboratory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Texas_Instruments" title="Texas Instruments">Texas Instruments</a>, and <a href="/wiki/RCA_Laboratories" class="mw-redirect" title="RCA Laboratories">RCA Laboratories</a> were also involved in, and received credit for, their historic initial demonstrations of efficient light emission and lasing in semiconductor diodes in 1962 and thereafter. GaAs lasers were also produced in early 1963 in the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> by the team led by <a href="/wiki/Nikolay_Basov" title="Nikolay Basov">Nikolay Basov</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the early 1960s, liquid-phase <a href="/wiki/Epitaxy" title="Epitaxy">epitaxy</a> (LPE) was invented by Herbert Nelson of RCA Laboratories. By layering the highest-quality crystals of varying compositions, it enabled the demonstration of the highest-quality <a href="/wiki/Heterojunction" title="Heterojunction">heterojunction</a> semiconductor laser materials for many years. LPE was adopted by all the leading laboratories worldwide and was used for many years. It was finally supplanted in the 1970s by <a href="/wiki/Molecular-beam_epitaxy" title="Molecular-beam epitaxy">molecular-beam epitaxy</a> and organometallic <a href="/wiki/Chemical_vapor_deposition" title="Chemical vapor deposition">chemical vapor deposition</a>. </p><p>Diode lasers of that era operated with threshold current densities of 1000 A/cm<sup>2</sup> at 77 K temperatures. Such performance enabled continuous lasing to be demonstrated in the earliest days. However, when operated at room temperature, about 300 K, threshold current densities were two orders of magnitude greater, or 100,000 A/cm<sup>2</sup>, in the best devices. The dominant challenge for the remainder of the 1960s was to obtain low threshold current density at 300 K and thereby to demonstrate continuous-wave lasing at room temperature from a diode laser. </p><p>The first diode lasers were homojunction diodes. That is, the material (and thus the bandgap) of the waveguide core layer and that of the surrounding clad layers were identical. It was recognized that there was an opportunity, particularly afforded by the use of liquid-phase epitaxy using <a href="/wiki/Aluminium_gallium_arsenide" title="Aluminium gallium arsenide">aluminum gallium arsenide</a>, to introduce heterojunctions. Heterostructures consist of layers of semiconductor crystal having varying bandgap and <a href="/wiki/Refractive_index" title="Refractive index">refractive index</a>. Heterojunctions (formed from heterostructures) had been recognized by <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Kroemer" title="Herbert Kroemer">Herbert Kroemer</a>, while working at RCA Laboratories in the mid-1950s, as having unique advantages for several types of electronic and optoelectronic devices, including diode lasers. LPE afforded the technology of making heterojunction diode lasers. In 1963, he proposed the <a href="/wiki/Double_heterostructure" title="Double heterostructure">double heterostructure</a> laser. </p><p>The first heterojunction diode lasers were single-heterojunction lasers. These lasers used aluminum gallium arsenide <i>p</i>-type injectors situated over <i>n</i>-type gallium arsenide layers grown on the substrate by LPE. An admixture of aluminum replaced gallium in the semiconductor crystal and raised the bandgap of the <i>p</i>-type injector over that of the <i>n</i>-type layers beneath. It worked; the 300 K threshold currents went down by 10× to 10,000 A/cm<sup>2</sup>. Unfortunately, this was still not in the needed range, and these single-heterostructure diode lasers did not function in continuous-wave operation at room temperature. </p><p>The innovation that met the room temperature challenge was the double-heterostructure laser. The trick was to quickly move the wafer in the LPE apparatus between different <i>melts</i> of aluminum gallium arsenide (<i>p</i>- and <i>n</i>-type) and a third melt of gallium arsenide. It had to be done rapidly since the gallium arsenide core region needed to be significantly under 1 μm in thickness. The first laser diode to achieve <i><a href="/wiki/Continuous_wave" title="Continuous wave">continuous-wave</a></i> operation was a <a href="/wiki/Double_heterostructure" title="Double heterostructure">double heterostructure</a> demonstrated in 1970 essentially simultaneously by <a href="/wiki/Zhores_Alferov" title="Zhores Alferov">Zhores Alferov</a> and collaborators (including <a href="/wiki/Dmitri_Z._Garbuzov" title="Dmitri Z. Garbuzov">Dmitri Z. Garbuzov</a>) of the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Morton_Panish" class="mw-redirect" title="Morton Panish">Morton Panish</a> and <a href="/wiki/Izuo_Hayashi" title="Izuo Hayashi">Izuo Hayashi</a> working in the United States. However, it is widely accepted that Alferov and team reached the milestone first.<sup id="cite_ref-Chatak_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chatak-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For their accomplishment and that of their co-workers, Alferov and Kroemer shared the <a href="/wiki/List_of_Nobel_laureates_in_Physics" title="List of Nobel laureates in Physics">2000 Nobel Prize in Physics</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types">Types</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Laser_diode&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Types"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The simple laser diode structure described above is inefficient. Such devices require so much power that they can only achieve pulsed operation without damage. Although historically important and easy to explain, such devices are not practical. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Double_heterostructure_lasers">Double heterostructure lasers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Laser_diode&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Double heterostructure lasers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Simple_dh_laser_diode.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Simple_dh_laser_diode.svg/350px-Simple_dh_laser_diode.svg.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="233" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Simple_dh_laser_diode.svg/525px-Simple_dh_laser_diode.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Simple_dh_laser_diode.svg/700px-Simple_dh_laser_diode.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="563" data-file-height="375" /></a><figcaption>Diagram of front view of a double heterostructure laser diode; not to scale</figcaption></figure> <p>In these devices, a layer of low-<a href="/wiki/Bandgap" class="mw-redirect" title="Bandgap">bandgap</a> material is sandwiched between two high-bandgap layers. One commonly-used pair of materials is <a href="/wiki/Gallium_arsenide" title="Gallium arsenide">gallium arsenide</a> (GaAs) with <a href="/wiki/Aluminium_gallium_arsenide" title="Aluminium gallium arsenide">aluminium gallium arsenide</a> (Al<sub>x</sub>Ga<sub>(1-x)</sub>As). Each of the junctions between different bandgap materials is called a <i><a href="/wiki/Heterostructure" class="mw-redirect" title="Heterostructure">heterostructure</a></i>, hence the name <i>double heterostructure</i> (DH) laser. The kind of laser diode described in the first part of the article may be referred to as a <i>homojunction</i> laser, for contrast with these more popular devices. </p><p>The advantage of a DH laser is that the region where free electrons and holes exist simultaneously—the <a href="/wiki/Active_laser_medium" title="Active laser medium">active region</a>—is confined to the thin middle layer. This means that many more of the electron-hole pairs can contribute to amplification—not so many are left out in the poorly amplifying periphery. In addition, light is reflected within the heterojunction; hence, the light is confined to the region where the amplification takes place. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Quantum_well_lasers">Quantum well lasers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Laser_diode&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Quantum well lasers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Quantum_well_laser" title="Quantum well laser">Quantum well laser</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Simple_qw_laser_diode.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Simple_qw_laser_diode.svg/500px-Simple_qw_laser_diode.svg.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Simple_qw_laser_diode.svg/525px-Simple_qw_laser_diode.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Simple_qw_laser_diode.svg/700px-Simple_qw_laser_diode.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="531" data-file-height="263" /></a><figcaption>Diagram of front view of a simple quantum well laser diode; not to scale</figcaption></figure> <p>If the middle layer is made thin enough, it acts as a <a href="/wiki/Quantum_well" title="Quantum well">quantum well</a>. This means that the vertical variation of the electron's <a href="/wiki/Wavefunction" class="mw-redirect" title="Wavefunction">wavefunction</a>, and thus a component of its energy, is quantized. The efficiency of a <a href="/wiki/Quantum_well_laser" title="Quantum well laser">quantum well laser</a> is greater than that of a bulk laser because the <a href="/wiki/Density_of_states" title="Density of states">density of states</a> function of electrons in the quantum well system has an abrupt edge that concentrates electrons in energy states that contribute to laser action. </p><p>Lasers containing more than one quantum well layer are known as <i>multiple quantum well</i> lasers. Multiple quantum wells improve the overlap of the gain region with the optical <a href="/wiki/Waveguide" title="Waveguide">waveguide</a> <a href="/wiki/Normal_mode" title="Normal mode">mode</a>. </p><p>Further improvements in laser efficiency have also been demonstrated by reducing the quantum well layer to a <a href="/wiki/Quantum_wire" title="Quantum wire">quantum wire</a> or to a <i>sea</i> of <a href="/wiki/Quantum_dot" title="Quantum dot">quantum dots</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Quantum_cascade_lasers">Quantum cascade lasers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Laser_diode&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Quantum cascade lasers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Quantum_cascade_laser" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantum cascade laser">Quantum cascade laser</a></div> <p>In a <a href="/wiki/Quantum_cascade_laser" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantum cascade laser">quantum cascade laser</a>, the difference between quantum well energy levels is used for the laser transition instead of the bandgap. This enables laser action at relatively long <a href="/wiki/Wavelength" title="Wavelength">wavelengths</a>, which can be tuned simply by altering the thickness of the layer. They are heterojunction lasers. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Interband_cascade_lasers">Interband cascade lasers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Laser_diode&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Interband cascade lasers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Interband_cascade_laser" title="Interband cascade laser">Interband cascade laser</a></div> <p>An <a href="/wiki/Interband_cascade_laser" title="Interband cascade laser">interband cascade laser</a> (ICL) is a type of laser diode that can produce coherent radiation over a large part of the mid-infrared region of the electromagnetic spectrum. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Separate_confinement_heterostructure_lasers">Separate confinement heterostructure lasers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Laser_diode&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Separate confinement heterostructure lasers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Simple_sch_laser_diode.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Simple_sch_laser_diode.svg/500px-Simple_sch_laser_diode.svg.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="233" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Simple_sch_laser_diode.svg/525px-Simple_sch_laser_diode.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Simple_sch_laser_diode.svg/700px-Simple_sch_laser_diode.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="563" data-file-height="375" /></a><figcaption>Diagram of front view of a separate confinement heterostructure quantum well laser diode; not to scale</figcaption></figure> <p>The problem with the simple quantum well diode described above is that the thin layer is simply too small to effectively confine the light. To compensate, another two layers are added on, outside the first three. These layers have a lower <a href="/wiki/Refractive_index" title="Refractive index">refractive index</a> than the center layers, and hence confine the light effectively. Such a design is called a separate confinement heterostructure (SCH) laser diode. </p><p>Almost all commercial laser diodes since the 1990s have been SCH quantum well diodes. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Distributed_Bragg_reflector_lasers">Distributed Bragg reflector lasers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Laser_diode&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Distributed Bragg reflector lasers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Distributed_Bragg_reflector_laser" title="Distributed Bragg reflector laser">distributed Bragg reflector laser</a> (DBR) is a type of single-frequency laser diode.<sup id="cite_ref-hecht_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hecht-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is characterized by an <a href="/wiki/Optical_cavity" title="Optical cavity">optical cavity</a> consisting of an electrically or optically pumped gain region between two mirrors to provide feedback. One of the mirrors is a broadband reflector and the other mirror is wavelength selective so that gain is favored on a single longitudinal mode, resulting in lasing at a single resonant frequency. The broadband mirror is usually coated with a low-reflectivity coating to allow emission. The wavelength-selective mirror is a periodically structured <a href="/wiki/Diffraction_grating" title="Diffraction grating">diffraction grating</a> with high reflectivity. The diffraction grating is within a non-pumped, or passive, region of the cavity. A DBR laser is a monolithic single-chip device with the grating etched into the semiconductor. DBR lasers can be edge-emitting lasers or <a href="/wiki/Vertical-cavity_surface-emitting_laser" title="Vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser">VCSELs</a>. Alternative hybrid architectures that share the same topology include extended-cavity diode lasers and volume Bragg grating lasers, but these are not properly called DBR lasers. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Distributed-feedback_lasers">Distributed-feedback lasers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Laser_diode&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Distributed-feedback lasers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Distributed-feedback_laser" title="Distributed-feedback laser">Distributed-feedback laser</a></div> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Distributed-feedback_laser" title="Distributed-feedback laser">distributed-feedback laser</a> (DFB) is a type of single-frequency laser diode.<sup id="cite_ref-hecht_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hecht-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> DFBs are the most common transmitter type in <a href="/wiki/DWDM" class="mw-redirect" title="DWDM">DWDM</a> systems. To stabilize the lasing wavelength, a diffraction grating is etched close to the <i>p</i>–<i>n</i> junction of the diode. This grating acts like an optical filter, causing a single wavelength to be fed back to the gain region and lase. Since the grating provides the feedback that is required for lasing, reflection from the facets is not required. Thus, at least one facet of a DFB is <a href="/wiki/Anti-reflection_coating" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-reflection coating">anti-reflection coated</a>. The DFB laser has a stable wavelength that is set during manufacturing by the pitch of the grating, and can only be tuned slightly with temperature. DFB lasers are widely used in optical communication applications where a precise and stable wavelength is critical. </p><p>The threshold current of this DFB laser, based on its static characteristic, is around 11 mA. The appropriate bias current in a linear regime could be taken in the middle of the static characteristic (50 mA). Several techniques have been proposed in order to enhance the single-mode operation in these kinds of lasers by inserting a one-phase-shift (1PS) or multiple-phase-shift (MPS) in the uniform Bragg grating.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, multiple-phase-shift DFB lasers represent the optimal solution because they have the combination of higher side-mode suppression ratio and reduced spatial hole-burning. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vertical-cavity_surface-emitting_laser">Vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Laser_diode&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Vertical-cavity_surface-emitting_laser" title="Vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser">Vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Simple_vcsel.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Simple_vcsel.svg/500px-Simple_vcsel.svg.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="198" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Simple_vcsel.svg/525px-Simple_vcsel.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Simple_vcsel.svg/700px-Simple_vcsel.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="544" data-file-height="307" /></a><figcaption>Diagram of a simple VCSEL structure; not to scale</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Vertical-cavity_surface-emitting_laser" title="Vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser">Vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers</a> (VCSELs) have the optical cavity axis along the direction of current flow rather than perpendicular to the current flow as in conventional laser diodes. The active region length is very short compared with the lateral dimensions so that the radiation emerges from the surface of the cavity rather than from its edge as shown in the figure. The reflectors at the ends of the cavity are <a href="/wiki/Dielectric_mirror" title="Dielectric mirror">dielectric mirrors</a> made from alternating high- and low-refractive-index quarter-wave-thick multilayer. </p><p>Such dielectric mirrors provide a high degree of wavelength-selective reflectance at the required free surface wavelength <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">λ</span> if the thicknesses of alternating layers <span class="texhtml"><i>d</i><sub>1</sub></span> and <span class="texhtml"><i>d</i><sub>2</sub></span> with refractive indices <span class="texhtml"><i>n</i><sub>1</sub></span> and <span class="texhtml"><i>n</i><sub>2</sub></span> are such that <span class="texhtml"><i>n</i><sub>1</sub><i>d</i><sub>1</sub> + <i>n</i><sub>2</sub><i>d</i><sub>2</sub> = <i>λ</i>/2</span>, which then leads to the constructive interference of all partially reflected waves at the interfaces. But there is a disadvantage: because of the high mirror reflectivities, VCSELs have lower output powers when compared to edge-emitting lasers. </p><p>There are several advantages to producing VCSELs when compared with the production process of edge-emitting lasers. Edge-emitters cannot be tested until the end of the production process. If the edge-emitter does not work, whether due to bad contacts or poor material growth quality, then the production time and the processing materials have been wasted. </p><p>Additionally, because VCSELs emit the beam perpendicular to the active region of the laser as opposed to parallel as with an edge emitter, tens of thousands of VCSELs can be processed simultaneously on a three-inch gallium arsenide wafer. Furthermore, even though the VCSEL production process is more labor- and material-intensive, the yield can be controlled to a more predictable outcome. However, they normally show a lower power output level. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vertical-external-cavity_surface-emitting-laser">Vertical-external-cavity surface-emitting-laser</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Laser_diode&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Vertical-external-cavity surface-emitting-laser"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Vertical-external-cavity_surface-emitting-laser" title="Vertical-external-cavity surface-emitting-laser">Vertical-external-cavity surface-emitting-laser</a></div> <p>Vertical-external-cavity surface-emitting lasers, or <a href="/wiki/VECSEL" class="mw-redirect" title="VECSEL">VECSELs</a>, are similar to VCSELs. In VCSELs, the mirrors are typically grown <a href="/wiki/Epitaxy" title="Epitaxy">epitaxially</a> as part of the diode structure, or grown separately and bonded directly to the semiconductor containing the active region. VECSELs are distinguished by a construction in which one of the two mirrors is external to the diode structure. As a result, the cavity includes a free-space region. A typical distance from the diode to the external mirror would be 1 cm. </p><p>One of the most interesting features of any VECSEL is the small thickness of the semiconductor gain region in the direction of propagation, less than 100 nm. In contrast, a conventional in-plane semiconductor laser entails light propagation over distances of from 250 μm upward to 2 mm or longer. The significance of the short propagation distance is that it causes the effect of <i>antiguiding</i> nonlinearities in the diode laser gain region to be minimized. The result is a large-cross-section single-mode optical beam that is not attainable from in-plane ("edge-emitting") diode lasers. </p><p>Several workers demonstrated optically pumped VECSELs, and they continue to be developed for many applications, including high-power sources for use in industrial machining (cutting, punching, etc.) because of their unusually high power and efficiency when pumped by multi-mode diode laser bars. However, because of their lack of <i>p</i>–<i>n</i> junctions, optically pumped VECSELs are not considered <i>diode lasers</i>, and are classified as semiconductor lasers.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Electrically pumped VECSELs have also been demonstrated. Applications for electrically pumped VECSELs include projection displays, served by <a href="/wiki/Frequency_doubling" class="mw-redirect" title="Frequency doubling">frequency doubling</a> of near-IR VECSEL emitters to produce blue and green light. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="External-cavity_diode_lasers">External-cavity diode lasers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Laser_diode&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: External-cavity diode lasers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>External-cavity diode lasers are <a href="/wiki/Tunable_laser" title="Tunable laser">tunable lasers</a> which use mainly double heterostructures diodes of the Al<sub><span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">x</span></sub>Ga<sub><span class="texhtml">1−<i>x</i></span></sub>As type. The first external-cavity diode lasers used intracavity etalons<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and simple tuning Littrow gratings.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other designs include gratings in grazing-incidence configuration, multiple-prism grating configurations, and piezo-transduced diode laser configuration.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reliability">Reliability</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Laser_diode&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Reliability"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444" /><table class="box-Technical plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-technical" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>may be too technical for most readers to understand</b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Laser_diode&action=edit">help improve it</a> to <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Make_technical_articles_understandable" title="Wikipedia:Make technical articles understandable">make it understandable to non-experts</a>, without removing the technical details.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">July 2011</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Laser diodes have the same <a href="/wiki/Reliability_engineering" title="Reliability engineering">reliability</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_LED_failure_modes" title="List of LED failure modes">failure issues</a> as <a href="/wiki/Light-emitting_diode" title="Light-emitting diode">light-emitting diodes</a>. In addition, they are subject to <i><a href="/wiki/Catastrophic_optical_damage" title="Catastrophic optical damage">catastrophic optical damage</a></i> COD, when operated at higher power. </p><p>Many of the advances in reliability of diode lasers in the last 20 years<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="The time period mentioned near this tag is ambiguous. (November 2024)">when?</span></a></i>]</sup> remain proprietary to their developers. <i><a href="/wiki/Reverse_engineering" title="Reverse engineering">Reverse engineering</a></i> is not always able to reveal the differences between more-reliable and less-reliable diode laser products. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor">Semiconductor</a> lasers can be surface-emitting lasers such as <a href="/wiki/Vertical-cavity_surface-emitting_laser" title="Vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser">VCSELs</a>, or in-plane edge-emitting lasers. For edge-emitting lasers, the edge facet mirror is often formed by <a href="/wiki/Cleavage_(crystal)" title="Cleavage (crystal)">cleaving</a> the semiconductor wafer to form a <a href="/wiki/Specular_reflection" title="Specular reflection">specularly reflecting</a> plane.<sup id="cite_ref-ColdrenCorzine2012_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ColdrenCorzine2012-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 24">: 24 </span></sup> This approach is facilitated by the weakness of the [110] <a href="/wiki/Crystallographic_plane" class="mw-redirect" title="Crystallographic plane">crystallographic plane</a> in III-V semiconductor crystals, such as <a href="/wiki/GaAs" class="mw-redirect" title="GaAs">GaAs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indium(III)_phosphide" class="mw-redirect" title="Indium(III) phosphide">InP</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gallium(II)_antimonide" class="mw-redirect" title="Gallium(II) antimonide">GaSb</a>, etc. compared to the other planes. </p><p>The atomic states at the cleavage plane are altered compared to their bulk properties within the crystal by the termination of the perfectly periodic lattice at that plane. <a href="/wiki/Surface_states" title="Surface states">Surface states</a> at the cleaved plane have energy levels within the otherwise forbidden bandgap of the semiconductor. Thus, when light propagates through the cleavage plane and transits to free space from within the semiconductor crystal a fraction of the light energy is absorbed by the surface states, where it is converted to the heat by <a href="/wiki/Phonon" title="Phonon">phonon</a>-<a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electron</a> interactions. This heats the cleaved mirror. In addition, the mirror may heat simply because the edge of the diode laser—which is electrically pumped—is in less-than-perfect contact with the mount that provides a path for heat removal. </p><p>The heating of the mirror causes the bandgap of the semiconductor to shrink in the warmer areas. The bandgap shrinkage brings more electronic band-to-band transitions into alignment with the photon energy, causing yet more absorption. This is <a href="/wiki/Thermal_runaway" title="Thermal runaway">thermal runaway</a>, a form of the <a href="/wiki/Positive_feedback" title="Positive feedback">positive feedback</a>, and the result can be melting of the facet, known as <i><a href="/wiki/Catastrophic_optical_damage" title="Catastrophic optical damage">catastrophic optical damage</a></i> - COD. </p><p>In the 1970s, this problem, which is particularly nettlesome for <a href="/wiki/GaAs" class="mw-redirect" title="GaAs">GaAs</a>-based lasers emitting between 0.630 μm and 1 μm (less so for InP-based lasers used for long-haul <a href="/wiki/Telecommunications" title="Telecommunications">telecommunications</a>, which emit between 1.3 μm and 2 μm), was identified. </p><p>Michael Ettenberg, a researcher and later Vice President at <a href="/wiki/RCA" title="RCA">RCA</a> Laboratories' <a href="/wiki/David_Sarnoff_Research_Center" class="mw-redirect" title="David Sarnoff Research Center">David Sarnoff Research Center</a> in <a href="/wiki/Princeton,_New_Jersey" title="Princeton, New Jersey">Princeton, New Jersey</a> devised a solution. A thin layer of <a href="/wiki/Aluminum_oxide" class="mw-redirect" title="Aluminum oxide">aluminum oxide</a> was deposited on the facet. If the aluminum oxide thickness is chosen correctly, it functions as an <a href="/wiki/Anti-reflective_coating" title="Anti-reflective coating">anti-reflective coating</a>, reducing reflection at the surface. This alleviated the heating and <a href="/wiki/Catastrophic_optical_damage" title="Catastrophic optical damage">COD</a> at the facet. </p><p>Since then, various other refinements have been employed. One approach is to create a so-called non-absorbing mirror (NAM) such that the final 10 μm or so before the light emits from the cleaved facet are rendered non-absorbing at the wavelength of the interest. </p><p>In the very early 1990s, SDL Inc. began supplying high-power diode lasers with good reliability characteristics. CEO Donald Scifres and CTO David Welch presented new reliability performance data at, e.g., <a href="/wiki/The_International_Society_for_Optical_Engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="The International Society for Optical Engineering">SPIE</a> Photonics West conferences of the era. The methods used by SDL to defeat <a href="/wiki/Catastrophic_optical_damage" title="Catastrophic optical damage">COD</a> were considered to be highly proprietary and were still undisclosed publicly as June of 2006. </p><p>In the mid-1990s, IBM Research - Ruschlikon, <a href="/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a> announced that it had devised its so-called <i>E2 process</i>, which conferred extraordinary resistance to the <a href="/wiki/Catastrophic_optical_damage" title="Catastrophic optical damage">COD</a> in <a href="/wiki/GaAs" class="mw-redirect" title="GaAs">GaAs</a>-based lasers. This process also was undisclosed as of June 2006. </p><p>Reliability of high-power diode laser pump bars (used to pump solid-state lasers) remains difficult problem in the variety of applications, in spite of these proprietary advances. Indeed, the physics of diode laser failure is still<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="The time period mentioned near this tag is ambiguous. (November 2024)">when?</span></a></i>]</sup> being worked out, and research on this subject remains active, if proprietary. </p><p>Extension of the lifetime of laser diodes is critical to their continued adaptation to a wide variety of applications. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Applications">Applications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Laser_diode&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Applications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Laser_diode_array.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Laser_diode_array.jpg/250px-Laser_diode_array.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="203" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Laser_diode_array.jpg/500px-Laser_diode_array.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="569" /></a><figcaption>Laser diodes can be arrayed to produce very high power outputs, continuous-wave or pulsed. Such arrays may be used to efficiently pump solid-state lasers for high-average-power drilling or burning and for <a href="/wiki/Inertial_confinement_fusion" title="Inertial confinement fusion">inertial confinement fusion</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Laser diodes are numerically the most common laser type, with 2004 sales of approximately 733 million units,<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as compared to 131,000 of other types of lasers.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Telecommunications,_scanning,_and_spectrometry"><span id="Telecommunications.2C_scanning.2C_and_spectrometry"></span>Telecommunications, scanning, and spectrometry</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Laser_diode&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Telecommunications, scanning, and spectrometry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Laser diodes are widely used in <a href="/wiki/Telecommunications" title="Telecommunications">telecommunications</a> as easily modulated and easily coupled light sources for <a href="/wiki/Optical_fiber" title="Optical fiber">fiber-optic</a> communication. They are used in various measuring instruments, such as <a href="/wiki/Rangefinding_telemeter" class="mw-redirect" title="Rangefinding telemeter">rangefinders</a>. Another common use is in <a href="/wiki/Barcode_reader" title="Barcode reader">barcode readers</a>. <a href="/wiki/Visible_spectrum" title="Visible spectrum">Visible</a> lasers, typically <a href="/wiki/Red" title="Red">red</a> but later also <a href="/wiki/Green" title="Green">green</a>, are common as <a href="/wiki/Laser_pointer" title="Laser pointer">laser pointers</a>. </p><p>Both low- and high-power diodes are used extensively in the printing industry, both as light sources for scanning (input) of images and for very-high-speed and high-resolution printing plate (output) manufacturing. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Infrared" title="Infrared">Infrared</a> and red laser diodes are common in <a href="/wiki/Compact_disc_player" class="mw-redirect" title="Compact disc player">CD players</a>, <a href="/wiki/CD-ROM" title="CD-ROM">CD-ROMs</a>, and <a href="/wiki/DVD" title="DVD">DVD</a> technology. <a href="/wiki/Violet_(color)" title="Violet (color)">Violet</a> lasers are used in <a href="/wiki/HD_DVD" title="HD DVD">HD DVD</a> and <a href="/wiki/Blu-ray_Disc" class="mw-redirect" title="Blu-ray Disc">Blu-ray</a> technology. Diode lasers have also found many applications in <a href="/wiki/Laser_absorption_spectrometry" title="Laser absorption spectrometry">laser absorption spectrometry</a> (LAS) for high-speed, low-cost assessment or monitoring of the concentration of various species in gas phase. </p><p>High-power laser diodes are used in industrial applications such as heat treating, cladding, seam welding, and for pumping other lasers, such as <a href="/wiki/Diode-pumped_solid-state_laser" title="Diode-pumped solid-state laser">diode-pumped solid-state lasers</a>. </p><p>Uses of laser diodes can be categorized in various ways. Most applications could be served by larger solid-state lasers or optical parametric oscillators, but the low cost of mass-produced diode lasers makes them essential for mass-market applications. Diode lasers can be used in a great many fields; since light has many different properties (power, wavelength, spectral and beam quality, polarization, etc.), it is useful to classify applications by these basic properties. </p><p>Many applications of diode lasers primarily make use of the <i>directed energy</i> property of the optical beam. In this category, one might include </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Laser_printer" class="mw-redirect" title="Laser printer">laser printers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barcode_reader" title="Barcode reader">barcode readers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Image_scanning" class="mw-redirect" title="Image scanning">image scanning</a></li> <li>illuminators</li> <li>designators</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optical_disc" title="Optical disc">optical data recording</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laser_ignition" title="Laser ignition">combustion ignition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laser_surgery" title="Laser surgery">laser surgery</a> - laser used to cut the tissue</li> <li>industrial [optical] sorting</li> <li>industrial machining</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wireless_power_transfer" title="Wireless power transfer">wireless power transfer</a>, as power beaming</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Directed_energy_weaponry&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Directed energy weaponry (page does not exist)">directed energy weaponry</a></li></ul> <p>Some of the above applications are well-established, while others are emerging. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medical_uses">Medical uses</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Laser_diode&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Medical uses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Laser_medicine" title="Laser medicine">Laser medicine</a>: medicine and especially dentistry have found many new uses for diode lasers.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The shrinking size and cost<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of the units and their increasing user-friendliness makes them very attractive to clinicians for minor soft-tissue procedures. </p><p>Diode wavelengths range from 810 to 1,100 <a href="/wiki/Nanometre" title="Nanometre">nm</a>, are poorly absorbed by soft tissue, and are not used for cutting or <a href="/wiki/Ablation" title="Ablation">ablation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Soft tissue is not cut by the laser's beam, but is instead cut by contact with a hot charred glass tip.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The laser's irradiation is highly absorbed at the distal end of the tip and heats it up to 500–900°C.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_28-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because the tip is so hot, it can be used to cut soft tissue and can cause <a href="/wiki/Hemostasis" title="Hemostasis">hemostasis</a> through <a href="/wiki/Cauterization" title="Cauterization">cauterization</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carbonization" title="Carbonization">carbonization</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_28-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_29-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Diode lasers when used on soft tissue can cause extensive collateral thermal damage to surrounding tissue.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_28-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_29-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As laser beam light is inherently <a href="/wiki/Coherence_(physics)" title="Coherence (physics)">coherent</a>, certain applications use the coherence of laser diodes. These include interferometric distance measurement, <a href="/wiki/Holography" title="Holography">holography</a>, coherent communications, and coherent control of chemical reactions. </p><p>Laser diodes are used for their narrow spectral properties in the areas of range-finding, telecommunications, infra-red countermeasures, <a href="/wiki/Tunable_Diode_Laser_Absorption_Spectrometry" class="mw-redirect" title="Tunable Diode Laser Absorption Spectrometry">spectroscopic sensing</a>, generation of radio-frequency or terahertz waves, atomic clock state preparation, quantum key cryptography, frequency doubling and conversion, water purification (in the UV), and photodynamic therapy (where a particular wavelength of light would cause a substance such as <a href="/wiki/Porphyrin" title="Porphyrin">porphyrin</a> to become chemically active as an anti-cancer agent only where the tissue is illuminated by light). </p><p>Laser diodes are used for their ability to generate ultra-short pulses of light by the technique known as <i>mode-locking</i>. Areas of use include clock distribution for high-performance integrated circuits, high-peak-power sources for laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy sensing, arbitrary waveform generation for radio-frequency waves, photonic sampling for analog-to-digital conversion, and optical <a href="/wiki/Code-division_multiple_access" title="Code-division multiple access">code-division-multiple-access</a> systems for secure communication. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Maskless_photolithography">Maskless photolithography</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Laser_diode&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Maskless photolithography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Laser diodes are used as a light source for <a href="/wiki/Maskless_lithography" title="Maskless lithography">maskless photolithography</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Common_wavelengths">Common wavelengths</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Laser_diode&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Common wavelengths"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Visible_light">Visible light</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Laser_diode&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Visible light"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>405 nm: <a href="/wiki/InGaN" class="mw-redirect" title="InGaN">InGaN</a> blue-violet laser, in <a href="/wiki/Blu-ray_Disc" class="mw-redirect" title="Blu-ray Disc">Blu-ray Disc</a> and <a href="/wiki/HD_DVD" title="HD DVD">HD DVD</a> drives</li> <li>445–465 nm: <a href="/wiki/InGaN" class="mw-redirect" title="InGaN">InGaN</a> blue laser multimode diode for use in mercury-free high-brightness <a href="/wiki/Data_projector" class="mw-redirect" title="Data projector">data projectors</a></li> <li>488 nm: <a href="/wiki/InGaN" class="mw-redirect" title="InGaN">InGaN</a> green-blue laser; became widely available in mid-2018.</li> <li>505 nm: <a href="/wiki/InGaN" class="mw-redirect" title="InGaN">InGaN</a> bluish-green laser; also became widely available in mid-2018.</li> <li>510–525 nm: <a href="/wiki/InGaN" class="mw-redirect" title="InGaN">InGaN</a> green diodes developed by <a href="/wiki/Nichia" title="Nichia">Nichia</a> and <a href="/wiki/OSRAM" class="mw-redirect" title="OSRAM">OSRAM</a> for laser projectors.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>635 nm: <a href="/wiki/AlGaInP" class="mw-redirect" title="AlGaInP">AlGaInP</a> better red-laser pointers, same power subjectively twice as bright as 650 nm</li> <li>650–660 nm: <a href="/wiki/Indium_gallium_phosphide" title="Indium gallium phosphide">GaInP</a>/<a href="/wiki/AlGaInP" class="mw-redirect" title="AlGaInP">AlGaInP</a> <a href="/wiki/Compact_disc" title="Compact disc">CD</a> and <a href="/wiki/DVD" title="DVD">DVD</a> drives, cheap red <a href="/wiki/Laser_pointer" title="Laser pointer">laser pointers</a></li> <li>670 nm: <a href="/wiki/AlGaInP" class="mw-redirect" title="AlGaInP">AlGaInP</a> bar-code readers, first diode-laser pointers (now obsolete, replaced by brighter 650 nm and 671 nm DPSS)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Infrared">Infrared</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Laser_diode&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Infrared"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>760 nm: <a href="/wiki/AlGaInP" class="mw-redirect" title="AlGaInP">AlGaInP</a> <a href="/wiki/Infrared_point_sensor" title="Infrared point sensor">gas sensing</a>: <span class="chemf nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">O<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2</sub></span></span></a></span></li> <li>785 nm: <a href="/wiki/GaAlAs" class="mw-redirect" title="GaAlAs">GaAlAs</a> <a href="/wiki/Compact_disc" title="Compact disc">compact disc</a> drives</li> <li>808 nm: <a href="/wiki/GaAlAs" class="mw-redirect" title="GaAlAs">GaAlAs</a> <a href="/wiki/Laser_pumping" title="Laser pumping">pumps</a> in <a href="/wiki/DPSS" class="mw-redirect" title="DPSS">DPSS</a> <a href="/wiki/Nd:YAG_laser" title="Nd:YAG laser">Nd:YAG lasers</a> (e.g., in green laser pointers or as arrays in higher-powered lasers)</li> <li>848 nm: <a href="/wiki/Mouse_(computing)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mouse (computing)">laser mice</a></li> <li>980 nm: <a href="/wiki/InGaAs" class="mw-redirect" title="InGaAs">InGaAs</a> pump for <a href="/wiki/Optical_amplifier" title="Optical amplifier">optical amplifiers</a>, for <a href="/wiki/Yb:YAG" class="mw-redirect" title="Yb:YAG">Yb:YAG</a> DPSS lasers</li> <li>1,064 nm: <a href="/wiki/AlGaAs" class="mw-redirect" title="AlGaAs">AlGaAs</a> <a href="/wiki/Fiber-optic_communication" title="Fiber-optic communication">fiber-optic communication</a>, <a href="/wiki/DPSS" class="mw-redirect" title="DPSS">DPSS</a> laser pump frequency</li> <li>1,310 nm: <a href="/wiki/InGaAsP" class="mw-redirect" title="InGaAsP">InGaAsP</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=InGaAsN&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="InGaAsN (page does not exist)">InGaAsN</a> fiber-optic communication</li> <li>1,480 nm: <a href="/wiki/InGaAsP" class="mw-redirect" title="InGaAsP">InGaAsP</a> pump for optical amplifiers</li> <li>1,512 nm: <a href="/wiki/InGaAsP" class="mw-redirect" title="InGaAsP">InGaAsP</a> gas sensing: <span class="chemf nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ammonia" title="Ammonia">NH<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">3</sub></span></span></a></span></li> <li>1,550 nm: <a href="/wiki/InGaAsP" class="mw-redirect" title="InGaAsP">InGaAsP</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=InGaAsNSb&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="InGaAsNSb (page does not exist)">InGaAsNSb</a> fiber-optic communication</li> <li>1,625 nm: <a href="/wiki/InGaAsP" class="mw-redirect" title="InGaAsP">InGaAsP</a> fiber-optic communication, service channel</li> <li>1,654 nm: <a href="/wiki/InGaAsP" class="mw-redirect" title="InGaAsP">InGaAsP</a> gas sensing: <span class="chemf nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane">CH<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">4</sub></span></span></a></span></li> <li>1,877 nm: <a href="/w/index.php?title=GaInAsSb&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="GaInAsSb (page does not exist)">GaInAsSb</a> gas sensing: <span class="chemf nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">H<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2</sub></span></span>O</a></span></li> <li>2,004 nm: <a href="/w/index.php?title=GaInAsSb&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="GaInAsSb (page does not exist)">GaInAsSb</a> gas sensing: <span class="chemf nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">CO<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2</sub></span></span></a></span></li> <li>2,330 nm: <a href="/w/index.php?title=GaInAsSb&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="GaInAsSb (page does not exist)">GaInAsSb</a> gas sensing: <span class="chemf nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Carbon_monoxide" title="Carbon monoxide">CO</a></span></li> <li>2,680 nm: <a href="/w/index.php?title=GaInAsSb&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="GaInAsSb (page does not exist)">GaInAsSb</a> gas sensing: <span class="chemf nowrap">CO<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2</sub></span></span></span></li> <li>3,030 nm: <a href="/w/index.php?title=GaInAsSb&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="GaInAsSb (page does not exist)">GaInAsSb</a> gas sensing: <span class="chemf nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ethylene" title="Ethylene">C<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2</sub></span></span>H<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2</sub></span></span></a></span></li> <li>3,330 nm: <a href="/w/index.php?title=GaInAsSb&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="GaInAsSb (page does not exist)">GaInAsSb</a> gas sensing: <span class="chemf nowrap">CH<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">4</sub></span></span></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Laser_diode&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Collimating_lens" class="mw-redirect" title="Collimating lens">Collimating lens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laser_safety" title="Laser safety">Laser safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_laser_articles" title="List of laser articles">List of laser articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superluminescent_diode" title="Superluminescent diode">Superluminescent diode</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Laser_diode&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-ColdrenCorzine2012-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ColdrenCorzine2012_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ColdrenCorzine2012_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ColdrenCorzine2012_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFLarry_A._ColdrenScott_W._CorzineMilan_L._Mashanovitch2012" class="citation book cs1">Larry A. Coldren; Scott W. Corzine; Milan L. Mashanovitch (2 March 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=D6Ub126rtPoC"><i>Diode Lasers and Photonic Integrated Circuits</i></a>. John Wiley & Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-118-14817-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-118-14817-4"><bdi>978-1-118-14817-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Diode+Lasers+and+Photonic+Integrated+Circuits&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2012-03-02&rft.isbn=978-1-118-14817-4&rft.au=Larry+A.+Coldren&rft.au=Scott+W.+Corzine&rft.au=Milan+L.+Mashanovitch&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DD6Ub126rtPoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaser+diode" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Arrigoni, M. et al. (2009-09-28) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.laserfocusworld.com/articles/2009/09/optically-pumped-semiconductor-lasers-green-opsls-poised-to-enter-scientific-pump-laser-market.html">"Optically Pumped Semiconductor Lasers: Green OPSLs poised to enter scientific pump-laser market"</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Laser_Focus_World" title="Laser Focus World">Laser Focus World</a></i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.repairfaq.org/sam/laserdio.htm#dioopsl">"Optically Pumped Semiconductor Laser (OPSL)"</a>, Sam's Laser FAQs.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.photonics.com/WhitePaper.aspx?WPID=1695">Coherent white paper (2018-05). "Advantages of Optically Pumped Semiconductor Lasers – Invariant Beam Properties"</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHallFenner,_G._E.Kingsley,_J._D.Soltys,_T._J.1962" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_N._Hall" title="Robert N. Hall">Hall, Robert N.</a>; Fenner, G. E.; Kingsley, J. D.; Soltys, T. J.; Carlson, R. O. (November 1962). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.9.366">"Coherent Light Emission From GaAs Junctions"</a>. <i>Physical Review Letters</i>. <b>9</b> (9): <span class="nowrap">366–</span>8. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1962PhRvL...9..366H">1962PhRvL...9..366H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.9.366">10.1103/PhysRevLett.9.366</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review+Letters&rft.atitle=Coherent+Light+Emission+From+GaAs+Junctions&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E366-%3C%2Fspan%3E8&rft.date=1962-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.9.366&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1962PhRvL...9..366H&rft.aulast=Hall&rft.aufirst=Robert+N.&rft.au=Fenner%2C+G.+E.&rft.au=Kingsley%2C+J.+D.&rft.au=Soltys%2C+T.+J.&rft.au=Carlson%2C+R.+O.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1103%252FPhysRevLett.9.366&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaser+diode" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNathanDumkeBurnsDill1962" class="citation journal cs1">Nathan, Marshall I.; Dumke, William P.; Burns, Gerald; Dill, Frederick H.; Lasher, Gordon (1962). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110503225242/http://www.ecse.rpi.edu/~schubert/More-reprints/1962%20Nathan%20Dumke%20et%20al%20%28APL%29%20Stimulated%20emission%20of%20radiation%20from%20GaAs%20p-n%20junctions.pdf">"Stimulated Emission of Radiation from GaAs p–n Junctions"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Applied Physics Letters</i>. <b>1</b> (3): 62. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1962ApPhL...1...62N">1962ApPhL...1...62N</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.1777371">10.1063/1.1777371</a>. 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(2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jos.ac.cn/article/id/aa00c3e5-f845-41a6-be34-d31ecd3944a3">"GaN-based green laser diodes"</a>. <i>Journal of Semiconductors</i>. <b>37</b> (11): 111001. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016JSemi..37k1001L">2016JSemi..37k1001L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1088%2F1674-4926%2F37%2F11%2F111001">10.1088/1674-4926/37/11/111001</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:114572097">114572097</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Semiconductors&rft.atitle=GaN-based+green+laser+diodes&rft.volume=37&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=111001&rft.date=2016&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A114572097%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1088%2F1674-4926%2F37%2F11%2F111001&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2016JSemi..37k1001L&rft.au=Lingrong+Jian&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jos.ac.cn%2Farticle%2Fid%2Faa00c3e5-f845-41a6-be34-d31ecd3944a3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaser+diode" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Laser_diode&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFVan_Zeghbroeck" class="citation web cs1">Van Zeghbroeck, B.J. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://truenano.com/PSD20/">"Principles of Semiconductor Devices"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Principles+of+Semiconductor+Devices&rft.aulast=Van+Zeghbroeck&rft.aufirst=B.J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftruenano.com%2FPSD20%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaser+diode" class="Z3988"></span> (for direct and indirect band gaps)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSalehTeich1991" class="citation book cs1">Saleh, Bahaa E.A.; Teich, Malvin Carl (1991). <i>Fundamentals of Photonics</i>. Wiley. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-471-83965-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-471-83965-5"><bdi>0-471-83965-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fundamentals+of+Photonics.&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=0-471-83965-5&rft.aulast=Saleh&rft.aufirst=Bahaa+E.A.&rft.au=Teich%2C+Malvin+Carl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaser+diode" class="Z3988"></span> (For Stimulated Emission)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKoyamaKinoshitaIga1988" class="citation journal cs1">Koyama, F.; Kinoshita, S.; Iga, K. (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.ieice.org/bin/summary.php?id=e71-e_11_1089">"Room temperature cw operation of GaAs vertical cavity surface emitting laser"</a>. <i>IEICE Transactions (1976-1990)</i>. <b>71</b> (11): <span class="nowrap">1089–</span>90.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IEICE+Transactions+%281976-1990%29&rft.atitle=Room+temperature+cw+operation+of+GaAs+vertical+cavity+surface+emitting+laser&rft.volume=71&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1089-%3C%2Fspan%3E90&rft.date=1988&rft.aulast=Koyama&rft.aufirst=F.&rft.au=Kinoshita%2C+S.&rft.au=Iga%2C+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsearch.ieice.org%2Fbin%2Fsummary.php%3Fid%3De71-e_11_1089&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaser+diode" class="Z3988"></span> (for VCSELS)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFIga2000" class="citation journal cs1">Iga, Kenichi (2000). "Surface-emitting laser—Its birth and generation of new optoelectronics field". <i>IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Quantum Electronics</i>. <b>6</b> (6): <span class="nowrap">1201–</span>15. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000IJSTQ...6.1201I">2000IJSTQ...6.1201I</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2F2944.902168">10.1109/2944.902168</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IEEE+Journal+of+Selected+Topics+in+Quantum+Electronics&rft.atitle=Surface-emitting+laser%E2%80%94Its+birth+and+generation+of+new+optoelectronics+field&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1201-%3C%2Fspan%3E15&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2F2944.902168&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2000IJSTQ...6.1201I&rft.aulast=Iga&rft.aufirst=Kenichi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaser+diode" class="Z3988"></span> (for VECSELS)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDuarte2016" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/F._J._Duarte" title="F. J. Duarte">Duarte, F.J.</a> (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tunablelasers.com/tla.htm">"Broadly tunable dispersive external-cavity semiconductor lasers"</a>. <i>Tunable Laser Applications</i>. CRC Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">203–</span>241. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4822-6106-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4822-6106-6"><bdi>978-1-4822-6106-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Broadly+tunable+dispersive+external-cavity+semiconductor+lasers&rft.btitle=Tunable+Laser+Applications&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E203-%3C%2Fspan%3E241&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-4822-6106-6&rft.aulast=Duarte&rft.aufirst=F.J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tunablelasers.com%2Ftla.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaser+diode" class="Z3988"></span> (For external cavity diode lasers)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Laser_diode&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/60px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Diode_lasers" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Diode lasers">Diode lasers</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.allaboutcircuits.com/technical-articles/an-introduction-to-laser-diodes/">An Introduction to Laser Diodes</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hanel-photonics.com/laser_diode_market.html">Overview of available single mode diode lasers</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://eu.finetech.de/micro-assembly/videos/laser-bar-bonding.html">Video showing laser bar assembly process</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.repairfaq.org/sam/laserdio.htm">Sam's Laser FAQ</a> by Samuel M. 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title="Special:EditPage/Template:Lasers"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Lasers281" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Laser" title="Laser">Lasers</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_laser_articles" title="List of laser articles">List of laser articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_laser_types" title="List of laser types">List of laser types</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_laser_applications" title="List of laser applications">List of laser applications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laser_acronyms" title="Laser acronyms">Laser acronyms</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types of lasers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_laser" title="Chemical laser">Chemical laser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dye_laser" title="Dye laser">Dye laser</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bubble_laser" title="Bubble laser">Bubble</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liquid-crystal_laser" title="Liquid-crystal laser">Liquid-crystal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_laser" title="Gas laser">Gas laser</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_laser" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon dioxide laser">Carbon dioxide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Excimer_laser" title="Excimer laser">Excimer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helium%E2%80%93neon_laser" title="Helium–neon laser">Helium–neon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ion_laser" title="Ion laser">Ion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_laser" title="Nitrogen laser">Nitrogen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free-electron_laser" title="Free-electron laser">Free-electron laser</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Laser diode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solid-state_laser" title="Solid-state laser">Solid-state laser</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Er:YAG_laser" title="Er:YAG laser">Er:YAG</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nd:YAG_laser" title="Nd:YAG laser">Nd:YAG</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raman_laser" title="Raman laser">Raman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruby_laser" title="Ruby laser">Ruby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ti-sapphire_laser" class="mw-redirect" title="Ti-sapphire laser">Ti-sapphire</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/X-ray_laser" title="X-ray laser">X-ray laser</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Laser_science" title="Laser science">Laser physics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Active_laser_medium" title="Active laser medium">Active laser medium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amplified_spontaneous_emission" title="Amplified spontaneous emission">Amplified spontaneous emission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continuous_wave" title="Continuous wave">Continuous wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laser_ablation" title="Laser ablation">Laser ablation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laser_linewidth" title="Laser linewidth">Laser linewidth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lasing_threshold" title="Lasing threshold">Lasing threshold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_inversion" title="Population inversion">Population inversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultrashort_pulse_laser" title="Ultrashort pulse laser">Ultrashort pulse</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Laser optics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beam_expander" title="Beam expander">Beam expander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beam_homogenizer" title="Beam homogenizer">Beam homogenizer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chirped_pulse_amplification" title="Chirped pulse amplification">Chirped pulse amplification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gain-switching" title="Gain-switching">Gain-switching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaussian_beam" title="Gaussian beam">Gaussian beam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Injection_seeder" title="Injection seeder">Injection seeder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laser_beam_profiler" title="Laser beam profiler">Laser beam profiler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M_squared" title="M squared">M squared</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mode_locking" title="Mode locking">Mode locking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiple-prism_grating_laser_oscillator" title="Multiple-prism grating laser oscillator">Multiple-prism grating laser oscillator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optical_amplifier" title="Optical amplifier">Optical amplifier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optical_cavity" title="Optical cavity">Optical cavity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optical_isolator" title="Optical isolator">Optical isolator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Output_coupler" title="Output coupler">Output coupler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Q-switching" title="Q-switching">Q-switching</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight: bold;"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Lasers" title="Category:Lasers">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="30px_Solid-state_lasers146" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Solid-state_laser" title="Template:Solid-state laser"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Solid-state_laser" title="Template talk:Solid-state laser"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Solid-state_laser" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Solid-state laser"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="30px_Solid-state_lasers146" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:N-doped_Si.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/N-doped_Si.svg/40px-N-doped_Si.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="24" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/N-doped_Si.svg/60px-N-doped_Si.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="211" data-file-height="169" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Solid-state_laser" title="Solid-state laser">Solid-state lasers</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Distinct subtypes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Semiconductor laser</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Yttrium_aluminium_garnet" title="Yttrium aluminium garnet">Yttrium aluminium garnet</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nd:YAG_laser" title="Nd:YAG laser">Nd:YAG laser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Er:YAG_laser" title="Er:YAG laser">Er:YAG laser</a></li> <li>Nd:Cr:YAG</li> <li>Yb:YAG</li> <li>Nd:Ce:YAG</li> <li>Ho:YAG</li> <li>Dy:YAG</li> <li>Sm:YAG</li> <li>Tb:YAG</li> <li>Ce:YAG</li> <li>Ce:Gd:YAG</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gadolinium_yttrium_garnet" class="mw-redirect" title="Gadolinium yttrium garnet">Gd:YAG</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Glass</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neodymium#Glass" title="Neodymium">Nd:glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Er:glass_laser" title="Er:glass laser">Er:glass</a></li> <li>Er:Yb:glass</li> <li>Yb:glass</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other <a href="/wiki/Gain_media" class="mw-redirect" title="Gain media">gain media</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ruby_laser" title="Ruby laser">Ruby laser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yttrium_iron_garnet" title="Yttrium iron garnet">Yttrium iron garnet</a> (YIG)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terbium_gallium_garnet" title="Terbium gallium garnet">Terbium gallium garnet</a> (TGG)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ti-sapphire_laser" class="mw-redirect" title="Ti-sapphire laser">Ti:sapphire laser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solid-state_dye_laser" title="Solid-state dye laser">Solid-state dye laser</a> (SSDL/SSOL/SSDPL)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yttrium_lithium_fluoride" title="Yttrium lithium fluoride">Yttrium lithium fluoride</a> (YLF) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neodymium-doped_yttrium_lithium_fluoride" title="Neodymium-doped yttrium lithium fluoride">Neodymium-doped yttrium lithium fluoride</a> (Nd:YLF)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yttrium_orthovanadate" title="Yttrium orthovanadate">Yttrium orthovanadate</a> (YVO<sub>4</sub>) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neodymium-doped_yttrium_orthovanadate" title="Neodymium-doped yttrium orthovanadate">Neodymium-doped yttrium orthovanadate</a> (Nd:YVO<sub>4</sub>)</li></ul></li> <li>Yttrium calcium oxoborate (YCOB) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nd:YCOB" title="Nd:YCOB">Nd:YCOB</a> laser</li></ul></li> <li>Ce:LiSAF</li> <li>Ce:LiCAF</li> <li>Cr:ZnSe</li> <li>U:CaF<sub>2</sub></li> <li>Sm:CaF<sub>2</sub></li> <li>Yb:SFAP</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Structures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diode-pumped_solid-state_laser" title="Diode-pumped solid-state laser">Diode-pumped solid-state laser</a> (DPSSL)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiber_laser" title="Fiber laser">Fiber laser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Figure-8_laser" title="Figure-8 laser">Figure-8 laser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disk_laser" title="Disk laser">Disk laser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F-center" title="F-center">F-center</a> laser</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Specific lasers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trident_laser" title="Trident laser">Trident laser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ZEUS-HLONS_(HMMWV_Laser_Ordnance_Neutralization_System)" class="mw-redirect" title="ZEUS-HLONS (HMMWV Laser Ordnance Neutralization System)">ZEUS-HLONS (HMMWV Laser Ordnance Neutralization System)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nova_(laser)" title="Nova (laser)">Nova (laser)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyclops_laser" title="Cyclops laser">Cyclops laser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Janus_laser" title="Janus laser">Janus laser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argus_laser" title="Argus laser">Argus laser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shiva_laser" title="Shiva laser">Shiva laser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HiPER" title="HiPER">HiPER</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laboratory_for_Laser_Energetics" title="Laboratory for Laser Energetics">Laboratory for Laser Energetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laser_M%C3%A9gajoule" title="Laser Mégajoule">Laser Mégajoule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LULI2000" title="LULI2000">LULI2000</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercury_laser" title="Mercury laser">Mercury laser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISKRA_lasers" title="ISKRA lasers">ISKRA-6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulcan_laser" title="Vulcan laser">Vulcan laser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_petawatt_lasers" title="List of petawatt lasers">List of petawatt lasers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="60px_Semiconductor_lasers101" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible expanded navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Semiconductor_laser" title="Template:Semiconductor laser"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Semiconductor_laser" title="Template talk:Semiconductor laser"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Semiconductor_laser" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Semiconductor laser"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="60px_Semiconductor_lasers101" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Pin-Diode.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Pin-Diode.svg/60px-Pin-Diode.svg.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Pin-Diode.svg/120px-Pin-Diode.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="372" data-file-height="85" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_laser" class="mw-redirect" title="Semiconductor laser">Semiconductor lasers</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Basic types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Laser diode</a> (LD)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Double_heterostructure_lasers">Double heterostructure laser</a> (DH)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Separate_confinement_heterostructure_lasers">Separate confinement heterostructure laser</a> (SCH)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributed_Bragg_reflector_laser" title="Distributed Bragg reflector laser">Distributed Bragg reflector laser</a> (DBR)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributed-feedback_laser" title="Distributed-feedback laser">Distributed-feedback laser</a> (DFB)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_well_laser" title="Quantum well laser">Quantum well laser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_dot_laser" title="Quantum dot laser">Quantum dot laser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum-cascade_laser" title="Quantum-cascade laser">Quantum-cascade laser</a> (QCL)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=External-cavity_laser&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="External-cavity laser (page does not exist)">External-cavity laser</a> (ECL)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Hybrid types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Volume_Bragg_grating" class="mw-redirect" title="Volume Bragg grating">Volume Bragg grating</a> laser</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vertical-cavity_surface-emitting_laser" title="Vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser">Vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser</a> (VCSEL)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vertical-external-cavity_surface-emitting-laser" title="Vertical-external-cavity surface-emitting-laser">Vertical-external-cavity surface-emitting-laser</a> (VECSEL)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hybrid_silicon_laser" title="Hybrid silicon laser">Hybrid silicon laser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interband_cascade_laser" title="Interband cascade laser">Interband cascade laser</a> (ICL)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_ring_laser" title="Semiconductor ring laser">Semiconductor ring laser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polariton_laser" title="Polariton laser">Polariton laser</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_laser_theory" title="Semiconductor laser theory">Semiconductor laser theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laser_diode_rate_equations" title="Laser diode rate equations">Laser diode rate equations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Materials</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indium_arsenide" title="Indium arsenide">Indium arsenide</a> (InAs)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallium_arsenide" title="Gallium arsenide">Gallium arsenide</a> (GaAs)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_semiconductor_materials" title="List of semiconductor materials">List of semiconductor materials</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Electronic_components254" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Electronic_components" title="Template:Electronic components"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Electronic_components" title="Template talk:Electronic components"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Electronic_components" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Electronic components"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Electronic_components254" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Electronic_component" title="Electronic component">Electronic components</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_device" title="Semiconductor device">Semiconductor<br />devices</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/MOSFET" title="MOSFET">MOS <br />transistors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">Transistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NMOS_logic" title="NMOS logic">NMOS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PMOS_logic" title="PMOS logic">PMOS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BiCMOS" title="BiCMOS">BiCMOS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bio-FET" title="Bio-FET">BioFET</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_field-effect_transistor" title="Chemical field-effect transistor">Chemical field-effect transistor</a> (ChemFET)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/CMOS" title="CMOS">Complementary MOS</a> (CMOS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depletion-load_NMOS_logic" title="Depletion-load NMOS logic">Depletion-load NMOS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FinFET" class="mw-redirect" title="FinFET">Fin field-effect transistor</a> (FinFET)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floating-gate_MOSFET" title="Floating-gate MOSFET">Floating-gate MOSFET</a> (FGMOS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insulated-gate_bipolar_transistor" title="Insulated-gate bipolar transistor">Insulated-gate bipolar transistor</a> (IGBT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISFET" title="ISFET">ISFET</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LDMOS" title="LDMOS">LDMOS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MOSFET" title="MOSFET">MOS field-effect transistor</a> (MOSFET)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multigate_device" title="Multigate device">Multi-gate field-effect transistor</a> (MuGFET)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_MOSFET" title="Power MOSFET">Power MOSFET</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thin-film_transistor" title="Thin-film transistor">Thin-film transistor</a> (TFT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/VMOS" title="VMOS">VMOS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_MOSFET#UMOS" title="Power MOSFET">UMOS</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">Other <br />transistors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bipolar_junction_transistor" title="Bipolar junction transistor">Bipolar junction transistor</a> (BJT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darlington_transistor" title="Darlington transistor">Darlington transistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diffused_junction_transistor" title="Diffused junction transistor">Diffused junction transistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field-effect_transistor" title="Field-effect transistor">Field-effect transistor</a> (FET) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/JFET" title="JFET">Junction Gate FET (JFET)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_field-effect_transistor" title="Organic field-effect transistor">Organic FET (OFET)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Light-emitting_transistor" title="Light-emitting transistor">Light-emitting transistor</a> (LET) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Organic_light-emitting_transistor" title="Organic light-emitting transistor">Organic LET (OLET)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pentode_transistor" title="Pentode transistor">Pentode transistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Point-contact_transistor" title="Point-contact transistor">Point-contact transistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programmable_unijunction_transistor" title="Programmable unijunction transistor">Programmable unijunction transistor</a> (PUT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Static_induction_transistor" title="Static induction transistor">Static induction transistor</a> (SIT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetrode_transistor" title="Tetrode transistor">Tetrode transistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unijunction_transistor" title="Unijunction transistor">Unijunction transistor</a> (UJT)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Diode" title="Diode">Diodes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avalanche_diode" title="Avalanche diode">Avalanche diode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constant-current_diode" title="Constant-current diode">Constant-current diode</a> (CLD, CRD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunn_diode" title="Gunn diode">Gunn diode</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Laser diode</a> (LD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Light-emitting_diode" title="Light-emitting diode">Light-emitting diode</a> (LED)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/OLED" title="OLED">Organic light-emitting diode</a> (OLED)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photodiode" title="Photodiode">Photodiode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PIN_diode" title="PIN diode">PIN diode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schottky_diode" title="Schottky diode">Schottky diode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Step_recovery_diode" title="Step recovery diode">Step recovery diode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zener_diode" title="Zener diode">Zener diode</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other <br />devices</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Printed_electronics" title="Printed electronics">Printed electronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Printed_circuit_board" title="Printed circuit board">Printed circuit board</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DIAC" title="DIAC">DIAC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterostructure_barrier_varactor" title="Heterostructure barrier varactor">Heterostructure barrier varactor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">Integrated circuit</a> (IC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hybrid_integrated_circuit" title="Hybrid integrated circuit">Hybrid integrated circuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Light_emitting_capacitor" class="mw-redirect" title="Light emitting capacitor">Light emitting capacitor</a> (LEC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memistor" title="Memistor">Memistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memristor" title="Memristor">Memristor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memtransistor" title="Memtransistor">Memtransistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_cell_(computing)" title="Memory cell (computing)">Memory cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metal-oxide_varistor" class="mw-redirect" title="Metal-oxide varistor">Metal-oxide varistor</a> (MOV)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixed-signal_integrated_circuit" title="Mixed-signal integrated circuit">Mixed-signal integrated circuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MOS_integrated_circuit" class="mw-redirect" title="MOS integrated circuit">MOS integrated circuit</a> (MOS IC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_semiconductor" title="Organic semiconductor">Organic semiconductor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photodetector" title="Photodetector">Photodetector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_circuit" title="Quantum circuit">Quantum circuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RF_CMOS" title="RF CMOS">RF CMOS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silicon_controlled_rectifier" title="Silicon controlled rectifier">Silicon controlled rectifier</a> (SCR)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solaristor" title="Solaristor">Solaristor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Static_induction_thyristor" title="Static induction thyristor">Static induction thyristor</a> (SITh)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-dimensional_integrated_circuit" title="Three-dimensional integrated circuit">Three-dimensional integrated circuit</a> (3D IC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thyristor" title="Thyristor">Thyristor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trancitor" title="Trancitor">Trancitor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TRIAC" title="TRIAC">TRIAC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varicap" title="Varicap">Varicap</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Voltage_regulator" title="Voltage regulator">Voltage regulators</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Linear_regulator" title="Linear regulator">Linear regulator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low-dropout_regulator" title="Low-dropout regulator">Low-dropout regulator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Switching_regulator" class="mw-redirect" title="Switching regulator">Switching regulator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buck_converter" title="Buck converter">Buck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boost_converter" title="Boost converter">Boost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buck%E2%80%93boost_converter" title="Buck–boost converter">Buck–boost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Split-pi_topology" title="Split-pi topology">Split-pi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%86uk_converter" title="Ćuk converter">Ćuk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single-ended_primary-inductor_converter" title="Single-ended primary-inductor converter">SEPIC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charge_pump" title="Charge pump">Charge pump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Switched_capacitor" title="Switched capacitor">Switched capacitor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Vacuum_tube" title="Vacuum tube">Vacuum tubes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acorn_tube" title="Acorn tube">Acorn tube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Audion" title="Audion">Audion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beam_tetrode" title="Beam tetrode">Beam tetrode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hot-wire_barretter" title="Hot-wire barretter">Barretter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compactron" title="Compactron">Compactron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vacuum_diode" class="mw-redirect" title="Vacuum diode">Diode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fleming_valve" title="Fleming valve">Fleming valve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_generator" title="Neutron generator">Neutron tube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonode" title="Nonode">Nonode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuvistor" title="Nuvistor">Nuvistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pentagrid_converter" title="Pentagrid converter">Pentagrid</a> (Hexode, Heptode, Octode)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pentode" title="Pentode">Pentode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photomultiplier_tube" title="Photomultiplier tube">Photomultiplier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phototube" title="Phototube">Phototube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetrode" title="Tetrode">Tetrode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triode" title="Triode">Triode</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Vacuum_tube" title="Vacuum tube">Vacuum tubes</a> (<a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation" title="Electromagnetic radiation">RF</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Backward-wave_oscillator" title="Backward-wave oscillator">Backward-wave oscillator</a> (BWO)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cavity_magnetron" title="Cavity magnetron">Cavity magnetron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crossed-field_amplifier" title="Crossed-field amplifier">Crossed-field amplifier</a> (CFA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gyrotron" title="Gyrotron">Gyrotron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductive_output_tube" title="Inductive output tube">Inductive output tube</a> (IOT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Klystron" title="Klystron">Klystron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maser" title="Maser">Maser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sutton_tube" title="Sutton tube">Sutton tube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traveling-wave_tube" title="Traveling-wave tube">Traveling-wave tube</a> (TWT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/X-ray_tube" title="X-ray tube">X-ray tube</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Cathode-ray_tube" title="Cathode-ray tube">Cathode-ray tubes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beam_deflection_tube" title="Beam deflection tube">Beam deflection tube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charactron" title="Charactron">Charactron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iconoscope" title="Iconoscope">Iconoscope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magic_eye_tube" title="Magic eye tube">Magic eye tube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monoscope" title="Monoscope">Monoscope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selectron_tube" title="Selectron tube">Selectron tube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storage_tube" title="Storage tube">Storage tube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trochotron" class="mw-redirect" title="Trochotron">Trochotron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_camera_tube" title="Video camera tube">Video camera tube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Williams_tube" title="Williams tube">Williams tube</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Gas-filled_tube" title="Gas-filled tube">Gas-filled tubes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cold_cathode" title="Cold cathode">Cold cathode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crossatron" title="Crossatron">Crossatron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dekatron" title="Dekatron">Dekatron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignitron" title="Ignitron">Ignitron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krytron" title="Krytron">Krytron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercury-arc_valve" title="Mercury-arc valve">Mercury-arc valve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neon_lamp" title="Neon lamp">Neon lamp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nixie_tube" title="Nixie tube">Nixie tube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thyratron" title="Thyratron">Thyratron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trigatron" title="Trigatron">Trigatron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltage-regulator_tube" title="Voltage-regulator tube">Voltage-regulator tube</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Adjustable</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Potentiometer" title="Potentiometer">Potentiometer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Digital_potentiometer" title="Digital potentiometer">digital</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variable_capacitor" title="Variable capacitor">Variable capacitor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varicap" title="Varicap">Varicap</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Passive</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Connector <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Audio_and_video_interfaces_and_connectors" title="Audio and video interfaces and connectors">audio and video</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AC_power_plugs_and_sockets" title="AC power plugs and sockets">electrical power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RF_connector" title="RF connector">RF</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrolytic_detector" title="Electrolytic detector">Electrolytic detector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferrite_core" title="Ferrite core">Ferrite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antifuse" title="Antifuse">Antifuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuse_(electrical)" title="Fuse (electrical)">Fuse</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Resettable_fuse" title="Resettable fuse">resettable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EFUSE" class="mw-redirect" title="EFUSE">eFUSE</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resistor" title="Resistor">Resistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Switch" title="Switch">Switch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermistor" title="Thermistor">Thermistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transformer" title="Transformer">Transformer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varistor" title="Varistor">Varistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wire" title="Wire">Wire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wollaston_wire" title="Wollaston wire">Wollaston wire</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Electrical_reactance" title="Electrical reactance">Reactive</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Capacitor" title="Capacitor">Capacitor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Capacitor_types" title="Capacitor types">types</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceramic_resonator" title="Ceramic resonator">Ceramic resonator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crystal_oscillator" title="Crystal oscillator">Crystal oscillator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductor" title="Inductor">Inductor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parametron" title="Parametron">Parametron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relay" title="Relay">Relay</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reed_relay" title="Reed relay">reed relay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercury_relay" title="Mercury relay">mercury relay</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output 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