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Click here for more information."><img alt="Featured article" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/20px-Cscr-featured.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/30px-Cscr-featured.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/40px-Cscr-featured.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="466" data-file-height="443" /></a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">U.S. federal prosecutions, 1949–1958</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background:#99BADD;">Smith Act trials of Communist Party leaders</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Benjamin_J._Davis_NYWTS.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Two men dressed in suits are surrounded by persons holding signs." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Benjamin_J._Davis_NYWTS.jpg/225px-Benjamin_J._Davis_NYWTS.jpg" decoding="async" width="225" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Benjamin_J._Davis_NYWTS.jpg/338px-Benjamin_J._Davis_NYWTS.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Benjamin_J._Davis_NYWTS.jpg/450px-Benjamin_J._Davis_NYWTS.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3691" data-file-height="2961" /></a><div class="infobox-caption">Defendants <a href="/wiki/Robert_G._Thompson" title="Robert G. Thompson">Robert Thompson</a> and <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_J._Davis_Jr." title="Benjamin J. Davis Jr.">Benjamin J. Davis</a> with supporters</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">When</th><td class="infobox-data">1949–1958</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Defendants</th><td class="infobox-data">144 leaders of the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_USA" title="Communist Party USA">Communist Party USA</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Allegation</th><td class="infobox-data">Violating the <a href="/wiki/Smith_Act" title="Smith Act">Smith Act</a>, by conspiring to violently overthrow the government</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Where</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/United_States_federal_courts" class="mw-redirect" title="United States federal courts">Federal courthouses</a> in New York, Los Angeles, Honolulu, Pittsburgh, Philadelphia, Cleveland, Seattle, Baltimore, Seattle, Detroit, St. Louis, Denver, Boston, Puerto Rico, New Haven</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Outcome</th><td 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3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">This article is part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Socialism" title="Category:Socialism">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#AE1719; padding-top:0.25em; font-size:160%; font-weight:normal; color:white; line-height:1em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_socialist_movement_in_the_United_States" title="History of the socialist movement in the United States">Socialism in the United States</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:American_Socialism_Flags_Symbol.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/American_Socialism_Flags_Symbol.svg/120px-American_Socialism_Flags_Symbol.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="67" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/American_Socialism_Flags_Symbol.svg/180px-American_Socialism_Flags_Symbol.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/American_Socialism_Flags_Symbol.svg/240px-American_Socialism_Flags_Symbol.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="520" data-file-height="292" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #AAA; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">History</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"><a href="/wiki/Utopian_socialism" title="Utopian socialism">Utopian socialism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bishop_Hill,_Illinois#History" title="Bishop Hill, Illinois">Bishop Hill Commune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brook_Farm" title="Brook Farm">Brook Farm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icarians" title="Icarians">Icarians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonestown" title="Jonestown">Jonestown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Looking_Backward" title="Looking Backward">Looking Backward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Harmony,_Indiana" title="New Harmony, Indiana">New Harmony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oneida_Community" title="Oneida Community">Oneida Community</a></li></ul> <a href="/wiki/Progressive_Era" title="Progressive Era">Progressive Era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1877_St._Louis_general_strike" title="1877 St. Louis general strike">1877 St. Louis general strike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1912_Lawrence_textile_strike" title="1912 Lawrence textile strike">1912 Lawrence textile strike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Worker_Movement" title="Catholic Worker Movement">Catholic Worker Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Corn_Rebellion" title="Green Corn Rebellion">Green Corn Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_history_of_the_United_States" title="Labor history of the United States">Labor unionization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haymarket_affair" title="Haymarket affair">Haymarket affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Workers%27_Day" title="International Workers' Day">May Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_the_United_States" title="Women's suffrage in the United States">Women's suffrage</a></li></ul> <a href="/wiki/Red_Scare" title="Red Scare">Repression and persecution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Defense_Society" title="American Defense Society">American Defense Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Protective_League" title="American Protective League">American Protective League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_USA_and_African_Americans" title="Communist Party USA and African Americans">Communist Party USA and African Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_USA" title="Communist Party USA">Communist Party USA</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Labor_history_of_the_United_States" title="Labor history of the United States">labor movement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_USA_and_American_labor_movement_(1919%E2%80%931937)" title="Communist Party USA and American labor movement (1919–1937)">1919–1937</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_USA_and_American_labor_movement_(1937%E2%80%931950)" title="Communist Party USA and American labor movement (1937–1950)">1937–1957</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Espionage_Act_of_1917" title="Espionage Act of 1917">Espionage Act of 1917</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Red_Scare" title="First Red Scare">First Red Scare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Birch_Society" title="John Birch Society">John Birch Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/McCarthyism" title="McCarthyism">McCarthyism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seattle_General_Strike" title="Seattle General Strike">Seattle General Strike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smith_Act" title="Smith Act">Smith Act</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Smith Act trials</a></li></ul></li></ul> <a href="/wiki/Opposition_to_United_States_involvement_in_the_Vietnam_War" title="Opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War">Anti-war</a> and <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">civil rights</a> movements <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_power_movement" title="Black power movement">Black power movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COINTELPRO" title="COINTELPRO">COINTELPRO</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/I_Have_a_Dream" title="I Have a Dream">I Have a Dream</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_on_Washington" class="mw-redirect" title="March on Washington">March on Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Left" title="New Left">New Left</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poor_People%27s_Campaign" title="Poor People's Campaign">Poor People's Campaign</a></li></ul> Contemporary <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1999_Seattle_WTO_protests" title="1999 Seattle WTO protests">1999 Seattle WTO protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2007%E2%80%932008_financial_crisis" title="2007–2008 financial crisis">2007–2008 financial crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupy_Wall_Street" title="Occupy Wall Street">Occupy Wall Street</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #AAA; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">People</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Abern" title="Martin Abern">Abern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashanti_Alston" title="Ashanti Alston">Alston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Pearl_Andrews" title="Stephen Pearl Andrews">Andrews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Avrich" title="Paul Avrich">Avrich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuwasi_Balagoon" title="Kuwasi Balagoon">Balagoon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Bellamy" title="Edward Bellamy">Bellamy (Edward)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Bellamy" title="Francis Bellamy">Bellamy (Francis)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victor_L._Berger" title="Victor L. Berger">Berger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Berkman" title="Alexander Berkman">Berkman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Bookchin" title="Murray Bookchin">Bookchin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamaal_Bowman" title="Jamaal Bowman">Bowman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Bruenig" title="Elizabeth Bruenig">Bruenig (Elizabeth)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matt_Bruenig" title="Matt Bruenig">Bruenig (Matt)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Brisbane" title="Albert Brisbane">Brisbane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Brooks_(political_commentator)" title="Michael Brooks (political commentator)">Brooks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earl_Browder" title="Earl Browder">Browder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cori_Bush" title="Cori Bush">Bush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judith_Butler" title="Judith Butler">Butler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Cabet" title="Étienne Cabet">Cabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_P._Cannon" title="James P. Cannon">Cannon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dan_Cantor" title="Dan Cantor">Cantor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stokely_Carmichael" title="Stokely Carmichael">Carmichael</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Chomsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_H._Clark" title="Peter H. Clark">Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Cockburn" title="Alexander Cockburn">Cockburn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angela_Davis" title="Angela Davis">Davis (Angela)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mike_Davis_(scholar)" title="Mike Davis (scholar)">Davis (Mike)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Day" title="Dorothy Day">Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jodi_Dean" title="Jodi Dean">Dean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugene_V._Debs" title="Eugene V. Debs">Debs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_De_Leon" title="Daniel De Leon">De Leon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugene_Dennis" title="Eugene Dennis">Dennis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_Dreiser" title="Theodore Dreiser">Dreiser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbara_Ehrenreich" title="Barbara Ehrenreich">Ehrenreich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lorenzo_Kom%27boa_Ervin" title="Lorenzo Kom'boa Ervin">Ervin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Fearing" title="Kenneth Fearing">Fearing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leslie_Feinberg" title="Leslie Feinberg">Feinberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Gurley_Flynn" title="Elizabeth Gurley Flynn">Flynn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_W._Ford" title="James W. Ford">Ford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Z._Foster" title="William Z. Foster">Foster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruth_Wilson_Gilmore" title="Ruth Wilson Gilmore">Gilmore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Gitlow" title="Benjamin Gitlow">Gitlow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emma_Goldman" title="Emma Goldman">Goldman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Graeber" title="David Graeber">Graeber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Batchelder_Greene" title="William Batchelder Greene">Greene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woody_Guthrie" title="Woody Guthrie">Guthrie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gus_Hall" title="Gus Hall">Hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dashiell_Hammett" title="Dashiell Hammett">Hammett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Hampton" title="Fred Hampton">Hampton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yip_Harburg" title="Yip Harburg">Harburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Harrington" title="Michael Harrington">Harrington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hubert_Harrison" title="Hubert Harrison">Harrison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_Hay" title="Harry Hay">Hay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_Haywood" title="Bill Haywood">Haywood (Bill)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_Haywood" title="Harry Haywood">Haywood (Harry)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howie_Hawkins" title="Howie Hawkins">Hawkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chris_Hedges" title="Chris Hedges">Hedges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angela_Heywood" title="Angela Heywood">Heywood (Angela)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ezra_Heywood" title="Ezra Heywood">Heywood (Ezra)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joe_Hill_(activist)" title="Joe Hill (activist)">Hill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morris_Hillquit" title="Morris Hillquit">Hillquit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Hoan" title="Daniel Hoan">Hoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbie_Hoffman" title="Abbie Hoffman">Hoffman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fredric_Jameson" title="Fredric Jameson">Jameson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mother_Jones" title="Mother Jones">Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helen_Keller" title="Helen Keller">Keller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jo_Labadie" title="Jo Labadie">Labadie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_London" title="Jack London">London</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jay_Lovestone" title="Jay Lovestone">Lovestone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dyer_Lum" title="Dyer Lum">Lum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sam_Marcy" title="Sam Marcy">Marcy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_McReynolds" title="David McReynolds">McReynolds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charlene_Mitchell" title="Charlene Mitchell">Mitchell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Moore" title="Michael Moore">Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Morello" title="Tom Morello">Morello</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Most" title="Johann Most">Most</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huey_P._Newton" title="Huey P. Newton">Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Humphrey_Noyes" title="John Humphrey Noyes">Noyes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandria_Ocasio-Cortez" title="Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez">Ocasio-Cortez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phil_Ochs" title="Phil Ochs">Ochs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacob_Panken" title="Jacob Panken">Panken</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Parenti" title="Michael Parenti">Parenti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Parsons" title="Albert Parsons">Parsons (Albert)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucy_Parsons" title="Lucy Parsons">Parsons (Lucy)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hasan_Piker" title="Hasan Piker">Piker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frances_Fox_Piven" title="Frances Fox Piven">Piven</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._Philip_Randolph" title="A. Philip Randolph">Randolph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Reed_(journalist)" title="John Reed (journalist)">Reed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Ripley_(transcendentalist)" title="George Ripley (transcendentalist)">Ripley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matilda_Robbins" title="Matilda Robbins">Robbins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nathan_J._Robinson" title="Nathan J. Robinson">Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zack_de_la_Rocha" title="Zack de la Rocha">Rocha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Rocker" title="Rudolf Rocker">Rocker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Roediger" title="David Roediger">Roediger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bayard_Rustin" title="Bayard Rustin">Rustin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Ruthenberg" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles Ruthenberg">Ruthenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacco_and_Vanzetti" title="Sacco and Vanzetti">Sacco and Vanzetti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Sandburg" title="Carl Sandburg">Sandburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernie_Sanders" title="Bernie Sanders">Sanders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kshama_Sawant" title="Kshama Sawant">Sawant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bobby_Seale" title="Bobby Seale">Seale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pete_Seeger" title="Pete Seeger">Seeger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emil_Seidel" title="Emil Seidel">Seidel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Shachtman" title="Max Shachtman">Shachtman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assata_Shakur" title="Assata Shakur">Shakur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/I._F._Stone" title="I. F. Stone">Stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhaskar_Sunkara" title="Bhaskar Sunkara">Sunkara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Sweezy" title="Paul Sweezy">Sweezy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serj_Tankian" title="Serj Tankian">Tankian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Thomas" title="Norman Thomas">Thomas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rashida_Tlaib" title="Rashida Tlaib">Tlaib</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nina_Turner" title="Nina Turner">Turner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornel_West" title="Cornel West">West</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_D._Wolff" title="Richard D. Wolff">Wolff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ellen_Meiksins_Wood" title="Ellen Meiksins Wood">Wood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erik_Olin_Wright" title="Erik Olin Wright">Wright</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Zeidler" title="Frank Zeidler">Zeidler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Zerzan" title="John Zerzan">Zerzan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howard_Zinn" title="Howard Zinn">Zinn</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #AAA; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Active organizations</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Riders_Liberation_Party" title="Black Riders Liberation Party">Black Riders Liberation Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Socialists_in_America" title="Black Socialists in America">Black Socialists in America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_USA" title="Communist Party USA">Communist Party USA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Socialists_of_America" title="Democratic Socialists of America">Democratic Socialists of America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Party_of_New_York_(2010)" title="Freedom Party of New York (2010)">Freedom Party of New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Road_Socialist_Organization" title="Freedom Road Socialist Organization">Freedom Road Socialist Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Socialist_Party" title="Freedom Socialist Party">Freedom Socialist Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Mountain_Peace_and_Justice_Party" title="Green Mountain Peace and Justice Party">Green Mountain Peace and Justice Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Party_of_the_United_States" title="Green Party of the United States">Green Party of the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Workers_of_the_World" title="Industrial Workers of the World">Industrial Workers of the World</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_Marijuana_Now" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal Marijuana Now">Legal Marijuana Now</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:National_Progressive_Party_(United_States)_state_affiliates" title="Category:National Progressive Party (United States) state affiliates">National Progressive Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Afrikan_Black_Panther_Party" title="New Afrikan Black Panther Party">New Afrikan Black Panther Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Party_for_Socialism_and_Liberation" title="Party for Socialism and Liberation">Party for Socialism and Liberation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_and_Freedom_Party" title="Peace and Freedom Party">Peace and Freedom Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_Dane" title="Progressive Dane">Progressive Dane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_Labor_Party_(United_States)" title="Progressive Labor Party (United States)">Progressive Labor Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redneck_Revolt" title="Redneck Revolt">Redneck Revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_Communist_Party,_USA" title="Revolutionary Communist Party, USA">Revolutionary Communist Party, USA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_Action_(United_States)" title="Socialist Action (United States)">Socialist Action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_Alternative_(United_States)" title="Socialist Alternative (United States)">Socialist Alternative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Carolina_Workers_Party" title="South Carolina Workers Party">South Carolina Workers Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_Democrats,_USA" title="Social Democrats, USA">Social Democrats, USA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_Equality_Party_(United_States)" title="Socialist Equality Party (United States)">Socialist Equality Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_Party_USA" title="Socialist Party USA">Socialist Party USA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_Rifle_Association" title="Socialist Rifle Association">Socialist Rifle Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_Workers_Party_(United_States)" title="Socialist Workers Party (United States)">Socialist Workers Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solidarity_(United_States)" title="Solidarity (United States)">Solidarity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spark_(U.S._organization)" class="mw-redirect" title="Spark (U.S. organization)">Spark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spartacist_League_(US)" class="mw-redirect" title="Spartacist League (US)">Spartacist League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Working_Families_Party" title="Working Families Party">Working Families Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workers_World_Party" title="Workers World Party">Workers World Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Working_Class_Party" title="Working Class Party">Working Class Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Socialist_Party_of_the_United_States" title="World Socialist Party of the United States">World Socialist Party of the United States</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #AAA; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Inactive or defunct organizations</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_Movement" title="American Indian Movement">American Indian Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Labor_Party" title="American Labor Party">American Labor Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Union_of_Associationists" title="American Union of Associationists">American Union of Associationists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Workers_Party" title="American Workers Party">American Workers Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Panther_Party" title="Black Panther Party">Black Panther Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citizens_Party_(United_States)" title="Citizens Party (United States)">Citizens Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_League_of_America" title="Communist League of America">Communist League of America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_League_of_Struggle" title="Communist League of Struggle">Communist League of Struggle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_Workers%27_Party_(United_States)" title="Communist Workers' Party (United States)">Communist Workers' Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Socialist_Federation" title="Democratic Socialist Federation">Democratic Socialist Federation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Socialist_Organizing_Committee" title="Democratic Socialist Organizing Committee">Democratic Socialist Organizing Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farmer%E2%80%93Labor_Party" title="Farmer–Labor Party">Farmer–Labor Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_Rights_Party_(United_States)" title="Human Rights Party (United States)">Human Rights Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workers_Party_(United_States)" title="Workers Party (United States)">Independent Socialist League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Socialists_(United_States)" title="International Socialists (United States)">International Socialists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Socialist_Organization" title="International Socialist Organization">International Socialist Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Workingmen%27s_Association_in_America" title="International Workingmen's Association in America">International Workingmen's Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice_Party_(United_States)" title="Justice Party (United States)">Justice Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_Party_of_the_United_States" title="Labor Party of the United States">Labor Party of the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_Party_(United_States,_1996)" title="Labor Party (United States, 1996)">Labor Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maoist_Internationalist_Movement" title="Maoist Internationalist Movement">Maoist Internationalist Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Guards_(United_States)" title="Red Guards (United States)">Red Guards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_American_Movement" title="New American Movement">New American Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Party_(United_States)" title="New Party (United States)">New Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonpartisan_League" title="Nonpartisan League">Nonpartisan League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patriot_Party_(1970s)" title="Patriot Party (1970s)">Patriot Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Party_(United_States,_1971)" title="People's Party (United States, 1971)">People's Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proletarian_Party_of_America" title="Proletarian Party of America">Proletarian Party of America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_Socialist_League_(U.S.)" title="Revolutionary Socialist League (U.S.)">Revolutionary Socialist League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_Youth_Movement" title="Revolutionary Youth Movement">Revolutionary Youth Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_Democracy_of_America" title="Social Democracy of America">Social Democracy of America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_Democratic_Federation_(United_States)" title="Social Democratic Federation (United States)">Social Democratic Federation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_of_America" title="Social Democratic Party of America">Social Democratic Party of America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_Labor_Party_of_America" title="Socialist Labor Party of America">Socialist Labor Party of America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_Party_of_America" title="Socialist Party of America">Socialist Party of America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Students_for_a_Democratic_Society" title="Students for a Democratic Society">SDS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weather_Underground" title="Weather Underground">Weather Underground</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_Panther_Party" title="White Panther Party">White Panther Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workers_Party_of_the_United_States" title="Workers Party of the United States">Workers Party of the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Young_Lords" title="Young Lords">Young Lords</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Young_Patriots_Organization" title="Young Patriots Organization">Young Patriots Organization</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #AAA; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Literature</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="font-style:italic"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_Reason_(newspaper)" title="Appeal to Reason (newspaper)">Appeal to Reason</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Current_Affairs_(magazine)" title="Current Affairs (magazine)">Current Affairs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daily_Worker" title="Daily Worker">Daily Worker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissent_(American_magazine)" title="Dissent (American magazine)">Dissent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Socialist_Review_(1900)" title="International Socialist Review (1900)">International Socialist Review</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacobin_(magazine)" title="Jacobin (magazine)">Jacobin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Jungle" title="The Jungle">The Jungle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Looking_Backward" title="Looking Backward">Looking Backward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopoly_Capital" title="Monopoly Capital">Monopoly Capital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monthly_Review" title="Monthly Review">Monthly Review</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Other_America" title="The Other America">The Other America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_People%27s_History_of_the_United_States" title="A People's History of the United States">A People's History of the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Settlers:_The_Mythology_of_the_White_Proletariat" title="Settlers: The Mythology of the White Proletariat">Settlers: The Mythology of the White Proletariat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voluntary_Socialism" title="Voluntary Socialism">Voluntary Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Why_Socialism%3F" title="Why Socialism?">Why Socialism?</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ZNetwork" title="ZNetwork">ZNetwork</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #AAA; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Left" title="American Left">American Left</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a> (<a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_the_United_States" title="Anarchism in the United States">in the US</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarcho-communism" class="mw-redirect" title="Anarcho-communism">Anarcho-communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarcho-syndicalism" title="Anarcho-syndicalism">Anarcho-syndicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_of_Rights_socialism" title="Bill of Rights socialism">Bill of Rights socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_socialism" title="Democratic socialism">Democratic socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_anarchism" title="Green anarchism">Green anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualist_anarchism" title="Individualist anarchism">Individualist anarchism</a> (<a href="/wiki/Individualist_anarchism_in_the_United_States" title="Individualist anarchism in the United States">in the US</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_history_of_the_United_States" title="Labor history of the United States">Labor history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_labor_law" title="United States labor 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socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">Social democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trotskyism" title="Trotskyism">Trotskyism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utopian_socialism" title="Utopian socialism">Utopian socialism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below plainlist" style="padding-bottom:0.22em; border-top:1px solid #AAA; border-bottom:1px solid #AAA"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Red_flag_II.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Red_flag_II.svg/16px-Red_flag_II.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Red_flag_II.svg/24px-Red_flag_II.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Red_flag_II.svg/32px-Red_flag_II.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="466" data-file-height="411" /></a> <a 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.navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Socialism_US" title="Template:Socialism US"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Socialism_US" title="Template talk:Socialism US"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Socialism_US" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Socialism US"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> The Smith Act trials of Communist Party leaders in New York City from 1949 to 1958 were the result of <a href="/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States" title="Federal government of the United States">US federal government</a> prosecutions in the postwar period and during the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> between the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> and the United States. Leaders of the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_USA" title="Communist Party USA">Communist Party of the United States</a> (CPUSA) were accused of violating the <a href="/wiki/Smith_Act" title="Smith Act">Smith Act</a>, a statute that prohibited advocating violent overthrow of the government. The defendants argued that they advocated a peaceful transition to socialism, and that the <a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">First Amendment</a>'s guarantee of <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech" title="Freedom of speech">freedom of speech</a> and of <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_association" title="Freedom of association">association</a> protected their membership in a political party. Appeals from these trials reached the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">US Supreme Court</a>, which ruled on issues in <a href="/wiki/Dennis_v._United_States" title="Dennis v. United States">Dennis v. United States</a> (1951) and <a href="/wiki/Yates_v._United_States" title="Yates v. United States">Yates v. United States</a> (1957). The first trial of eleven communist leaders was held in New York in 1949; it was one of the lengthiest trials in United States history. Numerous supporters of the defendants protested outside the courthouse on a daily basis. The trial was featured twice on the cover of <a href="/wiki/Time_(magazine)" title="Time (magazine)">Time</a> magazine. The defense frequently antagonized the judge and prosecution; five defendants were jailed for <a href="/wiki/Contempt_of_court" title="Contempt of court">contempt of court</a> because they disrupted the proceedings. The prosecution's case relied on undercover informants, who described the goals of the CPUSA, interpreted communist texts, and testified of their own knowledge that the CPUSA advocated the violent overthrow of the US government. While the first trial was under way, events outside the courtroom influenced public perception of communism: the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> tested its first <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">nuclear weapon</a>, and communists prevailed in the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Chinese Civil War</a>. In this period, the <a href="/wiki/House_Un-American_Activities_Committee" title="House Un-American Activities Committee">House Un-American Activities Committee</a> (HUAC) had also begun conducting investigations and hearings of writers and producers in Hollywood suspected of communist influence. Public opinion was overwhelmingly against the defendants in New York. After a 10-month trial, the jury found all 11 defendants guilty. The judge sentenced them to terms of up to five years in federal prison, and sentenced all five defense attorneys to imprisonment for contempt of court. Two of the attorneys were subsequently <a href="/wiki/Disbarment" title="Disbarment">disbarred</a>. After the first trial, the prosecutors – encouraged by their success – prosecuted more than 100 additional CPUSA officers for violating the <a href="/wiki/Smith_Act" title="Smith Act">Smith Act</a>. Some were tried solely because they were members of the Party. Many of these defendants had difficulty finding attorneys to represent them. The trials decimated the leadership of the CPUSA. In 1957, eight years after the first trial, the US Supreme Court's Yates decision brought an end to similar prosecutions. It ruled that defendants could be prosecuted only for their actions, not for their beliefs. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Smith_Act_trials_of_Communist_Party_leaders&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Step_by_step_greene.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A political cartoon showing a person walking down steps from "strikes" to "chaos"" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Step_by_step_greene.jpg/220px-Step_by_step_greene.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="290" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/34/Step_by_step_greene.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="258" data-file-height="340" /></a><figcaption>This 1919 political cartoon reflects U.S. fears about <a href="/wiki/Bolshevik" class="mw-redirect" title="Bolshevik">Bolshevism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">anarchism</a> during the <a href="/wiki/First_Red_Scare" title="First Red Scare">First Red Scare</a>.</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_USA#History" title="Communist Party USA">Communist Party USA § History</a></div> After the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">revolution</a> in Russia in 1917, the communist movement gradually gained footholds in many countries around the world. In Europe and the US, communist parties were formed, generally allied with trade union and labor causes. During the <a href="/wiki/First_Red_Scare" title="First Red Scare">First Red Scare</a> of 1919–1920, many U.S. capitalists were fearful that <a href="/wiki/Bolshevik" class="mw-redirect" title="Bolshevik">Bolshevism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">anarchism</a> would lead to disruption within the US.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> In the late 1930s, state and federal legislatures passed laws designed to expose communists, including laws requiring loyalty oaths, and laws requiring communists to register with the government. Even the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_Liberties_Union" title="American Civil Liberties Union">American Civil Liberties Union</a> (ACLU), a free-speech advocacy organization, passed a resolution in 1939 expelling communists from its leadership ranks.<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> Following Congressional investigation of left-wing and right-wing extremist political groups in the mid-1930s, support grew for a statutory prohibition of their activities. The alliance of <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> in the August 1939 <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Non-Aggression_between_Germany_and_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of Non-Aggression between Germany and the Soviet Union">Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact</a> and their invasion of Poland in September gave the movement added impetus. In 1940 the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Congress</a> passed the Alien Registration Act of 1940 (known as the <a href="/wiki/Smith_Act" title="Smith Act">Smith Act</a>) which required all non-citizen adult residents to register with the government, and made it a crime "to knowingly or willfully advocate ... the duty, necessity, desirability, ... of overthrowing or destroying any government in the United States by force or violence ... with the intent to cause the overthrow or destruction of any government in the United States...."<a href="#cite_note-Levin-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-SmithActText-4">[4]</a> Five million non-citizens were fingerprinted and registered following passage of the Act.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Smith_Act#Minneapolis_1941" title="Smith Act">first persons convicted</a> under the Smith Act were members of the <a href="/wiki/Socialist_Workers_Party_(United_States)" title="Socialist Workers Party (United States)">Socialist Workers Party</a> (SWP) in <a href="/wiki/Minneapolis" title="Minneapolis">Minneapolis</a> in 1941.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> Leaders of the CPUSA, bitter rivals of the <a href="/wiki/Trotskyism" title="Trotskyism">Trotskyist</a> SWP, supported the Smith Act prosecution of the SWP – a decision they would later regret.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> In 1943, the government used the Smith Act <a href="/wiki/Smith_Act#Great_Sedition_Trial_of_1944" title="Smith Act">to prosecute American Nazis</a>; that case ended in a <a href="/wiki/Trial#Mistrials" title="Trial">mistrial</a> when the judge died of a heart attack.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> Anxious to avoid alienating the Soviet Union, then an ally, the government did not prosecute any communists under the law during <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Belknap_a-9">[9]</a> The CPUSA's membership peaked at around 80,000 members during World War II under the leadership of <a href="/wiki/Earl_Browder" title="Earl Browder">Earl Browder</a>, who was not a strict <a href="/wiki/Stalinism" title="Stalinism">Stalinist</a> and cooperated with the US government during the war.<a href="#cite_note-Belknap_a-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> In late 1945, <a href="/wiki/Hardline" title="Hardline">hardliner</a> <a href="/wiki/William_Z._Foster" title="William Z. Foster">William Z. Foster</a> took over leadership of the CPUSA, and steered it on a course adhering to Stalin's policies.<a href="#cite_note-Belknap_a-9">[9]</a> The CPUSA was not very influential in American politics, and by 1948 its membership had declined to 60,000 members.<a href="#cite_note-Belknap_b-11">[11]</a> Truman did not feel that the CPUSA was a threat (he dismissed it as a "non problem") yet he made the specter of communism a campaign issue during the 1948 election.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> The perception of communism in the US was shaped by the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>, which began after World War II when the Soviet Union failed to uphold the commitments it made at the <a href="/wiki/Yalta_Conference" title="Yalta Conference">Yalta Conference</a>. Instead of holding elections for new governments, as agreed at Yalta, the Soviet Union occupied several <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc" title="Eastern Bloc">Eastern European countries</a>, leading to a strained relationship with the US. Subsequent international events served to increase the apparent danger that communism posed to Americans: the Stalinist threats in the <a href="/wiki/Greek_Civil_War" title="Greek Civil War">Greek Civil War</a> (1946–1949); the <a href="/wiki/Czechoslovak_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat_of_1948" class="mw-redirect" title="Czechoslovak coup d'état of 1948">Czechoslovak coup d'état of 1948</a>; and the 1948 <a href="/wiki/Berlin_Blockade" title="Berlin Blockade">blockade of Berlin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Belknap_b-11">[11]</a> The view of communism was also affected by evidence of espionage in the US conducted by agents of the USSR. In 1945, a Soviet spy, <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Bentley" title="Elizabeth Bentley">Elizabeth Bentley</a>, repudiated the USSR and provided a list of Soviet spies in the US to the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation" title="Federal Bureau of Investigation">Federal Bureau of Investigation</a> (FBI).<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> The FBI also had access to secret Soviet communications, available from the <a href="/wiki/Venona_project" title="Venona project">Venona</a> decryption effort, which revealed significant efforts by Soviet agents to conduct espionage within the US.<a href="#cite_note-Belknap_b-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> The growing influence of communism around the world and the evidence of Soviet spies within the US motivated the Department of Justice – spearheaded by the FBI – to initiate an investigation of communists within the US.<a href="#cite_note-Belknap_a-9">[9]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="1949_trial">1949 trial</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Smith_Act_trials_of_Communist_Party_leaders&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: 1949 trial">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hoover-JEdgar-LOC.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A portrait of a man, standing, holding papers" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Hoover-JEdgar-LOC.jpg/220px-Hoover-JEdgar-LOC.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="278" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Hoover-JEdgar-LOC.jpg/330px-Hoover-JEdgar-LOC.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Hoover-JEdgar-LOC.jpg/440px-Hoover-JEdgar-LOC.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2406" data-file-height="3036" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/J._Edgar_Hoover" title="J. Edgar Hoover">J. Edgar Hoover</a>.</figcaption></figure> In July 1945, FBI director <a href="/wiki/J._Edgar_Hoover" title="J. Edgar Hoover">J. Edgar Hoover</a> instructed his agents to begin gathering information on CPUSA members, leading to a 1,850-page report published in 1946 which outlined a case for their prosecution.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> As the Cold War continued to intensify in 1947, Congress held a hearing at which the <a href="/wiki/Hollywood_blacklist#The_Hollywood_Ten" title="Hollywood blacklist">Hollywood Ten</a> refused to testify about alleged involvement with the CPUSA, leading to their convictions for <a href="/wiki/Contempt_of_Congress" title="Contempt of Congress">contempt of Congress</a> in early 1948.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> The same year, Hoover recommended to the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Justice" title="United States Department of Justice">Department of Justice</a> that they bring charges against the CPUSA leaders, with the intention of rendering the Party ineffective.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> <a href="/wiki/John_F._X._McGohey" title="John F. X. McGohey">John McGohey</a>, a federal prosecutor from the Southern District of New York, was given the lead role in prosecuting the case and charged twelve leaders of the CPUSA with violations of the Smith Act. The specific charges against the defendants were first, that they conspired to overthrow the US government by violent means, and second, that they belonged to an organization that advocated the violent overthrow of the government.<a href="#cite_note-SmithActText-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-Redishpp-18">[18]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Indictment" title="Indictment">indictment</a>, issued on June 29, 1948, asserted that the CPUSA had been in violation of the Smith Act since July 1945.<a href="#cite_note-Belknap_c-19">[19]</a> The twelve defendants, arrested in late July 1948, were all members of the National Board of the CPUSA:<a href="#cite_note-Belknap_c-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:FoleyTrialDefendants.tiff" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Eleven well-dressed men, seated for a formal photograph." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/3/34/FoleyTrialDefendants.tiff/lossy-page1-220px-FoleyTrialDefendants.tiff.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/3/34/FoleyTrialDefendants.tiff/lossy-page1-330px-FoleyTrialDefendants.tiff.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/3/34/FoleyTrialDefendants.tiff/lossy-page1-440px-FoleyTrialDefendants.tiff.jpg 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="227" /></a><figcaption>The defendants. Back row (left to right): Stachel, Potash, Winter, Davis, Gates, Green. Front row: Thompson, Winston, Dennis, Hall, Williamson. Not shown: Foster (he was not tried due to illness).b</figcaption></figure> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_J._Davis_Jr." title="Benjamin J. Davis Jr.">Benjamin J. Davis Jr.</a> – Chairman of the CPUSA's Legislative Committee and Council-member of New York City</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugene_Dennis" title="Eugene Dennis">Eugene Dennis</a> – CPUSA General Secretary</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Z._Foster" title="William Z. Foster">William Z. Foster</a> – CPUSA National Secretary (indicted; but not tried due to illness)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Gates" title="John Gates">John Gates</a> – Leader of the <a href="/wiki/Young_Communist_League" title="Young Communist League">Young Communist League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gil_Green_(politician)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gil Green (politician)">Gil Green</a> – Member of the National Board (represented by <a href="/wiki/A.J._Isserman" class="mw-redirect" title="A.J. Isserman">A.J. Isserman</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gus_Hall" title="Gus Hall">Gus Hall</a> – Member of the CPUSA National Board</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Irving_Potash&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Irving Potash (page does not exist)">Irving Potash</a> – Furriers Union official</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Stachel" title="Jack Stachel">Jack Stachel</a> – Editor of the <a href="/wiki/Daily_Worker" title="Daily Worker">Daily Worker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_G._Thompson" title="Robert G. Thompson">Robert G. Thompson</a> – Leader of the New York branch of CPUSA</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Williamson_(communist)" title="John Williamson (communist)">John Williamson</a> – Member of the CPUSA Central Committee (represented by <a href="/wiki/A.J._Isserman" class="mw-redirect" title="A.J. Isserman">A.J. Isserman</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Winston" title="Henry Winston">Henry Winston</a> – Member of the CPUSA National Board</li> <li>Carl Winter – Lead of the Michigan branch of CPUSA</li></ul> Hoover hoped that all 55 members of the CPUSA's National Committee would be indicted and was disappointed that the prosecutors chose to pursue only twelve.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> A week before the arrests, Hoover complained to the Justice Department – recalling the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Workers_of_the_World#Government_suppression" title="Industrial Workers of the World">arrests</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kenesaw_Mountain_Landis#Wartime_cases_(1917–1919)" title="Kenesaw Mountain Landis">convictions</a> of over one hundred leaders of the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Workers_of_the_World" title="Industrial Workers of the World">Industrial Workers of the World</a> (IWW) in 1917 – "the IWW was crushed and never revived, similar action at this time would have been as effective against the Communist Party."<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Start_of_the_trial">Start of the trial</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Smith_Act_trials_of_Communist_Party_leaders&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Start of the trial">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:WTM_sheila_0036.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A large, stately building" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/WTM_sheila_0036.jpg/220px-WTM_sheila_0036.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/WTM_sheila_0036.jpg/330px-WTM_sheila_0036.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/WTM_sheila_0036.jpg/440px-WTM_sheila_0036.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>The 1949 trial was held in the <a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall_United_States_Courthouse" title="Thurgood Marshall United States Courthouse">Foley Square federal courthouse</a> in Manhattan.</figcaption></figure> The 1949 trial was held in New York City at the <a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall_United_States_Courthouse" title="Thurgood Marshall United States Courthouse">Foley Square federal courthouse</a> of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_District_Court_for_the_Southern_District_of_New_York" title="United States District Court for the Southern District of New York">United States District Court for the Southern District of New York</a>. Judge <a href="/wiki/Harold_Medina" title="Harold Medina">Harold Medina</a>, a former <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University" title="Columbia University">Columbia University</a> professor who had been on the bench for 18 months when the hearing began, presided.<a href="#cite_note-Morgan-23">[23]</a> Before becoming a judge, Medina successfully argued the case of <a href="/wiki/Cramer_v._United_States" title="Cramer v. United States">Cramer v. United States</a> before the Supreme Court, defending a German-American charged with treason.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-Oakes-25">[25]</a> The trial opened on November 1, 1948, and preliminary proceedings and jury selection lasted until January 17, 1949; the defendants first appeared in court on March 7, and the case concluded on October 14, 1949.<a href="#cite_note-11Guilty-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-Morgan_a-27">[27]</a> Although later trials surpassed it, in 1949 it was the longest federal trial in US history.<a href="#cite_note-11Guilty-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> The trial was one of the country's most contentious legal proceedings and sometimes had a "circus-like atmosphere".<a href="#cite_note-Walker_p_185-29">[29]</a> Four hundred police officers were assigned to the site on the opening day of the trial.<a href="#cite_note-11Guilty-26">[26]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Public_opinion">Public opinion</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Smith_Act_trials_of_Communist_Party_leaders&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Public opinion">edit</a>]</div> The opinion of the American public and the news media was overwhelming in favor of conviction.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> Magazines, newspapers, and radio reported on the case heavily; <a href="/wiki/Time_(magazine)" title="Time (magazine)">Time</a> magazine featured the trial on its cover twice with stories titled "Communists: The Presence of Evil" and "Communists: The Little Commissar" (referring to Eugene Dennis).<a href="#cite_note-Communists:_The_Little_Commissar-31">[31]</a> Most American newspapers supported the prosecution, such as the <a href="/wiki/New_York_World-Telegram" title="New York World-Telegram">New York World-Telegram</a> which reported that the Communist Party would soon be punished.<a href="#cite_note-M76-32">[32]</a> <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>, in an editorial, felt that the trial was warranted and denied assertions of the Party that the trial was a provocation comparable to the <a href="/wiki/Reichstag_fire" title="Reichstag fire">Reichstag fire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> <a href="/wiki/The_Christian_Science_Monitor" title="The Christian Science Monitor">The Christian Science Monitor</a> took a more detached view in an editorial: "The outcome of the case will be watched by government and political parties around the world as to how the United States, as an outstanding exponent of democratic government, intends to share the benefits of its civil liberties and yet protect them if and when they appear to be abused by enemies from within".<a href="#cite_note-M76-32">[32]</a> Support for the prosecutions was not universal, however. During the proceedings, there were days when several thousand picketers protested in <a href="/wiki/Foley_Square" title="Foley Square">Foley Square</a> outside the courthouse, chanting slogans like "Adolf Hitler never died / He's sitting at Medina's side".<a href="#cite_note-Morgan_a-27">[27]</a> In response, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="United States House of Representatives">US House of Representatives</a> passed a bill in August to outlaw picketing near federal courthouses, but the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">Senate</a> did not vote on it before the end of the trial.<a href="#cite_note-11Guilty-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-Walker,_p_186-34">[34]</a> Journalist <a href="/wiki/William_L._Shirer" title="William L. Shirer">William L. Shirer</a> was skeptical of the trial, writing "no overt act of trying to forcibly overthrow our government is charged ... The government's case is simply that by being members and leaders of the Communist Party, its doctrines and tactics being what they are, the accused are guilty of conspiracy".<a href="#cite_note-M76-32">[32]</a> <a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a> wrote that the purpose of the government's legal attack on the CPUSA was "not so much the protection and security of the state as the exploitation of justice for the purpose of propaganda."<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> <a href="/wiki/Third_party_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="Third party (United States)">Third-party</a> presidential candidate <a href="/wiki/Henry_A._Wallace" title="Henry A. Wallace">Henry A. Wallace</a> claimed that the trial was an effort by the Truman administration to create an atmosphere of fear, writing "we Americans have far more to fear from those actions which are intended to suppress political freedom than from the teaching of ideas with which we are in disagreement."<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> <a href="/wiki/Farrell_Dobbs" title="Farrell Dobbs">Farrell Dobbs</a> of the SWP wrote – despite the fact that the CPUSA had supported Dobbs' prosecution under the Smith Act in 1941 – "I want to state in no uncertain terms that I as well as the Socialist Workers Party support their struggle against the obnoxious Smith Act, as well as against the indictments under that act".<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> Before the trial began, supporters of the defendants decided on a campaign of letter-writing and demonstrations: the CPUSA urged its members to bombard Truman with letters requesting that the charges be dropped.<a href="#cite_note-Belknap_1994,_p_212-38">[38]</a> Later, supporters similarly flooded Judge Medina with telegrams and letters urging him to dismiss the charges.<a href="#cite_note-Redish-39">[39]</a> The defense was not optimistic about the probability of success. After the trial was over, defendant Gates wrote: "The anti-communist hysteria was so intense, and most Americans were so frightened by the Communist issue, that we were convicted before our trial even started".<a href="#cite_note-Belknap_k-40">[40]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prosecution">Prosecution</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Smith_Act_trials_of_Communist_Party_leaders&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Prosecution">edit</a>]</div> Prosecutor John McGohey did not assert that the defendants had a specific plan to violently overthrow the US government, but rather alleged that the CPUSA's philosophy generally advocated the violent overthrow of governments.<a href="#cite_note-Belknap_d-41">[41]</a> The prosecution called witnesses who were either undercover informants, such as <a href="/wiki/Angela_Calomiris" title="Angela Calomiris">Angela Calomiris</a> and <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Philbrick" title="Herbert Philbrick">Herbert Philbrick</a>, or former communists who had become disenchanted with the CPUSA, such as <a href="/wiki/Louis_F._Budenz" title="Louis F. Budenz">Louis Budenz</a>.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> The prosecution witnesses testified about the goals and policies of the CPUSA, and they interpreted the statements of pamphlets and books (including <a href="/wiki/The_Communist_Manifesto" title="The Communist Manifesto">The Communist Manifesto</a>) and works by such authors as <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a> and Joseph Stalin.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> The prosecution argued that the texts advocated violent revolution, and that by adopting the texts as their political foundation, the defendants were guilty of advocating violent overthrow of the government.<a href="#cite_note-Belknap_a-9">[9]</a> Calomiris was recruited by the FBI in 1942 and infiltrated the CPUSA, gaining access to a membership roster.<a href="#cite_note-Mah-44">[44]</a> She received a salary from the FBI during her seven years as an informant.<a href="#cite_note-Mah-44">[44]</a> Calomiris identified four of the defendants as members of the CPUSA and provided information about its organization.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> She testified that the CPUSA espoused violent revolution against the government, and that the CPUSA – acting on instructions from Moscow – had attempted to recruit members working in key war industries.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> Budenz, a former communist, was another important witness for the prosecution who testified that the CPUSA subscribed to a philosophy of violent overthrow of the government.<a href="#cite_note-Belknap_d-41">[41]</a> He also testified that the clauses of the constitution of the CPUSA that disavowed violence were decoys written in "<a href="/wiki/Aesopian_language" title="Aesopian language">Aesopian language</a>" which were put in place specifically to protect the CPUSA from prosecution.<a href="#cite_note-Belknap_d-41">[41]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Defense">Defense</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Smith_Act_trials_of_Communist_Party_leaders&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Defense">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:FoleyTrialAttorneys.tiff" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Five well-dressed men standing and conversing." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/7/71/FoleyTrialAttorneys.tiff/lossy-page1-220px-FoleyTrialAttorneys.tiff.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/7/71/FoleyTrialAttorneys.tiff/lossy-page1-330px-FoleyTrialAttorneys.tiff.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/7/71/FoleyTrialAttorneys.tiff/lossy-page1-440px-FoleyTrialAttorneys.tiff.jpg 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="199" /></a><figcaption>The five defense attorneys were sent to jail for contempt of court: Abraham Isserman, <a href="/wiki/George_W._Crockett_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="George W. Crockett Jr.">George W. Crockett Jr.</a>, Richard Gladstein, Harry Sacher, and Louis F. McCabe.</figcaption></figure> The five attorneys who volunteered to defend the communists were familiar with leftist causes and supported the defendants' rights to espouse socialist viewpoints. They were Abraham Isserman, <a href="/wiki/George_W._Crockett_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="George W. Crockett Jr.">George W. Crockett Jr.</a>, Richard Gladstein, Harry Sacher, and Louis F. McCabe.<a href="#cite_note-11Guilty-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> Defendant Eugene Dennis represented himself. The ACLU was dominated by anti-communist leaders during the 1940s, and did not enthusiastically support persons indicted under the Smith Act; but it did submit an <a href="/wiki/Amicus_curiae" title="Amicus curiae">amicus brief</a> endorsing a motion for dismissal of the charges.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> The defense employed a three-pronged strategy: First, they sought to portray the CPUSA as a conventional political party, which promoted socialism by peaceful means; second, they attacked the trial as a capitalist venture which could never provide a fair outcome for proletarian defendants; and third, they used the trial as an opportunity to publicize CPUSA policies.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> The defense made pre-trial <a href="/wiki/Motion_(legal)" title="Motion (legal)">motions</a> arguing that the defendants' right to trial by a jury of their peers had been denied because, at that time, a potential <a href="/wiki/Grand_jury" title="Grand jury">grand juror</a> had to meet a minimum property requirement, effectively eliminating the less affluent from service.<a href="#cite_note-83_F.Supp._197_1949-50">[50]</a> The defense also argued that the jury selection process for the trial was similarly flawed.<a href="#cite_note-Belknap_1994,_p_213-51">[51]</a> Their objections to the jury selection process were not successful and jurors included four African Americans and consisted primarily of working-class citizens.<a href="#cite_note-Belknap_d-41">[41]</a> A primary theme of the defense was that the CPUSA sought to convert the US to socialism by education, not by force.<a href="#cite_note-Belknap_e-52">[52]</a> The defense claimed that most of the prosecution's documentary evidence came from older texts that pre-dated the 1935 Seventh World Congress of the <a href="/wiki/Comintern" class="mw-redirect" title="Comintern">Comintern</a>, after which the CPUSA rejected violence as a means of change.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> The defense attempted to introduce documents into evidence which represented the CPUSA's advocacy of peace, claiming that these policies superseded the older texts that the prosecution had introduced which emphasized violence.<a href="#cite_note-Belknap_e-52">[52]</a> Medina excluded most of the material proposed by the defense because it did not directly pertain to the specific documents the prosecution had produced. As a result, the defense complained that they were unable to portray the totality of their belief system to the jury.<a href="#cite_note-Belknap_g-54">[54]</a> The defense attorneys developed a "labor defense" strategy, by which they attacked the entire trial process, including the prosecutor, the judge, and the jury selection process.<a href="#cite_note-Redishpp-18">[18]</a> The strategy involved verbally disparaging the judge and the prosecutors, and may have been an attempt to provoke a mistrial.<a href="#cite_note-Sabin-55">[55]</a> Another aspect of the labor defense was an effort to rally popular support to free the defendants, in the hope that public pressure would help achieve acquittals.<a href="#cite_note-Redish-39">[39]</a> Throughout the course of the trial, thousands of supporters of the defendants flooded the judge with protests, and marched outside the courthouse in Foley Square. The defense used the trial as an opportunity to educate the public about their beliefs, so they focused their defense around the political aspects of communism, rather than rebutting the legal aspects of the prosecution's evidence.<a href="#cite_note-Belknap_f-56">[56]</a> Defendant Dennis chose to represent himself so he could, in his role as attorney, directly address the jury and explain communist principles.<a href="#cite_note-Belknap_f-56">[56]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Courtroom_atmosphere">Courtroom atmosphere</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Smith_Act_trials_of_Communist_Party_leaders&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Courtroom atmosphere">edit</a>]</div> The trial was one of the country's most contentious legal proceedings and sometimes had a "circus-like atmosphere".<a href="#cite_note-Walker_p_185-29">[29]</a> Four hundred police officers were assigned to the site on the opening day of the trial.<a href="#cite_note-11Guilty-26">[26]</a> The defense deliberately antagonized the judge by making a large number of objections and motions,<a href="#cite_note-Morgan-23">[23]</a> which led to numerous bitter engagements between the attorneys and Judge Medina.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> Despite the aggressive defense tactics and a voluminous letter-writing campaign directed at Medina, he stated "I will not be intimidated".<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> Out of the chaos, an atmosphere of "mutual hostility" arose between the judge and attorneys.<a href="#cite_note-Sabin-55">[55]</a> Judge Medina attempted to maintain order by removing disorderly defendants. In the course of the trial, Medina sent five of the defendants to jail for outbursts, including Hall because he shouted "I've heard more law in a <a href="/wiki/Kangaroo_court" title="Kangaroo court">kangaroo court</a>", and Winston – an African American – for shouting "more than five thousand Negroes have been lynched in this country".<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> Several times in July and August, the judge held defense attorneys in contempt of court, and told them their punishment would be meted out upon conclusion of the trial.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> Fellow judge <a href="/wiki/James_L._Oakes" title="James L. Oakes">James L. Oakes</a> described Medina as a fair and reasonable judge, and wrote that "after the judge saw what the lawyers were doing, he gave them a little bit of their own medicine, too."<a href="#cite_note-Oakes-25">[25]</a> Legal scholar and historian Michal Belknap writes that Medina was "unfriendly" to the defense, and that "there is reason to believe that Medina was biased against the defendants", citing a statement Medina made before the trial: "If we let them do that sort of thing [postpone the trial start], they'll destroy the government".<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> According to Belknap, Medina's behavior towards the defense may have been exacerbated by the fact that another federal judge had died of a heart attack during <a href="/wiki/Smith_Act#Washington_1944" title="Smith Act">the 1943 trial</a> involving the Smith Act.<a href="#cite_note-Redish-39">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-Belknap-62">[62]</a> Some historians speculate that Medina came to believe that the defense was deliberately trying to provoke him into committing a legal error with the goal of achieving a mistrial.<a href="#cite_note-Oakes-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-Belknap_g-54">[54]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Events_outside_the_courtroom">Events outside the courtroom</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Smith_Act_trials_of_Communist_Party_leaders&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Events outside the courtroom">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Paul_Robeson_1942_crop.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A portrait of a well-dressed man." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Paul_Robeson_1942_crop.jpg/170px-Paul_Robeson_1942_crop.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="212" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Paul_Robeson_1942_crop.jpg/255px-Paul_Robeson_1942_crop.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Paul_Robeson_1942_crop.jpg/340px-Paul_Robeson_1942_crop.jpg 2x" data-file-width="9300" data-file-height="11591" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Paul_Robeson" title="Paul Robeson">Paul Robeson</a> gave a concert to raise defense funds.<a href="#cite_note-Martelle,_p_193-63">[63]</a></figcaption></figure> During the ten-month trial, several events occurred in America that intensified the nation's <a href="/wiki/Anti-communism" title="Anti-communism">anti-communist</a> sentiment: The <a href="/wiki/Judith_Coplon" title="Judith Coplon">Judith Coplon</a> Soviet espionage case was in progress; former government employee <a href="/wiki/Alger_Hiss" title="Alger Hiss">Alger Hiss</a> was tried for <a href="/wiki/Perjury" title="Perjury">perjury</a> stemming from accusations that he was a communist (a trial also held at the Foley Square courthouse); labor leader <a href="/wiki/Harry_Bridges" title="Harry Bridges">Harry Bridges</a> was accused of perjury when he denied being a communist; and the ACLU passed an anti-communist resolution.<a href="#cite_note-Sabin_a-64">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> Two events during the final month of the trial may have been particularly influential: On September 23, 1949, Truman announced that the Soviet Union detonated <a href="/wiki/RDS-1" title="RDS-1">its first nuclear bomb</a>; and on October 1, 1949, the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Chinese Communist Party">Chinese Communist Party</a> prevailed in the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Chinese Civil War</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Sabin_a-64">[64]</a> Defendants Irving Potash and Benjamin J. Davis were among the audience members attacked as they left a September 4 concert headlined by Paul Robeson in <a href="/wiki/Peekskill,_New_York" title="Peekskill, New York">Peekskill, New York</a>. It was given to benefit the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Congress" title="Civil Rights Congress">Civil Rights Congress</a> (CRC), which was funding the defendants' legal expenses.<a href="#cite_note-Martelle,_p_193-63">[63]</a> Hundreds lined the roads leaving the performance grounds and <a href="/wiki/Peekskill_Riots" class="mw-redirect" title="Peekskill Riots">threw rocks and bottles at the departing vehicles</a> without interference by the police.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> Over 140 people suffered injuries, including Potash, whose eyes were struck by glass from a broken windshield.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> The trial was suspended for two days while Potash recovered from his injuries.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Convictions_and_sentencing">Convictions and sentencing</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Smith_Act_trials_of_Communist_Party_leaders&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Convictions and sentencing">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:FoleyTrialCrowd.tiff" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Several police officers on horses watch a large crowd standing in a public park." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/FoleyTrialCrowd.tiff/lossless-page1-220px-FoleyTrialCrowd.tiff.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/FoleyTrialCrowd.tiff/lossless-page1-330px-FoleyTrialCrowd.tiff.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/FoleyTrialCrowd.tiff/lossless-page1-440px-FoleyTrialCrowd.tiff.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="231" /></a><figcaption>Defendants' supporters, onlookers, and police outside the Foley Square courthouse during the 1949 trial:.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a></figcaption></figure> On October 14, 1949, after the defense rested their case, the judge gave the jury <a href="/wiki/Jury_instructions" title="Jury instructions">instructions to guide them</a> in reaching a verdict. He instructed the jury that the prosecution was not required to prove that the danger of violence was "clear and present"; instead, the jury should consider if the defendants had advocated communist policy as a "rule or principle of action" with the intention of inciting overthrow by violence "as speedily as circumstances would permit".<a href="#cite_note-JuryInstr-70">[70]</a> This instruction was in response to the defendants, who endorsed the "<a href="/wiki/Clear_and_present_danger" title="Clear and present danger">clear and present danger</a>" test, yet that test was not adopted as law by the Supreme Court.<a href="#cite_note-Dunlap-71">[71]</a> The judge's instructions included the phrase "I find as a matter of law that there is sufficient danger of a substantive evil..." which would later be challenged by the defense during their appeals.<a href="#cite_note-JuryInstr-70">[70]</a> After deliberating for seven and one-half hours, the jury returned guilty verdicts against all eleven defendants.<a href="#cite_note-Belknap_h-72">[72]</a> The judge sentenced ten defendants to five years and a $10,000 fine each ($128,056 in 2023 dollars<a href="#cite_note-inflation-US-73">[73]</a>). The eleventh defendant, Robert G. Thompson – a veteran of World War II – was sentenced to three years in consideration of his wartime service.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> Thompson said that he took "no pleasure that this Wall Street judicial flunky has seen fit to equate my possession of the <a href="/wiki/Distinguished_Service_Cross_(United_States)" title="Distinguished Service Cross (United States)">Distinguished Service Cross</a> to two years in prison."<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> Immediately after the jury rendered a verdict, Medina turned to the defense attorneys saying he had some "unfinished business" and he held them in contempt of court, and sentenced all of them to jail terms ranging from 30 days to six months; Dennis, acting as his own attorney, was also cited.<a href="#cite_note-11Guilty-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> Since the contempt sentences were based on behavior witnessed by the judge, no hearings were required for the contempt charges, and the attorneys were immediately handcuffed and led to jail.<a href="#cite_note-Sabin_b-77">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Public_reaction">Public reaction</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Smith_Act_trials_of_Communist_Party_leaders&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Public reaction">edit</a>]</div> The vast majority of the public, and most news media, endorsed the verdict.<a href="#cite_note-Belknap_h-72">[72]</a> Typical was a letter to the New York Times: "The Communist Party may prove to be a hydra-headed monster unless we can discover how to kill the body as well as how to cut off its heads."<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> The day of the convictions, New York Gov. <a href="/wiki/Thomas_E._Dewey" title="Thomas E. Dewey">Thomas E. Dewey</a> and Senator <a href="/wiki/John_Foster_Dulles" title="John Foster Dulles">John Foster Dulles</a> praised the verdicts.<a href="#cite_note-NYTV-80">[80]</a> Some vocal supporters of the defendants spoke out in their defense. A New York resident wrote: "I am not afraid of communism ... I am only afraid of the trend in our country today away from the principles of democracy."<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> Another wrote: "the trial was a political trial ... Does not the Soviet Union inspire fear in the world at large precisely because masses of human beings have no confidence in the justice of its criminal procedures against dissidents? ... I trust that the Supreme Court will be able to correct a grave error in the operation of our political machinery by finding the ... Smith bill unconstitutional."<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> William Z. Foster wrote: "every democratic movement in the United States is menaced by this reactionary verdict ... The Communist Party will not be dismayed by this scandalous verdict, which belies our whole national democratic traditions. It will carry the fight to the higher courts, to the broad masses of the people."<a href="#cite_note-NYTV-80">[80]</a> <a href="/wiki/Vito_Marcantonio" title="Vito Marcantonio">Vito Marcantonio</a> of the <a href="/wiki/American_Labor_Party" title="American Labor Party">American Labor Party</a> wrote that the verdict was "a sharp and instant challenge to the freedom of every American."<a href="#cite_note-NYTV-80">[80]</a> The ACLU issued a statement reiterating its opposition to the Smith Act, because it felt the act criminalized political advocacy.<a href="#cite_note-NYTV-80">[80]</a> Abroad, the trial received little mention in mainstream press, but Communist newspapers were unanimous in their condemnation.<a href="#cite_note-VAA-83">[83]</a> The Moscow press wrote that Medina showed "extraordinary prejudice"; the London communist newspaper wrote that the defendants had been convicted only of "being communists"; and in France, a paper decried the convictions as "a step on the road that leads to war."<a href="#cite_note-VAA-83">[83]</a> On October 21, President Truman appointed prosecutor John McGohey to serve as a US District Court judge.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> Judge Medina was hailed as a national hero and received 50,000 letters congratulating him on the trial outcome.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> On October 24, <a href="/wiki/Time_(magazine)" title="Time (magazine)">Time</a> magazine featured Medina on its cover,<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> and soon thereafter he was asked to consider running for governor of New York.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> On June 11, 1951, Truman nominated Medina to the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Second_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit">US Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit</a>, where he served until 1980.<a href="#cite_note-MedObit-88">[88]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bail_and_prison">Bail and prison</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Smith_Act_trials_of_Communist_Party_leaders&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Bail and prison">edit</a>]</div> After sentencing, the defendants posted <a href="/wiki/Bail" title="Bail">bail</a>, enabling them to remain free during the appeal process. The $260,000 bail ($3,329,455 in 2023 dollars<a href="#cite_note-inflation-US-73">[73]</a>) was provided by <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Congress" title="Civil Rights Congress">Civil Rights Congress</a>, a non-profit trust fund which was created to assist CPUSA members with legal expenses.<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> While out on bail, Hall was appointed to a position in the secretariat within the CPUSA. Eugene Dennis was – in addition to his Smith Act charges – fighting <a href="/wiki/Contempt_of_Congress" title="Contempt of Congress">contempt of Congress</a> charges stemming from an incident in 1947 when he refused to appear before the <a href="/wiki/House_Un-American_Activities_Committee" title="House Un-American Activities Committee">House Un-American Activities Committee</a>. He appealed the contempt charge, but the Supreme Court upheld his conviction for contempt in March 1950, and he began to serve a one-year term at that time.<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> While waiting for their legal appeals to be heard, the CPUSA leaders became convinced that the government would undertake the prosecution of many additional Party officers. To ensure continuity of their leadership, they decided that four of the defendants should go into hiding and lead the CPUSA from outside prison.<a href="#cite_note-Belknap_j-91">[91]</a> The defendants were ordered to report to prison on July 2, 1951, after the Supreme Court upheld their convictions and their legal appeals were exhausted.<a href="#cite_note-Belknap_j-91">[91]</a> When July arrived, only seven defendants reported to prison, and four (Winston, Green, Thompson, and Hall) went into hiding, forfeiting $80,000 bail ($1,024,448 in 2023 dollars<a href="#cite_note-inflation-US-73">[73]</a>).<a href="#cite_note-Belknap_j-91">[91]</a> Hall was captured in Mexico in 1951, trying to flee to the Soviet Union. Thompson was captured in California in 1952. Both had three years added to their five-year sentences.<a href="#cite_note-Belknap_j-91">[91]</a> Winston and Green surrendered voluntarily in 1956 after they felt that anti-communist hysteria had diminished.<a href="#cite_note-Belknap_j-91">[91]</a> Some of the defendants did not fare well in prison: Thompson was attacked by an anti-communist inmate; Winston became blind because a brain tumor was not treated promptly; Gates was put into solitary confinement because he refused to lock the cells of fellow inmates; and Davis was ordered to mop floors because he protested against racial segregation in prison.<a href="#cite_note-Belknap_j-91">[91]</a><a href="#cite_note-m2567-92">[92]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Perception_of_communism_after_the_trial">Perception of communism after the trial</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Smith_Act_trials_of_Communist_Party_leaders&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Perception of communism after the trial">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Joseph_McCarthy.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Portrait of a man in a suit." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Joseph_McCarthy.jpg/170px-Joseph_McCarthy.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Joseph_McCarthy.jpg/255px-Joseph_McCarthy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Joseph_McCarthy.jpg/340px-Joseph_McCarthy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1503" data-file-height="1192" /></a><figcaption>Senator <a href="/wiki/Joseph_McCarthy" title="Joseph McCarthy">Joseph McCarthy</a> was a prominent anti-communist.</figcaption></figure> After the convictions, the Cold War continued in the international arena. In December 1950, Truman declared a <a href="/wiki/State_of_emergency" title="State of emergency">national emergency</a> in response to the Korean War.<a href="#cite_note-ColdWar-93">[93]</a> The <a href="/wiki/First_Indochina_War" title="First Indochina War">First Indochina War</a> continued in <a href="/wiki/Vietnam" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a>, in which communist forces in the north fought against <a href="/wiki/French_Union" title="French Union">French Union</a> forces in the south.<a href="#cite_note-ColdWar-93">[93]</a> The US expanded the <a href="/wiki/Radio_Free_Europe/Radio_Liberty" title="Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty">Radio Free Europe</a> broadcasting system in an effort to promote Western political ideals in Eastern Europe.<a href="#cite_note-ColdWar-93">[93]</a> In March 1951, American communists <a href="/wiki/Julius_and_Ethel_Rosenberg" title="Julius and Ethel Rosenberg">Julius and Ethel Rosenberg</a> were convicted of spying for the Soviet Union.<a href="#cite_note-ColdWar-93">[93]</a> In 1952, the US exploded its first <a href="/wiki/Thermonuclear_weapon" title="Thermonuclear weapon">hydrogen bomb</a>, and the Soviet Union followed suit in 1953.<a href="#cite_note-ColdWar-93">[93]</a> Domestically, the Cold War was in the forefront of national consciousness. In February 1950, Senator <a href="/wiki/Joseph_McCarthy" title="Joseph McCarthy">Joseph McCarthy</a> rose suddenly to national fame when he claimed "I have here in my hand a list" of over 200 communists who were employed in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_State" title="United States Department of State">State Department</a>.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> In September 1950, the US Congress passed the <a href="/wiki/McCarran_Internal_Security_Act" title="McCarran Internal Security Act">McCarran Internal Security Act</a>, which required communist organizations to register with the government, and formed the <a href="/wiki/Subversive_Activities_Control_Board" title="Subversive Activities Control Board">Subversive Activities Control Board</a> to investigate persons suspected of engaging in subversive activities. High-profile hearings involving alleged communists included the 1950 conviction of <a href="/wiki/Alger_Hiss" title="Alger Hiss">Alger Hiss</a>, the 1951 trial of the <a href="/wiki/Julius_and_Ethel_Rosenberg" title="Julius and Ethel Rosenberg">Rosenbergs</a>, and the 1954 investigation of <a href="/wiki/J._Robert_Oppenheimer" title="J. Robert Oppenheimer">J. Robert Oppenheimer</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Belknap_k-40">[40]</a> The convictions in the 1949 trial encouraged the Department of Justice to prepare for additional prosecutions of CPUSA leaders. Three months after the trial, in January 1950, a representative of the Justice Department testified before Congress during appropriation hearings to justify an increase in funding to support Smith Act prosecutions.<a href="#cite_note-FBItestify-95">[95]</a> He testified that there were 21,105 potential persons that could be indicted under the Smith Act, and that 12,000 of those would be indicted if the Smith Act was upheld as constitutional.<a href="#cite_note-FBItestify-95">[95]</a> The FBI had compiled a list of 200,000 persons in its <a href="/wiki/FBI_Index" title="FBI Index">Communist Index</a>; since the CPUSA had only around 32,000 members in 1950, the FBI explained the disparity by asserting that for every official Party member, there were ten persons who were loyal to the CPUSA and ready to carry out its orders.<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> Seven months after the convictions, in May 1950, Hoover gave a radio address in which he declared "communists have been and are today at work within the very gates of America.... Wherever they may be, they have in common one diabolic ambition: to weaken and to eventually destroy American democracy by stealth and cunning."<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> Other federal government agencies also worked to undermine organizations, such as the CPUSA, they considered subversive: The <a href="/wiki/Internal_Revenue_Service" title="Internal Revenue Service">Internal Revenue Service</a> investigated 81 organizations that were deemed to be subversive, threatening to revoke their tax exempt status; Congress passed a law prohibiting members of subversive organizations from obtaining <a href="/wiki/National_Housing_Act_of_1934" title="National Housing Act of 1934">federal housing benefits</a>; and attempts were made to deny Social Security benefits, veterans benefits, and unemployment benefits to communist sympathizers.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legal_appeals_of_1949_trial">Legal appeals of 1949 trial</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Smith_Act_trials_of_Communist_Party_leaders&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Legal appeals of 1949 trial">edit</a>]</div> The 1949 trial defendants appealed to the Second Circuit Court of Appeals in 1950.<a href="#cite_note-Belknap_2005,_pp_258–259-99">[99]</a> In the appeal they raised issues about the use of informant witnesses, the impartiality of the jury and judge, the judge's conduct, and <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech_in_the_United_States" title="Freedom of speech in the United States">free speech</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Belknap_2005,_pp_258–259-99">[99]</a> Their free speech arguments raised important constitutional issues: they asserted that their political advocacy was protected by the <a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">First Amendment</a>, because the CPUSA did not advocate imminent violence, but instead merely promoted revolution as an abstract concept. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Free_speech_law">Free speech law</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Smith_Act_trials_of_Communist_Party_leaders&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Free speech law">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#Speech_critical_of_the_government" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">First Amendment to the United States Constitution § Speech critical of the government</a></div> One of the major issues raised on appeal was that the defendants' political advocacy was protected by the First Amendment, because the CPUSA did not advocate imminent violence, but instead merely promoted revolution as an abstract concept.<a href="#cite_note-Sabin-55">[55]</a> In the early twentieth century, the primary legal test used in the United States to determine if speech could be criminalized was the <a href="/wiki/Bad_tendency" title="Bad tendency">bad tendency</a> test.<a href="#cite_note-RCL-100">[100]</a> Rooted in English <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a>, the test permitted speech to be outlawed if it had a tendency to harm public welfare.<a href="#cite_note-RCL-100">[100]</a> One of the earliest cases in which the Supreme Court addressed punishment after material was published was <a href="/wiki/Patterson_v._Colorado" title="Patterson v. Colorado">Patterson v. Colorado</a> (1907) in which the Court used the bad tendency test to uphold contempt charges against a newspaper publisher who accused Colorado judges of acting on behalf of local utility companies.<a href="#cite_note-RCL-100">[100]</a><a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> Anti-war protests during World War I gave rise to several important free speech cases related to sedition and inciting violence. In the 1919 case <a href="/wiki/Schenck_v._United_States" title="Schenck v. United States">Schenck v. United States</a> the Supreme Court held that an anti-war activist did not have a First Amendment right to speak out against the draft.<a href="#cite_note-Killian_p1093-102">[102]</a><a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> In his majority opinion, <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Wendell_Holmes_Jr." title="Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.">Justice Holmes</a> introduced the clear and present danger test, which would become an important concept in First Amendment law; but the Schenck decision did not formally adopt the test.<a href="#cite_note-Killian_p1093-102">[102]</a> Holmes later wrote that he intended the clear and present danger test to refine, not replace, the bad tendency test.<a href="#cite_note-Dunlap-71">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> Although sometimes mentioned in subsequent rulings, the clear and present danger test was never endorsed by the Supreme Court as a test to be used by lower courts when evaluating the constitutionality of legislation that regulated speech.<a href="#cite_note-K60-105">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> The Court continued to use the bad tendency test during the early twentieth century in cases such as 1919's <a href="/wiki/Abrams_v._United_States" title="Abrams v. United States">Abrams v. United States</a> which upheld the conviction of anti-war activists who passed out leaflets encouraging workers to impede the war effort.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> In Abrams, Holmes and <a href="/wiki/Louis_Brandeis" title="Louis Brandeis">Justice Brandeis</a> dissented and encouraged the use of the clear and present test, which provided more protection for speech.<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> In 1925's <a href="/wiki/Gitlow_v._New_York" title="Gitlow v. New York">Gitlow v. New York</a>, the Court extended the First Amendment to the states, and upheld the conviction of Gitlow for publishing the "<a href="/wiki/Left_Wing_Manifesto#"Left_Wing_Manifesto"_issued_by_the_Left_Wing_National_Council" title="Left Wing Manifesto">Left Wing Manifesto</a>".<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> Gitlow was decided based on the bad tendency test, but the majority decision acknowledged the validity of the clear and present danger test, yet concluded that its use was limited to Schenck-like situations where the speech was not specifically outlawed by the legislature.<a href="#cite_note-Dunlap-71">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> Brandeis and Holmes again promoted the clear and present danger test, this time in a concurring opinion in 1927's <a href="/wiki/Whitney_v._California" title="Whitney v. California">Whitney v. California</a> decision.<a href="#cite_note-Dunlap-71">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> The majority did not adopt or use the clear and present danger test, but the concurring opinion encouraged the Court to support greater protections for speech, and it suggested that "imminent danger" – a more restrictive wording than "present danger" – should be required before speech can be outlawed.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> After Whitney, bad tendency tests continued to be used by the Court in cases such 1931's <a href="/wiki/Stromberg_v._California" title="Stromberg v. California">Stromberg v. California</a>, which held that a 1919 California statute banning red flags was unconstitutional.<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> The clear and present danger test was invoked by the majority in the 1940 <a href="/wiki/Thornhill_v._Alabama" title="Thornhill v. Alabama">Thornhill v. Alabama</a> decision in which a state anti-picketing law was invalidated.<a href="#cite_note-K60-105">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> Although the Court referred to the clear and present danger test in a few decisions following Thornhill,<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> the bad tendency test was not explicitly overruled,<a href="#cite_note-K60-105">[105]</a> and the clear and present danger test was not applied in several subsequent free speech cases involving incitement to violence.<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Appeal_to_the_federal_Court_of_Appeals">Appeal to the federal Court of Appeals</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Smith_Act_trials_of_Communist_Party_leaders&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Appeal to the federal Court of Appeals">edit</a>]</div> In May 1950, one month before the appeals court heard <a href="/wiki/Oral_argument_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Oral argument in the United States">oral arguments</a> in the CPUSA case, the Supreme Court ruled on free speech issues in <a href="/wiki/American_Communications_Association_v._Douds" class="mw-redirect" title="American Communications Association v. Douds">American Communications Association v. Douds</a>. In that case the Court considered the clear and present danger test, but rejected it as too mechanical and instead introduced a <a href="/wiki/Balancing_test" title="Balancing test">balancing test</a>.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> The federal appeals court heard oral arguments in the CPUSA case on June 21–23, 1950. Two days later, on June 25, <a href="/wiki/South_Korea" title="South Korea">South Korea</a> was invaded by forces from communist <a href="/wiki/North_Korea" title="North Korea">North Korea</a>, marking the start of the <a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a>; during the two months that the appeals court judges were forging their opinions, the Korean War dominated the headlines.<a href="#cite_note-Belknap_i-118">[118]</a> On August 1, 1950, the appeals court unanimously upheld the convictions in an opinion written by Judge <a href="/wiki/Learned_Hand" title="Learned Hand">Learned Hand</a>. Judge Hand considered the clear and present danger test, but his opinion adopted a balancing approach similar to that suggested in American Communications Association v. Douds.<a href="#cite_note-Dunlap-71">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-Belknap_2005,_pp_258–259-99">[99]</a><a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> In his opinion, Hand wrote: <blockquote>In each case they [the courts] must ask whether the gravity of the 'evil', discounted by its improbability, justifies such invasion of free speech as is necessary to avoid the danger.... The American Communist Party, of which the defendants are the controlling spirits, is a highly articulated, well contrived, far spread organization, numbering thousands of adherents, rigidly and ruthlessly disciplined, many of whom are infused with a passionate Utopian faith that is to redeem mankind.... The violent capture of all existing governments is one article of the creed of that faith [communism], which abjures the possibility of success by lawful means.<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a></blockquote> The opinion specifically mentioned the contemporary dangers of communism worldwide, with emphasis on the <a href="/wiki/Berlin_Blockade#The_start_of_the_Berlin_Airlift" title="Berlin Blockade">Berlin Airlift</a>.<a href="#cite_note-MedObit-88">[88]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Appeal_to_the_Supreme_Court">Appeal to the Supreme Court</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Smith_Act_trials_of_Communist_Party_leaders&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Appeal to the Supreme Court">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Dennis_v._United_States" title="Dennis v. United States">Dennis v. United States</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:FredVinsonReadingBook.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A formal portrait of an older man, sitting, in judicial robes" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/FredVinsonReadingBook.jpg/220px-FredVinsonReadingBook.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="384" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/81/FredVinsonReadingBook.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="569" /></a><figcaption>Chief Justice <a href="/wiki/Fred_M._Vinson" title="Fred M. Vinson">Fred M. Vinson</a> wrote the opinion in <a href="/wiki/Dennis_v._United_States" title="Dennis v. United States">Dennis v. United States</a>.</figcaption></figure> The defendants appealed the Second Circuit's decision to the Supreme Court in <a href="/wiki/Dennis_v._United_States" title="Dennis v. United States">Dennis v. United States</a>. During the Supreme Court appeal, the defendants were assisted by the <a href="/wiki/National_Lawyers_Guild" title="National Lawyers Guild">National Lawyers Guild</a> and the ACLU.<a href="#cite_note-Belknap_i-118">[118]</a> The Supreme Court limited its consideration to the questions of the constitutionality of the Smith Act and the jury instructions, and did not rule on the issues of impartiality, jury composition, or informant witnesses.<a href="#cite_note-Belknap_2005,_pp_258–259-99">[99]</a> The 6–2 decision was issued on June 4, 1951, and upheld Hand's decision. Chief Justice <a href="/wiki/Fred_M._Vinson" title="Fred M. Vinson">Fred Vinson's</a> opinion stated that the <a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">First Amendment</a> does not require that the government must wait "until the <a href="/wiki/Putsch" class="mw-redirect" title="Putsch">putsch</a> is about to be executed, the plans have been laid and the signal is awaited" before it interrupts seditious plots.<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a> In his opinion, Vinson endorsed the balancing approach used by Judge Hand:<a href="#cite_note-Dennis-122">[122]</a><a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">Chief Judge Learned Hand ... interpreted the [clear and present danger] phrase as follows: 'In each case, [courts] must ask whether the gravity of the "evil", discounted by its improbability, justifies such invasion of free speech as is necessary to avoid the danger.' We adopt this statement of the rule. As articulated by Chief Judge Hand, it is as succinct and inclusive as any other we might devise at this time. It takes into consideration those factors which we deem relevant, and relates their significances. More we cannot expect from words.</blockquote> Vinson's opinion also addressed the contention that Medina's jury instructions were faulty. The defendants claimed that Medina's statement that "as matter of law that there is sufficient danger of a substantive evil that the Congress has a right to prevent to justify the application of the statute under the First Amendment of the Constitution" was erroneous, but Vinson concluded that the instructions were an appropriate interpretation of the Smith Act.<a href="#cite_note-Dennis-122">[122]</a> The Supreme Court was, in one historian's words, "bitterly divided" on the First Amendment issues presented by Dennis.<a href="#cite_note-OB78-124">[124]</a> Justices <a href="/wiki/Hugo_Black" title="Hugo Black">Hugo Black</a> and <a href="/wiki/William_O._Douglas" title="William O. Douglas">William O. Douglas</a> dissented from the majority opinion. In his dissent, Black wrote "public opinion being what it now is, few will protest the conviction of these Communist petitioners. There is hope, however, that, in calmer times, when present pressures, passions and fears subside, this or some later Court will restore the First Amendment liberties to the high preferred place where they belong in a free society."<a href="#cite_note-Dennis-122">[122]</a><a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> Following the Dennis decision, the Court utilized balancing tests for free speech cases, and rarely invoked the clear and present danger test.<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Appeal_of_contempt_sentences">Appeal of contempt sentences</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Smith_Act_trials_of_Communist_Party_leaders&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Appeal of contempt sentences">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sacher_v._United_States" title="Sacher v. United States">Sacher v. United States</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1224211176">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{text-align:center;font-size:110%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:30em; border-width: 1px;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> One who reads this record will have difficulty in determining whether members of the bar conspired to drive a judge from the bench or whether the judge used the authority of the bench to whipsaw the lawyers, to taunt and tempt them, and to create for himself the role of the persecuted. I have reluctantly concluded that neither is blameless, that there is fault on each side, that we have here the spectacle of the bench and the bar using the courtroom for an unseemly demonstration of garrulous discussion and of ill will and hot tempers. </blockquote> <cite class="left-aligned" style="">— Justice <a href="/wiki/William_O._Douglas" title="William O. Douglas">William O. Douglas</a>, in his dissenting opinion in <a href="/wiki/Sacher_v._United_States" title="Sacher v. United States">Sacher v. United States</a><a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a></cite> </div> The defense attorneys appealed their contempt sentences, which were handed out by Judge Medina under Rule 42 of the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Rules_of_Criminal_Procedure" title="Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure">Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure</a>.<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> The attorneys raised a variety of issues on appeal, including the purported misconduct of the judge, and the claim that they were deprived of due process because there was no hearing to evaluate the merits of the contempt charge. They argued that the contempt charges would prevent future CPUSA defendants from obtaining counsel, because attorneys would be afraid of judicial retaliation.<a href="#cite_note-Sacher-129">[129]</a><a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> The initial appeal to the federal appeals court was not successful: The court reviewed Medina's actions, and reversed some specifications of contempt, but affirmed the convictions.<a href="#cite_note-Sacher-129">[129]</a><a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a> The attorneys then appealed to the Supreme Court which denied the initial petition, but later reconsidered and accepted the appeal.<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a> The Supreme Court limited their review to the question, "was the charge of contempt, as and when certified, one which the accusing judge was authorized under Rule 42(a) to determine and punish himself; or was it one to be adjudged and punished under Rule 42(b) only by a judge other than the accusing one and after notice, hearing, and opportunity to defend?".<a href="#cite_note-Sacher-129">[129]</a> The Supreme Court, in an opinion written by <a href="/wiki/Robert_H._Jackson" title="Robert H. Jackson">Justice Robert Jackson</a>, upheld the contempt sentences by a 5–3 vote.<a href="#cite_note-Belknap_j-91">[91]</a> Jackson's opinion stated that "summary punishment always, and rightly, is regarded with disfavor, and, if imposed in passion or pettiness, brings discredit to a court as certainly as the conduct it penalizes. But the very practical reasons which have led every system of law to vest a contempt power in one who presides over judicial proceedings also are the reasons which account for it being made summary."<a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Trials_of_"second-tier"_officials">Trials of "second-tier" officials</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Smith_Act_trials_of_Communist_Party_leaders&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Trials of "second-tier" officials">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Elizabeth_G._Flynn.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Image of a formally dressed woman, seated, around 1930." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Elizabeth_G._Flynn.jpg/170px-Elizabeth_G._Flynn.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Elizabeth_G._Flynn.jpg/255px-Elizabeth_G._Flynn.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Elizabeth_G._Flynn.jpg/340px-Elizabeth_G._Flynn.jpg 2x" data-file-width="374" data-file-height="560" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Gurley_Flynn" title="Elizabeth Gurley Flynn">Elizabeth Gurley Flynn</a> was one of the second-tier defendants.</figcaption></figure> After the 1949 convictions, prosecutors waited until the constitutional issues were settled by the Supreme Court before they tried additional leaders of the CPUSA.<a href="#cite_note-Levin-3">[3]</a> When the 1951 Dennis decision upholding the convictions was announced, prosecutors initiated indictments of 132 additional CPUSA leaders, called "second string" or "second-tier" defendants.<a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a><a href="#cite_note-Belknap_l-135">[135]</a> The second-tier defendants were prosecuted in three waves: 1951, 1954, and 1956.<a href="#cite_note-Levin-3">[3]</a> Their trials were held in more than a dozen cities, including Los Angeles (15 CPUSA defendants, including <a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Ray_Healey" title="Dorothy Ray Healey">Dorothy Healey</a>, leader of the California branch of the CPUSA); New York (21 defendants, including National Committee members <a href="/wiki/Claudia_Jones" title="Claudia Jones">Claudia Jones</a> and <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Gurley_Flynn" title="Elizabeth Gurley Flynn">Elizabeth Gurley Flynn</a>); Honolulu, Pittsburgh, Philadelphia, Cleveland, Baltimore, Seattle, Detroit, St. Louis, Denver, Boston, Puerto Rico, and New Haven.<a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a><a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a> The second-tier defendants had a difficult time finding lawyers to represent them. The five defense attorneys at the 1949 trial had been jailed for contempt of court,<a href="#cite_note-Sabin_b-77">[77]</a> and both <a href="/wiki/Abraham_J._Isserman" title="Abraham J. Isserman">Abraham J. Isserman</a> and Harry Sacher were <a href="/wiki/Disbarment" title="Disbarment">disbarred</a>.<a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a> Attorneys for other Smith Act defendants routinely found themselves attacked by courts, attorneys' groups, and licensing boards, leading many defense attorneys to shun Smith Act cases.<a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a> Some defendants were forced to contact more than one hundred attorneys before finding one who would take their case;<a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a> defendant <a href="/wiki/Steve_Nelson_(activist)" title="Steve Nelson (activist)">Steve Nelson</a> could not find a lawyer in Pennsylvania who would represent him in his Smith Act trial, so he was forced to represent himself.<a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a> Judges sometimes had to appoint unwilling counsel for defendants who could not find a lawyer to take their cases.<a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a> The National Lawyers Guild provided some lawyers to the defendants, but in 1953 Attorney General <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Brownell_Jr." title="Herbert Brownell Jr.">Herbert Brownell Jr.</a> threatened to list the Guild as a subversive organization, causing half its members to leave.<a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a> Some second-tier defendants were unable to post bail because the government refused to permit the Civil Rights Congress (CRC) legal defense fund to provide bail funding.<a href="#cite_note-S49-144">[144]</a><a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a> The CRC had run afoul of the judicial system because it had posted bail for the 1949 trial defendants, and four of those defendants <a href="/wiki/Jump_bail" class="mw-redirect" title="Jump bail">skipped bail</a> in 1951.<a href="#cite_note-S49-144">[144]</a> Leaders of the CRC were called before a grand jury and asked to identify the donors who had contributed money to the bail fund.<a href="#cite_note-S49-144">[144]</a> Novelist <a href="/wiki/Dashiell_Hammett" title="Dashiell Hammett">Dashiell Hammett</a>, a manager of the CRC fund, invoked the <a href="/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fifth Amendment</a>, refused to identify donors, and was sentenced to six months in prison.<a href="#cite_note-S49-144">[144]</a> To supply witnesses for the second-tier trials, the Justice Department relied on a dozen informants, who traveled full-time from trial to trial, testifying about communism and the CPUSA. The informants were paid for their time; for example, Budenz earned $70,000 ($803,158 in 2023 dollars<a href="#cite_note-inflation-US-73">[73]</a>) from his activities as a witness.<a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="California_convictions_reversed">California convictions reversed</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Smith_Act_trials_of_Communist_Party_leaders&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: California convictions reversed">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Yates_v._United_States" title="Yates v. United States">Yates v. United States</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Earl_Warren.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A formal portrait of a judge, in his robes, sitting." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Earl_Warren.jpg/220px-Earl_Warren.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="274" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Earl_Warren.jpg/330px-Earl_Warren.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Earl_Warren.jpg/440px-Earl_Warren.jpg 2x" data-file-width="620" data-file-height="773" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Earl_Warren" title="Earl Warren">Earl Warren</a>, Chief Justice when <a href="/wiki/Yates_v._United_States" title="Yates v. United States">Yates</a> was decided in 1957.</figcaption></figure> The federal appeals courts upheld all convictions of second-tier officials. The Supreme Court refused to hear their appeals until 1956, when it agreed to hear the appeal of the California defendants; this led to the landmark <a href="/wiki/Yates_v._United_States" title="Yates v. United States">Yates v. United States</a> decision.<a href="#cite_note-Belknap_l-135">[135]</a><a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a> Fourteen second-tier CPUSA officials from California who had been convicted of Smith Act violations appealed, and on June 17, 1957, known as "Red Monday", the Supreme Court reversed their convictions. By the time the Court ruled 6–1 in Yates v. United States, four of the Supreme Court Justices who had supported the 1951 Dennis decision had been replaced, including Chief Justice Vinson. He was replaced by Chief Justice <a href="/wiki/Earl_Warren" title="Earl Warren">Earl Warren</a>.<a href="#cite_note-OB78-124">[124]</a> The decision in Yates undermined the 1951 Dennis decision by holding that contemplation of abstract, future violence may not be prohibited by law, but that urging others to act in violent ways may be outlawed.<a href="#cite_note-RedMonday-148">[148]</a> Writing for the majority, Justice <a href="/wiki/John_Marshall_Harlan_II" title="John Marshall Harlan II">John Marshall Harlan</a> introduced the notion of balancing society's right of self-preservation against the right to free speech.<a href="#cite_note-OB78-124">[124]</a> He wrote:<a href="#cite_note-149">[149]</a><a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">We are thus faced with the question whether the Smith Act prohibits advocacy and teaching of forcible overthrow as an abstract principle, divorced from any effort to instigate action to that end, so long as such advocacy or teaching is engaged in with evil intent. We hold that it does not.... In failing to distinguish between advocacy of forcible overthrow as an abstract doctrine and advocacy of action to that end, the District Court appears to have been led astray by the holding in Dennis that advocacy of violent action to be taken at some future time was enough.</blockquote> Yates did not rule the Smith Act unconstitutional or overrule the Dennis decision, but Yates limited the application of the Act to such a degree that it became nearly unenforceable.<a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a><a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a> The Yates decision outraged some conservative members of Congress, who introduced legislation to limit judicial review of certain sentences related to sedition and treason. This bill did not pass.<a href="#cite_note-BCCW-153">[153]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Membership_clause">Membership clause</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Smith_Act_trials_of_Communist_Party_leaders&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Membership clause">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Noto_v._United_States" title="Noto v. United States">Noto v. United States</a></div> Four years after the Yates decision, the Supreme Court reversed the conviction of another second-tier CPUSA leader, John Francis Noto of New York, in the 1961 <a href="/wiki/Noto_v._United_States" title="Noto v. United States">Noto v. United States</a> case.<a href="#cite_note-NOTO-154">[154]</a> Noto was convicted under the membership clause of the Smith Act, and he challenged the constitutionality of that clause on appeal.<a href="#cite_note-MRK-155">[155]</a> The membership clause was in the portion of the Smith Act that made it a crime "to organize or help to organize any society, group, or assembly of persons who teach, advocate, or encourage the overthrow or destruction of any government in the United States by force or violence; or to be or become a member of, or affiliate with, any such society, group, or assembly of persons, knowing the purposes thereof ...".<a href="#cite_note-SmithActText-4">[4]</a> In a unanimous decision, the court reversed the conviction because the evidence presented at trial was not sufficient to demonstrate that the Party was advocating action (as opposed to mere doctrine) of forcible overthrow of the government.<a href="#cite_note-MRK-155">[155]</a> On behalf of the majority, Justice Harlan wrote:<a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">The evidence was insufficient to prove that the Communist Party presently advocated forcible overthrow of the Government not as an abstract doctrine, but by the use of language reasonably and ordinarily calculated to incite persons to action, immediately or in the future.... In order to support a conviction under the membership clause of the Smith Act, there must be some substantial direct or circumstantial evidence of a call to violence now or in the future which is both sufficiently strong and sufficiently pervasive to lend color to the otherwise ambiguous theoretical material regarding Communist Party teaching and to justify the inference that such a call to violence may fairly be imputed to the Party as a whole, and not merely to some narrow segment of it.</blockquote> The decision did not rule the membership clause unconstitutional.<a href="#cite_note-MRK-155">[155]</a> In their concurring opinions, Justices Black and Douglas argued that the membership clause of the Smith Act was unconstitutional on its face as a violation of the First Amendment, with Douglas writing that "the utterances, attitudes, and associations in this case ... are, in my view, wholly protected by the First Amendment, and not subject to inquiry, examination, or prosecution by the Federal Government."<a href="#cite_note-NOTO-154">[154]</a><a href="#cite_note-MRK-155">[155]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Final_conviction">Final conviction</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Smith_Act_trials_of_Communist_Party_leaders&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Final conviction">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Scales_v._United_States" title="Scales v. United States">Scales v. United States</a></div> In 1958 at his second trial, <a href="/wiki/Junius_Scales" title="Junius Scales">Junius Scales</a>, the leader of the North Carolina branch of the CPUSA, became the final CPUSA member convicted under the Smith Act. He was the only one convicted after the Yates decision.<a href="#cite_note-Levin-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-157">[157]</a> Prosecutors pursued Scales' case because he specifically advocated violent political action and gave demonstrations of martial arts skills.<a href="#cite_note-Levin-3">[3]</a> Scales was accused of violating the membership clause of the Smith Act, not the clause prohibiting advocacy of violence against the government.<a href="#cite_note-GRJ-158">[158]</a> In his appeal to the Supreme Court, Scales contended that the 1950 <a href="/wiki/McCarran_Internal_Security_Act" title="McCarran Internal Security Act">McCarran Internal Security Act</a> rendered the Smith Act's membership clause ineffective, because the McCarran Act explicitly stated that membership in a communist party does not constitute a <a href="/wiki/Illegal_per_se" title="Illegal per se">per se</a> violation of any criminal statute.<a href="#cite_note-Scales-159">[159]</a><a href="#cite_note-160">[160]</a> In 1961, the Supreme Court, in a 5–4 decision, upheld Scales' conviction, finding that the Smith Act membership clause was not obviated by the McCarran Act, because the Smith Act required prosecutors to prove first, that there was direct advocacy of violence; and second, that the defendant's membership was substantial and active, not merely passive or technical.<a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a><a href="#cite_note-KSCALES-162">[162]</a> Two Justices of the Supreme Court who had supported the Yates decision in 1957, Harlan and Frankfurter, voted to uphold Scales' conviction.<a href="#cite_note-BCCW-153">[153]</a> Scales was the only defendant convicted under the membership clause. All others were convicted of conspiring to overthrow the government.<a href="#cite_note-GRJ-158">[158]</a> <a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">President Kennedy</a> commuted his sentence on Christmas Eve, 1962, making Scales the final Smith Act defendant released from prison.<a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a> Scales is the only Supreme Court decision to uphold a conviction based solely upon membership in a political party.<a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Aftermath">Aftermath</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Smith_Act_trials_of_Communist_Party_leaders&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Aftermath">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Legal">Legal</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Smith_Act_trials_of_Communist_Party_leaders&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Legal">edit</a>]</div> The Yates and Noto decisions undermined the Smith Act and marked the beginning of the end of CPUSA membership inquiries.<a href="#cite_note-165">[165]</a> When the trials came to an end in 1958, 144 people had been indicted, resulting in 105 convictions, with cumulative sentences totaling 418 years and $435,500 ($4,996,789 in 2023 dollars<a href="#cite_note-inflation-US-73">[73]</a>) in fines.<a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a> Fewer than half the convicted communists served jail time.<a href="#cite_note-Levin-3">[3]</a> The Smith Act, <a href="/wiki/Title_18_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 18 of the United States Code">18 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/18/2385">§ 2385</a>, though amended several times, has not been repealed.<a href="#cite_note-167">[167]</a> For two decades after the Dennis decision, free speech issues related to advocacy of violence were decided using balancing tests such as the one initially articulated in Dennis.<a href="#cite_note-168">[168]</a> In 1969, the court established stronger protections for speech in the landmark case <a href="/wiki/Brandenburg_v._Ohio" title="Brandenburg v. Ohio">Brandenburg v. Ohio</a> which held that "the constitutional guarantees of free speech and free press do not permit a State to forbid or proscribe advocacy of the use of force or of law violation except where such advocacy is directed to inciting or producing imminent lawless action".<a href="#cite_note-169">[169]</a><a href="#cite_note-170">[170]</a> Brandenburg is now the standard applied by the Court to free speech issues related to advocacy of violence.<a href="#cite_note-171">[171]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="CPUSA_downfall">CPUSA downfall</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Smith_Act_trials_of_Communist_Party_leaders&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: CPUSA downfall">edit</a>]</div> The Smith Act trials decimated the leadership ranks of the CPUSA.<a href="#cite_note-Redishpp-18">[18]</a> Immediately after the 1949 trial, the CPUSA – alarmed at the undercover informants that had testified for the prosecution – initiated efforts to identify and exclude informers from its membership. The FBI encouraged these suspicions by planting fabricated evidence which suggested that many innocent Party members were FBI informants.<a href="#cite_note-172">[172]</a> Dennis attempted to provide leadership from inside the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Penitentiary,_Atlanta" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Penitentiary, Atlanta">Atlanta penitentiary</a>, but prison officials censored his mail and successfully isolated him from the outside world.<a href="#cite_note-Belknap_l-135">[135]</a> Prison officials from the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Penitentiary,_Lewisburg" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Penitentiary, Lewisburg">Lewisburg prison</a> prevented Williamson from writing to anyone other than immediate family members.<a href="#cite_note-Belknap_l-135">[135]</a> Lacking leadership, the CPUSA suffered from internal dissension and disorder, and by 1953 the CPUSA's leadership structure was inoperative.<a href="#cite_note-Belknap_l-135">[135]</a><a href="#cite_note-173">[173]</a> In 1956, <a href="/wiki/Nikita_Khrushchev" title="Nikita Khrushchev">Nikita Khrushchev</a> <a href="/wiki/On_the_Cult_of_Personality_and_Its_Consequences" title="On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences">revealed</a> the reality of <a href="/wiki/Great_Purge" title="Great Purge">Stalin's purges</a>, causing many remaining CPUSA members to quit in disillusionment.<a href="#cite_note-174">[174]</a> By the late 1950s, the CPUSA's membership had dwindled to 5,000, of whom over 1,000 may have been FBI informants.<a href="#cite_note-175">[175]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="CPUSA_leaders">CPUSA leaders</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Smith_Act_trials_of_Communist_Party_leaders&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: CPUSA leaders">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gus_hall_headshot.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A man's face in front of a green background" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Gus_hall_headshot.jpg/170px-Gus_hall_headshot.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="231" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Gus_hall_headshot.jpg/255px-Gus_hall_headshot.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1e/Gus_hall_headshot.jpg 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="407" /></a><figcaption>Defendant <a href="/wiki/Gus_Hall" title="Gus Hall">Gus Hall</a> ran for president four times after being released from prison.</figcaption></figure> The defendants at the 1949 trial were released from prison in the mid-1950s. <a href="/wiki/Gus_Hall" title="Gus Hall">Gus Hall</a> served as a Party leader for another 40 years; he supported the policies of the Soviet Union, and ran for president four times from 1972 to 1984.<a href="#cite_note-m2567-92">[92]</a> <a href="/wiki/Eugene_Dennis" title="Eugene Dennis">Eugene Dennis</a> continued to be involved in the CPUSA and died in 1961. <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_J._Davis_Jr." title="Benjamin J. Davis Jr.">Benjamin J. Davis</a> died in 1964. <a href="/wiki/Jack_Stachel" title="Jack Stachel">Jack Stachel</a>, who continued working on the <a href="/wiki/Daily_Worker" title="Daily Worker">Daily Worker</a>, died in 1966.<a href="#cite_note-m2567-92">[92]</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Gates" title="John Gates">John Gates</a> became disillusioned with the CPUSA after the revelation of Stalin's Great Purge; he quit the Party in 1958 and later gave a television interview to <a href="/wiki/Mike_Wallace" title="Mike Wallace">Mike Wallace</a> in which he blamed the CPUSA's "unshaken faith" in the Soviet Union for the organization's downfall.<a href="#cite_note-176">[176]</a> Henry Winston became co-chair of the CPUSA (with Hall) in 1966 and was awarded the <a href="/wiki/Order_of_the_October_Revolution" title="Order of the October Revolution">Order of the October Revolution</a> by the Soviet Union in 1976.<a href="#cite_note-m2567-92">[92]</a> After leaving prison, Carl Winter resumed Party activities, became editor of the Daily Worker in 1966, and died in 1991.<a href="#cite_note-m2567-92">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-177">[177]</a> Gil Green was released from <a href="/wiki/United_States_Penitentiary,_Leavenworth" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Penitentiary, Leavenworth">Leavenworth prison</a> in 1961 and continued working with the CPUSA to oppose the Vietnam War.<a href="#cite_note-m2567-92">[92]</a> Party leader William Z. Foster, 69 years old at the time of the 1949 trial, was never tried due to ill health; he retired from the Party in 1957 and died in Moscow in 1961.<a href="#cite_note-178">[178]</a> John Williamson was released early, in 1955, and deported to England, although he had lived in the United States since the age of ten.<a href="#cite_note-M254-179">[179]</a> Irving Potash moved to Poland after his release from prison, then re-entered the United States illegally in 1957, and was arrested and sentenced to two years for violating immigration laws.<a href="#cite_note-M254-179">[179]</a> Robert G. Thompson skipped bail, was captured in 1953, and sentenced to an additional four years.<a href="#cite_note-180">[180]</a> He died in 1965 and US Army officials refused him burial in <a href="/wiki/Arlington_National_Cemetery" title="Arlington National Cemetery">Arlington National Cemetery</a>. His wife challenged that decision, first losing in US District Court and then winning in the Court of Appeals.<a href="#cite_note-181">[181]</a> Defense attorney George W. Crockett Jr. later became a <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Democratic Party (United States)">Democratic</a> congressman from Michigan.<a href="#cite_note-182">[182]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Footnotes">Footnotes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Smith_Act_trials_of_Communist_Party_leaders&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Footnotes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 24em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> Murray, Robert K. (1955), Red Scare: A Study in National Hysteria, 1919–1920, University of Minnesota Press, pp 82–104, 150–169, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-22673-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-22673-1">978-0-313-22673-1</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> Walker, pp 128–133. </li> <li id="cite_note-Levin-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Levin_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Levin_3-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Levin_3-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Levin_3-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Levin_3-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Levin_3-5">f</a> Levin, p 1488, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YoI14vYA8r0C&pg=PA1488&">available online</a>, accessed June 13, 2012 </li> <li id="cite_note-SmithActText-4">^ <a href="#cite_ref-SmithActText_4-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-SmithActText_4-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-SmithActText_4-2">c</a> The Smith Act was officially called the Alien Registration Act of 1940. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.citizensource.com/History/20thCen/Smith.htm">Text of 1940 version</a>. The Act has been amended since then: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/18/2385">Text of 2012 version</a>. The portion of the 1940 Act that was relevant to the CPUSA trials was: "Sec. 2. (a) It shall be unlawful for any person— (1) to knowingly or willfully advocate, abet, advise, or teach the duty, necessity, desirability, or propriety of overthrowing or destroying any government in the United States by force or violence, or by the assassination of any officer of any such government; (2) with the intent to cause the overthrow or destruction of any government in the United States, to print, publish, edit, issue, circulate, sell, distribute, or publicly display any written or printed matter advocating, advising, or teaching the duty, necessity, desirability, or propriety of overthrowing or destroying any government in the United States by force or violence. (3) to organize or help to organize any society, group, or assembly of persons who teach, advocate, or encourage the overthrow or destruction of any government in the United States by force or violence; or to be or become a member of, or affiliate with, any such society, group, or assembly of persons, knowing the purposes thereof...." </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> Kennedy, David M., The Library of Congress World War II Companion, Simon and Schuster, 2007, p 86, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7432-5219-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7432-5219-5">978-0-7432-5219-5</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> Belknap (1994), p 179. President Roosevelt insisted on the prosecution because the SWP had challenged a Roosevelt ally. </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> Smith, Michael Steven, "Smith Act Trials, 1949", in Encyclopedia of the American Left, Oxford University Press, 1998, p 756. </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> Belknap (1994), pp 196, 207. See also: Ribuffo, Leo, "United States v. McWilliams: The Roosevelt Administration and the Far Right", in Belknap (1994), pp 179–206. </li> <li id="cite_note-Belknap_a-9">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Belknap_a_9-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Belknap_a_9-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Belknap_a_9-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Belknap_a_9-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Belknap_a_9-4">e</a> Belknap (1994), p 209. </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> Hoover, J. Edgar, Masters of Deceit: the Story of Communism in America and How to Fight It, Pocket Books, 1958, p 5 (80,000 peak in 1944). </li> <li id="cite_note-Belknap_b-11">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Belknap_b_11-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Belknap_b_11-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Belknap_b_11-2">c</a> Belknap (1994), p 210. </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> Belknap (1994), p 210. Truman quoted by Belknap. Belknap writes that Truman considered the CPUSA to be "a contemptible minority in a land of freedom". </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> Theoharis, Atahn, The FBI: A Comprehensive Reference Guide, Greenwood Publishing Group, 1999, p 27, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89774-991-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-89774-991-6">978-0-89774-991-6</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> Haynes, pp 8–22. </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> Redish, pp 81–82, 248. Redish cites Schrecker and Belknap. Belknap (1994), p 210. Powers, p 214. </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> Tyler, G. L., "House Un-American Activities Committee", in Finkelman, p 780. </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> Belknap (1994), p 210. Redish, pp 81–82. </li> <li id="cite_note-Redishpp-18">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Redishpp_18-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Redishpp_18-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Redishpp_18-2">c</a> Redish, pp 81–82. </li> <li id="cite_note-Belknap_c-19">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Belknap_c_19-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Belknap_c_19-1">b</a> Belknap (1994), p 211. </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> Belknap (1977), p 51. Belknap (1994), p 207. Lannon, p 122. Morgan, p 314. Powers, p 215. </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> Powers, p 215. </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> Morgan, p 314. Hoover quoted by Morgan. Powers, p 215. </li> <li id="cite_note-Morgan-23">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Morgan_23-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Morgan_23-1">b</a> Morgan, p 314. Sabin, p 41. </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> Cramer v. United States, 325 U.S. 1, 1945. </li> <li id="cite_note-Oakes-25">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Oakes_25-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Oakes_25-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Oakes_25-2">c</a> Oakes, p 1460. </li> <li id="cite_note-11Guilty-26">^ <a href="#cite_ref-11Guilty_26-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-11Guilty_26-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-11Guilty_26-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-11Guilty_26-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-11Guilty_26-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-11Guilty_26-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-11Guilty_26-6">g</a> "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=F1IEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA31&lpg=PA31">Communist Trial Ends with 11 Guilty</a>", Life, October 24, 1949, p 31. </li> <li id="cite_note-Morgan_a-27">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Morgan_a_27-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Morgan_a_27-1">b</a> Morgan, p 315. </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> Longer trials have been held since then, for example a 20-month trial in 1988 (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1988-08-27-mn-888-story.html">Longest Mob Trial Ends</a>, Los Angeles Times, August 27, 1988. Retrieved June 10, 2012). </li> <li id="cite_note-Walker_p_185-29">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Walker_p_185_29-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Walker_p_185_29-1">b</a> Walker, p 185. Morgan, p 315. Sabin, pp 44–45. "Circus-like" are Sabin's words. </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> Belknap (1994), p 217. Belknap quotes an editorial from the left-leaning <a href="/wiki/The_New_Republic" title="The New Republic">The New Republic</a>, written after the prosecution rested on May 19, 1949: "[the prosecution] failed to make out the overwhelming case that many people anticipated before the trial began". </li> <li id="cite_note-Communists:_The_Little_Commissar-31"><a href="#cite_ref-Communists:_The_Little_Commissar_31-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061206024258/http://www.time.com/time/covers/0%2C16641%2C19490425%2C00.html">"Communists: The Little Commissar"</a>, Time, April 25, 1949 (Cover photo: Eugene Dennis). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070320204127/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,805104,00.html">"Communists: The Presence of Evil"</a>, Time: October 24, 1949. (Cover photo: Harold Medina). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110131021105/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,800586,00.html">"Communists: the Field Day is Over"</a>, Time, (article, not cover), August 22, 1949. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080307044044/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,799977,00.html">"Communists: Evolution or Revolution?"</a>, Time, April 4, 1949. See also Life magazine articles "Communist trial ends with 11 guilty", Life, October 24, 1949, p 31; and "Unrepentant reds emerge", Life, March 14, 1955, p 30. </li> <li id="cite_note-M76-32">^ <a href="#cite_ref-M76_32-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-M76_32-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-M76_32-2">c</a> Martelle, p 76. Martelle states that Shirer's statement was published in the New York Star. </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1948/07/22/96429560.pdf">"The Communist Indictments"</a> (PDF). The New York Times. July 22, 1948. Retrieved June 13, 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=The+Communist+Indictments&rft.date=1948-07-22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftimesmachine.nytimes.com%2Ftimesmachine%2F1948%2F07%2F22%2F96429560.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASmith+Act+trials+of+Communist+Party+leaders" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Walker,_p_186-34"><a href="#cite_ref-Walker,_p_186_34-0">^</a> Walker, p 186. </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> Belknap (1994), p 214. Washington Post quoted by Belknap. </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1948/07/22/96429391.pdf">"Indicted Reds Get Wallace Support"</a> (PDF). New York Times. July 22, 1948. Retrieved June 13, 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Indicted+Reds+Get+Wallace+Support&rft.date=1948-07-22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftimesmachine.nytimes.com%2Ftimesmachine%2F1948%2F07%2F22%2F96429391.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASmith+Act+trials+of+Communist+Party+leaders" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFarrell_Dobbs1948" class="citation news cs1">Farrell Dobbs (July 24, 1948). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9A06E0DE1E3DE13BBC4C51DFB1668383659EDE">"Letters to the Times: Indictment of Communists"</a>. New York Times. Retrieved June 13, 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Letters+to+the+Times%3A+Indictment+of+Communists&rft.date=1948-07-24&rft.au=Farrell+Dobbs&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fquery.nytimes.com%2Fgst%2Fabstract.html%3Fres%3D9A06E0DE1E3DE13BBC4C51DFB1668383659EDE&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASmith+Act+trials+of+Communist+Party+leaders" class="Z3988">; letter dated July 22, 1948 </li> <li id="cite_note-Belknap_1994,_p_212-38"><a href="#cite_ref-Belknap_1994,_p_212_38-0">^</a> Belknap (1994), p 212. </li> <li id="cite_note-Redish-39">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Redish_39-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Redish_39-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Redish_39-2">c</a> Redish, p 82. </li> <li id="cite_note-Belknap_k-40">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Belknap_k_40-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Belknap_k_40-1">b</a> Belknap (1994), p 208. </li> <li id="cite_note-Belknap_d-41">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Belknap_d_41-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Belknap_d_41-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Belknap_d_41-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Belknap_d_41-3">d</a> Belknap (1994), p 214. </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> Belknap (1994), pp 216–217. </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> Belknap (1994), p 214. Belknap (1994), p 209. </li> <li id="cite_note-Mah-44">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mah_44-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mah_44-1">b</a> Mahoney, M.H., Women in Espionage: A Biographical Dictionary, Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO, 1993, pp 37–39. </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> "Girl Official of Party Stuns Reds at Trial", Chicago Daily Tribune, April 27, 1949, p 21. </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> Martelle, pp.148–149. </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> Sabin, p 42. Attorney <a href="/wiki/Maurice_Sugar" title="Maurice Sugar">Maurice Sugar</a> participated in an advisory role. </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> Walker, pp 185–187. Many local affiliates of the ACLU supported second-tier communist defendants in the 1950s. </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> Walker, p 185. Belknap (1994), p 217. Sabin, pp 44–46. </li> <li id="cite_note-83_F.Supp._197_1949-50"><a href="#cite_ref-83_F.Supp._197_1949_50-0">^</a> Belknap (1994), p 213. Walker, p 185. Starobin, p 206. Medina's ruling on the jury selection issue is <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.leagle.com/xmlResult.aspx?xmldoc=194928083FSupp197_1238.xml&docbase=CSLWAR1-1950-1985">83 F.Supp. 197 (1949)</a>. The issue was addressed by the appeals court in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://law.justia.com/cases/federal/appellate-courts/F2/183/201/266559/">183 F.2d 201 (2d Cir. 1950)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Belknap_1994,_p_213-51"><a href="#cite_ref-Belknap_1994,_p_213_51-0">^</a> Belknap (1994), p 213. </li> <li id="cite_note-Belknap_e-52">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Belknap_e_52-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Belknap_e_52-1">b</a> Belknap (1994), p 219. </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> Belknap (1994), pp 219–220. Starobin, p 207. </li> <li id="cite_note-Belknap_g-54">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Belknap_g_54-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Belknap_g_54-1">b</a> Belknap (1994), p 220. </li> <li id="cite_note-Sabin-55">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sabin_55-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sabin_55-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sabin_55-2">c</a> Sabin, p 46. "Mutual hostility" is Sabin's characterization. </li> <li id="cite_note-Belknap_f-56">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Belknap_f_56-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Belknap_f_56-1">b</a> Belknap (1994), p 218. </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> Redish, p 82. Sabin, p 46. </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> Belknap (1994), p 218. Medina quoted by Belknap. </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> Sabin, pp 46–47. Sabin writes that only four defendants were cited. Morgan, p 315 (Morgan erroneously quotes Winston as saying 500 – the correct quote is 5,000). Martelle, p 175. </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> Martelle, p 190. </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> Belknap (1994), pp 212, 220. </li> <li id="cite_note-Belknap-62"><a href="#cite_ref-Belknap_62-0">^</a> Belknap (2001), p 860. </li> <li id="cite_note-Martelle,_p_193-63">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Martelle,_p_193_63-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Martelle,_p_193_63-1">b</a> Martelle, p 193. </li> <li id="cite_note-Sabin_a-64">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sabin_a_64-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sabin_a_64-1">b</a> Sabin, p 45. </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> Johnson, John W., "Icons of the Cold War: The Hiss–Chambers Case", in Historic U.S. Court Cases: An Encyclopedia (Vol 1), (John W. Johnson, Ed.), Taylor & Francis, 2001, p 79, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-93019-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-93019-2">978-0-415-93019-2</a> (Hiss in same building). </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> Martelle, pp 197–204. </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> Belknap (1977), p 105. </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> Martelle, pp 204–205. </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> Martelle, p 217. </li> <li id="cite_note-JuryInstr-70">^ <a href="#cite_ref-JuryInstr_70-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-JuryInstr_70-1">b</a> Sabin, p 45. Belknap (1994), p 221. Redish, p 87. One instruction from Medina to the jury was "I find as a matter of law that there is sufficient danger of a substantive evil that the Congress had a right to prevent, to justify the application of the statute under the First Amendment of the Constitution." </li> <li id="cite_note-Dunlap-71">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Dunlap_71-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dunlap_71-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dunlap_71-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dunlap_71-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dunlap_71-4">e</a> Dunlap, William V., "National Security and Freedom of Speech", in Finkelman (vol 1), pp 1072–1074. </li> <li id="cite_note-Belknap_h-72">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Belknap_h_72-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Belknap_h_72-1">b</a> Belknap (1994), p 221. </li> <li id="cite_note-inflation-US-73">^ <a href="#cite_ref-inflation-US_73-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-inflation-US_73-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-inflation-US_73-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-inflation-US_73-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-inflation-US_73-4">e</a> 1634–1699: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCusker1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_J._McCusker" title="John J. McCusker">McCusker, J. J.</a> (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.americanantiquarian.org/proceedings/44525121.pdf">How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States: Addenda et Corrigenda</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/American_Antiquarian_Society" title="American Antiquarian Society">American Antiquarian Society</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=How+Much+Is+That+in+Real+Money%3F+A+Historical+Price+Index+for+Use+as+a+Deflator+of+Money+Values+in+the+Economy+of+the+United+States%3A+Addenda+et+Corrigenda&rft.pub=American+Antiquarian+Society&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=McCusker&rft.aufirst=J.+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.americanantiquarian.org%2Fproceedings%2F44525121.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASmith+Act+trials+of+Communist+Party+leaders" class="Z3988"> 1700–1799: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCusker1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_J._McCusker" title="John J. McCusker">McCusker, J. J.</a> (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.americanantiquarian.org/proceedings/44517778.pdf">How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/American_Antiquarian_Society" title="American Antiquarian Society">American Antiquarian Society</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=How+Much+Is+That+in+Real+Money%3F+A+Historical+Price+Index+for+Use+as+a+Deflator+of+Money+Values+in+the+Economy+of+the+United+States&rft.pub=American+Antiquarian+Society&rft.date=1992&rft.aulast=McCusker&rft.aufirst=J.+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.americanantiquarian.org%2Fproceedings%2F44517778.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASmith+Act+trials+of+Communist+Party+leaders" class="Z3988"> 1800–present: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFederal_Reserve_Bank_of_Minneapolis" class="citation web cs1">Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.minneapolisfed.org/about-us/monetary-policy/inflation-calculator/consumer-price-index-1800-">"Consumer Price Index (estimate) 1800–"</a>. Retrieved February 29, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Consumer+Price+Index+%28estimate%29+1800%E2%80%93&rft.au=Federal+Reserve+Bank+of+Minneapolis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.minneapolisfed.org%2Fabout-us%2Fmonetary-policy%2Finflation-calculator%2Fconsumer-price-index-1800-&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASmith+Act+trials+of+Communist+Party+leaders" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> Morgan, p 317. </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> Belknap (1994), p 221. Morgan, p 317. Thompson quoted by Morgan. </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> Attorney <a href="/wiki/Maurice_Sugar" title="Maurice Sugar">Maurice Sugar</a>, who participated in an advisory role, was not cited for contempt. </li> <li id="cite_note-Sabin_b-77">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sabin_b_77-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sabin_b_77-1">b</a> Sabin, p 47. </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> The regulation governing the contempt sentences was Rule 42(a) of the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Rules_of_Criminal_Procedure" title="Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure">Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure</a>. Some of the contempt sentences were postponed pending appeal; for instance, Crockett served four months in an Ashland, Kentucky, Federal prison in 1952. See Smith, Jessie Carney, Notable Black American Men, Volume 1, Gale, 1998, p 236, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7876-0763-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7876-0763-0">978-0-7876-0763-0</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGeorge_D._Wilkinson1949" class="citation news cs1">George D. Wilkinson (October 19, 1949). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1949/10/19/84226378.pdf">"Letters to the Times: Communism Threat Not Ended"</a> (PDF). New York Times. Retrieved June 13, 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Letters+to+the+Times%3A+Communism+Threat+Not+Ended&rft.date=1949-10-19&rft.au=George+D.+Wilkinson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftimesmachine.nytimes.com%2Ftimesmachine%2F1949%2F10%2F19%2F84226378.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASmith+Act+trials+of+Communist+Party+leaders" class="Z3988">; letter dated October 16, 1949 </li> <li id="cite_note-NYTV-80">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NYTV_80-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-NYTV_80-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-NYTV_80-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-NYTV_80-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9C03EEDB113DE03ABC4D52DFB6678382659EDE">"Vigorous and Varied Reactions Mark Result of Communist Trial"</a>. New York Times. October 15, 1949. Retrieved June 13, 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Vigorous+and+Varied+Reactions+Mark+Result+of+Communist+Trial&rft.date=1949-10-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fquery.nytimes.com%2Fgst%2Fabstract.html%3Fres%3D9C03EEDB113DE03ABC4D52DFB6678382659EDE&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASmith+Act+trials+of+Communist+Party+leaders" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMrs._D._Brouwer1949" class="citation news cs1">Mrs. D. Brouwer (October 19, 1949). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1949/10/19/84226189.pdf">"Letters to the Times: Trend Away from Democracy"</a> (PDF). New York Times. Retrieved June 13, 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Letters+to+the+Times%3A+Trend+Away+from+Democracy&rft.date=1949-10-19&rft.au=Mrs.+D.+Brouwer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftimesmachine.nytimes.com%2Ftimesmachine%2F1949%2F10%2F19%2F84226189.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASmith+Act+trials+of+Communist+Party+leaders" class="Z3988">; letter written October 14, 1949 </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavid_D._Driscoll1949" class="citation news cs1">David D. Driscoll (October 19, 1949). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1949/10/19/84226376.pdf">"Letters to the Times: Political Statutes Queried"</a> (PDF). New York Times. Retrieved June 13, 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Letters+to+the+Times%3A+Political+Statutes+Queried&rft.date=1949-10-19&rft.au=David+D.+Driscoll&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftimesmachine.nytimes.com%2Ftimesmachine%2F1949%2F10%2F19%2F84226376.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASmith+Act+trials+of+Communist+Party+leaders" class="Z3988">; letter written October 16, 1949 </li> <li id="cite_note-VAA-83">^ <a href="#cite_ref-VAA_83-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-VAA_83-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1949/10/16/archives/verdict-assailed-abroad-communist-papers-in-moscow-london-paris.html">"Verdict Assailed Abroad"</a>. New York Times. October 16, 1949. Retrieved 3 December 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Verdict+Assailed+Abroad&rft.date=1949-10-16&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1949%2F10%2F16%2Farchives%2Fverdict-assailed-abroad-communist-papers-in-moscow-london-paris.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASmith+Act+trials+of+Communist+Party+leaders" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fjc.gov/servlet/nGetInfo?jid=1553">McGohey, John F. X.</a>", Biographical Directory of Federal Judges, Federal Judicial Center. Retrieved February 20, 2012. </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> Belknap (1994) p 221 (50,000 letters). Oakes, p 1460 ("national hero"). </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061206024704/http://www.time.com/time/covers/0%2C16641%2C19491024%2C00.html">Time, October 24, 1949</a>. Retrieved January 31, 2012. </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a> Oakes, p 1460. Medina chose to not run for governor. </li> <li id="cite_note-MedObit-88">^ <a href="#cite_ref-MedObit_88-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MedObit_88-1">b</a> Smith, J. Y., "Harold R. Medina, 102, Dies; Ran 1949 Conspiracy Trial", The Washington Post, March 17, 1990. Sabin, p 79 (Cold War in Dennis case). </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> Belknap (1977), p 123. </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> Associated Press, "Justices Uphold Red Conviction", Spokesman-Review, March 28, 1950. The conviction was upheld in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/339/162/">Dennis v. United States, 339 U.S. 162 (1950)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Belknap_j-91">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Belknap_j_91-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Belknap_j_91-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Belknap_j_91-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Belknap_j_91-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Belknap_j_91-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Belknap_j_91-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Belknap_j_91-6">g</a> Belknap (1994), pp 224–225. </li> <li id="cite_note-m2567-92">^ <a href="#cite_ref-m2567_92-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-m2567_92-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-m2567_92-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-m2567_92-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-m2567_92-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-m2567_92-5">f</a> Martelle, pp 256–257. </li> <li id="cite_note-ColdWar-93">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ColdWar_93-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ColdWar_93-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ColdWar_93-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ColdWar_93-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ColdWar_93-4">e</a> Gregory, Ross, Cold War America, 1946 to 1990, Infobase Publishing, 2003, pp 48–53, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4381-0798-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4381-0798-1">978-1-4381-0798-1</a>. Kort, Michael, The Columbia Guide to the Cold War, Columbia University Press, 2001, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-10773-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-231-10773-0">978-0-231-10773-0</a>. Walker, Martin, The Cold War: a History, Macmillan, 1995, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8050-3454-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8050-3454-7">978-0-8050-3454-7</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/minute/Communists_In_Government_Service.htm">"Communists in Government Service, McCarthy Says"</a>. United States Senate History Website. Retrieved March 9, 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Communists+in+Government+Service%2C+McCarthy+Says&rft.pub=United+States+Senate+History+Website&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.senate.gov%2Fartandhistory%2Fhistory%2Fminute%2FCommunists_In_Government_Service.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASmith+Act+trials+of+Communist+Party+leaders" class="Z3988"> McCarthy made the claim in <a href="/wiki/Joseph_McCarthy#"Enemies_within"" title="Joseph McCarthy">The Wheeling speech</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FBItestify-95">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FBItestify_95-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FBItestify_95-1">b</a> Sabin, p 56. See also Fast, Howard, "The Big Finger", Masses & Mainstream, March, 1950, pp 62–68. </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> Sabin, p 56 (200,000 figure). Navasky, p 26 (32,000 figure). </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> Heale, M. J., American Anticommunism: Combating the Enemy Within, 1830–1970, JHU Press, 1990, p 162, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-4051-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-4051-7">978-0-8018-4051-7</a>. Hoover quoted by Heale. Sabin, p 56. </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> Sabin, p 60. </li> <li id="cite_note-Belknap_2005,_pp_258–259-99">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Belknap_2005,_pp_258–259_99-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Belknap_2005,_pp_258–259_99-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Belknap_2005,_pp_258–259_99-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Belknap_2005,_pp_258–259_99-3">d</a> Belknap (2005), pp 258–259. </li> <li id="cite_note-RCL-100">^ <a href="#cite_ref-RCL_100-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RCL_100-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RCL_100-2">c</a> Rabban, pp 132–134, 190–199. </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> Patterson v. Colorado, 205 U.S. 454 (1907). </li> <li id="cite_note-Killian_p1093-102">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Killian_p1093_102-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Killian_p1093_102-1">b</a> Killian, p 1093. </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> Schenck v. United States, 249 U.S. 47 (1919). </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> Rabban, pp 285–286. </li> <li id="cite_note-K60-105">^ <a href="#cite_ref-K60_105-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-K60_105-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-K60_105-2">c</a> Killian, pp 1096, 1100. Currie, David P., The Constitution in the Supreme Court: The Second Century, 1888–1986, Volume 2, University of Chicago Press, 1994, p 269, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-13112-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-13112-2">978-0-226-13112-2</a>. Konvitz, Milton Ridvad, Fundamental Liberties of a Free People: Religion, Speech, Press, Assembly, Transaction Publishers, 2003, p 304, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7658-0954-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7658-0954-4">978-0-7658-0954-4</a>. Eastland, p 47. </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> The Court would adopt the <a href="/wiki/Imminent_lawless_action" title="Imminent lawless action">imminent lawless action</a> test in 1969's <a href="/wiki/Brandenburg_v._Ohio" title="Brandenburg v. Ohio">Brandenburg v. Ohio</a>, 395 U.S. 444 (1969), which some commentators view as a modified version of the clear and present danger test. </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a> Abrams v. United States, 250 U.S. 616 (1919). The bad tendency test was also used in Frohwerk v. United States, 249 U.S. 204 (1919); Debs v. United States, 249 U.S. 211 (1919); and Schaefer v. United States, 251 U.S. 466 (1920). See Rabban, David, "Clear and Present Danger Test", in The Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States, p 183, 2005, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-517661-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-517661-2">978-0-19-517661-2</a> . </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> Killian, p. 1094. Rabban, p 346. Redish, p 102. </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> Gitlow v. New York, 268 U.S. 652 (1925). </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> Redish, p 102. Kemper, p 653. </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> Whitney v. California 274 U.S. 357 (1927). </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> Redish pp 102–104. Killian, p 1095. </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a> Stromberg v. California, 283 U.S. 359 (1931). Killian, p 1096. Another case from that era that used the bad tendency test was Fiske v. Kansas, 274 U.S. 380 (1927). </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> Thornhill v. Alabama, 310 U.S. 88 (1940). </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> Including <a href="/wiki/Cantwell_v._Connecticut" title="Cantwell v. Connecticut">Cantwell v. Connecticut</a>, 310 U.S. 296 (1940): "When clear and present danger of riot, disorder, interference with traffic upon the public streets, or other immediate threat to public safety, peace, or order appears, the power of the State to prevent or punish is obvious.… we think that, in the absence of a statute narrowly drawn to define and punish specific conduct as constituting a clear and present danger to a substantial interest of the State, the petitioner's communication, considered in the light of the constitutional guarantees, raised no such clear and present menace to public peace and order as to render him liable to conviction of the common law offense in question." And <a href="/w/index.php?title=Bridges_v._California&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bridges v. California (page does not exist)">Bridges v. California</a>, 314 U.S. 252 (1941): "And, very recently [in Thornhill] we have also suggested that 'clear and present danger' is an appropriate guide in determining the constitutionality of restrictions upon expression … What finally emerges from the 'clear and present danger' cases is a working principle that the substantive evil must be extremely serious, and the degree of imminence extremely high, before utterances can be punished." </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a> Antieu, Chester James, Commentaries on the Constitution of the United States, Wm. S. Hein Publishing, 1998, p 219, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57588-443-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57588-443-1">978-1-57588-443-1</a>. Antieu names <a href="/wiki/Feiner_v._New_York" title="Feiner v. New York">Feiner v. New York</a>, 340 U.S. 315 (1951); <a href="/wiki/Chaplinsky_v._New_Hampshire" title="Chaplinsky v. New Hampshire">Chaplinsky v. New Hampshire</a> 315 U.S. 568 (1942); and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kovacs_v._Cooper&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kovacs v. Cooper (page does not exist)">Kovacs v. Cooper</a>, 335 U.S. 77 (1949). </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a> Eastland, p 47. Killian, p 1101. American Communications Association v. Douds 339 U.S. 382 (1950). </li> <li id="cite_note-Belknap_i-118">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Belknap_i_118-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Belknap_i_118-1">b</a> Belknap (1994), p 222. </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a> Eastland, pp 96, 112–113. Sabin, p 79. O'Brien, pp 7–8. Belknap (1994), p 222. Walker, p 187. Belknap, Michal, The Vinson Court: Justices, Rulings, and Legacy, ABC-CLIO, 2004, p 109, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57607-201-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57607-201-1">978-1-57607-201-1</a>. Kemper, p 655. </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://law.justia.com/cases/federal/appellate-courts/F2/183/201/266559/">United States v. Dennis et al (183 F.2d 201)</a> Justia. Retrieved March 20, 2012. </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a> Belknap (1994), p 223. Vinson quoted by Belknap. </li> <li id="cite_note-Dennis-122">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Dennis_122-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dennis_122-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dennis_122-2">c</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/341/494/case.html">Dennis v. United States – 341 U.S. 494 (1951)</a> Justia. Retrieved March 20, 2012. </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a> Killian, p 1100. Kemper, pp 654–655. </li> <li id="cite_note-OB78-124">^ <a href="#cite_ref-OB78_124-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OB78_124-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OB78_124-2">c</a> O'Brien, pp 7–8 </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> Sabin, p 84. Black quoted by Sabin. Morgan, pp 317–318. </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a> Killian, p 1103. Eastland, p 112. </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> Associated Press, "Contempt Sentences Upheld For Six Who Defended 11 Communist Leaders", The Toledo Blade, March 11, 1952. Douglas quoted in article. Full text of Douglas' opinion is at: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/343/1/case.html">Sacher v. United States, 343 U.S. 1 (1952)</a>. Dissenting opinion. Justia. Retrieved January 30, 2012. </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a> Rule 42(a), Fed.Rules Crim.Proc., 18 U.S.C.A. </li> <li id="cite_note-Sacher-129">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sacher_129-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sacher_129-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sacher_129-2">c</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/343/1#fn2_ref">Sacher v. United States 343 U.S. 1 (1952)</a>. Retrieved March 20, 2012. </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a> From Sacher's majority opinion: "We are urged that these sentences will have an intimidating effect on the legal profession, whose members hereafter will decline to appear in trials where 'defendants are objects of hostility of those in power,' or will do so under a 'cloud of fear' which "threatens the right of the American people to be represented fearlessly and vigorously by counsel'." </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a> The appeals case was United States v. Sacher, 2 Cir., 182 F.2d 416. </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a> The initial appeal was 341 U.S. 952, 71 S.Ct. 1010, 95 L.Ed. 1374. </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/343/1/case.html">Sacher v. United States</a>. Justia. Retrieved March 20, 2012. </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a> Sabin p 59 (the 132 were in addition to the twelve from 1949). Belknap (1994) p 226 (126 of the 132 were conspiracy charges, 6 or 7 were membership clause charges). </li> <li id="cite_note-Belknap_l-135">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Belknap_l_135-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Belknap_l_135-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Belknap_l_135-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Belknap_l_135-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Belknap_l_135-4">e</a> Belknap (1994), p 225–226. </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a> Edson, Peter, "New Anti-Red Laws Requested", Lawrence Journal-World, July 15, 1954, p 4. Navasky, p 33. Belknap (1994) p 225. </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a> Other CPUSA members indicted included: <a href="/wiki/Robert_Klonsky" title="Robert Klonsky">Robert Klonsky</a> (Philadelphia); and <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Bittelman" title="Alexander Bittelman">Alexander Bittelman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Trachtenberg" title="Alexander Trachtenberg">Alexander Trachtenberg</a>, <a href="/wiki/V._J._Jerome" title="V. J. Jerome">V. J. Jerome</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Betty_Garrett" title="Betty Garrett">Betty Garrett</a> (New York). </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a> Sabin, pp 47–48. </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a> Sabin, p 48. Auerbach , p 245–248. Rabinowitz, Victor, A History of the National Lawyers Guild: 1937–1987, National Lawyers Guild Foundation, 1987, p 28. </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a> Auerbach, p 248. </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a> Auerbach, p 249. </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a> Navasky, p 37. </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a> Brown, Sarah Hart, Standing Against Dragons: Three Southern Lawyers in an Era of Fear, LSU Press, 2000, pp 21–22, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8071-2575-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8071-2575-5">978-0-8071-2575-5</a>. Navasky, p 37. </li> <li id="cite_note-S49-144">^ <a href="#cite_ref-S49_144-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-S49_144-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-S49_144-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-S49_144-3">d</a> Sabin, pp 49–50. </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a> The California defendants challenged their $50,000 bail ($573,684 in 2023 dollars) as excessively high, and won in the <a href="/wiki/Stack_v._Boyle" title="Stack v. Boyle">Stack v. Boyle</a> 342 U.S. 1 (1951) Supreme Court case. </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a> Oshinsky, David M., A Conspiracy So Immense: the World of Joe McCarthy, Oxford University Press, 2005, p 149, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-02-923490-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-02-923490-7">978-0-02-923490-7</a> (discusses Budenz's income, which includes revenue from lectures and books, as well as compensation from the government for testifying). Navasky, pp 33, 38. Sabin, pp 62–63. </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a> Starobin, p 208. Levin, p 1488. </li> <li id="cite_note-RedMonday-148"><a href="#cite_ref-RedMonday_148-0">^</a> Belknap (2001), p 869 (defines the term "Red Monday"; on that day, a companion case, <a href="/wiki/Watkins_v._United_States" title="Watkins v. United States">Watkins v. United States</a>, was also decided). Sabin, p 10. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParker2003" class="citation book cs1">Parker, Richard A. (2003). "Brandenburg v. Ohio". In Parker, Richard A. (ed.). Free Speech on Trial: Communication Perspectives on Landmark Supreme Court Decisions. University of Alabama Press. pp. 145–159. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8173-1301-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8173-1301-2"><bdi>978-0-8173-1301-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Brandenburg+v.+Ohio&rft.btitle=Free+Speech+on+Trial%3A+Communication+Perspectives+on+Landmark+Supreme+Court+Decisions&rft.pages=145-159&rft.pub=University+of+Alabama+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-8173-1301-2&rft.aulast=Parker&rft.aufirst=Richard+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASmith+Act+trials+of+Communist+Party+leaders" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/354/298/case.html">Yates v. United States, 354 U.S. 298 (1957)</a> Justia. Retrieved March 20, 2012. </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a> In a concurring opinion Justice Black wrote: "Doubtlessly, dictators have to stamp out causes and beliefs which they deem subversive to their evil regimes. But governmental suppression of causes and beliefs seems to me to be the very antithesis of what our Constitution stands for. The choice expressed in the First Amendment in favor of free expression was made against a turbulent background by men such as Jefferson, Madison, and Mason – men who believed that loyalty to the provisions of this Amendment was the best way to assure a long life for this new nation and its Government.... The First Amendment provides the only kind of security system that can preserve a free government – one that leaves the way wide open for people to favor, discuss, advocate, or incite causes and doctrines however obnoxious and antagonistic such views may be to the rest of us." – Black quoted by Mason, Alpheus Thomas, The Supreme Court from Taft to Burger, LSU Press, 1979, pp 37, 162, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8071-0469-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8071-0469-9">978-0-8071-0469-9</a>. Original decision: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/354/298/case.html">Yates v. United States, 354 U.S. 298 (1957)</a>. Justia. Retrieved February 12, 2012. </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a> Killian, p 1100. Redish pp 103–105. </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a> Patrick, John J.; Pious, Richard M., The Oxford Guide to the United States Government, Oxford University Press, 2001, pp 722–723, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-514273-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-514273-0">978-0-19-514273-0</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-BCCW-153">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BCCW_153-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BCCW_153-1">b</a> Belknap, Michal, "Communism and Cold War", in Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court, Oxford University Press, 2005, p 199, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-517661-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-517661-2">978-0-19-517661-2</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-NOTO-154">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NOTO_154-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-NOTO_154-1">b</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/367/290/case.html">Noto v. United States 367 U.S. 290 (1961)</a> Justia. Retrieved March 20, 2012. The preceding federal appeals case, which upheld the conviction, was United States v. John Francis Noto, 262 F.2d 501 (2d Cir. 1958) </li> <li id="cite_note-MRK-155">^ <a href="#cite_ref-MRK_155-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MRK_155-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MRK_155-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MRK_155-3">d</a> Konvitz, "Noto v. United States", p 697: "There must be substantial evidence, direct or circumstantial, of a call to violence 'now or in the future' that is both 'sufficiently strong and sufficiently persuasive' to lend color to the 'ambiguous theoretical material' regarding Communist party teaching ... and also substantial evidence to justify the reasonable inference that the call to violence may fairly be imputed to the party as a whole and not merely to a narrow segment of it." </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/367/290/case.html">Noto v. United States – 367 U.S. 290 (1961)</a> Justia. Retrieved March 20, 2012. </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a> Scales was initially convicted in 1955, but the sentence was overturned on appeal due to procedural mistakes by the prosecution; and he was retried in 1958. The 1957 reversal is <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?court=us&vol=355&invol=1">Scales v. U. S., 355 U.S. 1, 78 S.Ct. 9, 2 L.Ed.2d 19</a> FindLaw. Retrieved March 20, 2012. </li> <li id="cite_note-GRJ-158">^ <a href="#cite_ref-GRJ_158-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-GRJ_158-1">b</a> Goldstein, Robert Justin, <a href="/wiki/Political_Repression_in_Modern_America" title="Political Repression in Modern America">Political Repression in Modern America</a>, (<a href="/wiki/University_of_Illinois_Press" title="University of Illinois Press">University of Illinois Press</a>, 1978, 2001) p.417, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-252-06964-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-252-06964-2">978-0-252-06964-2</a>. Other CPUSA leaders, such as Noto, were convicted under the membership clause, but Scales was the only one whose conviction was not overturned on appeal. </li> <li id="cite_note-Scales-159"><a href="#cite_ref-Scales_159-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oyez.org/cases/1950-1959/1958/1958_1_2">Scales v. United States, 367 U.S. 203 (1961)</a>, Oyez. Retrieved March 20, 2012. </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a> The federal appeals case preceding the Supreme Court appeal was 260 F.2d 21 (1958). </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a> Willis, Clyde, Student's Guide to Landmark Congressional Laws on the First Amendment, Greenwood, 2002, p 47, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-31416-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-31416-2">978-0-313-31416-2</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-KSCALES-162"><a href="#cite_ref-KSCALES_162-0">^</a> Konvitz, "Scales v. United States", p 882: "Since the Communist party was considered an organization that engaged in criminal activity, the Court saw no constitutional obstacle to the prosecution of a person who actively and knowingly works in its ranks with intent to contribute to the success of its illegal objectives. Even though the evidence disclosed no advocacy for immediate overthrow of the government, the Court held that present advocacy of future action satisfied statutory and constitutional requirements no less than advocacy of immediate action." </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAri_L._Goldman2002" class="citation news cs1">Ari L. Goldman (August 7, 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2002/08/07/nyregion/junius-scales-communist-sent-to-us-prison-dies-at-82.html">"Junius Scales, Communist Sent to Prison, Dies at 82"</a>. New York Times. Retrieved June 13, 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Junius+Scales%2C+Communist+Sent+to+Prison%2C+Dies+at+82&rft.date=2002-08-07&rft.au=Ari+L.+Goldman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2002%2F08%2F07%2Fnyregion%2Fjunius-scales-communist-sent-to-us-prison-dies-at-82.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASmith+Act+trials+of+Communist+Party+leaders" class="Z3988">. See also: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1962/12/28/89514239.pdf">"Clemency for Scales"</a> (PDF). New York Times. December 28, 1962. Retrieved June 13, 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Clemency+for+Scales&rft.date=1962-12-28&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftimesmachine.nytimes.com%2Ftimesmachine%2F1962%2F12%2F28%2F89514239.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASmith+Act+trials+of+Communist+Party+leaders" class="Z3988"> and Sabin, p 60. </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a> Tate, Cindy L., Mersky, Roy M., Hartman, Gary R., "Scales v. United States", in Landmark Supreme Court Cases, Infobase Publishing, 2004, pp 428–429, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4381-1036-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4381-1036-3">978-1-4381-1036-3</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a> Walker, pp 240–242. </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a> Belknap (1994), pp 225–226. Sabin, p 60. Not all indictments led to convictions: ten were acquitted, one died, three did not go to trial due to ill health, and one had a hung jury (Belknap (1994) p 225). </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a> Wolf, Adam B., "Anti-Anarchy and Anti-Syndicalism Statutes", in Finkelman (vol 1), p 68. The provision requiring registration was revoked in 1982. See Murphy, Paul, "Alien Registration Act 54 Stat. 670 (1940)", in Encyclopedia of the American Constitution, Volume 1, Macmillan Reference USA, 2000, p 68, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-02-865582-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-02-865582-6">978-0-02-865582-6</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a> Including cases such as Konigsberg v. State Bar of California, 366 U.S. 36 (1961). Killian, pp 1101–1103. </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a> Brandenburg v. Ohio, 395 U.S. 444 (1969). </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a> Redish pp 104–106. Killian, pp 1109–1110. </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a> E.g. in cases such as Hess v. Indiana, 414 U.S. 105 (1973). Redish, p 105. Kemper, p 653. </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a> Powers, p 216. </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a> Belknap (1994), p 226. </li> <li id="cite_note-174"><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a> Martelle, p 255. </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a> Gentry, Kurt, J. Edgar Hoover: The Man and the Secrets, W. W. Norton & Company, 1991, p 442, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-02404-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-02404-3">978-0-393-02404-3</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-176"><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a> Martelle, p 255. Gates quoted by Martelle. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hrc.utexas.edu/multimedia/video/2008/wallace/gates_john_t.html">Mike Wallace interview of John Gates</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091006193327/http://www.hrc.utexas.edu/multimedia/video/2008/wallace/gates_john_t.html">Archived</a> 2009-10-06 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, January 18, 1958. University of Texas at Austin. </li> <li id="cite_note-177"><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1991/11/20/nyregion/carl-winter-imprisoned-by-us-as-communist-leader-dies-at-85.html">"Carl Winter, Imprisoned by U.S. As Communist Leader, Dies at 85"</a>. New York Times. November 20, 1991. Retrieved June 13, 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Carl+Winter%2C+Imprisoned+by+U.S.+As+Communist+Leader%2C+Dies+at+85&rft.date=1991-11-20&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1991%2F11%2F20%2Fnyregion%2Fcarl-winter-imprisoned-by-us-as-communist-leader-dies-at-85.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASmith+Act+trials+of+Communist+Party+leaders" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-178"><a href="#cite_ref-178">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Mari_Jo_Buhle" title="Mari Jo Buhle">Buhle, Mari Jo</a>, The American Radical, Psychology Press, 1994, p 202, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-90804-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-90804-7">978-0-415-90804-7</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-M254-179">^ <a href="#cite_ref-M254_179-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-M254_179-1">b</a> Martelle, p 254. </li> <li id="cite_note-180"><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a> Martelle, p 244. </li> <li id="cite_note-181"><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bulk.resource.org/courts.gov/c/F2/408/408.F2d.154.20737.html">408 F.2d 154, 132 U.S.App.D.C. 351</a> Sylvia H. Thompson, Appellant, v. Clark M. Clifford, as Secretary of Defense, et al., Appellees. Retrieved May 2, 2012. </li> <li id="cite_note-182"><a href="#cite_ref-182">^</a> Schrecker, Ellen, The Age of McCarthyism: a Brief History with Documents, Palgrave Macmillan, 2002, p 203, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-312-29425-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-312-29425-0">978-0-312-29425-0</a>. </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Smith_Act_trials_of_Communist_Party_leaders&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Auerbach, Jerold S., Unequal Justice: Lawyers and Social Change in Modern America, Oxford University Press, 1977, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-502170-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-502170-7">978-0-19-502170-7</a></li> <li>Belknap, Michal R., Cold War Political Justice: the Smith Act, the Communist Party, and American Civil Liberties, Greenwood Press, 1977, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8371-9692-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8371-9692-3">978-0-8371-9692-3</a></li> <li>Belknap, Michal R., "Foley Square Trial", in American Political Trials, (Michal Belknap, Ed.), Greenwood Publishing Group, 1994, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-275-94437-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-275-94437-7">978-0-275-94437-7</a></li> <li>Belknap, Michal R., "Cold War, Communism, and Free Speech", in Historic U.S. Court Cases: An Encyclopedia (Vol 2), (John W. Johnson, Ed.), Taylor & Francis, 2001, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-93019-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-93019-2">978-0-415-93019-2</a></li> <li>Eastland, Terry, Freedom of Expression in the Supreme Court: The Defining Cases, Rowman & Littlefield, 2000, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8476-9710-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8476-9710-6">978-0-8476-9710-6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Finkelman" title="Paul Finkelman">Finkelman, Paul</a> (Editor), Encyclopedia of American Civil Liberties (two volumes), CRC Press, 2006, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-94342-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-94342-0">978-0-415-94342-0</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Earl_Haynes" title="John Earl Haynes">Haynes, John Earl</a>, <a href="/wiki/Harvey_Klehr" title="Harvey Klehr">Klehr, Harvey</a>, Venona: Decoding Soviet Espionage in America, Yale University Press, 2000, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-08462-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-08462-7">978-0-300-08462-7</a></li> <li>Kemper, Mark, "Freedom of Speech", in Finkelman, Vol 1, p 653–655.</li> <li>Killian, Johnny H.; Costello, George; Thomas, Kenneth R., The Constitution of the United States of America: Analysis and Interpretation, Library of Congress, Government Printing Office, 2005, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-16-072379-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-16-072379-7">978-0-16-072379-7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milton_R._Konvitz" title="Milton R. Konvitz">Konvitz, Milton R.</a>, "Noto v. United States" and "Scales v. United States" in The Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States, Hall, Kermit; Ely, James; (Eds.), Oxford University Press, 2005, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-517661-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-517661-2">978-0-19-517661-2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Levin_(attorney)" title="Daniel Levin (attorney)">Levin, Daniel</a>, "Smith Act", in Finkelman, Vol 1, p 1488.</li> <li>Martelle, Scott, The Fear Within: Spies, Commies, and American Democracy on Trial, Rutgers University Press, 2011, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8135-4938-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8135-4938-5">978-0-8135-4938-5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ted_Morgan_(writer)" title="Ted Morgan (writer)">Morgan, Ted</a>, Reds: McCarthyism in Twentieth-Century America, Random House, 2004, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8129-7302-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8129-7302-0">978-0-8129-7302-0</a></li> <li>Oakes, James L., "Memorial to Harold R. Medina", Columbia Law Review, Vol. 90, No. 6 (Oct., 1990), pp 1459–1462.</li> <li>O'Brien, David M., Congress Shall Make No Law: the First Amendment, Unprotected Expression, and the Supreme Court, Rowman & Littlefield, 2010, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4422-0510-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4422-0510-9">978-1-4422-0510-9</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victor_Saul_Navasky" class="mw-redirect" title="Victor Saul Navasky">Navasky, Victor S.</a>, Naming Names, Macmillan, 2003, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8090-0183-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8090-0183-5">978-0-8090-0183-5</a></li> <li>Powers, Richard Gid, Broken: the Troubled Past and Uncertain Future of the FBI, Simon and Schuster, 2004, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-684-83371-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-684-83371-2">978-0-684-83371-2</a></li> <li>Rabban, David, Free Speech in Its Forgotten Years, Cambridge University Press, 1999, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-65537-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-65537-8">978-0-521-65537-8</a></li> <li>Redish, Martin H., The Logic of Persecution: Free Expression and the McCarthy Era, Stanford University Press, 2005, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-5593-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-5593-1">978-0-8047-5593-1</a></li> <li>Sabin, Arthur J., In Calmer Times: the Supreme Court and Red Monday, University of Pennsylvania Press, 1999, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-3507-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-3507-4">978-0-8122-3507-4</a></li> <li>Starobin, Joseph R., American Communism in Crisis, 1943–1957, University of California Press, 1975, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-02796-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-02796-1">978-0-520-02796-1</a></li> <li>Walker, Samuel, In Defense of American Liberties: A History of the ACLU, Oxford University Press, 1990, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-504539-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-504539-0">978-0-19-504539-0</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Smith_Act_trials_of_Communist_Party_leaders&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Bell, Jonathan, The Liberal State On Trial: The Cold War And American Politics In The Truman Years, Columbia University Press, 2004, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-13356-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-231-13356-2">978-0-231-13356-2</a></li> <li>Birdnow, Brian, E., Communism, Anti-communism, And the Federal Courts in Missouri, 1952–1958: The Trial of the St. Louis Five, E. Mellen Press, 2005, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7734-6101-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7734-6101-7">978-0-7734-6101-7</a></li> <li>Caute, David, The Great Fear: the Anti-Communist purge under Truman and Eisenhower, Simon and Schuster, 1978, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-671-22682-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-671-22682-4">978-0-671-22682-4</a></li> <li>McKiernan, John, "Socrates and the Smith Act: the Dennis prosecution and the trial of Socrates in 399 B.C.", Temple Political and Civil Rights Law Review, Vol. 15 (Fall, 2005), pp 65–119</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ellen_Schrecker" title="Ellen Schrecker">Schrecker, Ellen</a>, Many are the Crimes: McCarthyism in America, Princeton University Press, 1999, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-04870-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-04870-3">978-0-691-04870-3</a></li> <li>Smith, Craig R., Silencing the Opposition: How the U.S. Government Suppressed Freedom of Expression During Major Crises, SUNY Press, 2011, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4384-3519-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4384-3519-0">978-1-4384-3519-0</a></li> <li>Steinberg, Peter L., The Great "Red menace": United States Prosecution of American Communists, 1947–1952, Greenwood Press, 1984, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-23020-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-23020-2">978-0-313-23020-2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_R._Stone" title="Geoffrey R. Stone">Stone, Geoffrey R.</a>, Perilous Times: Free Speech in Wartime from the Sedition Act of 1798 to the War on Terrorism, W. W. Norton, 2004, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-05880-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-05880-2">978-0-393-05880-2</a></li></ul> Contemporary legal analyses <ul><li>Boudin, Louis B. "'Seditious Doctrines' and the 'Clear and Present Danger' Rule: Part II", Virginia Law Review, Vol. 38, No. 3 (April, 1952), pp 315–356</li> <li>Nathanson, Nathaniel, "The Communist trial and the clear-and-present-danger test", Harvard Law Review Vol. 63, No. 7 (May, 1950), pp 1167–1175</li> <li>Wormuth, Francis D., "Learned Legerdemain: A Grave but Implausible Hand", The Western Political Quarterly, Vol. 6, No. 3 (September, 1953), pp 543–558</li></ul> Selected works by Smith Act defendants <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_J._Davis_Jr." title="Benjamin J. Davis Jr.">Davis, Benjamin</a>, Communist Councilman from Harlem: Autobiographical Notes Written in a Federal Penitentiary, International Publishers Co, 1991, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7178-0680-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7178-0680-5">978-0-7178-0680-5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugene_Dennis" title="Eugene Dennis">Dennis, Eugene</a>, Ideas They Cannot Jail, International Publishers, 1950</li> <li>Dennis, Eugene, Letters from Prison, International Publishers, 1956</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Gurley_Flynn" title="Elizabeth Gurley Flynn">Flynn, Elizabeth Gurley</a>, et al., 13 Communists Speak to the Court, New Century Publishers, 1953</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Gurley_Flynn" title="Elizabeth Gurley Flynn">Flynn, Elizabeth Gurley</a>, My Life as a Political Prisoner: The Rebel Girl Becomes No. 11710, International Publishers, 2019, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7178-0772-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7178-0772-7">978-0-7178-0772-7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Z._Foster" title="William Z. Foster">Foster, William Z.</a>, History of the Communist Party of the United States, Greenwood Press, 1968, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8371-0423-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8371-0423-2">978-0-8371-0423-2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Gates" title="John Gates">Gates, John</a>, The Story of an American Communist, Nelson, 1958</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gil_Green_(politician)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gil Green (politician)">Green, Gil</a>, Cold War Fugitive: a Personal Story of the McCarthy years, International Publishers, 1984, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7178-0615-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7178-0615-7">978-0-7178-0615-7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Ray_Healey" title="Dorothy Ray Healey">Healey, Dorothy</a>; and Isserman, Maurice, California Red: A Life in the American Communist Party, University of Illinois Press, 1993, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-252-06278-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-252-06278-0">978-0-252-06278-0</a></li> <li>Lannon, Albert, Second String Red: The Life of Al Lannon, American Communist, Lexington Books, 1999, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7391-0002-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7391-0002-8">978-0-7391-0002-8</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steve_Nelson_(activist)" title="Steve Nelson (activist)">Nelson, Steve</a>, Steve Nelson, American Radical, University of Pittsburgh Press, 1992, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8229-5471-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8229-5471-2">978-0-8229-5471-2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Junius_Scales" title="Junius Scales">Scales, Junius Irving</a>, and Nickson, Richard, Cause at Heart: A Former Communist Remembers, University of Georgia Press, 2005, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8203-2785-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8203-2785-3">978-0-8203-2785-3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Williamson_(communist)" title="John Williamson (communist)">Williamson, John</a>, Dangerous Scot: the Life and Work of an American "Undesirable", International Publishers, 1969</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Winston" title="Henry Winston">Winston, Henry</a>, Africa's Struggle for Freedom, the U.S.A. and the U.S.S.R.: a selection of political analyses, New Outlook Publishers, 1972</li></ul> Selected works by prosecution witnesses <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Louis_F._Budenz" title="Louis F. Budenz">Budenz, Louis</a>, This is My Story, McGraw-Hill, 1947</li> <li>Budenz, Louis, The Techniques of Communism, Henry Regnery, 1954, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-405-09937-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-405-09937-3">978-0-405-09937-3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angela_Calomiris" title="Angela Calomiris">Calomiris, Angela</a>, Red Masquerade: Undercover for the F. B. I., Lippincott, 1950</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Philbrick" title="Herbert Philbrick">Philbrick, Herbert</a>, I Led Three Lives: Citizen, "Communist", Counterspy, Hamilton, 1952</li></ul> Documentaries <ul><li>Strange, Eric; Dugan, David, Love in the Cold War, 1991, American Experience (PBS) and Windfall Films. A documentary film about <a href="/wiki/Eugene_Dennis" title="Eugene Dennis">Eugene Dennis</a> and his wife, Peggy Dennis, during the McCarthyism era.</li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 0;column-gap:1em;align-items:baseline;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output 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.mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Communist_Party_USA" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#b3333d;color:white"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Communist_Party_USA" title="Template:Communist Party USA"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:white">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Communist_Party_USA" title="Template talk:Communist Party USA"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:white">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Communist_Party_USA" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Communist Party USA"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:white">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Communist_Party_USA" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_USA" title="Communist Party USA">Communist Party USA</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#b3333d;color:white;width:1%">Nominees</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#b3333d;color:white;width:1%">Presidential</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Z._Foster" title="William Z. Foster">William Z. Foster</a> (<a href="/wiki/1924_United_States_presidential_election" title="1924 United States presidential election">1924</a>; <a href="/wiki/1928_United_States_presidential_election" title="1928 United States presidential election">1928</a>; <a href="/wiki/1932_United_States_presidential_election" title="1932 United States presidential election">1932</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earl_Browder" title="Earl Browder">Earl Browder</a> (<a href="/wiki/1936_United_States_presidential_election" title="1936 United States presidential election">1936</a>; <a href="/wiki/1940_United_States_presidential_election" title="1940 United States presidential election">1940</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charlene_Mitchell" title="Charlene Mitchell">Charlene Mitchell</a> (<a href="/wiki/1968_United_States_presidential_election" title="1968 United States presidential election">1968</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gus_Hall" title="Gus Hall">Gus Hall</a> (<a href="/wiki/1972_United_States_presidential_election" title="1972 United States presidential election">1972</a>; <a href="/wiki/1976_United_States_presidential_election" title="1976 United States presidential election">1976</a>; <a href="/wiki/1980_United_States_presidential_election" title="1980 United States presidential election">1980</a>; <a href="/wiki/1984_United_States_presidential_election" title="1984 United States presidential election">1984</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#b3333d;color:white;width:1%">Vice Presidential</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Gitlow" title="Benjamin Gitlow">Benjamin Gitlow</a> (<a href="/wiki/1924_United_States_presidential_election" title="1924 United States presidential election">1924</a>; <a href="/wiki/1928_United_States_presidential_election" title="1928 United States presidential election">1928</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_W._Ford" title="James W. Ford">James W. Ford</a> (<a href="/wiki/1932_United_States_presidential_election" title="1932 United States presidential election">1932</a>; <a href="/wiki/1936_United_States_presidential_election" title="1936 United States presidential election">1936</a>; <a href="/wiki/1940_United_States_presidential_election" title="1940 United States presidential election">1940</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charlene_Mitchell" title="Charlene Mitchell">Mike Zagarell</a> (<a href="/wiki/1968_United_States_presidential_election" title="1968 United States presidential election">1968</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jarvis_Tyner" title="Jarvis Tyner">Jarvis Tyner</a> (<a href="/wiki/1972_United_States_presidential_election" title="1972 United States presidential election">1972</a>; <a href="/wiki/1976_United_States_presidential_election" title="1976 United States presidential election">1976</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angela_Davis" title="Angela Davis">Angela Davis</a> (<a href="/wiki/1980_United_States_presidential_election" title="1980 United States presidential election">1980</a>; <a href="/wiki/1984_United_States_presidential_election" title="1984 United States presidential election">1984</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#b3333d;color:white;width:1%">Leaders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/C._E._Ruthenberg" title="C. E. Ruthenberg">C. E. Ruthenberg</a> (1919–1920; 1922–1927)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Wagenknecht" title="Alfred Wagenknecht">Alfred Wagenknecht</a> (1919–1921)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Dirba" title="Charles Dirba">Charles Dirba</a> (1920–1921)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Shapiro_(communist)" title="Louis Shapiro (communist)">Louis Shapiro</a> (late 1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/L._E._Katterfeld" title="L. E. Katterfeld">L. E. Katterfeld</a> (1921)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Weinstone" title="William Weinstone">William Weinstone</a> (1921–1922)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jay_Lovestone" title="Jay Lovestone">Jay Lovestone</a> (1922; 1927–1929)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_P._Cannon" title="James P. Cannon">James P. Cannon</a> (1921–1922)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caleb_Harrison" title="Caleb Harrison">Caleb Harrison</a> (1921–1922)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abram_Jakira" title="Abram Jakira">Abram Jakira</a> (1922–1923)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Z._Foster" title="William Z. Foster">William Z. Foster</a> (1929–1934)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earl_Browder" title="Earl Browder">Earl Browder</a> (1934–1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugene_Dennis" title="Eugene Dennis">Eugene Dennis</a> (1945–1959)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Z._Foster" title="William Z. Foster">William Z. Foster</a> (1945–1957)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gus_Hall" title="Gus Hall">Gus Hall</a> (1959–2000)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sam_Webb_(communist)" title="Sam Webb (communist)">Sam Webb</a> (2000–2014)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Bachtell" title="John Bachtell">John Bachtell</a> (2014–2019)</li> <li>Rossana Cambron & <a href="/wiki/Joe_Sims_(politician)" title="Joe Sims (politician)">Joe Sims</a> (2019–present)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#b3333d;color:white;width:1%">Prominent members</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Ades" title="Bernard Ades">Bernard Ades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Albertson" title="William Albertson">William Albertson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Aptheker" title="Herbert Aptheker">Herbert Aptheker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Bedacht" title="Max Bedacht">Max Bedacht</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Bernard_(American_politician)" title="John Bernard (American politician)">John Bernard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Bernstein" title="Walter Bernstein">Walter Bernstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marc_Blitzstein" title="Marc Blitzstein">Marc Blitzstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ella_Reeve_Bloor" title="Ella Reeve Bloor">Ella Reeve Bloor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anne_Burlak" title="Anne Burlak">Anne Burlak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Cacchione" title="Peter Cacchione">Peter Cacchione</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_J._Davis_Jr." title="Benjamin J. Davis Jr.">Benjamin J. Davis Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shirley_Graham_Du_Bois" title="Shirley Graham Du Bois">Shirley Graham Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bella_Dodd" title="Bella Dodd">Bella Dodd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Durham" title="Richard Durham">Richard Durham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Goldman_(politician)" title="Albert Goldman (politician)">Albert Goldman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Gurley_Flynn" title="Elizabeth Gurley Flynn">Elizabeth Gurley Flynn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_Haywood" title="Harry Haywood">Harry Haywood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Ray_Healey" title="Dorothy Ray Healey">Dorothy Ray Healey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manning_Johnson" title="Manning Johnson">Manning Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oakley_C._Johnson" title="Oakley C. Johnson">Oakley C. Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudia_Jones" title="Claudia Jones">Claudia Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoinette_Konikow" title="Antoinette Konikow">Antoinette Konikow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Lightfoot" title="Claude Lightfoot">Claude Lightfoot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steve_Nelson_(activist)" title="Steve Nelson (activist)">Steve Nelson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Emil_Nygard" title="Karl Emil Nygard">Karl Emil Nygard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_L._Patterson" title="William L. Patterson">William L. Patterson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Robeson" title="Paul Robeson">Paul Robeson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tupac_Shakur" title="Tupac Shakur">Tupac Shakur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_E._Taylor_(politician)" title="Charles E. Taylor (politician)">Charles E. Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emma_Tenayuca" title="Emma Tenayuca">Emma Tenayuca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Wright_(author)" title="Richard Wright (author)">Richard Wright</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#b3333d;color:white;width:1%">Litigation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albertson_v._Subversive_Activities_Control_Board" title="Albertson v. Subversive Activities Control Board">Albertson v. Subversive Activities Control Board</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aptheker_v._Secretary_of_State" title="Aptheker v. Secretary of State">Aptheker v. Secretary of State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_v._Subversive_Activities_Control_Board" title="Communist Party v. Subversive Activities Control Board">Communist Party v. Subversive Activities Control Board</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/De_Jonge_v._Oregon" title="De Jonge v. Oregon">De Jonge v. Oregon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dennis_v._United_States" title="Dennis v. United States">Dennis v. United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kent_v._Dulles" title="Kent v. Dulles">Kent v. Dulles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keyishian_v._Board_of_Regents" title="Keyishian v. Board of Regents">Keyishian v. Board of Regents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noto_v._United_States" title="Noto v. United States">Noto v. United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scales_v._United_States" title="Scales v. United States">Scales v. United States</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Smith Act trials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watkins_v._United_States" title="Watkins v. United States">Watkins v. United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yates_v._United_States" title="Yates v. United States">Yates v. United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#b3333d;color:white;width:1%">State parties</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#b3333d;color:white;width:1%">Current</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Communist Party of Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Maryland" title="Communist Party of Maryland">Maryland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Texas" title="Communist Party of Texas">Texas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#b3333d;color:white;width:1%">Defunct</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alabama_Chapter_of_the_Communist_Party_USA" title="Alabama Chapter of the Communist Party USA">Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Hawaii" title="Communist Party of Hawaii">Hawaii</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#b3333d;color:white;width:1%">Related articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Committee_for_Spanish_Freedom" title="American Committee for Spanish Freedom">American Committee for Spanish Freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_of_Rights_socialism" title="Bill of Rights socialism">Bill of Rights socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Browderism" title="Browderism">Browderism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_Labor_Party_of_America" title="Communist Labor Party of America">Communist Labor Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English-language_press_of_the_Communist_Party_USA" title="English-language press of the Communist Party USA">English-language press</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Publishers" title="International Publishers">International Publishers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_federation" title="Language federation">Language federation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Left_Wing_Section_of_the_Socialist_Party" title="Left Wing Section of the Socialist Party">Left Wing Section of the Socialist Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lincoln_Battalion" title="Lincoln Battalion">Lincoln Battalion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Communist_Party_USA_members_who_have_held_office_in_the_United_States" title="List of Communist Party USA members who have held office in the United States">List of Communist Party USA members who have held office in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_conventions_of_the_Communist_Party_USA" title="National conventions of the Communist Party USA">National conventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_York_Workers_School" title="New York Workers School">New York Workers School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-English_press_of_the_Communist_Party_USA" title="Non-English press of the Communist Party USA">Non-English press</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_World" title="People's World">People's World</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_diaper_baby" title="Red diaper baby">Red diaper baby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/San_Francisco_Workers%27_School" title="San Francisco Workers' School">San Francisco Workers' School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Negro_Republic" title="Soviet Negro Republic">Soviet Negro Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Communist_Party_USA_and_African_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="The Communist Party USA and African Americans">Relations with African Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ware_Group" title="Ware Group">Ware Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yokinen_Show_Trial" title="Yokinen Show Trial">Yokinen Show Trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Young_Communist_League_USA" title="Young Communist League USA">Young Communist League USA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Young_Pioneers_of_America" title="Young Pioneers of America">Young Pioneers of America</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Cold_War" style=";wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Cold_War" title="Template:Cold War"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Cold_War" title="Template talk:Cold War"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Cold_War" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Cold War"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Cold_War" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact" title="Warsaw Pact">Warsaw Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ANZUS" title="ANZUS">ANZUS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Treaty_Organization" title="Central Treaty Organization">METO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia_Treaty_Organization" title="Southeast Asia Treaty Organization">SEATO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeast_Asia_Treaty_Organization" title="Northeast Asia Treaty Organization">NEATO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inter-American_Treaty_of_Reciprocal_Assistance" title="Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance">Rio Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-Aligned_Movement" title="Non-Aligned Movement">Non-Aligned Movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1940s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Morgenthau_Plan" title="Morgenthau Plan">Morgenthau Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hukbalahap_rebellion" title="Hukbalahap rebellion">Hukbalahap rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamaican_political_conflict" title="Jamaican political conflict">Jamaican political conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dekemvriana" title="Dekemvriana">Dekemvriana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guerrilla_war_in_the_Baltic_states" title="Guerrilla war in the Baltic states">Guerrilla war in the Baltic states</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Priboi" title="Operation Priboi">Operation Priboi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Jungle" title="Operation Jungle">Operation Jungle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_the_Baltic_states" title="Occupation of the Baltic states">Occupation of the Baltic states</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cursed_soldiers" title="Cursed soldiers">Cursed soldiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Unthinkable" title="Operation Unthinkable">Operation Unthinkable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gouzenko_Affair" title="Gouzenko Affair">Gouzenko Affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Division_of_Korea" title="Division of Korea">Division of Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_National_Revolution" title="Indonesian National Revolution">Indonesian National Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Vietnam_(1945%E2%80%931946)" title="War in Vietnam (1945–1946)">Operation Masterdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Beleaguer" title="Operation Beleaguer">Operation Beleaguer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Blacklist_Forty" title="Operation Blacklist Forty">Operation Blacklist Forty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran_crisis_of_1946" title="Iran crisis of 1946">Iran crisis of 1946</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_Civil_War" title="Greek Civil War">Greek Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Plan" title="Baruch Plan">Baruch Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corfu_Channel_incident" title="Corfu Channel incident">Corfu Channel incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_Straits_crisis" title="Turkish Straits crisis">Turkish Straits crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restatement_of_Policy_on_Germany" title="Restatement of Policy on Germany">Restatement of Policy on Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Indochina_War" title="First Indochina War">First Indochina War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1947_Polish_parliamentary_election" title="1947 Polish parliamentary election">1947 Polish parliamentary election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truman_Doctrine" title="Truman Doctrine">Truman Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asian_Relations_Conference" title="Asian Relations Conference">Asian Relations Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/May_1947_crises" title="May 1947 crises">May 1947 crises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partition_of_India" title="Partition of India">Partition of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Pakistani_war_of_1947%E2%80%931948" title="Indo-Pakistani war of 1947–1948">Indo-Pakistani war of 1947–1948</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_Palestine_war" title="1948 Palestine war">1947–1949 Palestine war</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1947%E2%80%931948_civil_war_in_Mandatory_Palestine" title="1947–1948 civil war in Mandatory Palestine">1947–1948 civil war in Mandatory Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_War" title="1948 Arab–Israeli War">1948 Arab–Israeli War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_Palestinian_expulsion_and_flight" title="1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight">1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marshall_Plan" title="Marshall Plan">Marshall Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comecon" title="Comecon">Comecon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_Czechoslovak_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état">1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allied_Control_Council#Incapacitation_of_the_council" title="Allied Control Council">Incapacitation of the Allied Control Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Wathbah_uprising" title="Al-Wathbah uprising">Al-Wathbah uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tito%E2%80%93Stalin_split" title="Tito–Stalin split">Tito–Stalin split</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Blockade" title="Berlin Blockade">Berlin Blockade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annexation_of_Hyderabad" title="Annexation of Hyderabad">Annexation of Hyderabad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madiun_Affair" title="Madiun Affair">Madiun Affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_betrayal" title="Western betrayal">Western betrayal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_Curtain" title="Iron Curtain">Iron Curtain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc" title="Eastern Bloc">Eastern Bloc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Bloc" title="Western Bloc">Western Bloc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Chinese Civil War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Revolution" title="Chinese Communist Revolution">Chinese Communist Revolution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayan_Emergency" title="Malayan Emergency">Malayan Emergency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_1949_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="March 1949 Syrian coup d'état">March 1949 Syrian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Valuable" title="Operation Valuable">Operation Valuable</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1950s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bamboo_curtain" title="Bamboo curtain">Bamboo curtain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/McCarthyism" title="McCarthyism">McCarthyism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Cold_War" title="Arab Cold War">Arab Cold War (1952–1979)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1952_Egyptian_revolution" title="1952 Egyptian revolution">1952 Egyptian revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Intifada_(1952)" title="Iraqi Intifada (1952)">Iraqi Intifada (1952)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mau_Mau_rebellion" title="Mau Mau rebellion">Mau Mau rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_German_uprising_of_1953" title="East German uprising of 1953">East German uprising of 1953</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1953_Iranian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1953 Iranian coup d'état">1953 Iranian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pact_of_Madrid" title="Pact of Madrid">Pact of Madrid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bricker_Amendment" title="Bricker Amendment">Bricker Amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1954_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1954 Syrian coup d'état">1954 Syrian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrov_Affair" title="Petrov Affair">Petrov Affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domino_theory" title="Domino theory">Domino theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1954_Geneva_Conference" title="1954 Geneva Conference">1954 Geneva Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1954_Guatemalan_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1954 Guatemalan coup d'état">1954 Guatemalan coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_the_Tuapse" title="Capture of the Tuapse">Capture of the Tuapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Taiwan_Strait_Crisis" title="First Taiwan Strait Crisis">First Taiwan Strait Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jebel_Akhdar_War" title="Jebel Akhdar War">Jebel Akhdar War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_War" title="Algerian War">Algerian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kashmir_Princess" title="Kashmir Princess">Kashmir Princess</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bandung_Conference" title="Bandung Conference">Bandung Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geneva_Summit_(1955)" title="Geneva Summit (1955)">Geneva Summit (1955)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyprus_Emergency" title="Cyprus Emergency">Cyprus Emergency</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/On_the_Cult_of_Personality_and_Its_Consequences" title="On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences">On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1956_Pozna%C5%84_protests" title="1956 Poznań protests">1956 Poznań protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Revolution_of_1956" title="Hungarian Revolution of 1956">Hungarian Revolution of 1956</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_October" title="Polish October">Polish October</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suez_Crisis" title="Suez Crisis">Suez Crisis</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/We_will_bury_you" title="We will bury you">We will bury you</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Gladio" title="Operation Gladio">Operation Gladio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Crisis_of_1957" title="Syrian Crisis of 1957">Syrian Crisis of 1957</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sputnik_crisis" title="Sputnik crisis">Sputnik crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ifni_War" title="Ifni War">Ifni War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/14_July_Revolution" title="14 July Revolution">Iraqi 14 July Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1958_Lebanon_crisis" title="1958 Lebanon crisis">1958 Lebanon crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Taiwan_Strait_Crisis" title="Second Taiwan Strait Crisis">Second Taiwan Strait Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1959_Mosul_uprising" title="1959 Mosul uprising">1959 Mosul uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1959_Tibetan_uprising" title="1959 Tibetan uprising">1959 Tibetan uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laotian_Civil_War" title="Laotian Civil War">Laotian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kitchen_Debate" title="Kitchen Debate">Kitchen Debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuban_Revolution" title="Cuban Revolution">Cuban Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consolidation_of_the_Cuban_Revolution" title="Consolidation of the Cuban Revolution">Consolidation of the Cuban Revolution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_split" title="Sino-Soviet split">Sino-Soviet split</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1960s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Congo_Crisis" title="Congo Crisis">Congo Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simba_rebellion" title="Simba rebellion">Simba rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1960_U-2_incident" title="1960 U-2 incident">1960 U-2 incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bay_of_Pigs_Invasion" title="Bay of Pigs Invasion">Bay of Pigs Invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1960_Turkish_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1960 Turkish coup d'état">1960 Turkish coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albanian%E2%80%93Soviet_split" title="Albanian–Soviet split">Albanian–Soviet split</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Expulsion_of_Soviets_from_Albania" title="Expulsion of Soviets from Albania">Expulsion of Soviets from Albania</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi%E2%80%93Kurdish_conflict" title="Iraqi–Kurdish conflict">Iraqi–Kurdish conflict</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Iraqi%E2%80%93Kurdish_War" title="First Iraqi–Kurdish War">First Iraqi–Kurdish War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Crisis_of_1961" title="Berlin Crisis of 1961">Berlin Crisis of 1961</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Wall" title="Berlin Wall">Berlin Wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annexation_of_Goa" title="Annexation of Goa">Annexation of Goa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papua_conflict" title="Papua conflict">Papua conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesia%E2%80%93Malaysia_confrontation" title="Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation">Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sand_War" title="Sand War">Sand War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Colonial_War" title="Portuguese Colonial War">Portuguese Colonial War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angolan_War_of_Independence" title="Angolan War of Independence">Angolan War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guinea-Bissau_War_of_Independence" title="Guinea-Bissau War of Independence">Guinea-Bissau War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozambican_War_of_Independence" title="Mozambican War of Independence">Mozambican War of Independence</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuban_Missile_Crisis" title="Cuban Missile Crisis">Cuban Missile Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/El_Porte%C3%B1azo" title="El Porteñazo">El Porteñazo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Indian_War" title="Sino-Indian War">Sino-Indian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_insurgency_in_Sarawak" title="Communist insurgency in Sarawak">Communist insurgency in Sarawak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramadan_Revolution" title="Ramadan Revolution">Ramadan Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eritrean_War_of_Independence" title="Eritrean War of Independence">Eritrean War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Yemen_civil_war" title="North Yemen civil war">North Yemen civil war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1963_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1963 Syrian coup d'état">1963 Syrian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_John_F._Kennedy" title="Assassination of John F. Kennedy">Assassination of John F. Kennedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aden_Emergency" title="Aden Emergency">Aden Emergency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cypriot_intercommunal_violence#Crisis_of_1963–1964" title="Cypriot intercommunal violence">Cyprus crisis of 1963–1964</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shifta_War" title="Shifta War">Shifta War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican_Dirty_War" title="Mexican Dirty War">Mexican Dirty War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tlatelolco_massacre" title="Tlatelolco massacre">Tlatelolco massacre</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guatemalan_Civil_War" title="Guatemalan Civil War">Guatemalan Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colombian_conflict" title="Colombian conflict">Colombian conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1964_Brazilian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1964 Brazilian coup d'état">1964 Brazilian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominican_Civil_War" title="Dominican Civil War">Dominican Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhodesian_Bush_War" title="Rhodesian Bush War">Rhodesian Bush War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_mass_killings_of_1965%E2%80%9366" title="Indonesian mass killings of 1965–66">Indonesian mass killings of 1965–1966</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_to_the_New_Order" title="Transition to the New Order">Transition to the New Order (Indonesia)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ASEAN_Declaration" title="ASEAN Declaration">ASEAN Declaration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1966_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1966 Syrian coup d'état">1966 Syrian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Revolution" title="Cultural Revolution">Cultural Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argentine_Revolution" title="Argentine Revolution">Argentine Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_Border_War" title="South African Border War">South African Border War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_DMZ_Conflict" title="Korean DMZ Conflict">Korean DMZ Conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/12-3_incident" title="12-3 incident">12-3 incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_junta" title="Greek junta">Greek junta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1967_Hong_Kong_riots" title="1967 Hong Kong riots">1967 Hong Kong riots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Years_of_Lead_(Italy)" title="Years of Lead (Italy)">Years of Lead (Italy)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Six-Day_War" title="Six-Day War">Six-Day War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_Attrition" title="War of Attrition">War of Attrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhofar_War" title="Dhofar War">Dhofar War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Wadiah_War" title="Al-Wadiah War">Al-Wadiah War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nigerian_Civil_War" title="Nigerian Civil War">Nigerian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protests_of_1968" title="Protests of 1968">Protests of 1968</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/May_68" title="May 68">May 68</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prague_Spring" title="Prague Spring">Prague Spring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USS_Pueblo_(AGER-2)#Pueblo_incident" title="USS Pueblo (AGER-2)">USS Pueblo incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1968_Polish_political_crisis" title="1968 Polish political crisis">1968 Polish political crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1968%E2%80%931971_East_Pakistan_communist_insurgency" title="1968–1971 East Pakistan communist insurgency">1968–1971 East Pakistan communist insurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_insurgency_in_Malaysia_(1968%E2%80%931989)" title="Communist insurgency in Malaysia (1968–1989)">Communist insurgency in Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact_invasion_of_Czechoslovakia" title="Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia">Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/17_July_Revolution" title="17 July Revolution">17 July Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1968_Peruvian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1968 Peruvian coup d'état">1968 Peruvian coup d'état</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_Government_of_the_Armed_Forces_of_Peru" title="Revolutionary Government of the Armed Forces of Peru">Revolutionary Government</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1969_Sudanese_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1969 Sudanese coup d'état">1969 Sudanese coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1969_Libyan_revolution" title="1969 Libyan revolution">1969 Libyan revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goulash_Communism" title="Goulash Communism">Goulash Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_border_conflict" title="Sino-Soviet border conflict">Sino-Soviet border conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_People%27s_Army_rebellion" title="New People's Army rebellion">New People's Army rebellion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1970s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%A9tente" title="Détente">Détente</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_on_the_Non-Proliferation_of_Nuclear_Weapons" title="Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons">Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_September" title="Black September">Black September</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcora_Exercise" title="Alcora Exercise">Alcora Exercise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corrective_Movement_(Syria)" title="Corrective Movement (Syria)">Corrective Movement (Syria)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Sahara_conflict" title="Western Sahara conflict">Western Sahara conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambodian_Civil_War" title="Cambodian Civil War">Cambodian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_insurgency_in_Thailand" title="Communist insurgency in Thailand">Communist insurgency in Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1970_Polish_protests" title="1970 Polish protests">1970 Polish protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koza_riot" title="Koza riot">Koza riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Realpolitik" title="Realpolitik">Realpolitik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ping-pong_diplomacy" title="Ping-pong diplomacy">Ping-pong diplomacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1971_JVP_insurrection" title="1971 JVP insurrection">1971 JVP insurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corrective_revolution_(Egypt)" title="Corrective revolution (Egypt)">Corrective revolution (Egypt)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1971_Turkish_military_memorandum" title="1971 Turkish military memorandum">1971 Turkish military memorandum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1971_Sudanese_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1971 Sudanese coup d'état">1971 Sudanese coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Power_Agreement_on_Berlin" title="Four Power Agreement on Berlin">Four Power Agreement on Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bangladesh_Liberation_War" title="Bangladesh Liberation War">Bangladesh Liberation War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1972_visit_by_Richard_Nixon_to_China" title="1972 visit by Richard Nixon to China">1972 visit by Richard Nixon to China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Yemen#Disputes_with_North_Yemen" title="South Yemen">North Yemen-South Yemen Border conflict of 1972</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Yemenite_War" title="First Yemenite War">First Yemenite War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Munich_massacre" title="Munich massacre">Munich massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1972%E2%80%931975_Bangladesh_insurgency" title="1972–1975 Bangladesh insurgency">1972–1975 Bangladesh insurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eritrean_Civil_Wars" title="Eritrean Civil Wars">Eritrean Civil Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1973_Uruguayan_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1973 Uruguayan coup d'état">1973 Uruguayan coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1973_Afghan_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1973 Afghan coup d'état">1973 Afghan coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1973_Chilean_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1973 Chilean coup d'état">1973 Chilean coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yom_Kippur_War" title="Yom Kippur War">Yom Kippur War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1973_oil_crisis" title="1973 oil crisis">1973 oil crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnation_Revolution" title="Carnation Revolution">Carnation Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_transition_to_democracy" title="Spanish transition to democracy">Spanish transition to democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metapolitefsi" title="Metapolitefsi">Metapolitefsi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_Arms_Limitation_Talks" title="Strategic Arms Limitation Talks">Strategic Arms Limitation Talks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Iraqi%E2%80%93Kurdish_War" title="Second Iraqi–Kurdish War">Second Iraqi–Kurdish War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_invasion_of_Cyprus" title="Turkish invasion of Cyprus">Turkish invasion of Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/15_August_1975_Bangladeshi_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="15 August 1975 Bangladeshi coup d'état">15 August 1975 Bangladeshi coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/3_November_1975_Bangladeshi_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="3 November 1975 Bangladeshi coup d'état">Siege of Dhaka (1975)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/7_November_1975_Bangladeshi_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="7 November 1975 Bangladeshi coup d'état">Sipahi-Janata revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angolan_Civil_War" title="Angolan Civil War">Angolan Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambodian_genocide" title="Cambodian genocide">Cambodian genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/June_1976_protests" title="June 1976 protests">June 1976 protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozambican_Civil_War" title="Mozambican Civil War">Mozambican Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oromo_conflict" title="Oromo conflict">Oromo conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ogaden_War" title="Ogaden War">Ogaden War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1978_Somali_coup_attempt" title="1978 Somali coup attempt">1978 Somali coup attempt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Sahara_War" title="Western Sahara War">Western Sahara War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Civil_War" title="Ethiopian Civil War">Ethiopian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Civil_War" title="Lebanese Civil War">Lebanese Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Albanian_split" title="Sino-Albanian split">Sino-Albanian split</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Indochina_War" title="Third Indochina War">Third Indochina War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambodian%E2%80%93Vietnamese_War" title="Cambodian–Vietnamese War">Cambodian–Vietnamese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambodian_conflict_(1979%E2%80%931998)" title="Cambodian conflict (1979–1998)">Cambodian conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Condor" title="Operation Condor">Operation Condor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dirty_War" title="Dirty War">Dirty War (Argentina)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1976_Argentine_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1976 Argentine coup d'état">1976 Argentine coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian%E2%80%93Libyan_War" title="Egyptian–Libyan War">Egyptian–Libyan War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Autumn" title="German Autumn">German Autumn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Air_Lines_Flight_902" title="Korean Air Lines Flight 902">Korean Air Lines Flight 902</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicaraguan_Revolution" title="Nicaraguan Revolution">Nicaraguan Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uganda%E2%80%93Tanzania_War" title="Uganda–Tanzania War">Uganda–Tanzania War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NDF_Rebellion" title="NDF Rebellion">NDF Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chadian%E2%80%93Libyan_War" title="Chadian–Libyan War">Chadian–Libyan War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Yemenite_War" title="Second Yemenite War">Second Yemenite War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Mosque_seizure" title="Grand Mosque seizure">Grand Mosque seizure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_revolution" title="Iranian revolution">Iranian revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saur_Revolution" title="Saur Revolution">Saur Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Vietnamese_War" title="Sino-Vietnamese War">Sino-Vietnamese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Jewel_Movement" title="New Jewel Movement">New Jewel Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1979_Herat_uprising" title="1979 Herat uprising">1979 Herat uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Days_to_the_River_Rhine" title="Seven Days to the River Rhine">Seven Days to the River Rhine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Struggle_against_political_abuse_of_psychiatry_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Struggle against political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union">Struggle against political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1980s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Salvadoran_Civil_War" title="Salvadoran Civil War">Salvadoran Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War" title="Soviet–Afghan War">Soviet–Afghan War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1980_Summer_Olympics_boycott" title="1980 Summer Olympics boycott">1980</a> and <a href="/wiki/1984_Summer_Olympics_boycott" title="1984 Summer Olympics boycott">1984 Summer Olympics boycotts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gera_Demands" title="Gera Demands">Gera Demands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peruvian_Civil_War_of_1980%E2%80%932000" title="Peruvian Civil War of 1980–2000">Peruvian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gda%C5%84sk_Agreement" title="Gdańsk Agreement">Gdańsk Agreement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solidarity_(Polish_trade_union)" title="Solidarity (Polish trade union)">Solidarity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eritrean_Civil_Wars" title="Eritrean Civil Wars">Eritrean Civil Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1980_Turkish_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1980 Turkish coup d'état">1980 Turkish coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugandan_Bush_War" title="Ugandan Bush War">Ugandan Bush War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Sidra_incident_(1981)" title="Gulf of Sidra incident (1981)">Gulf of Sidra incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martial_law_in_Poland" title="Martial law in Poland">Martial law in Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casamance_conflict" title="Casamance conflict">Casamance conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falklands_War" title="Falklands War">Falklands War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1982_Ethiopian%E2%80%93Somali_Border_War" title="1982 Ethiopian–Somali Border War">1982 Ethiopian–Somali Border War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ndogboyosoi_War" title="Ndogboyosoi War">Ndogboyosoi War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_invasion_of_Grenada" title="United States invasion of Grenada">United States invasion of Grenada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Able_Archer_83" title="Able Archer 83">Able Archer 83</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_Defense_Initiative" title="Strategic Defense Initiative">Star Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geneva_Summit_(1985)" title="Geneva Summit (1985)">1985 Geneva Summit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_War" title="Iran–Iraq War">Iran–Iraq War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_Rebellion" title="Somali Rebellion">Somali Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reykjav%C3%ADk_Summit" title="Reykjavík Summit">Reykjavík Summit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1986_Black_Sea_incident" title="1986 Black Sea incident">1986 Black Sea incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Yemen_civil_war" title="South Yemen civil war">South Yemen civil war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toyota_War" title="Toyota War">Toyota War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1987_Lieyu_massacre" title="1987 Lieyu massacre">1987 Lieyu massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Denver" title="Operation Denver">Operation Denver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1987%E2%80%931989_JVP_insurrection" title="1987–1989 JVP insurrection">1987–1989 JVP insurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lord%27s_Resistance_Army_insurgency" title="Lord's Resistance Army insurgency">Lord's Resistance Army insurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1988_Black_Sea_bumping_incident" title="1988 Black Sea bumping incident">1988 Black Sea bumping incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/8888_Uprising" title="8888 Uprising">8888 Uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Solidarity" title="History of Solidarity">Solidarity</a> (<a href="/wiki/Soviet_reaction_to_the_Polish_crisis_of_1980%E2%80%931981" title="Soviet reaction to the Polish crisis of 1980–1981">Soviet reaction</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contras" title="Contras">Contras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_American_crisis" title="Central American crisis">Central American crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_RYAN" title="Operation RYAN">Operation RYAN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Air_Lines_Flight_007" title="Korean Air Lines Flight 007">Korean Air Lines Flight 007</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People_Power_Revolution" title="People Power Revolution">People Power Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glasnost" title="Glasnost">Glasnost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perestroika" title="Perestroika">Perestroika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bougainville_conflict" title="Bougainville conflict">Bougainville conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Nagorno-Karabakh_War" title="First Nagorno-Karabakh War">First Nagorno-Karabakh War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afghan_Civil_War_(1989%E2%80%931992)" title="Afghan Civil War (1989–1992)">Afghan Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_invasion_of_Panama" title="United States invasion of Panama">United States invasion of Panama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1988_Polish_strikes" title="1988 Polish strikes">1988 Polish strikes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_Round_Table_Agreement" title="Polish Round Table Agreement">Polish Round Table Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1989_Tiananmen_Square_protests_and_massacre" title="1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre">1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1989" title="Revolutions of 1989">Revolutions of 1989</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Berlin_Wall" title="Fall of the Berlin Wall">Fall of the Berlin Wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_inner_German_border" title="Fall of the inner German border">Fall of the inner German border</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velvet_Revolution" title="Velvet Revolution">Velvet Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_revolution" title="Romanian revolution">Romanian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peaceful_Revolution" title="Peaceful Revolution">Peaceful Revolution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1990s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_Revolution_of_1990" title="Mongolian Revolution of 1990">Mongolian Revolution of 1990</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Min_Ping_Yu_No._5540_incident" title="Min Ping Yu No. 5540 incident">Min Ping Yu No. 5540 incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Gulf War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Min_Ping_Yu_No._5202" title="Min Ping Yu No. 5202">Min Ping Yu No. 5202</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_reunification" title="German reunification">German reunification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemeni_unification" title="Yemeni unification">Yemeni unification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_communism_in_Albania" title="Fall of communism in Albania">Fall of communism in Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breakup_of_Yugoslavia" title="Breakup of Yugoslavia">Breakup of Yugoslavia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">Dissolution of the Soviet Union</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1991_Soviet_coup_attempt" title="1991 Soviet coup attempt">1991 August Coup</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_Czechoslovakia" title="Dissolution of Czechoslovakia">Dissolution of Czechoslovakia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Frozen_conflict" title="Frozen conflict">Frozen conflicts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abkhazia_conflict" title="Abkhazia conflict">Abkhazia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_status_of_Taiwan" title="Political status of Taiwan">China-Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Division_of_Korea" title="Division of Korea">Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_status_of_Kosovo" title="Political status of Kosovo">Kosovo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian%E2%80%93Ossetian_conflict" title="Georgian–Ossetian conflict">South Ossetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transnistria_War" title="Transnistria War">Transnistria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Indian_border_dispute" title="Sino-Indian border dispute">Sino-Indian border dispute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Borneo_dispute" title="North Borneo dispute">North Borneo dispute</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Foreign policy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Truman_Doctrine" title="Truman Doctrine">Truman Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Containment" title="Containment">Containment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eisenhower_Doctrine" title="Eisenhower Doctrine">Eisenhower Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domino_theory" title="Domino theory">Domino theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hallstein_Doctrine" title="Hallstein Doctrine">Hallstein Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kennedy_Doctrine" title="Kennedy Doctrine">Kennedy Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peaceful_coexistence" title="Peaceful coexistence">Peaceful coexistence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ostpolitik" title="Ostpolitik">Ostpolitik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johnson_Doctrine" title="Johnson Doctrine">Johnson Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brezhnev_Doctrine" title="Brezhnev Doctrine">Brezhnev Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nixon_Doctrine" title="Nixon Doctrine">Nixon Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulbricht_Doctrine" title="Ulbricht Doctrine">Ulbricht Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carter_Doctrine" title="Carter Doctrine">Carter Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reagan_Doctrine" title="Reagan Doctrine">Reagan Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rollback" title="Rollback">Rollback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinmen_Agreement" title="Kinmen Agreement">Kinmen Agreement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Ideologies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_school_of_economics" title="Chicago school of economics">Chicago school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_the_United_States" title="Conservatism in the United States">American conservatism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keynesian_economics" title="Keynesian economics">Keynesianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">Libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monetarism" title="Monetarism">Monetarism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoclassical_economics" title="Neoclassical economics">Neoclassical economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reaganomics" title="Reaganomics">Reaganomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supply-side_economics" title="Supply-side economics">Supply-side economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_capitalism" title="Democratic capitalism">Democratic capitalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism%E2%80%93Leninism" title="Marxism–Leninism">Marxism–Leninism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Fidel_Castro" title="Politics of Fidel Castro">Castroism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurocommunism" title="Eurocommunism">Eurocommunism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guevarism" title="Guevarism">Guevarism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoxhaism" title="Hoxhaism">Hoxhaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juche" title="Juche">Juche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ho_Chi_Minh_Thought" title="Ho Chi Minh Thought">Ho Chi Minh Thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maoism" title="Maoism">Maoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trotskyism" title="Trotskyism">Trotskyism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalinism" title="Stalinism">Stalinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Titoism" title="Titoism">Titoism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-imperialism" title="Anti-imperialism">Anti-imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultranationalism" title="Ultranationalism">Ultranationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chauvinism" title="Chauvinism">Chauvinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_nationalism" title="Ethnic nationalism">Ethnic nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">Racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zionism" title="Zionism">Zionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Zionism" title="Anti-Zionism">Anti-Zionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">Fascism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Nazism" title="Neo-Nazism">Neo-Nazism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">Totalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">Authoritarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autocracy" title="Autocracy">Autocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_democracy" title="Liberal democracy">Liberal democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illiberal_democracy" title="Illiberal democracy">Illiberal democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guided_democracy" title="Guided democracy">Guided democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">Social democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third-worldism" title="Third-worldism">Third-worldism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_supremacy" title="White supremacy">White supremacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_nationalism" title="White nationalism">White nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_supremacy#White_separatism" title="White supremacy">White separatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apartheid" title="Apartheid">Apartheid</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia_Treaty_Organization" title="Southeast Asia Treaty Organization">SEATO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Treaty_Organization" title="Central Treaty Organization">METO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Economic_Community" title="European Economic Community">EEC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact" title="Warsaw Pact">Warsaw Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comecon" title="Comecon">Comecon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-Aligned_Movement" title="Non-Aligned Movement">Non-Aligned Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutral_and_Non-Aligned_European_States" title="Neutral and Non-Aligned European States">NN States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ASEAN" title="ASEAN">ASEAN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Asian_Association_for_Regional_Cooperation" title="South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation">SAARC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safari_Club" title="Safari Club">Safari Club</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Propaganda</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Pro-communist</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Active_measures" title="Active measures">Active measures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Izvestia" title="Izvestia">Izvestia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neues_Deutschland" title="Neues Deutschland">Neues Deutschland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pravda" title="Pravda">Pravda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_Moscow" title="Radio Moscow">Radio Moscow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rud%C3%A9_pr%C3%A1vo" title="Rudé právo">Rudé právo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trybuna_Ludu" title="Trybuna Ludu">Trybuna Ludu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TASS" title="TASS">TASS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Life" title="Russian Life">Soviet Life</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Pro-Western</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amerika_(magazine)" title="Amerika (magazine)">Amerika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusade_for_Freedom" title="Crusade for Freedom">Crusade for Freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paix_et_Libert%C3%A9" title="Paix et Liberté">Paix et Liberté</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_Free_Europe/Radio_Liberty" title="Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty">Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Red_Scare" title="Red Scare">Red Scare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voice_of_America" title="Voice of America">Voice of America</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Technological competition</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arms_race" title="Arms race">Arms race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_arms_race" title="Nuclear arms race">Nuclear arms race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Race" title="Space Race">Space Race</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Historians</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gar_Alperovitz" title="Gar Alperovitz">Gar Alperovitz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_A._Bailey" title="Thomas A. Bailey">Thomas A. Bailey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Beschloss" title="Michael Beschloss">Michael Beschloss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archie_Brown_(historian)" title="Archie Brown (historian)">Archie Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warren_H._Carroll" title="Warren H. Carroll">Warren H. Carroll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adrian_Cioroianu" title="Adrian Cioroianu">Adrian Cioroianu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Costello_(historian)" title="John Costello (historian)">John Costello</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Cox_(academic)" title="Michael Cox (academic)">Michael Cox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_J._Cull" title="Nicholas J. Cull">Nicholas J. Cull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Davies" title="Norman Davies">Norman Davies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willem_Drees" title="Willem Drees">Willem Drees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_D._English" title="Robert D. English">Robert D. English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Feis" title="Herbert Feis">Herbert Feis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Hugh_Ferrell" title="Robert Hugh Ferrell">Robert Hugh Ferrell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Fontaine" title="André Fontaine">André Fontaine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anneli_Ute_Gabanyi" title="Anneli Ute Gabanyi">Anneli Ute Gabanyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lewis_Gaddis" title="John Lewis Gaddis">John Lewis Gaddis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lloyd_Gardner" title="Lloyd Gardner">Lloyd Gardner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Garton_Ash" title="Timothy Garton Ash">Timothy Garton Ash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Gorodetsky" title="Gabriel Gorodetsky">Gabriel Gorodetsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Halliday" title="Fred Halliday">Fred Halliday</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jussi_Hanhim%C3%A4ki" title="Jussi Hanhimäki">Jussi Hanhimäki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Earl_Haynes" title="John Earl Haynes">John Earl Haynes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_J._Hearden" title="Patrick J. Hearden">Patrick J. Hearden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tvrtko_Jakovina" title="Tvrtko Jakovina">Tvrtko Jakovina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tony_Judt" title="Tony Judt">Tony Judt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvey_Klehr" title="Harvey Klehr">Harvey Klehr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Kolko" title="Gabriel Kolko">Gabriel Kolko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_LaFeber" title="Walter LaFeber">Walter LaFeber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Laqueur" title="Walter Laqueur">Walter Laqueur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melvyn_P._Leffler" title="Melvyn P. Leffler">Melvyn P. Leffler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geir_Lundestad" title="Geir Lundestad">Geir Lundestad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vojtech_Mastny_(historian)" title="Vojtech Mastny (historian)">Vojtech Mastny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_F._Matlock_Jr." title="Jack F. Matlock Jr.">Jack F. Matlock Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_J._McCormick" title="Thomas J. McCormick">Thomas J. McCormick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Naftali" title="Timothy Naftali">Timothy Naftali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marius_Oprea" title="Marius Oprea">Marius Oprea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_S._Painter" title="David S. Painter">David S. Painter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_B._Pickett" title="William B. Pickett">William B. Pickett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_E._Powaski" title="Ronald E. Powaski">Ronald E. Powaski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yakov_M._Rabkin" title="Yakov M. Rabkin">Yakov M. Rabkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M._E._Sarotte" title="M. E. Sarotte">M. E. Sarotte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_M._Schlesinger_Jr." title="Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr.">Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ellen_Schrecker" title="Ellen Schrecker">Ellen Schrecker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giles_Scott-Smith" title="Giles Scott-Smith">Giles Scott-Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shen_Zhihua" title="Shen Zhihua">Shen Zhihua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Snyder" title="Timothy Snyder">Timothy Snyder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Athan_Theoharis" title="Athan Theoharis">Athan Theoharis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Thorpe" title="Andrew Thorpe">Andrew Thorpe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Tism%C4%83neanu" title="Vladimir Tismăneanu">Vladimir Tismăneanu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Vaughan" title="Patrick Vaughan">Patrick Vaughan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alex_von_Tunzelmann" title="Alex von Tunzelmann">Alex von Tunzelmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odd_Arne_Westad" title="Odd Arne Westad">Odd Arne Westad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Appleman_Williams" title="William Appleman Williams">William Appleman Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Reed_Winkler" title="Jonathan Reed Winkler">Jonathan Reed Winkler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolph_Winnacker" title="Rudolph Winnacker">Rudolph Winnacker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ken_Young" title="Ken Young">Ken Young</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Espionage and intelligence</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Eastern_Bloc_agents_in_the_United_States" title="List of Eastern Bloc agents in the United States">List of Eastern Bloc agents in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_espionage_in_the_United_States" title="Soviet espionage in the United States">Soviet espionage in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_espionage_in_the_United_States" title="Russian espionage in the United States">Russian espionage in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_espionage_in_the_Soviet_Union_and_Russian_Federation" title="American espionage in the Soviet Union and Russian Federation">American espionage in the Soviet Union and Russian Federation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CIA_and_the_Cultural_Cold_War" title="CIA and the Cultural Cold War">CIA and the Cultural Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">CIA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MI5" title="MI5">MI5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MI6" title="MI6">MI6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_involvement_in_regime_change" title="United States involvement in regime change">United States involvement in regime change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_involvement_in_regime_change" title="Soviet involvement in regime change">Soviet involvement in regime change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Internal_Affairs_(Soviet_Union)" title="Ministry of Internal Affairs (Soviet Union)">MVD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/KGB" title="KGB">KGB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stasi" title="Stasi">Stasi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allied_intervention_in_the_Russian_Civil_War" title="Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War">Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="Soviet Union–United States relations">Soviet Union–United States relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Soviet_Union%E2%80%93United_States_summits" title="List of Soviet Union–United States summits">Soviet Union–United States summits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russia%E2%80%93NATO_relations" title="Russia–NATO relations">Russia–NATO relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_terror" title="War on terror">War on terror</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brinkmanship#Cold_War" title="Brinkmanship">Brinkmanship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Cold_War" title="Second Cold War">Second Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Cold_War" title="Category:Cold War">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_conflicts_related_to_the_Cold_War" title="List of conflicts related to the Cold War">List of conflicts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Cold_War" title="Timeline of the Cold War">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="United_States_First_Amendment_case_law" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:US1stAmendment" title="Template:US1stAmendment"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:US1stAmendment" title="Template talk:US1stAmendment"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:US1stAmendment" title="Special:EditPage/Template:US1stAmendment"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="United_States_First_Amendment_case_law" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">United States First Amendment</a> case law</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Establishment_Clause" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Establishment_Clause" title="Establishment Clause">Establishment Clause</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Public displays and ceremonies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marsh_v._Chambers" title="Marsh v. Chambers">Marsh v. Chambers</a> (1983)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynch_v._Donnelly" title="Lynch v. Donnelly">Lynch v. Donnelly</a> (1984)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Board_of_Trustees_of_Scarsdale_v._McCreary" title="Board of Trustees of Scarsdale v. McCreary">Board of Trustees of Scarsdale v. McCreary</a> (1985)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_of_Allegheny_v._American_Civil_Liberties_Union" title="County of Allegheny v. American Civil Liberties Union">County of Allegheny v. American Civil Liberties Union</a> (1989)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Van_Orden_v._Perry" title="Van Orden v. Perry">Van Orden v. Perry</a> (2005)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/McCreary_County_v._American_Civil_Liberties_Union" title="McCreary County v. American Civil Liberties Union">McCreary County v. American Civil Liberties Union</a> (2005)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pleasant_Grove_City_v._Summum" title="Pleasant Grove City v. Summum">Pleasant Grove City v. Summum</a> (2009)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salazar_v._Buono" title="Salazar v. Buono">Salazar v. Buono</a> (2010)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Town_of_Greece_v._Galloway" title="Town of Greece v. Galloway">Town of Greece v. Galloway</a> (2014)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Legion_v._American_Humanist_Association" title="American Legion v. American Humanist Association">American Legion v. American Humanist Association</a> (2019)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Statutory religious exemptions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Walz_v._Tax_Commission_of_the_City_of_New_York" title="Walz v. Tax Commission of the City of New York">Walz v. Tax Comm'n of the City of New York</a> (1970)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=California_v._Grace_Brethren_Church&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="California v. Grace Brethren Church (page does not exist)">California v. Grace Brethren Church</a> (1982)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Jones_University_v._United_States" title="Bob Jones University v. United States">Bob Jones University v. United States</a> (1983)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estate_of_Thornton_v._Caldor,_Inc." title="Estate of Thornton v. Caldor, Inc.">Estate of Thornton v. Caldor, Inc.</a> (1985)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporation_of_Presiding_Bishop_of_Church_of_Jesus_Christ_of_Latter-day_Saints_v._Amos" title="Corporation of Presiding Bishop of Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints v. Amos">Corp. of Presiding Bishop v. Amos</a> (1987)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texas_Monthly,_Inc._v._Bullock" title="Texas Monthly, Inc. v. Bullock">Texas Monthly, Inc. v. Bullock</a> (1989)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/City_of_Boerne_v._Flores" title="City of Boerne v. Flores">City of Boerne v. Flores</a> (1997)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cutter_v._Wilkinson" title="Cutter v. Wilkinson">Cutter v. Wilkinson</a> (2005)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Public funding</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cochran_v._Board_of_Education&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cochran v. Board of Education (page does not exist)">Cochran v. Board of Education</a> (1930)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Everson_v._Board_of_Education" title="Everson v. Board of Education">Everson v. Board of Education</a> (1947)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flast_v._Cohen" title="Flast v. Cohen">Flast v. Cohen</a> (1968)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Board_of_Ed._of_Central_School_Dist._No._1_v._Allen&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Board of Ed. of Central School Dist. No. 1 v. Allen (page does not exist)">Board of Ed. of Central School Dist. No. 1 v. Allen</a> (1968)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lemon_v._Kurtzman" title="Lemon v. Kurtzman">Lemon v. Kurtzman</a> (1971)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tilton_v._Richardson" title="Tilton v. Richardson">Tilton v. Richardson</a> (1971)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lemon_v._Kurtzman_II&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lemon v. Kurtzman II (page does not exist)">Lemon v. Kurtzman II</a> (1973)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Levitt_v._Committee_for_Public_Education_and_Religious_Liberty&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Levitt v. Committee for Public Education and Religious Liberty (page does not exist)">Levitt v. Committee for Public Education and Religious Liberty</a> (1973)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hunt_v._McNair&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hunt v. McNair (page does not exist)">Hunt v. McNair</a> (1973)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Committee_for_Public_Education_v._Nyquist" title="Committee for Public Education v. Nyquist">Committee for Public Education v. Nyquist</a> (1973)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sloan_v._Lemon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sloan v. Lemon (page does not exist)">Sloan v. Lemon</a> (1973)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wheeler_v._Barrera&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wheeler v. Barrera (page does not exist)">Wheeler v. Barrera</a> (1974)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_Funds_for_Public_Schools_v._Marburger&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Public Funds for Public Schools v. Marburger (page does not exist)">Public Funds for Public Schools v. Marburger</a> (1974)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Meek_v._Pittenger&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Meek v. Pittenger (page does not exist)">Meek v. Pittenger</a> (1975)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roemer_v._Board_of_Public_Works_of_Maryland&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Roemer v. Board of Public Works of Maryland (page does not exist)">Roemer v. Board of Public Works of Maryland</a> (1976)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wolman_v._Walter&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wolman v. Walter (page does not exist)">Wolman v. Walter</a> (1977)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=New_York_v._Cathedral_Academy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="New York v. Cathedral Academy (page does not exist)">New York v. Cathedral Academy</a> (1977)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Committee_for_Public_Education_and_Religious_Liberty_v._Regan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Committee for Public Education and Religious Liberty v. Regan (page does not exist)">Committee for Public Education and Religious Liberty v. Regan</a> (1980)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valley_Forge_Christian_College_v._Americans_United_for_Separation_of_Church_%26_State" title="Valley Forge Christian College v. Americans United for Separation of Church & State">Valley Forge Christian College v. Americans United for Separation of Church & State</a> (1982)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mueller_v._Allen" title="Mueller v. Allen">Mueller v. Allen</a> (1983)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=School_Dist._of_Grand_Rapids_v._Ball&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="School Dist. of Grand Rapids v. Ball (page does not exist)">School Dist. of Grand Rapids v. Ball</a> (1985)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aguilar_v._Felton" title="Aguilar v. Felton">Aguilar v. Felton</a> (1985)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witters_v._Washington_Department_of_Services_for_the_Blind" title="Witters v. Washington Department of Services for the Blind">Witters v. Washington Department of Services for the Blind</a> (1986)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zobrest_v._Catalina_Foothills_School_District" title="Zobrest v. Catalina Foothills School District">Zobrest v. Catalina Foothills School District</a> (1993)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Board_of_Education_of_Kiryas_Joel_Village_School_District_v._Grumet" title="Board of Education of Kiryas Joel Village School District v. Grumet">Board of Ed. of Kiryas Joel Village School Dist. v. Grumet</a> (1994)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agostini_v._Felton" title="Agostini v. Felton">Agostini v. Felton</a> (1997)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitchell_v._Helms" title="Mitchell v. Helms">Mitchell v. Helms</a> (2000)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zelman_v._Simmons-Harris" title="Zelman v. Simmons-Harris">Zelman v. Simmons-Harris</a> (2002)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arizona_Christian_School_Tuition_Organization_v._Winn" title="Arizona Christian School Tuition Organization v. Winn">Arizona Christian Sch. Tuition Org. v. Winn</a> (2011)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trinity_Lutheran_Church_of_Columbia,_Inc._v._Comer" title="Trinity Lutheran Church of Columbia, Inc. v. Comer">Trinity Lutheran Church v. Comer</a> (2017)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Espinoza_v._Montana_Department_of_Revenue" title="Espinoza v. Montana Department of Revenue">Espinoza v. Montana Department of Revenue</a> (2020)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carson_v._Makin" title="Carson v. Makin">Carson v. Makin</a> (2022)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Religion in public schools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/McCollum_v._Board_of_Education" title="McCollum v. Board of Education">McCollum v. Board of Education</a> (1948)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zorach_v._Clauson" title="Zorach v. Clauson">Zorach v. Clauson</a> (1952)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engel_v._Vitale" title="Engel v. Vitale">Engel v. Vitale</a> (1962)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abington_School_District_v._Schempp" title="Abington School District v. Schempp">Abington School District v. Schempp</a> (1963)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epperson_v._Arkansas" title="Epperson v. Arkansas">Epperson v. Arkansas</a> (1968)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_v._Graham" title="Stone v. Graham">Stone v. Graham</a> (1980)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wallace_v._Jaffree" title="Wallace v. Jaffree">Wallace v. Jaffree</a> (1985)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edwards_v._Aguillard" title="Edwards v. Aguillard">Edwards v. Aguillard</a> (1987)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westside_Community_Board_of_Education_v._Mergens" title="Westside Community Board of Education v. Mergens">Westside Community Board of Ed. v. Mergens</a> (1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lee_v._Weisman" title="Lee v. Weisman">Lee v. Weisman</a> (1992)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santa_Fe_Independent_School_District_v._Doe" title="Santa Fe Independent School District v. Doe">Santa Fe Ind. School Dist. v. Doe</a> (2000)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elk_Grove_Unified_School_District_v._Newdow" title="Elk Grove Unified School District v. Newdow">Elk Grove Unif. School Dist. v. Newdow</a> (2004)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kennedy_v._Bremerton_School_District" title="Kennedy v. Bremerton School District">Kennedy v. Bremerton School Dist.</a> (2022)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Private religious speech</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lamb%27s_Chapel_v._Center_Moriches_Union_Free_School_District" title="Lamb's Chapel v. Center Moriches Union Free School District">Lamb's Chapel v. Center Moriches Union Free School Dist.</a> (1993)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitol_Square_Review_%26_Advisory_Board_v._Pinette" title="Capitol Square Review & Advisory Board v. Pinette">Capitol Square Review & Advisory Board v. Pinette</a> (1995)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosenberger_v._University_of_Virginia" title="Rosenberger v. University of Virginia">Rosenberger v. Univ. of Virginia</a> (1995)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Good_News_Club_v._Milford_Central_School" title="Good News Club v. Milford Central School">Good News Club v. Milford Central School</a> (2001)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shurtleff_v._City_of_Boston" title="Shurtleff v. City of Boston">Shurtleff v. City of Boston</a> (2022)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kennedy_v._Bremerton_School_District" title="Kennedy v. Bremerton School District">Kennedy v. Bremerton School Dist.</a> (2022)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Internal church affairs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Watson_v._Jones" title="Watson v. Jones">Watson v. Jones</a> (1872)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gonzalez_v._Roman_Catholic_Archbishop_of_Manila&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gonzalez v. Roman Catholic Archbishop of Manila (page does not exist)">Gonzalez v. Roman Catholic Archbishop of Manila</a> (1929)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Ballard" title="United States v. Ballard">United States v. Ballard</a> (1944)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kedroff_v._St._Nicholas_Cathedral_of_Russian_Orthodox_Church_in_North_America&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kedroff v. St. Nicholas Cathedral of Russian Orthodox Church in North America (page does not exist)">Kedroff v. St. Nicholas Cathedral</a> (1952)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kreshik_v._St._Nicholas_Cathedral&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kreshik v. St. Nicholas Cathedral (page does not exist)">Kreshik v. St. Nicholas Cathedral</a> (1960)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presbyterian_Church_v._Hull_Church" title="Presbyterian Church v. Hull Church">Presbyterian Church v. Hull Church</a> (1969)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_Eastern_Orthodox_Diocese_for_the_United_States_of_America_%26_Canada_v._Milivojevich" class="mw-redirect" title="Serbian Eastern Orthodox Diocese for the United States of America & Canada v. Milivojevich">Serbian Eastern Orthodox Diocese v. Milivojevich</a> (1976)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jones_v._Wolf&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jones v. Wolf (page does not exist)">Jones v. Wolf</a> (1979)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Archdiocese_of_San_Juan_v._Acevedo_Feliciano" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic Archdiocese of San Juan v. Acevedo Feliciano">Roman Catholic Archdiocese of San Juan v. Acevedo Feliciano</a> (2020)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Taxpayer standing</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flast_v._Cohen" title="Flast v. Cohen">Flast v. Cohen</a> (1968)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valley_Forge_Christian_College_v._Americans_United_for_Separation_of_Church_%26_State" title="Valley Forge Christian College v. Americans United for Separation of Church & State">Valley Forge Christian College v. Americans United for Separation of Church & State</a> (1982)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hein_v._Freedom_From_Religion_Foundation" title="Hein v. Freedom From Religion Foundation">Hein v. Freedom From Religion Foundation</a> (2007)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arizona_Christian_School_Tuition_Organization_v._Winn" title="Arizona Christian School Tuition Organization v. Winn">Arizona Christian Sch. Tuition Org. v. Winn</a> (2011)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Blue laws</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/McGowan_v._Maryland" title="McGowan v. Maryland">McGowan v. Maryland</a> (1961)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two_Guys_from_Harrison-Allentown,_Inc._v._McGinley" title="Two Guys from Harrison-Allentown, Inc. v. McGinley">Two Guys from Harrison-Allentown, Inc. v. McGinley</a> (1961)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Braunfeld_v._Brown" title="Braunfeld v. Brown">Braunfeld v. Brown</a> (1961)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estate_of_Thornton_v._Caldor,_Inc." title="Estate of Thornton v. Caldor, Inc.">Estate of Thornton v. Caldor, Inc.</a> (1985)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Torcaso_v._Watkins" title="Torcaso v. Watkins">Torcaso v. Watkins</a> (1961)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/McDaniel_v._Paty" title="McDaniel v. Paty">McDaniel v. Paty</a> (1978)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harris_v._McRae" title="Harris v. McRae">Harris v. McRae</a> (1980)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larkin_v._Grendel%27s_Den,_Inc." title="Larkin v. Grendel's Den, Inc.">Larkin v. Grendel's Den, Inc.</a> (1982)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Larson_v._Valente&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Larson v. Valente (page does not exist)">Larson v. Valente</a> (1982)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bowen_v._Kendrick" title="Bowen v. Kendrick">Bowen v. Kendrick</a> (1988)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Swaggart_Ministries_v._Board_of_Equalization&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Swaggart Ministries v. Board of Equalization (page does not exist)">Swaggart Ministries v. Board of Equalization</a> (1989)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Board_of_Education_of_Kiryas_Joel_Village_School_District_v._Grumet" title="Board of Education of Kiryas Joel Village School District v. Grumet">Board of Ed. of Kiryas Joel Village School Dist. v. Grumet</a> (1994)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trump_v._Hawaii" title="Trump v. Hawaii">Trump v. Hawaii</a> (2018)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Free_Exercise_Clause" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Free_Exercise_Clause" title="Free Exercise Clause">Free Exercise Clause</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reynolds_v._United_States" title="Reynolds v. United States">Reynolds v. United States</a> (1879)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Davis_v._Beason" title="Davis v. Beason">Davis v. Beason</a> (1890)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cantwell_v._Connecticut" title="Cantwell v. Connecticut">Cantwell v. Connecticut</a> (1940)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minersville_School_District_v._Gobitis" title="Minersville School District v. Gobitis">Minersville School District v. Gobitis</a> (1940)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamison_v._Texas" title="Jamison v. Texas">Jamison v. Texas</a> (1943)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murdock_v._Pennsylvania" title="Murdock v. Pennsylvania">Murdock v. Pennsylvania</a> (1943)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Ballard" title="United States v. Ballard">United States v. Ballard</a> (1944)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tucker_v._Texas" title="Tucker v. Texas">Tucker v. Texas</a> (1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niemotko_v._Maryland" title="Niemotko v. Maryland">Niemotko v. Maryland</a> (1951)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kunz_v._New_York" title="Kunz v. New York">Kunz v. New York</a> (1951)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fowler_v._Rhode_Island" title="Fowler v. Rhode Island">Fowler v. Rhode Island</a> (1953)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Braunfeld_v._Brown" title="Braunfeld v. Brown">Braunfeld v. Brown</a> (1961)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallagher_v._Crown_Kosher_Super_Market_of_Massachusetts,_Inc." title="Gallagher v. Crown Kosher Super Market of Massachusetts, Inc.">Gallagher v. Crown Kosher Super Market of Massachusetts, Inc.</a> (1961)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torcaso_v._Watkins" title="Torcaso v. Watkins">Torcaso v. Watkins</a> (1961)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sherbert_v._Verner" title="Sherbert v. Verner">Sherbert v. Verner</a> (1963)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cruz_v._Beto" title="Cruz v. Beto">Cruz v. Beto</a> (1972)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wisconsin_v._Yoder" title="Wisconsin v. Yoder">Wisconsin v. Yoder</a> (1972)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/McDaniel_v._Paty" title="McDaniel v. Paty">McDaniel v. Paty</a> (1978)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heffron_v._International_Society_for_Krishna_Consciousness,_Inc.&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Heffron v. International Society for Krishna Consciousness, Inc. (page does not exist)">Heffron v. International Society for Krishna Consciousness, Inc.</a> (1981)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_v._Review_Board_of_the_Indiana_Employment_Security_Division" title="Thomas v. Review Board of the Indiana Employment Security Division">Thomas v. Review Board</a> (1981)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Lee_(1982)" title="United States v. Lee (1982)">United States v. Lee</a> (1982)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Jones_University_v._United_States" title="Bob Jones University v. United States">Bob Jones University v. United States</a> (1983)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bowen_v._Roy" title="Bowen v. Roy">Bowen v. Roy</a> (1986)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goldman_v._Weinberger" title="Goldman v. Weinberger">Goldman v. Weinberger</a> (1986)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/O%27Lone_v._Estate_of_Shabazz" title="O'Lone v. Estate of Shabazz">O'Lone v. Estate of Shabazz</a> (1987)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Frazee_v._Illinois_Department_of_Employment_Security&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Frazee v. Illinois Department of Employment Security (page does not exist)">Frazee v. Illinois Department of Employment Security</a> (1989)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Swaggart_Ministries_v._Board_of_Equalization&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Swaggart Ministries v. Board of Equalization (page does not exist)">Swaggart Ministries v. Board of Equalization</a> (1989)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Employment_Division_v._Smith" title="Employment Division v. Smith">Employment Division v. Smith</a> (1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_Lukumi_Babalu_Aye_v._City_of_Hialeah" title="Church of the Lukumi Babalu Aye v. City of Hialeah">Church of the Lukumi Babalu Aye v. City of Hialeah</a> (1993)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watchtower_Bible_%26_Tract_Society_of_New_York,_Inc._v._Village_of_Stratton" title="Watchtower Bible & Tract Society of New York, Inc. v. Village of Stratton">Watchtower Society v. Village of Stratton</a> (2002)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masterpiece_Cakeshop_v._Colorado_Civil_Rights_Commission" title="Masterpiece Cakeshop v. Colorado Civil Rights Commission">Masterpiece Cakeshop v. Colorado Civil Rights Commission</a> (2018)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Diocese_of_Brooklyn_v._Cuomo" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic Diocese of Brooklyn v. Cuomo">Roman Catholic Diocese of Brooklyn v. Cuomo</a> (2020)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tandon_v._Newsom" class="mw-redirect" title="Tandon v. Newsom">Tandon v. Newsom</a> (2021)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fulton_v._City_of_Philadelphia" title="Fulton v. City of Philadelphia">Fulton v. City of Philadelphia</a> (2021)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kennedy_v._Bremerton_School_District" title="Kennedy v. Bremerton School District">Kennedy v. Bremerton School Dist.</a> (2022)</li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Exclusion of religion from public benefits</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Locke_v._Davey" title="Locke v. Davey">Locke v. Davey</a> (2004)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trinity_Lutheran_Church_of_Columbia,_Inc._v._Comer" title="Trinity Lutheran Church of Columbia, Inc. v. Comer">Trinity Lutheran Church v. Comer</a> (2017)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Espinoza_v._Montana_Department_of_Revenue" title="Espinoza v. Montana Department of Revenue">Espinoza v. Montana Department of Revenue</a> (2020)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carson_v._Makin" title="Carson v. Makin">Carson v. Makin</a> (2022)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ministerial_exception" title="Ministerial exception">Ministerial exception</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/NLRB_v._Catholic_Bishop_of_Chicago" title="NLRB v. Catholic Bishop of Chicago">NLRB v. Catholic Bishop of Chicago</a> (1979)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hosanna-Tabor_Evangelical_Lutheran_Church_%26_School_v._Equal_Employment_Opportunity_Commission" title="Hosanna-Tabor Evangelical Lutheran Church & School v. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission">Hosanna-Tabor v. EEOC</a> (2012)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Our_Lady_of_Guadalupe_School_v._Morrissey-Berru" title="Our Lady of Guadalupe School v. Morrissey-Berru">Our Lady of Guadalupe School v. Morrissey-Berru</a> (2020)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Statutory religious exemptions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religious_Freedom_Restoration_Act" title="Religious Freedom Restoration Act">RFRA</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gonzales_v._O_Centro_Esp%C3%ADrita_Beneficente_Uni%C3%A3o_do_Vegetal" title="Gonzales v. O Centro Espírita Beneficente União do Vegetal">Gonzales v. O Centro Espírita Beneficente União do Vegetal</a> (2006)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burwell_v._Hobby_Lobby_Stores,_Inc." title="Burwell v. Hobby Lobby Stores, Inc.">Burwell v. Hobby Lobby Stores, Inc.</a> (2014)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zubik_v._Burwell" title="Zubik v. Burwell">Zubik v. Burwell</a> (2016)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Sisters_of_the_Poor_Saints_Peter_and_Paul_Home_v._Pennsylvania" title="Little Sisters of the Poor Saints Peter and Paul Home v. Pennsylvania">Little Sisters of the Poor Saints Peter and Paul Home v. Pennsylvania</a> (2020)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanzin_v._Tanvir" title="Tanzin v. Tanvir">Tanzin v. Tanvir</a> (2020)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religious_Land_Use_and_Institutionalized_Persons_Act" title="Religious Land Use and Institutionalized Persons Act">RLUIPA</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sossamon_v._Texas" title="Sossamon v. Texas">Sossamon v. Texas</a> (2011)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holt_v._Hobbs" title="Holt v. Hobbs">Holt v. Hobbs</a> (2015)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramirez_v._Collier" title="Ramirez v. Collier">Ramirez v. Collier</a> (2022)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Freedom_of_speech_(portal)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech_in_the_United_States" title="Freedom of speech in the United States">Freedom of speech</a> (<a href="/wiki/Portal:Freedom_of_speech" title="Portal:Freedom of speech">portal</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/United_States_free_speech_exceptions" title="United States free speech exceptions">Unprotected speech</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Incitement" title="Incitement">Incitement</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sedition" title="Sedition">sedition</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alien_and_Sedition_Acts" title="Alien and Sedition Acts">Alien and Sedition Acts</a> (1798)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masses_Publishing_Co._v._Patten" title="Masses Publishing Co. v. Patten">Masses Publishing Co. v. Patten</a> (S.D.N.Y. 1917)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schenck_v._United_States" title="Schenck v. United States">Schenck v. United States</a> (1919)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debs_v._United_States" title="Debs v. United States">Debs v. United States</a> (1919)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abrams_v._United_States" title="Abrams v. United States">Abrams v. United States</a> (1919)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gitlow_v._New_York" title="Gitlow v. New York">Gitlow v. New York</a> (1925)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whitney_v._California" title="Whitney v. California">Whitney v. California</a> (1927)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiske_v._Kansas" title="Fiske v. Kansas">Fiske v. Kansas</a> (1927)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dennis_v._United_States" title="Dennis v. United States">Dennis v. United States</a> (1951)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_v._Subversive_Activities_Control_Board" title="Communist Party v. Subversive Activities Control Board">Communist Party v. Subversive Activities Control Bd.</a> (1955; 1961)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yates_v._United_States" title="Yates v. United States">Yates v. United States</a> (1957, <a href="/wiki/Clear_and_present_danger" title="Clear and present danger">clear and present danger</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bond_v._Floyd" title="Bond v. Floyd">Bond v. Floyd</a> (1966)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brandenburg_v._Ohio" title="Brandenburg v. Ohio">Brandenburg v. Ohio</a> (1969, <a href="/wiki/Imminent_lawless_action" title="Imminent lawless action">imminent lawless action</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hess_v._Indiana" title="Hess v. Indiana">Hess v. Indiana</a> (1973)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/United_States_defamation_law" title="United States defamation law">Defamation</a> and <a href="/wiki/False_statements_of_fact" title="False statements of fact">false speech</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_York_Times_Co._v._Sullivan" title="New York Times Co. v. Sullivan">New York Times Co. v. Sullivan</a> (1964)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hustler_Magazine_v._Falwell" title="Hustler Magazine v. Falwell">Hustler Magazine v. Falwell</a> (1988)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Alvarez" title="United States v. Alvarez">United States v. Alvarez</a> (2012)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susan_B._Anthony_List_v._Driehaus" title="Susan B. Anthony List v. Driehaus">Susan B. Anthony List v. Driehaus</a> (2014)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Fighting_words" title="Fighting words">Fighting words</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Heckler%27s_veto" title="Heckler's veto">heckler's veto</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cantwell_v._Connecticut" title="Cantwell v. Connecticut">Cantwell v. Connecticut</a> (1940)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaplinsky_v._New_Hampshire" title="Chaplinsky v. New Hampshire">Chaplinsky v. New Hampshire</a> (1942)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terminiello_v._City_of_Chicago" title="Terminiello v. City of Chicago">Terminiello v. City of Chicago</a> (1949)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feiner_v._New_York" title="Feiner v. New York">Feiner v. New York</a> (1951)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregory_v._City_of_Chicago" title="Gregory v. City of Chicago">Gregory v. City of Chicago</a> (1969)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cohen_v._California" title="Cohen v. California">Cohen v. California</a> (1971)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Socialist_Party_of_America_v._Village_of_Skokie" title="National Socialist Party of America v. Village of Skokie">Nat'l Socialist Party v. Village of Skokie</a> (1977)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/R.A.V._v._City_of_St._Paul" title="R.A.V. v. City of St. Paul">R.A.V. v. City of St. Paul</a> (1992)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snyder_v._Phelps" title="Snyder v. Phelps">Snyder v. Phelps</a> (2011)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/True_threat" title="True threat">True threats</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Watts_v._United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Watts v. United States">Watts v. United States</a> (1969)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_v._Black" title="Virginia v. Black">Virginia v. Black</a> (2003)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elonis_v._United_States" title="Elonis v. United States">Elonis v. United States</a> (2015)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterman_v._Colorado" title="Counterman v. Colorado">Counterman v. Colorado</a> (2023)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/United_States_obscenity_law" title="United States obscenity law">Obscenity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rosen_v._United_States" title="Rosen v. United States">Rosen v. United States</a> (1896)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._One_Book_Called_Ulysses" title="United States v. One Book Called Ulysses">United States v. One Book Called Ulysses</a> (S.D.N.Y. 1933)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roth_v._United_States" title="Roth v. United States">Roth v. United States</a> (1957)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/One,_Inc._v._Olesen" title="One, Inc. v. Olesen">One, Inc. v. Olesen</a> (1958)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smith_v._California" title="Smith v. California">Smith v. California</a> (1959)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_v._Search_Warrant" title="Marcus v. Search Warrant">Marcus v. Search Warrant</a> (1961)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/MANual_Enterprises,_Inc._v._Day" class="mw-redirect" title="MANual Enterprises, Inc. v. Day">MANual Enterprises, Inc. v. Day</a> (1962)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacobellis_v._Ohio" title="Jacobellis v. Ohio">Jacobellis v. Ohio</a> (1964)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantity_of_Books_v._Kansas" title="Quantity of Books v. Kansas">Quantity of Books v. Kansas</a> (1964)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ginzburg_v._United_States" title="Ginzburg v. United States">Ginzburg v. United States</a> (1966)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memoirs_v._Massachusetts" title="Memoirs v. Massachusetts">Memoirs v. Massachusetts</a> (1966)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redrup_v._New_York" title="Redrup v. New York">Redrup v. New York</a> (1967)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ginsberg_v._New_York" title="Ginsberg v. New York">Ginsberg v. New York</a> (1968)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanley_v._Georgia" title="Stanley v. Georgia">Stanley v. Georgia</a> (1969)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Thirty-seven_Photographs" title="United States v. Thirty-seven Photographs">United States v. Thirty-seven Photographs</a> (1971)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kois_v._Wisconsin" title="Kois v. Wisconsin">Kois v. Wisconsin</a> (1972)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miller_v._California" title="Miller v. California">Miller v. California</a> (1973)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paris_Adult_Theatre_I_v._Slaton" title="Paris Adult Theatre I v. Slaton">Paris Adult Theatre I v. Slaton</a> (1973)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._12_200-ft._Reels_of_Film" title="United States v. 12 200-ft. Reels of Film">United States v. 12 200-ft. Reels of Film</a> (1973)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jenkins_v._Georgia" title="Jenkins v. Georgia">Jenkins v. Georgia</a> (1974)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Southeastern_Promotions,_Ltd._v._Conrad&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Southeastern Promotions, Ltd. v. Conrad (page does not exist)">Southeastern Promotions, Ltd. v. Conrad</a> (1975)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erznoznik_v._City_of_Jacksonville" title="Erznoznik v. City of Jacksonville">Erznoznik v. City of Jacksonville</a> (1975)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Young_v._American_Mini_Theatres,_Inc." title="Young v. American Mini Theatres, Inc.">Young v. American Mini Theatres, Inc.</a> (1976)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vance_v._Universal_Amusement_Co.,_Inc.&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Vance v. Universal Amusement Co., Inc. (page does not exist)">Vance v. Universal Amusement Co., Inc.</a> (1980)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Booksellers_Ass%27n,_Inc._v._Hudnut" title="American Booksellers Ass'n, Inc. v. Hudnut">American Booksellers Ass'n, Inc. v. Hudnut</a> (7th Cir. 1985)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/People_v._Freeman" title="People v. Freeman">People v. Freeman</a> (Cal. 1988)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._X-Citement_Video,_Inc." title="United States v. X-Citement Video, Inc.">United States v. X-Citement Video, Inc.</a> (1994)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reno_v._American_Civil_Liberties_Union" title="Reno v. American Civil Liberties Union">Reno v. ACLU</a> (1997)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Playboy_Entertainment_Group,_Inc." title="United States v. Playboy Entertainment Group, Inc.">United States v. Playboy Entertainment Group, Inc.</a> (2000)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/City_of_Los_Angeles_v._Alameda_Books,_Inc." title="City of Los Angeles v. Alameda Books, Inc.">City of Los Angeles v. Alameda Books, Inc.</a> (2002)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashcroft_v._American_Civil_Liberties_Union" title="Ashcroft v. American Civil Liberties Union">Ashcroft v. ACLU I</a> (2002)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._American_Library_Ass%27n" title="United States v. American Library Ass'n">United States v. American Library Ass'n</a> (2003)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashcroft_v._American_Civil_Liberties_Union#Second_Opinion_of_the_Court" title="Ashcroft v. American Civil Liberties Union">Ashcroft v. ACLU II</a> (2004)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitke_v._Gonzales" title="Nitke v. Gonzales">Nitke v. Gonzales</a> (S.D.N.Y. 2005)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Williams_(2008)" title="United States v. Williams (2008)">United States v. Williams</a> (2008)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Booksellers_Foundation_for_Free_Expression_v._Strickland" title="American Booksellers Foundation for Free Expression v. Strickland">American Booksellers Foundation for Free Expression v. Strickland</a> (6th Cir. 2009)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Kilbride" title="United States v. Kilbride">United States v. Kilbride</a> (9th Cir. 2009)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Stevens" title="United States v. Stevens">United States v. Stevens</a> (2010)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Entertainment_Merchants_Association" title="Brown v. Entertainment Merchants Association">Brown v. Entertainment Merchants Ass'n</a> (2011)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/FCC_v._Fox_Television_Stations,_Inc._(2012)" title="FCC v. Fox Television Stations, Inc. (2012)">FCC v. Fox Television Stations, Inc.</a> (2012)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Speech_Coalition_v._Paxton" title="Free Speech Coalition v. Paxton">Free Speech Coalition v. Paxton</a> (2025)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Speech integral to criminal conduct</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_York_v._Ferber" title="New York v. Ferber">New York v. Ferber</a> (1982)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osborne_v._Ohio" title="Osborne v. Ohio">Osborne v. Ohio</a> (1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashcroft_v._Free_Speech_Coalition" title="Ashcroft v. Free Speech Coalition">Ashcroft v. Free Speech Coalition</a> (2002)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Hansen" title="United States v. Hansen">United States v. Hansen</a> (2023)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Strict_scrutiny" title="Strict scrutiny">Strict scrutiny</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Holder_v._Humanitarian_Law_Project" title="Holder v. Humanitarian Law Project">Holder v. Humanitarian Law Project</a> (2010)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Williams-Yulee_v._Florida_Bar" title="Williams-Yulee v. Florida Bar">Williams-Yulee v. Florida Bar</a> (2015)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Overbreadth_doctrine" title="Overbreadth doctrine">Overbreadth</a> <a href="/wiki/Vagueness_doctrine" title="Vagueness doctrine">Vagueness</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Smith_v._Goguen" title="Smith v. Goguen">Smith v. Goguen</a> (1974)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Board_of_Airport_Commissioners_of_Los_Angeles_v._Jews_for_Jesus,_Inc." title="Board of Airport Commissioners of Los Angeles v. Jews for Jesus, Inc.">Board of Airport Commissioners v. Jews for Jesus</a> (1987)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minnesota_Voters_Alliance_v._Mansky" title="Minnesota Voters Alliance v. Mansky">Minnesota Voters Alliance v. Mansky</a> (2018)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Symbolic_speech" title="Symbolic speech">Symbolic speech</a> versus conduct</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stromberg_v._California" title="Stromberg v. California">Stromberg v. California</a> (1931)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._O%27Brien" title="United States v. O'Brien">United States v. O'Brien</a> (1968)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cohen_v._California" title="Cohen v. California">Cohen v. California</a> (1971)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spence_v._Washington" title="Spence v. Washington">Spence v. Washington</a> (1974)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clark_v._Community_for_Creative_Non-Violence" title="Clark v. Community for Creative Non-Violence">Clark v. Community for Creative Non-Violence</a> (1984)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dallas_v._Stanglin" title="Dallas v. Stanglin">Dallas v. Stanglin</a> (1989)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texas_v._Johnson" title="Texas v. Johnson">Texas v. Johnson</a> (1989)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Eichman" title="United States v. Eichman">United States v. Eichman</a> (1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barnes_v._Glen_Theatre,_Inc." title="Barnes v. Glen Theatre, Inc.">Barnes v. Glen Theatre</a> (1991)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/City_of_Erie_v._Pap%27s_A._M." title="City of Erie v. Pap's A. M.">City of Erie v. Pap's A. M.</a> (2000)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_v._Black" title="Virginia v. Black">Virginia v. Black</a> (2003)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Content-based restrictions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lamont_v._Postmaster_General" title="Lamont v. Postmaster General">Lamont v. Postmaster General</a> (1965)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metromedia,_Inc._v._San_Diego" title="Metromedia, Inc. v. San Diego">Metromedia, Inc. v. San Diego</a> (1981)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boos_v._Barry" title="Boos v. Barry">Boos v. Barry</a> (1988)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Butterworth_v._Smith&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Butterworth v. Smith (page does not exist)">Butterworth v. Smith</a> (1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simon_%26_Schuster,_Inc._v._Crime_Victims_Board" title="Simon & Schuster, Inc. v. Crime Victims Board">Simon & Schuster, Inc. v. Crime Victims Board</a> (1991)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/R.A.V._v._City_of_St._Paul" title="R.A.V. v. City of St. Paul">R.A.V. v. City of St. Paul</a> (1992)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reed_v._Town_of_Gilbert" title="Reed v. Town of Gilbert">Reed v. Town of Gilbert</a> (2015)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barr_v._American_Assn._of_Political_Consultants,_Inc." title="Barr v. American Assn. of Political Consultants, Inc.">Barr v. American Association of Political Consultants</a> (2020)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/City_of_Austin_v._Reagan_National_Advertising_of_Austin,_LLC" title="City of Austin v. Reagan National Advertising of Austin, LLC">City of Austin v. Reagan National Advertising of Austin, LLC</a> (2022)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Content-neutral restrictions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Schneider_v._New_Jersey" title="Schneider v. New Jersey">Schneider v. New Jersey</a> (1939)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renton_v._Playtime_Theatres,_Inc." title="Renton v. Playtime Theatres, Inc.">Renton v. Playtime Theatres, Inc.</a> (1986)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/City_of_Ladue_v._Gilleo" title="City of Ladue v. Gilleo">City of Ladue v. Gilleo</a> (1994)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Packingham_v._North_Carolina" title="Packingham v. North Carolina">Packingham v. North Carolina</a> (2017)</li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">In the <a href="/wiki/Public_forum" class="mw-redirect" title="Public forum">public forum</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Davis_v._Massachusetts" title="Davis v. Massachusetts">Davis v. Massachusetts</a> (1897)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hague_v._Committee_for_Industrial_Organization" title="Hague v. Committee for Industrial Organization">Hague v. CIO</a> (1939)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thornhill_v._Alabama" title="Thornhill v. Alabama">Thornhill v. Alabama</a> (1940)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_v._City_of_Struthers" title="Martin v. City of Struthers">Martin v. City of Struthers</a> (1943)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niemotko_v._Maryland" title="Niemotko v. Maryland">Niemotko v. Maryland</a> (1951)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edwards_v._South_Carolina" title="Edwards v. South Carolina">Edwards v. South Carolina</a> (1963)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cox_v._Louisiana" title="Cox v. Louisiana">Cox v. Louisiana</a> (1965)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Louisiana" title="Brown v. Louisiana">Brown v. Louisiana</a> (1966)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adderley_v._Florida" title="Adderley v. Florida">Adderley v. Florida</a> (1966)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carroll_v._Town_of_Princess_Anne" title="Carroll v. Town of Princess Anne">Carroll v. Town of Princess Anne</a> (1968)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coates_v._City_of_Cincinnati" title="Coates v. City of Cincinnati">Coates v. City of Cincinnati</a> (1971)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organization_for_a_Better_Austin_v._Keefe" title="Organization for a Better Austin v. Keefe">Org. for a Better Austin v. Keefe</a> (1971)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=USPS_v._Council_of_Greenburgh_Civic_Assns.&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="USPS v. Council of Greenburgh Civic Assns. (page does not exist)">USPS v. Council of Greenburgh Civic Assns.</a> (1981)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_v._Grace&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="United States v. Grace (page does not exist)">United States v. Grace</a> (1983)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clark_v._Community_for_Creative_Non-Violence" title="Clark v. Community for Creative Non-Violence">Clark v. Community for Creative Non-Violence</a> (1984)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frisby_v._Schultz" title="Frisby v. Schultz">Frisby v. Schultz</a> (1988)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ward_v._Rock_Against_Racism" title="Ward v. Rock Against Racism">Ward v. Rock Against Racism</a> (1989)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burson_v._Freeman" title="Burson v. Freeman">Burson v. Freeman</a> (1992)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madsen_v._Women%27s_Health_Center,_Inc." title="Madsen v. Women's Health Center, Inc.">Madsen v. Women's Health Center, Inc.</a> (1994)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schenck_v._Pro-Choice_Network_of_Western_New_York" title="Schenck v. Pro-Choice Network of Western New York">Schenck v. Pro-Choice Network of Western New York</a> (1997)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hill_v._Colorado" title="Hill v. Colorado">Hill v. Colorado</a> (2000)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/McCullen_v._Coakley" title="McCullen v. Coakley">McCullen v. Coakley</a> (2014)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Designated public forum</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Widmar_v._Vincent" title="Widmar v. Vincent">Widmar v. Vincent</a> (1981)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosenberger_v._University_of_Virginia" title="Rosenberger v. University of Virginia">Rosenberger v. Univ. of Virginia</a> (1995)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uzuegbunam_v._Preczewski" title="Uzuegbunam v. Preczewski">Uzuegbunam v. Preczewski</a> (2021)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Nonpublic forum</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lehman_v._Shaker_Heights" title="Lehman v. Shaker Heights">Lehman v. Shaker Heights</a> (1974)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Brown_v._Glines&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Brown v. Glines (page does not exist)">Brown v. Glines</a> (1980)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perry_Education_Association_v._Perry_Local_Educators%27_Association" title="Perry Education Association v. Perry Local Educators' Association">Perry Education Association v. Perry Local Educators' Association</a> (1983)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cornelius_v._NAACP_Legal_Defense_Fund&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cornelius v. NAACP Legal Defense Fund (page does not exist)">Cornelius v. NAACP Legal Defense Fund</a> (1985)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=International_Society_for_Krishna_Consciousness,_Inc._v._Lee&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="International Society for Krishna Consciousness, Inc. v. Lee (page does not exist)">International Society for Krishna Consciousness, Inc. v. Lee</a> (1992)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arkansas_Educational_Television_Commission_v._Forbes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Arkansas Educational Television Commission v. Forbes (page does not exist)">Arkansas Educational Television Commission v. Forbes</a> (1997)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minnesota_Voters_Alliance_v._Mansky" title="Minnesota Voters Alliance v. Mansky">Minnesota Voters Alliance v. Mansky</a> (2018)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Compelled_speech" title="Compelled speech">Compelled speech</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Minersville_School_District_v._Gobitis" title="Minersville School District v. Gobitis">Minersville School District v. Gobitis</a> (1940)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Virginia_State_Board_of_Education_v._Barnette" title="West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette">West Virginia State Board of Ed. v. Barnette</a> (1943)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miami_Herald_Publishing_Co._v._Tornillo" title="Miami Herald Publishing Co. v. Tornillo">Miami Herald Publishing Co. v. Tornillo</a> (1974)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wooley_v._Maynard" title="Wooley v. Maynard">Wooley v. Maynard</a> (1977)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pruneyard_Shopping_Center_v._Robins" title="Pruneyard Shopping Center v. Robins">Pruneyard Shopping Center v. Robins</a> (1980)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Gas_%26_Electric_Co._v._Public_Utilities_Commission" title="Pacific Gas & Electric Co. v. Public Utilities Commission">Pacific Gas & Electric Co. v. Public Utilities Comm'n of California</a> (1986)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hurley_v._Irish-American_Gay,_Lesbian,_and_Bisexual_Group_of_Boston" title="Hurley v. Irish-American Gay, Lesbian, and Bisexual Group of Boston">Hurley v. Irish-American Gay, Lesbian, and Bisexual Group of Boston</a> (1995)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rumsfeld_v._Forum_for_Academic_%26_Institutional_Rights,_Inc." title="Rumsfeld v. Forum for Academic & Institutional Rights, Inc.">Rumsfeld v. Forum for Academic & Institutional Rights, Inc.</a> (2006)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Institute_of_Family_and_Life_Advocates_v._Becerra" title="National Institute of Family and Life Advocates v. Becerra">National Institute of Family and Life Advocates v. Becerra</a> (2018)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/303_Creative_LLC_v._Elenis" title="303 Creative LLC v. Elenis">303 Creative LLC v. Elenis</a> (2023)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moody_v._NetChoice,_LLC" title="Moody v. NetChoice, LLC">Moody v. NetChoice, LLC</a> (2024)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Compelled subsidy of others' speech</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ry._Emps._Department_v._Hanson&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ry. Emps. Department v. Hanson (page does not exist)">Ry. Emps. Department v. Hanson</a> (1956)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machinists_v._Street" class="mw-redirect" title="Machinists v. Street">Machinists v. Street</a> (1961)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abood_v._Detroit_Board_of_Education" title="Abood v. Detroit Board of Education">Abood v. Detroit Board of Education</a> (1977)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ellis_v._Railway_Clerks&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ellis v. Railway Clerks (page does not exist)">Ellis v. Railway Clerks</a> (1984)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chicago_Local_Teachers_Union_v._Hudson&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Chicago Local Teachers Union v. Hudson (page does not exist)">Chicago Local Teachers Union v. Hudson</a> (1986)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communications_Workers_of_America_v._Beck" title="Communications Workers of America v. Beck">Communications Workers of America v. Beck</a> (1988)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keller_v._State_Bar_of_California" title="Keller v. State Bar of California">Keller v. State Bar of California</a> (1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lehnert_v._Ferris_Faculty_Ass%27n" title="Lehnert v. Ferris Faculty Ass'n">Lehnert v. Ferris Faculty Ass'n</a> (1991)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glickman_v._Wileman_Brothers_%26_Elliot,_Inc.&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Glickman v. Wileman Brothers & Elliot, Inc. (page does not exist)">Glickman v. Wileman Brothers & Elliot, Inc.</a> (1997)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Board_of_Regents_of_the_University_of_Wisconsin_System_v._Southworth" title="Board of Regents of the University of Wisconsin System v. Southworth">Board of Regents of the Univ. of Wisconsin System v. Southworth</a> (2000)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_v._United_Foods_Inc.&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="United States v. United Foods Inc. (page does not exist)">United States v. United Foods Inc.</a> (2001)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johanns_v._Livestock_Marketing_Association" title="Johanns v. Livestock Marketing Association">Johanns v. Livestock Marketing Ass'n</a> (2005)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Davenport_v._Washington_Education_Ass%27n" title="Davenport v. Washington Education Ass'n">Davenport v. Washington Education Ass'n</a> (2007)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Locke_v._Karass" title="Locke v. Karass">Locke v. Karass</a> (2008)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ysursa_v._Pocatello_Education_Association&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ysursa v. Pocatello Education Association (page does not exist)">Ysursa v. Pocatello Education Association</a> (2009)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knox_v._Service_Employees_International_Union,_Local_1000" title="Knox v. Service Employees International Union, Local 1000">Knox v. SEIU, Local 1000</a> (2012)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harris_v._Quinn" title="Harris v. Quinn">Harris v. Quinn</a> (2014)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrichs_v._California_Teachers_Association" title="Friedrichs v. California Teachers Association">Friedrichs v. California Teachers Association</a> (2016)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Janus_v._AFSCME" title="Janus v. AFSCME">Janus v. AFSCME</a> (2018)</li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Compelled_representation" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Compelled representation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Steele_v._Louisville_%26_N.R._Co&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Steele v. Louisville & N.R. Co (page does not exist)">Steele v. Louisville & N.R. Co</a> (1944)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minnesota_Board_for_Community_Colleges_v._Knight" title="Minnesota Board for Community Colleges v. Knight">Minnesota Board for Community Colleges v. Knight</a> (1984)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Government grants and subsidies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Regan_v._Taxation_with_Representation_of_Washington" title="Regan v. Taxation with Representation of Washington">Regan v. Taxation with Representation of Washington</a> (1983)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rust_v._Sullivan" title="Rust v. Sullivan">Rust v. Sullivan</a> (1991)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Endowment_for_the_Arts_v._Finley" title="National Endowment for the Arts v. Finley">National Endowment for the Arts v. Finley</a> (1998)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_Services_Corp._v._Velazquez" title="Legal Services Corp. v. Velazquez">Legal Services Corp. v. Velazquez</a> (2001)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/USAID_v._Alliance_for_Open_Society_International_(2013)" title="USAID v. Alliance for Open Society International (2013)">USAID v. Alliance for Open Society International I</a> (2013)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/USAID_v._Alliance_for_Open_Society_International_(2020)" title="USAID v. Alliance for Open Society International (2020)">USAID v. Alliance for Open Society International II</a> (2020)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Government_speech" title="Government speech">Government as speaker</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pleasant_Grove_City_v._Summum" title="Pleasant Grove City v. Summum">Pleasant Grove City v. Summum</a> (2009)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walker_v._Texas_Division,_Sons_of_Confederate_Veterans" title="Walker v. Texas Division, Sons of Confederate Veterans">Walker v. Texas Div., Sons of Confederate Veterans</a> (2015)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matal_v._Tam" title="Matal v. Tam">Matal v. Tam</a> (2017)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iancu_v._Brunetti" title="Iancu v. Brunetti">Iancu v. Brunetti</a> (2019)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Houston_Community_College_System_v._Wilson" title="Houston Community College System v. Wilson">Houston Community College System v. Wilson</a> (2022)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shurtleff_v._City_of_Boston" title="Shurtleff v. City of Boston">Shurtleff v. City of Boston</a> (2022)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vidal_v._Elster" title="Vidal v. Elster">Vidal v. Elster</a> (2024)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Loyalty_oath" title="Loyalty oath">Loyalty oaths</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Communications_Association_v._Douds" class="mw-redirect" title="American Communications Association v. Douds">American Communications Ass'n v. Douds</a> (1950)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garner_v._Board_of_Public_Works" title="Garner v. Board of Public Works">Garner v. Board of Public Works</a> (1951)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speiser_v._Randall" title="Speiser v. Randall">Speiser v. Randall</a> (1958)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keyishian_v._Board_of_Regents" title="Keyishian v. Board of Regents">Keyishian v. Board of Regents</a> (1967)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Indiana_v._Whitcomb" title="Communist Party of Indiana v. Whitcomb">Communist Party of Indiana v. Whitcomb</a> (1974)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech_in_schools_in_the_United_States" title="Freedom of speech in schools in the United States">School speech</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Minersville_School_District_v._Gobitis" title="Minersville School District v. Gobitis">Minersville School District v. Gobitis</a> (1940)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Virginia_State_Board_of_Education_v._Barnette" title="West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette">West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette</a> (1943)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tinker_v._Des_Moines_Independent_Community_School_District" title="Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community School District">Tinker v. Des Moines Ind. Community School Dist.</a> (1969, <a href="/wiki/Substantial_disruption" title="Substantial disruption">substantial disruption</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healy_v._James" title="Healy v. James">Healy v. James</a> (1972)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Island_Trees_School_District_v._Pico" title="Island Trees School District v. Pico">Island Trees School District v. Pico</a> (1982)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bethel_School_District_v._Fraser" title="Bethel School District v. Fraser">Bethel School District v. Fraser</a> (1986)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazelwood_School_District_v._Kuhlmeier" title="Hazelwood School District v. Kuhlmeier">Hazelwood School District v. Kuhlmeier</a> (1988)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westside_Community_Board_of_Education_v._Mergens" title="Westside Community Board of Education v. Mergens">Westside Community Board of Ed. v. Mergens</a> (1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosenberger_v._University_of_Virginia" title="Rosenberger v. University of Virginia">Rosenberger v. Univ. of Virginia</a> (1995)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brentwood_Academy_v._Tennessee_Secondary_School_Athletic_Assn." class="mw-redirect" title="Brentwood Academy v. Tennessee Secondary School Athletic Assn.">Brentwood Academy v. Tennessee Secondary School Athletic Assn.</a> (2001)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tennessee_Secondary_School_Athletic_Assn._v._Brentwood_Academy" class="mw-redirect" title="Tennessee Secondary School Athletic Assn. v. Brentwood Academy">Tennessee Secondary School Athletic Assn. v. Brentwood Academy</a> (2007)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morse_v._Frederick" title="Morse v. Frederick">Morse v. Frederick</a> (2007)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uzuegbunam_v._Preczewski" title="Uzuegbunam v. Preczewski">Uzuegbunam v. Preczewski</a> (2021)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahanoy_Area_School_District_v._B.L." title="Mahanoy Area School District v. B.L.">Mahanoy Area School District v. B.L.</a> (2021)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Public employees</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pickering_v._Board_of_Education" title="Pickering v. Board of Education">Pickering v. Board of Education</a> (1968)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perry_v._Sindermann" title="Perry v. Sindermann">Perry v. Sindermann</a> (1972)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arnett_v._Kennedy" title="Arnett v. Kennedy">Arnett v. Kennedy</a> (1974)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elrod_v._Burns" title="Elrod v. Burns">Elrod v. Burns</a> (1976)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mt._Healthy_City_School_District_Board_of_Education_v._Doyle" title="Mt. Healthy City School District Board of Education v. Doyle">Mt. Healthy City School Dist. Board of Ed. v. Doyle</a> (1977)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Givhan_v._Western_Line_Consolidated_School_District" title="Givhan v. Western Line Consolidated School District">Givhan v. Western Line Consol. School Dist.</a> (1979)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Smith_v._Arkansas_State_Hwy._Employees_Local&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Smith v. Arkansas State Hwy. Employees Local (page does not exist)">Smith v. Arkansas State Hwy. Employees Local</a> (1979)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Connick_v._Myers" title="Connick v. Myers">Connick v. Myers</a> (1983)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rankin_v._McPherson" title="Rankin v. McPherson">Rankin v. McPherson</a> (1987)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rutan_v._Republican_Party_of_Illinois" title="Rutan v. Republican Party of Illinois">Rutan v. Republican Party of Illinois</a> (1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waters_v._Churchill" title="Waters v. Churchill">Waters v. Churchill</a> (1994)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._National_Treasury_Employees_Union" title="United States v. National Treasury Employees Union">United States v. National Treasury Employees Union</a> (1995)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Board_of_Comm%27rs,_Wabaunsee_Cty._v._Umbehr&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Board of Comm'rs, Wabaunsee Cty. v. Umbehr (page does not exist)">Board of Comm'rs, Wabaunsee Cty. v. Umbehr</a> (1996)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brentwood_Academy_v._Tennessee_Secondary_School_Athletic_Assn." class="mw-redirect" title="Brentwood Academy v. Tennessee Secondary School Athletic Assn.">Brentwood Academy v. Tennessee Secondary School Athletic Assn.</a> (2001)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garcetti_v._Ceballos" title="Garcetti v. Ceballos">Garcetti v. Ceballos</a> (2006)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tennessee_Secondary_School_Athletic_Assn._v._Brentwood_Academy" class="mw-redirect" title="Tennessee Secondary School Athletic Assn. v. Brentwood Academy">Tennessee Secondary School Athletic Assn. v. Brentwood Academy</a> (2007)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borough_of_Duryea_v._Guarnieri" title="Borough of Duryea v. Guarnieri">Borough of Duryea v. Guarnieri</a> (2011)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lane_v._Franks" title="Lane v. Franks">Lane v. Franks</a> (2014)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heffernan_v._City_of_Paterson" title="Heffernan v. City of Paterson">Heffernan v. City of Paterson</a> (2016)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kennedy_v._Bremerton_School_District" title="Kennedy v. Bremerton School District">Kennedy v. Bremerton School Dist.</a> (2022)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hatch_Act_of_1939" class="mw-redirect" title="Hatch Act of 1939">Hatch Act</a> and similar laws</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ex_parte_Curtis" title="Ex parte Curtis">Ex parte Curtis</a> (1882)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Public_Workers_v._Mitchell" title="United Public Workers v. Mitchell">United Public Workers v. Mitchell</a> (1947)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Civil_Service_Commission_v._National_Ass%27n_of_Letter_Carriers" title="United States Civil Service Commission v. National Ass'n of Letter Carriers">U.S. Civil Service Comm'n v. National Ass'n of Letter Carriers</a> (1973)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Broadrick_v._Oklahoma" title="Broadrick v. Oklahoma">Broadrick v. Oklahoma</a> (1973)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Licensing and restriction of speech</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mutual_Film_Corp._v._Industrial_Commission_of_Ohio" title="Mutual Film Corp. v. Industrial Commission of Ohio">Mutual Film Corp. v. Industrial Comm'n of Ohio</a> (1915)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cox_v._New_Hampshire" title="Cox v. New Hampshire">Cox v. New Hampshire</a> (1941)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murdock_v._Pennsylvania" title="Murdock v. Pennsylvania">Murdock v. Pennsylvania</a> (1943)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kunz_v._New_York" title="Kunz v. New York">Kunz v. New York</a> (1951)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Burstyn,_Inc._v._Wilson" title="Joseph Burstyn, Inc. v. Wilson">Joseph Burstyn, Inc. v. Wilson</a> (1952)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingsley_Books,_Inc._v._Brown" title="Kingsley Books, Inc. v. Brown">Kingsley Books, Inc. v. Brown</a> (1957)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/NAACP_v._Button" title="NAACP v. Button">NAACP v. Button</a> (1963)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Railroad_Trainmen_v._Virginia_Bar&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Railroad Trainmen v. Virginia Bar (page does not exist)">Railroad Trainmen v. Virginia Bar</a> (1964)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedman_v._Maryland" title="Freedman v. Maryland">Freedman v. Maryland</a> (1965)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mine_Workers_v._Illinois_Bar_Assn.&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mine Workers v. Illinois Bar Assn. (page does not exist)">Mine Workers v. Illinois Bar Assn.</a> (1967)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Heffron_v._International_Society_for_Krishna_Consciousness,_Inc.&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Heffron v. International Society for Krishna Consciousness, Inc. (page does not exist)">Heffron v. International Society for Krishna Consciousness, Inc.</a> (1981)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoffman_Estates_v._The_Flipside,_Hoffman_Estates,_Inc." title="Hoffman Estates v. The Flipside, Hoffman Estates, Inc.">Hoffman Estates v. The Flipside, Hoffman Estates, Inc.</a> (1982)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Riley_v._Nat%27l_Fed%27n_of_the_Blind&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Riley v. Nat'l Fed'n of the Blind (page does not exist)">Riley v. Nat'l Fed'n of the Blind</a> (1988)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forsyth_County_v._Nationalist_Movement" title="Forsyth County v. Nationalist Movement">Forsyth County v. Nationalist Movement</a> (1992)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Commercial_speech" title="Commercial speech">Commercial speech</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Valentine_v._Chrestensen" title="Valentine v. Chrestensen">Valentine v. Chrestensen</a> (1942)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rowan_v._United_States_Post_Office_Department" title="Rowan v. United States Post Office Department">Rowan v. U.S. Post Office Dept.</a> (1970)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pittsburgh_Press_Co._v._Pittsburgh_Commission_on_Human_Relations" title="Pittsburgh Press Co. v. Pittsburgh Commission on Human Relations">Pittsburgh Press Co. v. Pittsburgh Comm'n on Human Relations</a> (1973)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lehman_v._Shaker_Heights" title="Lehman v. Shaker Heights">Lehman v. Shaker Heights</a> (1974)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goldfarb_v._Virginia_State_Bar" title="Goldfarb v. Virginia State Bar">Goldfarb v. Virginia State Bar</a> (1975)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bigelow_v._Virginia" title="Bigelow v. Virginia">Bigelow v. Virginia</a> (1975)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_State_Pharmacy_Board_v._Virginia_Citizens_Consumer_Council" title="Virginia State Pharmacy Board v. Virginia Citizens Consumer Council">Virginia State Pharmacy Bd. v. Virginia Citizens Consumer Council</a> (1976)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linmark_Associates,_Inc._v._Township_of_Willingboro" title="Linmark Associates, Inc. v. Township of Willingboro">Linmark Assoc., Inc. v. Township of Willingboro</a> (1977)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carey_v._Population_Services_International" title="Carey v. Population Services International">Carey v. Population Services International</a> (1977)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bates_v._State_Bar_of_Arizona" title="Bates v. State Bar of Arizona">Bates v. State Bar of Arizona</a> (1977)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/In_re_Primus" title="In re Primus">In re Primus</a> (1978)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ohralik_v._Ohio_State_Bar_Association&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ohralik v. Ohio State Bar Association (page does not exist)">Ohralik v. Ohio State Bar Association</a> (1978)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedman_v._Rogers" title="Friedman v. Rogers">Friedman v. Rogers</a> (1979)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consolidated_Edison_Co._v._Public_Service_Commission" title="Consolidated Edison Co. v. Public Service Commission">Consol. Edison Co. v. Public Serv. Comm'n</a> (1980)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Hudson_Gas_%26_Electric_Corp._v._Public_Service_Commission" title="Central Hudson Gas & Electric Corp. v. Public Service Commission">Central Hudson Gas & Electric Corp. v. Public Service Commission</a> (1980)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metromedia,_Inc._v._San_Diego" title="Metromedia, Inc. v. San Diego">Metromedia, Inc. v. San Diego</a> (1981)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=In_re_R.M.J.&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="In re R.M.J. (page does not exist)">In re R.M.J.</a> (1982)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoffman_Estates_v._The_Flipside,_Hoffman_Estates,_Inc." title="Hoffman Estates v. The Flipside, Hoffman Estates, Inc.">Hoffman Estates v. The Flipside, Hoffman Estates, Inc.</a> (1982)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zauderer_v._Office_of_Disciplinary_Counsel_of_Supreme_Court_of_Ohio" title="Zauderer v. Office of Disciplinary Counsel of Supreme Court of Ohio">Zauderer v. Off. of Disciplinary Counsel of Supreme Court of Ohio</a> (1985)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Gas_%26_Electric_Co._v._Public_Utilities_Commission" title="Pacific Gas & Electric Co. v. Public Utilities Commission">Pacific Gas & Electric Co. v. Public Utilities Comm'n of California</a> (1986)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posadas_de_Puerto_Rico_Associates_v._Tourism_Co._of_Puerto_Rico" title="Posadas de Puerto Rico Associates v. Tourism Co. of Puerto Rico">Posadas de Puerto Rico Assoc. v. Tourism Co. of Puerto Rico</a> (1986)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/San_Francisco_Arts_%26_Athletics,_Inc._v._United_States_Olympic_Committee" title="San Francisco Arts & Athletics, Inc. v. United States Olympic Committee">San Francisco Arts & Athletics, Inc. v. U.S. Olympic Committee</a> (1987)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shapero_v._Kentucky_Bar_Association&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Shapero v. Kentucky Bar Association (page does not exist)">Shapero v. Kentucky Bar Association</a> (1988)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Riley_v._Nat%27l_Fed%27n_of_the_Blind&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Riley v. Nat'l Fed'n of the Blind (page does not exist)">Riley v. Nat'l Fed'n of the Blind</a> (1988)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=State_University_of_New_York_v._Fox&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="State University of New York v. Fox (page does not exist)">State University of New York v. Fox</a> (1989)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Peel_v._Attorney_Registration_and_Disciplinary_Commission_of_Illinois&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Peel v. Attorney Registration and Disciplinary Commission of Illinois (page does not exist)">Peel v. Attorney Registration and Disciplinary Commission of Illinois</a> (1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/City_of_Cincinnati_v._Discovery_Network" class="mw-redirect" title="City of Cincinnati v. Discovery Network">City of Cincinnati v. Discovery Network</a> (1993)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Edenfield_v._Fane&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Edenfield v. Fane (page does not exist)">Edenfield v. Fane</a> (1993)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_v._Edge_Broadcasting_Co.&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="United States v. Edge Broadcasting Co. (page does not exist)">United States v. Edge Broadcasting Co.</a> (1993)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ibanez_v._Florida_Dept._of_Business_and_Professional_Regulation,_Bd._of_Accountancy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ibanez v. Florida Dept. of Business and Professional Regulation, Bd. of Accountancy (page does not exist)">Ibanez v. Florida Dept. of Business and Professional Regulation, Bd. of Accountancy</a> (1994)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebron_v._National_Railroad_Passenger_Corp." title="Lebron v. National Railroad Passenger Corp.">Lebron v. National Railroad Passenger Corp.</a> (1995)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rubin_v._Coors_Brewing_Co.&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rubin v. Coors Brewing Co. (page does not exist)">Rubin v. Coors Brewing Co.</a> (1995)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Florida_Bar_v._Went_For_It,_Inc." title="Florida Bar v. Went For It, Inc.">Florida Bar v. Went For It, Inc.</a> (1995)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/44_Liquormart,_Inc._v._Rhode_Island" title="44 Liquormart, Inc. v. Rhode Island">44 Liquormart, Inc. v. Rhode Island</a> (1996)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glickman_v._Wileman_Brothers_%26_Elliot,_Inc.&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Glickman v. Wileman Brothers & Elliot, Inc. (page does not exist)">Glickman v. Wileman Brothers & Elliot, Inc.</a> (1997)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Greater_New_Orleans_Broadcasting_Assn.,_Inc._v._United_States&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Greater New Orleans Broadcasting Assn., Inc. v. United States (page does not exist)">Greater New Orleans Broadcasting Assn., Inc. v. United States</a> (1999)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Los_Angeles_Police_Department_v._United_Reporting_Publishing_Co.&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Los Angeles Police Department v. United Reporting Publishing Co. (page does not exist)">Los Angeles Police Department v. United Reporting Publishing Co.</a> (1999)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_v._United_Foods_Inc.&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="United States v. United Foods Inc. (page does not exist)">United States v. United Foods Inc.</a> (2001)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lorillard_Tobacco_Co._v._Reilly" title="Lorillard Tobacco Co. v. Reilly">Lorillard Tobacco Co. v. Reilly</a> (2001)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thompson_v._Western_States_Medical_Center&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Thompson v. Western States Medical Center (page does not exist)">Thompson v. Western States Medical Center</a> (2002)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nike,_Inc._v._Kasky" class="mw-redirect" title="Nike, Inc. v. Kasky">Nike, Inc. v. Kasky</a> (2003)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johanns_v._Livestock_Marketing_Association" title="Johanns v. Livestock Marketing Association">Johanns v. Livestock Marketing Ass'n</a> (2005)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tennessee_Secondary_School_Athletic_Assn._v._Brentwood_Academy" class="mw-redirect" title="Tennessee Secondary School Athletic Assn. v. Brentwood Academy">Tennessee Secondary School Athletic Assn. v. Brentwood Academy</a> (2007)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Milavetz,_Gallop_%26_Milavetz,_P.A._v._United_States&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Milavetz, Gallop & Milavetz, P.A. v. United States (page does not exist)">Milavetz, Gallop & Milavetz, P.A. v. United States</a> (2010)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jerman_v._Carlisle,_McNellie,_Rini,_Kramer_%26_Ulrich_LPA&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jerman v. Carlisle, McNellie, Rini, Kramer & Ulrich LPA (page does not exist)">Jerman v. Carlisle, McNellie, Rini, Kramer & Ulrich LPA</a> (2010)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sorrell_v._IMS_Health_Inc." title="Sorrell v. IMS Health Inc.">Sorrell v. IMS Health Inc.</a> (2011)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expressions_Hair_Design_v._Schneiderman" title="Expressions Hair Design v. Schneiderman">Expressions Hair Design v. Schneiderman</a> (2017)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matal_v._Tam" title="Matal v. Tam">Matal v. Tam</a> (2017)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iancu_v._Brunetti" title="Iancu v. Brunetti">Iancu v. Brunetti</a> (2019)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barr_v._American_Assn._of_Political_Consultants,_Inc." title="Barr v. American Assn. of Political Consultants, Inc.">Barr v. American Association of Political Consultants</a> (2020)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vidal_v._Elster" title="Vidal v. Elster">Vidal v. Elster</a> (2024)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Campaign_finance_in_the_United_States" title="Campaign finance in the United States">Campaign finance</a> and political speech</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buckley_v._Valeo" title="Buckley v. Valeo">Buckley v. Valeo</a> (1976)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_National_Bank_of_Boston_v._Bellotti" title="First National Bank of Boston v. Bellotti">First National Bank of Boston v. Bellotti</a> (1978)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=California_Medical_Association_v._FEC&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="California Medical Association v. FEC (page does not exist)">California Medical Association v. FEC</a> (1981)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citizens_Against_Rent_Control_v._City_of_Berkeley" title="Citizens Against Rent Control v. City of Berkeley">Citizens Against Rent Control v. City of Berkeley</a> (1981)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=FEC_v._National_Right_to_Work_Committee&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="FEC v. National Right to Work Committee (page does not exist)">FEC v. National Right to Work Committee</a> (1982)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/FEC_v._National_Conservative_PAC" title="FEC v. National Conservative PAC">FEC v. National Conservative PAC</a> (1985)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/FEC_v._Massachusetts_Citizens_for_Life" title="FEC v. Massachusetts Citizens for Life">FEC v. Massachusetts Citizens for Life</a> (1986)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eu_v._S.F._Cty._Democratic_Cent._Comm.&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Eu v. S.F. Cty. Democratic Cent. Comm. (page does not exist)">Eu v. S.F. Cty. Democratic Cent. Comm.</a> (1989)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austin_v._Michigan_Chamber_of_Commerce" title="Austin v. Michigan Chamber of Commerce">Austin v. Michigan Chamber of Commerce</a> (1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colorado_Republican_Federal_Campaign_Committee_v._FEC" title="Colorado Republican Federal Campaign Committee v. FEC">Colorado Republican Federal Campaign Committee v. FEC</a> (1996)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nixon_v._Shrink_Missouri_Government_PAC" title="Nixon v. Shrink Missouri Government PAC">Nixon v. Shrink Missouri Government PAC</a> (2000)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/FEC_v._Colorado_Republican_Federal_Campaign_Committee" class="mw-redirect" title="FEC v. Colorado Republican Federal Campaign Committee">FEC v. Colorado Republican Federal Campaign Committee</a> (2001)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_of_Minnesota_v._White" title="Republican Party of Minnesota v. White">Republican Party of Minnesota v. White</a> (2002)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=FEC_v._Beaumont&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="FEC v. Beaumont (page does not exist)">FEC v. Beaumont</a> (2003)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/McConnell_v._FEC" title="McConnell v. FEC">McConnell v. FEC</a> (2003)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wisconsin_Right_to_Life,_Inc._v._FEC" class="mw-redirect" title="Wisconsin Right to Life, Inc. v. FEC">Wisconsin Right to Life, Inc. v. FEC</a> (2006)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Randall_v._Sorrell" title="Randall v. Sorrell">Randall v. Sorrell</a> (2006)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/FEC_v._Wisconsin_Right_to_Life,_Inc." title="FEC v. Wisconsin Right to Life, Inc.">FEC v. Wisconsin Right to Life, Inc.</a> (2007)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Davis_v._FEC" title="Davis v. FEC">Davis v. FEC</a> (2008)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citizens_United_v._FEC" title="Citizens United v. FEC">Citizens United v. FEC</a> (2010)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nevada_Commission_on_Ethics_v._Carrigan" title="Nevada Commission on Ethics v. Carrigan">Nevada Commission on Ethics v. Carrigan</a> (2011)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arizona_Free_Enterprise_Club%27s_Freedom_Club_PAC_v._Bennett" title="Arizona Free Enterprise Club's Freedom Club PAC v. Bennett">Arizona Free Enterprise Club's Freedom Club PAC v. Bennett</a> (2011)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Tradition_Partnership,_Inc._v._Bullock" title="American Tradition Partnership, Inc. v. Bullock">American Tradition Partnership, Inc. v. Bullock</a> (2012)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/McCutcheon_v._FEC" title="McCutcheon v. FEC">McCutcheon v. FEC</a> (2014)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Williams-Yulee_v._Florida_Bar" title="Williams-Yulee v. Florida Bar">Williams-Yulee v. Florida Bar</a> (2015)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thompson_v._Hebdon" title="Thompson v. Hebdon">Thompson v. Hebdon</a> (2019)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/FEC_v._Ted_Cruz_for_Senate" title="FEC v. Ted Cruz for Senate">FEC v. Ted Cruz for Senate</a> (2022)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Anonymous speech</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/NAACP_v._Alabama" title="NAACP v. Alabama">NAACP v. Alabama</a> (1958)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bates_v._City_of_Little_Rock" title="Bates v. City of Little Rock">Bates v. City of Little Rock</a> (1960)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buckley_v._Valeo" title="Buckley v. Valeo">Buckley v. Valeo</a> (1976)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Socialist_Workers_%2774_Campaign_Committee" title="Brown v. Socialist Workers '74 Campaign Committee">Brown v. Socialist Workers '74 Campaign Committee</a> (1982)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/McIntyre_v._Ohio_Elections_Commission" title="McIntyre v. Ohio Elections Commission">McIntyre v. Ohio Elections Comm'n</a> (1995)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doe_v._Reed" title="Doe v. Reed">Doe v. Reed</a> (2010)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Americans_for_Prosperity_Foundation_v._Bonta" title="Americans for Prosperity Foundation v. Bonta">Americans for Prosperity Foundation v. Bonta</a> (2021)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">State action</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marsh_v._Alabama" title="Marsh v. Alabama">Marsh v. Alabama</a> (1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lloyd_Corp._v._Tanner" title="Lloyd Corp. v. Tanner">Lloyd Corp. v. Tanner</a> (1972)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Community_Access_Corp._v._Halleck" title="Manhattan Community Access Corp. v. Halleck">Manhattan Community Access Corp. v. Halleck</a> (2019)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lindke_v._Freed" title="Lindke v. Freed">Lindke v. Freed</a> (2024)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murthy_v._Missouri" title="Murthy v. Missouri">Murthy v. Missouri</a> (2024)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Retaliatory_arrest_and_prosecution" title="Retaliatory arrest and prosecution">Official retaliation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hartman_v._Moore" title="Hartman v. Moore">Hartman v. Moore</a> (2006)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reichle_v._Howards&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Reichle v. Howards (page does not exist)">Reichle v. Howards</a> (2012)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wood_v._Moss" title="Wood v. Moss">Wood v. Moss</a> (2014)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lozman_v._City_of_Riviera_Beach_(2018)" title="Lozman v. City of Riviera Beach (2018)">Lozman v. City of Riviera Beach</a> (2018)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nieves_v._Bartlett" title="Nieves v. Bartlett">Nieves v. Bartlett</a> (2019)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egbert_v._Boule" title="Egbert v. Boule">Egbert v. Boule</a> (2022)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gonzalez_v._Trevino" title="Gonzalez v. Trevino">Gonzalez v. Trevino</a> (2024)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Rifle_Association_of_America_v._Vullo" title="National Rifle Association of America v. Vullo">National Rifle Association of America v. Vullo</a> (2024)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Boycotts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/NAACP_v._Claiborne_Hardware_Co." title="NAACP v. Claiborne Hardware Co.">NAACP v. Claiborne Hardware Co.</a> (1982)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=FTC_v._Superior_Ct._TLA&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="FTC v. Superior Ct. TLA (page does not exist)">FTC v. Superior Ct. TLA</a> (1990)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Prisons</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Procunier_v._Martinez&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Procunier v. Martinez (page does not exist)">Procunier v. Martinez</a> (1974)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jones_v._North_Carolina_Prisoners%27_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Jones v. North Carolina Prisoners' Union">Jones v. North Carolina Prisoners' Union</a> (1977)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turner_v._Safley" title="Turner v. Safley">Turner v. Safley</a> (1987)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaw_v._Murphy" title="Shaw v. Murphy">Shaw v. Murphy</a> (2001)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Overton_v._Bazzetta&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Overton v. Bazzetta (page does not exist)">Overton v. Bazzetta</a> (2003)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beard_v._Banks" title="Beard v. Banks">Beard v. Banks</a> (2006)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Freedom_of_the_press" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_the_press_in_the_United_States" title="Freedom of the press in the United States">Freedom of the press</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Prior_restraint" title="Prior restraint">Prior restraints</a> and <a href="/wiki/Censorship" title="Censorship">censorship</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patterson_v._Colorado" title="Patterson v. Colorado">Patterson v. Colorado</a> (1907)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Near_v._Minnesota" title="Near v. Minnesota">Near v. Minnesota</a> (1931)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lovell_v._City_of_Griffin" title="Lovell v. City of Griffin">Lovell v. City of Griffin</a> (1938)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tucker_v._Texas" title="Tucker v. Texas">Tucker v. Texas</a> (1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannegan_v._Esquire,_Inc." title="Hannegan v. Esquire, Inc.">Hannegan v. Esquire, Inc.</a> (1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamont_v._Postmaster_General" title="Lamont v. Postmaster General">Lamont v. Postmaster General</a> (1965)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_York_Times_Co._v._United_States" title="New York Times Co. v. United States">New York Times Co. v. United States</a> (1971)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pell_v._Procunier&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pell v. Procunier (page does not exist)">Pell v. Procunier</a> (1974)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nebraska_Press_Ass%27n_v._Stuart" title="Nebraska Press Ass'n v. Stuart">Nebraska Press Ass'n v. Stuart</a> (1976)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landmark_Communications,_Inc._v._Virginia" title="Landmark Communications, Inc. v. Virginia">Landmark Communications, Inc. v. Virginia</a> (1978)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lowe_v._SEC&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lowe v. SEC (page does not exist)">Lowe v. SEC</a> (1985)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tory_v._Cochran" title="Tory v. Cochran">Tory v. Cochran</a> (2005)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Privacy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Time,_Inc._v._Hill" title="Time, Inc. v. Hill">Time, Inc. v. Hill</a> (1967)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cox_Broadcasting_Corp._v._Cohn" title="Cox Broadcasting Corp. v. Cohn">Cox Broadcasting Corp. v. Cohn</a> (1975)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Florida_Star_v._B._J._F." title="Florida Star v. B. J. F.">Florida Star v. B. J. F.</a> (1989)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Taxation and privileges</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grosjean_v._American_Press_Co." title="Grosjean v. American Press Co.">Grosjean v. American Press Co.</a> (1936)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Branzburg_v._Hayes" title="Branzburg v. Hayes">Branzburg v. Hayes</a> (1972)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Houchins_v._KQED,_Inc." title="Houchins v. KQED, Inc.">Houchins v. KQED, Inc.</a> (1978)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minneapolis_Star_Tribune_Co._v._Commissioner" title="Minneapolis Star Tribune Co. v. Commissioner">Minneapolis Star Tribune Co. v. Commissioner</a> (1983)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arkansas_Writers%27_Project_v._Ragland&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Arkansas Writers' Project v. Ragland (page does not exist)">Arkansas Writers' Project v. Ragland</a> (1987)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cohen_v._Cowles_Media_Co." title="Cohen v. Cowles Media Co.">Cohen v. Cowles Media Co.</a> (1991)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Defamation" title="Defamation">Defamation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beauharnais_v._Illinois" title="Beauharnais v. Illinois">Beauharnais v. Illinois</a> (1952)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_York_Times_Co._v._Sullivan" title="New York Times Co. v. Sullivan">New York Times Co. v. Sullivan</a> (1964)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curtis_Publishing_Co._v._Butts" title="Curtis Publishing Co. v. Butts">Curtis Publishing Co. v. Butts</a> (1967)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenbelt_Cooperative_Publishing_Ass%27n,_Inc._v._Bresler" title="Greenbelt Cooperative Publishing Ass'n, Inc. v. Bresler">Greenbelt Cooperative Publishing Ass'n, Inc. v. Bresler</a> (1970)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gertz_v._Robert_Welch,_Inc." title="Gertz v. Robert Welch, Inc.">Gertz v. Robert Welch, Inc.</a> (1974)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time,_Inc._v._Firestone" title="Time, Inc. v. Firestone">Time, Inc. v. Firestone</a> (1976)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bose_Corp._v._Consumers_Union_of_United_States,_Inc." title="Bose Corp. v. Consumers Union of United States, Inc.">Bose Corp. v. Consumers Union of United States, Inc.</a> (1984)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dun_%26_Bradstreet,_Inc._v._Greenmoss_Builders,_Inc." title="Dun & Bradstreet, Inc. v. Greenmoss Builders, Inc.">Dun & Bradstreet, Inc. v. Greenmoss Builders, Inc.</a> (1985)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/McDonald_v._Smith" title="McDonald v. Smith">McDonald v. Smith</a> (1985)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hustler_Magazine_v._Falwell" title="Hustler Magazine v. Falwell">Hustler Magazine v. Falwell</a> (1988)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harte-Hanks_Communications,_Inc._v._Connaughton" title="Harte-Hanks Communications, Inc. v. Connaughton">Harte-Hanks Communications, Inc. v. Connaughton</a> (1989)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milkovich_v._Lorain_Journal_Co." title="Milkovich v. Lorain Journal Co.">Milkovich v. Lorain Journal Co.</a> (1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obsidian_Finance_Group,_LLC_v._Cox" title="Obsidian Finance Group, LLC v. Cox">Obsidian Finance Group, LLC v. Cox</a> (9th Cir. 2014)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Broadcast media</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Red_Lion_Broadcasting_Co._v._FCC" title="Red Lion Broadcasting Co. v. FCC">Red Lion Broadcasting Co. v. FCC</a> (1969)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/FCC_v._Pacifica_Foundation" title="FCC v. Pacifica Foundation">FCC v. Pacifica Foundation</a> (1978)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=FCC_v._WNCN_Listeners_Guild&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="FCC v. WNCN Listeners Guild (page does not exist)">FCC v. WNCN Listeners Guild</a> (1981)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Denver_Area_Ed._Telecommunications_Consortium,_Inc._v._FCC&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Denver Area Ed. Telecommunications Consortium, Inc. v. FCC (page does not exist)">Denver Area Ed. Telecommunications Consortium, Inc. v. FCC</a> (1996)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turner_Broadcasting_System,_Inc._v._FCC" title="Turner Broadcasting System, Inc. v. FCC">Turner Broadcasting System, Inc. v. FCC</a> (1997)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bartnicki_v._Vopper" title="Bartnicki v. Vopper">Bartnicki v. Vopper</a> (2001)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Copyrighted materials</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zacchini_v._Scripps-Howard_Broadcasting_Co." title="Zacchini v. Scripps-Howard Broadcasting Co.">Zacchini v. Scripps-Howard Broadcasting Co.</a> (1977)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harper_%26_Row_v._Nation_Enterprises" title="Harper & Row v. Nation Enterprises">Harper & Row v. Nation Enterprises</a> (1985)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eldred_v._Ashcroft" title="Eldred v. Ashcroft">Eldred v. Ashcroft</a> (2003)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Freedom_of_assembly" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_assembly" title="Freedom of assembly">Freedom of assembly</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Incorporation_of_the_Bill_of_Rights" title="Incorporation of the Bill of Rights">Incorporation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Cruikshank" title="United States v. Cruikshank">United States v. Cruikshank</a> (1876)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presser_v._Illinois" title="Presser v. Illinois">Presser v. Illinois</a> (1886)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Protection from prosecution and state restrictions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/De_Jonge_v._Oregon" title="De Jonge v. Oregon">De Jonge v. Oregon</a> (1937)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thomas_v._Collins&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Thomas v. Collins (page does not exist)">Thomas v. Collins</a> (1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Americans_for_Prosperity_Foundation_v._Bonta" title="Americans for Prosperity Foundation v. Bonta">Americans for Prosperity Foundation v. Bonta</a> (2021)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Freedom_of_association" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_association#United_States_Constitution" title="Freedom of association">Freedom of association</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Joint_Anti-Fascist_Refugee_Committee_v._McGrath" title="Joint Anti-Fascist Refugee Committee v. McGrath">Joint Anti-Fascist Refugee Committee v. McGrath</a> (1951)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watkins_v._United_States" title="Watkins v. United States">Watkins v. United States</a> (1957)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/NAACP_v._Alabama" title="NAACP v. Alabama">NAACP v. Alabama</a> (1958)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bates_v._City_of_Little_Rock" title="Bates v. City of Little Rock">Bates v. City of Little Rock</a> (1960)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/NAACP_v._Button" title="NAACP v. Button">NAACP v. Button</a> (1963)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Americans_for_Prosperity_Foundation_v._Bonta" title="Americans for Prosperity Foundation v. Bonta">Americans for Prosperity Foundation v. Bonta</a> (2021)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Future Conduct</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baggett_v._Bullitt" title="Baggett v. Bullitt">Baggett v. Bullitt</a> (1964)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Solicitation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/In_re_Primus" title="In re Primus">In re Primus</a> (1978)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Membership restriction</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hishon_v._King_%26_Spalding&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hishon v. King & Spalding (page does not exist)">Hishon v. King & Spalding</a> (1984)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roberts_v._United_States_Jaycees" title="Roberts v. United States Jaycees">Roberts v. United States Jaycees</a> (1984)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rotary_Int%27l_v._Rotary_Club_of_Duarte&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rotary Int'l v. Rotary Club of Duarte (page does not exist)">Rotary Int'l v. Rotary Club of Duarte</a> (1987)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=New_York_Club_Ass%27n_v._City_of_New_York&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="New York Club Ass'n v. City of New York (page does not exist)">New York Club Ass'n v. City of New York</a> (1988)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dallas_v._Stanglin" title="Dallas v. Stanglin">Dallas v. Stanglin</a> (1989)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hurley_v._Irish-American_Gay,_Lesbian,_and_Bisexual_Group_of_Boston" title="Hurley v. Irish-American Gay, Lesbian, and Bisexual Group of Boston">Hurley v. Irish-American Gay, Lesbian, and Bisexual Group of Boston</a> (1995)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boy_Scouts_of_America_v._Dale" title="Boy Scouts of America v. Dale">Boy Scouts of America v. Dale</a> (2000)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Legal_Society_v._Martinez" title="Christian Legal Society v. Martinez">Christian Legal Society v. Martinez</a> (2010)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Primaries and elections</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cousins_v._Wigoda&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cousins v. Wigoda (page does not exist)">Cousins v. Wigoda</a> (1975)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Democratic_Party_v._Wisconsin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Democratic Party v. Wisconsin (page does not exist)">Democratic Party v. Wisconsin</a> (1981)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tashjian_v._Republican_Party&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tashjian v. Republican Party (page does not exist)">Tashjian v. Republican Party</a> (1986)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Timmons_v._Twin_Cities_Area_New_Party&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Timmons v. Twin Cities Area New Party (page does not exist)">Timmons v. Twin Cities Area New Party</a> (1997)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/California_Democratic_Party_v._Jones" title="California Democratic Party v. Jones">California Democratic Party v. Jones</a> (2000)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Clingman_v._Beaver&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Clingman v. Beaver (page does not exist)">Clingman v. Beaver</a> (2005)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_York_State_Board_of_Elections_v._Lopez_Torres" title="New York State Board of Elections v. Lopez Torres">New York State Board of Elections v. Lopez Torres</a> (2008)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington_State_Grange_v._Washington_State_Republican_Party" title="Washington State Grange v. Washington State Republican Party">Washington State Grange v. Washington State Republican Party</a> (2008)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Freedom_to_petition" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Right_to_petition_in_the_United_States" title="Right to petition in the United States">Freedom to petition</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Cruikshank" title="United States v. Cruikshank">United States v. Cruikshank</a> (1876)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thomas_v._Collins&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Thomas v. Collins (page does not exist)">Thomas v. Collins</a> (1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Railroad_Presidents_Conference_v._Noerr_Motor_Freight,_Inc." class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Railroad Presidents Conference v. Noerr Motor Freight, Inc.">Eastern Railroad Presidents Conference v. Noerr Motor Freight, Inc.</a> (1961)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/NAACP_v._Button" title="NAACP v. Button">NAACP v. Button</a> (1963)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edwards_v._South_Carolina" title="Edwards v. South Carolina">Edwards v. South Carolina</a> (1963)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Mine_Workers_v._Pennington" class="mw-redirect" title="United Mine Workers v. Pennington">United Mine Workers v. Pennington</a> (1965)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cox_v._Louisiana" title="Cox v. Louisiana">Cox v. Louisiana</a> (1965)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/California_Motor_Transport_Co._v._Trucking_Unlimited" title="California Motor Transport Co. v. Trucking Unlimited">California Motor Transport Co. v. Trucking Unlimited</a> (1972)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Smith_v._Arkansas_State_Highway_Employees&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Smith v. Arkansas State Highway Employees (page does not exist)">Smith v. Arkansas State Highway Employees</a> (1979)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/McDonald_v._Smith" title="McDonald v. Smith">McDonald v. Smith</a> (1985)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meyer_v._Grant" title="Meyer v. Grant">Meyer v. Grant</a> (1988)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buckley_v._American_Constitutional_Law_Foundation" class="mw-redirect" title="Buckley v. American Constitutional Law Foundation">Buckley v. American Constitutional Law Foundation</a> (1999)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=BE_and_K_Construction_Co._v._National_Labor_Relations_Board&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="BE and K Construction Co. v. National Labor Relations Board (page does not exist)">BE and K Construction Co. v. National Labor Relations Board</a> (2002)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doe_v._Reed" title="Doe v. Reed">Doe v. Reed</a> (2010)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borough_of_Duryea_v._Guarnieri" title="Borough of Duryea v. Guarnieri">Borough of Duryea v. Guarnieri</a> (2011)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Smith_Act_trials_of_Communist_Party_leaders&oldid=1240226622">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Smith_Act_trials_of_Communist_Party_leaders&oldid=1240226622</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1949_in_American_law" title="Category:1949 in American law">1949 in American law</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1950s_in_American_law" title="Category:1950s in American law">1950s in American law</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1940s_trials" title="Category:1940s trials">1940s trials</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1950s_trials" title="Category:1950s trials">1950s trials</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1949_in_New_York_City" title="Category:1949 in New York City">1949 in New York City</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1950s_in_New_York_City" title="Category:1950s in New York City">1950s in New York City</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:American_communists" title="Category:American communists">American communists</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Anti-communism_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Anti-communism in the United States">Anti-communism in the United States</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Political_and_cultural_purges" title="Category:Political and cultural purges">Political and cultural purges</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Category:First Amendment to the United States Constitution">First Amendment to the United States Constitution</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:McCarthyism" title="Category:McCarthyism">McCarthyism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:People_convicted_under_the_Smith_Act" title="Category:People convicted under the Smith Act">People convicted under the Smith Act</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Political_repression_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Political repression in the United States">Political repression in the United States</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Sedition" title="Category:Sedition">Sedition</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:United_States_federal_criminal_legislation" title="Category:United States federal criminal legislation">United States federal criminal legislation</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:United_States_federal_defense_and_national_security_legislation" title="Category:United States federal defense and national security legislation">United States federal defense and national security legislation</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Civil_Rights_Congress" title="Category:Civil Rights Congress">Civil Rights Congress</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Communist_Party_USA_litigation" title="Category:Communist Party USA litigation">Communist Party USA litigation</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Featured_articles" title="Category:Featured articles">Featured articles</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 14 August 2024, at 06:25 (UTC).</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. 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