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data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Definition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Definition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Definition</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Definition-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Definition subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Definition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Legalism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legalism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Legalism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legalism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sociology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sociology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Sociology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sociology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Psychology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Psychology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Psychology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Psychology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Study" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Study"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Study</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Study-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Crime_statistics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Crime_statistics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Crime statistics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Crime_statistics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Public_perception" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Public_perception"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Public perception</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Public_perception-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Natural-law_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Natural-law_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Natural-law theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Natural-law_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Early history</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Post-classical_era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Post-classical_era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Post-classical era</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Post-classical_era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Modern era</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Types" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Types"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Types</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Types-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Types subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Types-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-White-collar_crime" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#White-collar_crime"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>White-collar crime</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-White-collar_crime-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Blue-collar_crime" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Blue-collar_crime"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Blue-collar crime</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Blue-collar_crime-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Violent_crime" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Violent_crime"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Violent crime</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Violent_crime-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Property_crime" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Property_crime"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4</span> <span>Property crime</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Property_crime-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Public_order_crime" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Public_order_crime"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.5</span> <span>Public order crime</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Public_order_crime-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Political_crime" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_crime"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.6</span> <span>Political crime</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Political_crime-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Inchoate_crime" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Inchoate_crime"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.7</span> <span>Inchoate crime</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Inchoate_crime-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Participants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Participants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Participants</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Participants-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Participants subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Participants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Criminal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criminal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Criminal</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Criminal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Victim" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Victim"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Victim</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Victim-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criminal_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criminal_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Criminal law</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Criminal_law-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Criminal law subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Criminal_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Criminalization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criminalization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Criminalization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Criminalization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criminal_justice" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criminal_justice"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Criminal justice</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Criminal_justice-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Law_enforcement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Law_enforcement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2.1</span> <span>Law enforcement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Law_enforcement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criminal_procedure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criminal_procedure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2.2</span> <span>Criminal procedure</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Criminal_procedure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Corrections_and_punishment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Corrections_and_punishment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2.3</span> <span>Corrections and punishment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Corrections_and_punishment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Liability" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Liability"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.3</span> <span>Liability</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Liability-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-International_criminal_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#International_criminal_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.4</span> <span>International criminal law</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-International_criminal_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Causes_and_correlates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Causes_and_correlates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Causes and correlates</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Causes_and_correlates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Crime</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 110 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-110" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">110 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misdaad" title="Misdaad – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Misdaad" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%85%D8%A9" title="جريمة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="جريمة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cinay%C9%99t" title="Cinayət – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Cinayət" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%88%DA%86" title="سوچ – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="سوچ" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%85%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A7" title="অপরাধ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="অপরাধ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ho%C4%81n-ch%C5%8De" title="Hoān-chōe – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Hoān-chōe" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%87%D1%8B%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Злачынства – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Злачынства" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%87%D1%8B%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Злачынства – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Злачынства" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A7" title="अपराध – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="अपराध" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krimen" title="Krimen – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Krimen" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8A%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5" title="Престъпление – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Престъпление" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kriminal" title="Kriminal – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Kriminal" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torfed" title="Torfed – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Torfed" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crim" title="Crim – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Crim" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB" title="Криминал – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Криминал" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trestn%C3%BD_%C4%8Din" title="Trestný čin – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Trestný čin" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trosedd" title="Trosedd – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Trosedd" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forbrydelse" title="Forbrydelse – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Forbrydelse" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verbrechen" title="Verbrechen – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Verbrechen" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuritegu" title="Kuritegu – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Kuritegu" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%88%CE%B3%CE%BA%CE%BB%CE%B7%CE%BC%CE%B1" title="Έγκλημα – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Έγκλημα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crimen" title="Crimen – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Crimen" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krimo" title="Krimo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Krimo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krimen" title="Krimen – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Krimen" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B2%D9%87" title="بزه – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="بزه" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%B3garbrot" title="Lógarbrot – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Lógarbrot" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Føroyskt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crime" title="Crime – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Crime" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misdie" title="Misdie – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Misdie" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coir" title="Coir – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Coir" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crime" title="Crime – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Crime" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B2%94%EC%A3%84" title="범죄 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="범죄" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laifi" title="Laifi – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Laifi" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%A1%D5%B6%D6%81%D5%A1%D5%B6%D6%84" title="Հանցանք – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Հանցանք" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A7" title="अपराध – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="अपराध" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazneno_djelo" title="Kazneno djelo – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Kazneno djelo" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krimino" title="Krimino – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Krimino" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pidana" title="Pidana – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Pidana" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crimine" title="Crimine – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Crimine" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gl%C3%A6pur" title="Glæpur – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Glæpur" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crimine" title="Crimine – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Crimine" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A2%D7%91%D7%99%D7%A8%D7%94" title="עבירה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="עבירה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kadurjanan" title="Kadurjanan – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Kadurjanan" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%85%E0%B2%AA%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%A7" title="ಅಪರಾಧ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಅಪರಾಧ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%93%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90%E1%83%A8%E1%83%90%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98" title="დანაშაული – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="დანაშაული" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%9A%D1%8B%D0%BB%D0%BC%D1%8B%D1%81" title="Қылмыс – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Қылмыс" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jinai" title="Jinai – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Jinai" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krim" title="Krim – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Krim" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krim" title="Krim – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Krim" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tawan" title="Tawan – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Tawan" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%8B%D0%BB%D0%BC%D1%8B%D1%88" title="Кылмыш – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Кылмыш" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%AD%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%8A%E0%BA%B0%E0%BA%8D%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%81%E0%BA%B3" title="ອາຊະຍາກຳ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ອາຊະຍາກຳ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ລາວ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scelus" title="Scelus – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Scelus" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noziegums" title="Noziegums – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Noziegums" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nusikaltimas" title="Nusikaltimas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Nusikaltimas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criminaliteit" title="Criminaliteit – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Criminaliteit" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C5%B1ncselekm%C3%A9ny" title="Bűncselekmény – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Bűncselekmény" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Злосторство – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Злосторство" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heloka_bevava" title="Heloka bevava – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Heloka bevava" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%85%E0%B4%AA%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A7%E0%B4%82" title="അപരാധം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="അപരാധം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A7" title="अपराध – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="अपराध" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%85%D9%87" title="الجريمه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="الجريمه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jenayah" title="Jenayah – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Jenayah" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crime" title="Crime – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Crime" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Mirandés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9B%E1%80%AC%E1%80%87%E1%80%9D%E1%80%90%E1%80%BA%E1%80%99%E1%80%BE%E1%80%AF" title="ရာဇဝတ်မှု – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ရာဇဝတ်မှု" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misdaad" title="Misdaad – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Misdaad" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A7" title="अपराध – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="अपराध" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A7" title="अपराध – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="अपराध" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%8A%AF%E7%BD%AA" title="犯罪 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="犯罪" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forbrytelse" title="Forbrytelse – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Forbrytelse" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crime" title="Crime – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Crime" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yakka" title="Yakka – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Yakka" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oromoo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jinoyat" title="Jinoyat – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Jinoyat" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%9C%E0%A9%81%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%AE" title="ਜੁਰਮ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਜੁਰਮ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%B1%D9%85" title="جرم – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="جرم" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kraim" title="Kraim – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Kraim" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Przest%C4%99pstwo" title="Przestępstwo – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Przestępstwo" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crime" title="Crime – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Crime" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C4%B1nayat" title="Jınayat – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Jınayat" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Qaraqalpaqsha</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrac%C8%9Biune" title="Infracțiune – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Infracțiune" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Q%27uma" title="Q'uma – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Q'uma" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D1%83%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5" title="Преступление – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Преступление" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%83%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B9%D1%83_%D0%BE%D2%A5%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%83%D1%83" title="Буруйу оҥоруу – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Буруйу оҥоруу" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krimi" title="Krimi – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Krimi" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%85%E0%B6%B4%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%B0" title="අපරාධ – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="අපරාධ" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crime" title="Crime – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Crime" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trestn%C3%BD_%C4%8Din" title="Trestný čin – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Trestný čin" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kriminal" title="Kriminal – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Kriminal" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gef" title="Gef – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Gef" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Soomaaliga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86" title="تاوان – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="تاوان" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%B8%D0%BD" title="Злочин – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Злочин" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kriminal" title="Kriminal – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Kriminal" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rikos" title="Rikos – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Rikos" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brott" title="Brott – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Brott" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krimen" title="Krimen – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Krimen" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B1%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="குற்றம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="குற்றம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%96%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F%D1%82%D1%8C" title="Җинаять – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Җинаять" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%A8%E0%B1%87%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%82" title="నేరం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="నేరం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%8D%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A1" title="อาชญากรรม – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="อาชญากรรม" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%B6%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%8F%D1%82" title="Ҷиноят – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Ҷиноят" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Su%C3%A7" title="Suç – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Suç" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%B8%D0%BD" title="Злочин – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Злочин" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%8F%D8%B1%D9%85" title="جُرم – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="جُرم" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%E1%BB%99i_ph%E1%BA%A1m" title="Tội phạm – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/30px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Unlawful act punishable by an authority</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Criminal" and "Criminals" redirect here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Crime_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Crime (disambiguation)">Crime (disambiguation)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Criminal_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Criminal (disambiguation)">Criminal (disambiguation)</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Criminals_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Criminals (disambiguation)">Criminals (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p> In ordinary language, a <b>crime</b> is an unlawful act punishable by a <a href="/wiki/State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">state</a> or other authority.<sup id="cite_ref-oed_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oed-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term <i>crime</i> does not, in modern <a href="/wiki/Criminal_law" title="Criminal law">criminal law</a>, have any simple and universally accepted definition,<sup id="cite_ref-Farmer_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Farmer-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though <a href="/wiki/Statutory" class="mw-redirect" title="Statutory">statutory</a> definitions have been provided for certain purposes.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most popular view is that crime is a <a href="/wiki/Category_of_being" class="mw-redirect" title="Category of being">category</a> created by <a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">law</a>; in other words, something is a crime if declared as such by the relevant and applicable law.<sup id="cite_ref-Farmer_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Farmer-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One proposed definition is that a crime or <b>offence</b> (or <b>criminal offence</b>) is an act harmful not only to some individual but also to a community, society, or the state ("a public <a href="/wiki/Wrong" class="mw-redirect" title="Wrong">wrong</a>"). Such acts are forbidden and punishable by law.<sup id="cite_ref-oed_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oed-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-oxdic_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oxdic-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The notion that acts such as <a href="/wiki/Murder" title="Murder">murder</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rape" title="Rape">rape</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Theft" title="Theft">theft</a> are to be prohibited exists worldwide.<sup id="cite_ref-bbc_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bbc-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> What precisely is a criminal offence is defined by the <a href="/wiki/Criminal_law" title="Criminal law">criminal law</a> of each relevant <a href="/wiki/Jurisdiction" title="Jurisdiction">jurisdiction</a>. While many have a catalogue of crimes called the <a href="/wiki/Criminal_code" title="Criminal code">criminal code</a>, in some <a href="/wiki/Common_law_(legal_system)" class="mw-redirect" title="Common law (legal system)">common law</a> nations no such comprehensive <a href="/wiki/Statute" title="Statute">statute</a> exists. </p><p>The state (<a href="/wiki/Forms_of_government" class="mw-redirect" title="Forms of government">government</a>) has the power to severely restrict one's <a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">liberty</a> for committing a crime. In modern societies, there are <a href="/wiki/Criminal_procedure" title="Criminal procedure">procedures</a> to which investigations and <a href="/wiki/Trial" title="Trial">trials</a> must adhere. If found <a href="/wiki/Guilt_(law)" title="Guilt (law)">guilty</a>, an offender may be <a href="/wiki/Sentence_(law)" title="Sentence (law)">sentenced</a> to a form of reparation such as a <a href="/wiki/Community_sentence" title="Community sentence">community sentence</a>, or, depending on the nature of their offence, to undergo <a href="/wiki/Imprisonment" title="Imprisonment">imprisonment</a>, <a href="/wiki/Life_imprisonment" title="Life imprisonment">life imprisonment</a> or, in some <a href="/wiki/Jurisdiction" title="Jurisdiction">jurisdictions</a>, <a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment" title="Capital punishment">death</a>. </p><p>Usually, to be classified as a crime, the "act of doing something criminal" (<i><a href="/wiki/Actus_reus" title="Actus reus">actus reus</a></i>) must – with <a href="/wiki/Strict_liability" title="Strict liability">certain exceptions</a> – be accompanied by the "intention to do something criminal" (<i><a href="/wiki/Mens_rea" title="Mens rea">mens rea</a></i>).<sup id="cite_ref-oxdic_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oxdic-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While every crime violates the law, not every <a href="/wiki/Violation_of_the_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Violation of the law">violation of the law</a> counts as a crime. Breaches of <a href="/wiki/Private_law" title="Private law">private law</a> (<a href="/wiki/Tort" title="Tort">torts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Breach_of_contract" title="Breach of contract">breaches of contract</a>) are not automatically punished by the state, but can be enforced through <a href="/wiki/Civil_procedure" title="Civil procedure">civil procedure</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definition">Definition</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output 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.sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/Criminology" title="Criminology">Criminology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Penology" title="Penology">penology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding:0.5em 1.0em 1.0em;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Pentonvilleiso19.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Pentonvilleiso19.jpg/220px-Pentonvilleiso19.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Pentonvilleiso19.jpg/330px-Pentonvilleiso19.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Pentonvilleiso19.jpg/440px-Pentonvilleiso19.jpg 2x" data-file-width="797" data-file-height="525" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddf;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Theory</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.75em;padding-right:0.75em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anomie" title="Anomie">Anomie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosocial_criminology" title="Biosocial criminology">Biosocial criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Broken_windows_theory" title="Broken windows theory">Broken windows</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collective_efficacy" title="Collective efficacy">Collective efficacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_analysis" title="Crime analysis">Crime analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminalization" title="Criminalization">Criminalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Differential_association" title="Differential association">Differential association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deviance_(sociology)" title="Deviance (sociology)">Deviance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expressive_function_of_law" title="Expressive function of law">Expressive function of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labeling_theory" title="Labeling theory">Labeling theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychopathy" title="Psychopathy">Psychopathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rational_choice_theory_(criminology)" title="Rational choice theory (criminology)">Rational choice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Risk_and_actuarial_criminology" title="Risk and actuarial criminology">Risk and actuarial criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_control_theory" title="Social control theory">Social control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_learning_theory" title="Social learning theory">Social learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strain_theory_(sociology)" title="Strain theory (sociology)">Strain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subcultural_theory" title="Subcultural theory">Subculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbolic_interactionism" title="Symbolic interactionism">Symbolic interactionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victimology" title="Victimology">Victimology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Secondary_victimisation" title="Secondary victimisation">Secondary victimisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victim_blaming" title="Victim blaming">Victim blaming</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victims%27_rights" title="Victims' rights">Victims' rights</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddf;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Types of <a class="mw-selflink selflink">crime</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li>Against <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crimes_against_humanity" title="Crimes against humanity">Humanity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Offence_against_the_person" title="Offence against the person">Person</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Offence_against_the_state" class="mw-redirect" title="Offence against the state">State</a></li></ul></li> <li>Class <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blue-collar_crime" title="Blue-collar crime">Blue-collar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White-collar_crime" title="White-collar crime">White-collar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_case" title="Cold case">Cold case</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Perfect_crime" title="Perfect crime">Perfect</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_crime" title="Corporate crime">Corporate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_crime" title="Hate crime">Hate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_criminal_law" title="International criminal law">International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juvenile_delinquency" title="Juvenile delinquency">Juvenile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organized_crime" title="Organized crime">Organized</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_crime" title="Political crime">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public-order_crime" title="Public-order crime"><span class="nowrap">Public-order</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_crime" title="State crime">State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State-corporate_crime" title="State-corporate crime">State-corporate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transnational_crime" title="Transnational crime">Transnational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victimless_crime" title="Victimless crime">Victimless</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crime" title="War crime">War</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddf;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Methods</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_historical_research" title="Comparative historical research">Comparative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Offender_profiling" title="Offender profiling">Profiling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">Ethnography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniform_Crime_Reports" title="Uniform Crime Reports">Uniform Crime Reports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_mapping" title="Crime mapping">Crime mapping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_prevention" title="Crime prevention">Crime prevention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_statistics" title="Crime statistics">Crime statistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivist_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Positivist school">Positivist school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qualitative_research" title="Qualitative research">Qualitative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_research" title="Quantitative research">Quantitative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Justice_Statistics" title="Bureau of Justice Statistics">BJS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Incident-Based_Reporting_System" title="National Incident-Based Reporting System">NIBRS</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddf;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Penology" title="Penology">Penology</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.15em;padding-bottom:0.6em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Denunciation_(penology)" title="Denunciation (penology)">Denunciation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deterrence_(penology)" title="Deterrence (penology)">Deterrence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incapacitation_(penology)" title="Incapacitation (penology)">Incapacitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trial" title="Trial">Trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prison" title="Prison">Prison</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prison_abolition_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Prison abolition movement">abolition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_prison" title="Open prison">open</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prison_reform" title="Prison reform">reform</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prisoner" title="Prisoner">Prisoner</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prisoner_abuse" title="Prisoner abuse">Prisoner abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prisoners%27_rights" title="Prisoners' rights">Prisoners' rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punishment" title="Punishment">Punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rehabilitation_(penology)" title="Rehabilitation (penology)">Rehabilitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recidivism" title="Recidivism">Recidivism</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#e9e9ff;font-weight:normal;padding-bottom:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a> in penology</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.15em;padding-bottom:0.6em;;padding-bottom:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Participatory_justice" title="Participatory justice">Participatory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restorative_justice" title="Restorative justice">Restorative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transformative_justice" title="Transformative justice">Transformative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retributive_justice" title="Retributive justice">Retributive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice#Utilitarian_justice" title="Justice">Utilitarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solitary_confinement" title="Solitary confinement">Solitary confinement</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddf;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Schools</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchist_criminology" title="Anarchist criminology">Anarchist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_school_(sociology)" title="Chicago school (sociology)">Chicago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_school_(criminology)" title="Classical school (criminology)">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_criminology" title="Conflict criminology">Conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_criminology" title="Critical criminology">Critical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_criminology" title="Environmental criminology">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_school_of_criminology" title="Feminist school of criminology">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrative_criminology" title="Integrative criminology">Integrative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_school_of_criminology" title="Italian school of criminology">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_and_order_(politics)" title="Law and order (politics)">Law and order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_criminology" title="Marxist criminology">Marxist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-classical_school_(criminology)" title="Neo-classical school (criminology)">Neo-classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penal_populism" title="Penal populism">Populist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivist_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Positivist school">Positivist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodernist_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Postmodernist school">Postmodernist</a></li> <li>Realism <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Left_realism" title="Left realism">Left</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_realism" title="Right realism">Right</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddf;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Subfields</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Society_of_Criminology" title="American Society of Criminology">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropological_criminology" title="Anthropological criminology">Anthropological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosocial_criminology" title="Biosocial criminology">Biosocial criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_criminology" title="Conflict criminology">Conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminology" title="Criminology">Criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_criminology" title="Cultural criminology">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cybercrime" title="Cybercrime"> Cyber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demography" title="Demography">Demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_theory" title="Development theory">Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_criminology" title="Environmental criminology">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_criminology" title="Experimental criminology">Experimental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_theory" title="Organizational theory">Organizational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_crime" title="Political crime">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_criminology" title="Public criminology">Public</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_criminology" title="Radical criminology">Radical criminology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddf;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Browse</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_criminology_articles" title="Index of criminology articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Criminology_journals" title="Category:Criminology journals">Journals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Criminology_organizations" title="Category:Criminology organizations">Organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_criminologists" title="List of criminologists">People</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Criminology_and_penology" title="Template:Criminology and penology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Criminology_and_penology" title="Template talk:Criminology and penology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Criminology_and_penology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Criminology and penology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1202158006">.mw-parser-output .law-sidebar .sidebar-heading{background:#aaddff;color:#000}.mw-parser-output .law-sidebar .sidebar-above{font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .law-sidebar .sidebar-below{padding:0.4em;border-top:1px #aaa solid;font-weight:normal;font-size:smaller}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist law-sidebar"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-top-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Handcuffs_icon.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Handcuffs_icon.svg/100px-Handcuffs_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Handcuffs_icon.svg/150px-Handcuffs_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Handcuffs_icon.svg/200px-Handcuffs_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/Criminal_law" title="Criminal law">Criminal law</a></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Element_(criminal_law)" title="Element (criminal law)">Elements</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Actus_reus" title="Actus reus">Actus reus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mens_rea" title="Mens rea">Mens rea</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causation_(law)" title="Causation (law)">Causation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concurrence" title="Concurrence">Concurrence</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Scope of criminal <a href="/wiki/Legal_liability" title="Legal liability">liability</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accessory_(legal_term)" title="Accessory (legal term)">Accessory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aiding_and_abetting" title="Aiding and abetting">Accomplice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Complicity" title="Complicity">Complicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_liability" title="Corporate liability">Corporate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principal_(criminal_law)" title="Principal (criminal law)">Principal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vicarious_liability_(criminal)" title="Vicarious liability (criminal)">Vicarious</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Severity of offense</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Felony" title="Felony">Felony</a> (or <a href="/wiki/Indictable_offence" title="Indictable offence">Indictable offense</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Summary_offence#United_States" title="Summary offence">Infraction</a> (also called violation)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misdemeanor" title="Misdemeanor">Misdemeanor</a> (or <a href="/wiki/Summary_offence" title="Summary offence">Summary offense</a>)</li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Inchoate_offense" title="Inchoate offense">Inchoate offenses</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attempt" title="Attempt">Attempt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_conspiracy" title="Criminal conspiracy">Conspiracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incitement" title="Incitement">Incitement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solicitation" title="Solicitation">Solicitation</a></li></ul> </td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Offence_against_the_person" title="Offence against the person">Offense against the person</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assassination" title="Assassination">Assassination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assault" title="Assault">Assault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battery_(crime)" title="Battery (crime)">Battery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_abuse" title="Child abuse">Child abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_negligence" title="Criminal negligence">Criminal negligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence" title="Domestic violence">Domestic violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_imprisonment" title="False imprisonment">False imprisonment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frameup" title="Frameup">Frameup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harassment" title="Harassment">Harassment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Home_invasion" title="Home invasion">Home invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_crime" title="Hate crime">Hate crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homicide" title="Homicide">Homicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking" title="Human trafficking">Human trafficking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intimidation" title="Intimidation">Intimidation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kidnapping" title="Kidnapping">Kidnapping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menacing" title="Menacing">Menacing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manslaughter" title="Manslaughter">Manslaughter</a> (<a href="/wiki/Corporate_manslaughter" title="Corporate manslaughter">corporate</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mayhem_(crime)" title="Mayhem (crime)">Mayhem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder" title="Murder">Murder</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Felony_murder_rule" title="Felony murder rule">felony</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preterintention" title="Preterintention">Preterintention</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Homicide" title="Homicide">Homicide</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negligent_homicide" title="Negligent homicide">Negligent homicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reckless_homicide" title="Reckless homicide">Reckless homicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robbery" title="Robbery">Robbery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalking" title="Stalking">Stalking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stabbing" title="Stabbing">Stabbing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torture" title="Torture">Torture</a></li></ul> </td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Sex_and_the_law" title="Sex and the law">Sexual offenses</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adultery" title="Adultery">Adultery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bigamy" title="Bigamy">Bigamy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_sexual_abuse" title="Child sexual abuse">Child sexual abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cybersex_trafficking" title="Cybersex trafficking">Cybersex trafficking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fornication#Across_history,_cultures,_and_laws" title="Fornication">Fornication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminalization_of_homosexuality" title="Criminalization of homosexuality">Homosexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legality_of_incest" title="Legality of incest">Incest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indecent_exposure" title="Indecent exposure">Indecent exposure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masturbation#Law" title="Masturbation">Masturbation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obscenity" title="Obscenity">Obscenity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution" title="Prostitution">Prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rape" title="Rape">Rape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pederasty" title="Pederasty">Pederasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_trafficking" title="Sex trafficking">Sex trafficking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_assault" title="Sexual assault">Sexual assault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_harassment" title="Sexual harassment">Sexual harassment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_slavery" title="Sexual slavery">Sexual slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voyeurism" title="Voyeurism">Voyeurism</a></li></ul> </td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Crimes against property</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arson" title="Arson">Arson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arms_trafficking" title="Arms trafficking">Arms trafficking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackmail" title="Blackmail">Blackmail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bribery" title="Bribery">Bribery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burglary" title="Burglary">Burglary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cybercrime" title="Cybercrime">Cybercrime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embezzlement" title="Embezzlement">Embezzlement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extortion" title="Extortion">Extortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_pretenses" title="False pretenses">False pretenses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forgery" title="Forgery">Forgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fraud" title="Fraud">Fraud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gambling" title="Gambling">Gambling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intellectual_property" title="Intellectual property">Intellectual property violation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larceny" title="Larceny">Larceny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Looting" title="Looting">Looting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Payola" title="Payola">Payola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pickpocketing" title="Pickpocketing">Pickpocketing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Possession_of_stolen_goods" title="Possession of stolen goods">Possessing stolen property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robbery" title="Robbery">Robbery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smuggling" title="Smuggling">Smuggling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_evasion" title="Tax evasion">Tax evasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theft" title="Theft">Theft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trespass_to_land" title="Trespass to land">Trespass to land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vandalism" title="Vandalism">Vandalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mischief" title="Mischief">Mischief</a></li></ul> </td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Crimes against justice</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compounding_a_felony" title="Compounding a felony">Compounding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malfeasance_in_office" title="Malfeasance in office">Malfeasance in office</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miscarriage_of_justice" title="Miscarriage of justice">Miscarriage of justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misprision_of_felony" title="Misprision of felony">Misprision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obstruction_of_justice" class="mw-redirect" title="Obstruction of justice">Obstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perjury" title="Perjury">Perjury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perverting_the_course_of_justice" title="Perverting the course of justice">Perverting the course of justice</a></li></ul> </td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Crimes against the public</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apostasy" title="Apostasy">Apostasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Begging" title="Begging">Begging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption" title="Corruption">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorship" title="Censorship">Censorship violation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duel" title="Duel">Dueling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">Genocide</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing" title="Ethnic cleansing">Ethnic cleansing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hostage" title="Hostage">Hostage-taking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insider_trading" title="Insider trading">Insider trading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smuggling" title="Smuggling">Smuggling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumptuary_law" title="Sumptuary law">Illegal consumption</a> (such as prohibition of <a href="/wiki/Prohibition_of_drugs" class="mw-redirect" title="Prohibition of drugs">drugs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prohibition" title="Prohibition">alcohol</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Smoking_ban" title="Smoking ban">smoking</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-miscegenation_laws" title="Anti-miscegenation laws">Miscegenation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piracy" title="Piracy">Piracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_corruption" title="Political corruption">Political corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regicide" title="Regicide">Regicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrorism" title="Terrorism">Terrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Usurper" title="Usurper">Usurpation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crime" title="War crime">War crimes</a></li></ul> </td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Crimes against animals</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cruelty_to_animals" title="Cruelty to animals">Cruelty to animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poaching" title="Poaching">Poaching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_smuggling" title="Wildlife smuggling">Wildlife smuggling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoophilia" title="Zoophilia">Bestiality</a></li></ul> </td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Crimes against the state</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%A8se-majest%C3%A9" title="Lèse-majesté">Lèse-majesté</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treason" title="Treason">Treason</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Espionage" title="Espionage">Espionage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secession" title="Secession">Secession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sedition" title="Sedition">Sedition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subversion" title="Subversion">Subversion</a></li></ul> </td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Defense_(legal)" title="Defense (legal)">Defenses to liability</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Actual_innocence" title="Actual innocence">Actual innocence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automatism_(law)" title="Automatism (law)">Automatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consent" title="Consent">Consent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defence_of_property" title="Defence of property">Defense of property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diminished_responsibility" title="Diminished responsibility">Diminished responsibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coercion" title="Coercion">Duress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entrapment" title="Entrapment">Entrapment</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ignorantia_juris_non_excusat" title="Ignorantia juris non excusat">Ignorantia juris non excusat</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_criminal_responsibility" title="Age of criminal responsibility">Infancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insanity_defense" title="Insanity defense">Insanity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justification_(jurisprudence)" title="Justification (jurisprudence)">Justification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mistake_(criminal_law)" title="Mistake (criminal law)">Mistake</a> (<a href="/wiki/Mistake_of_law" title="Mistake of law">of law</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Necessity_(criminal_law)" title="Necessity (criminal law)">Necessity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provocation_(law)" title="Provocation (law)">Provocation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_of_self-defense" title="Right of self-defense">Self-defense</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Other common-law areas</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Contract" title="Contract">Contracts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_defenses" title="Criminal defenses">Defenses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence_(law)" title="Evidence (law)">Evidence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_law" title="Property law">Property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tort" title="Tort">Torts</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Will_and_testament" title="Will and testament">Wills</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trust_(law)" title="Trust (law)">trusts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Administration_(probate_law)" title="Administration (probate law)">estates</a></span></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Portals</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Law" title="Portal:Law">Law</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Criminal_law" title="Template:Criminal law"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Criminal_law" title="Template talk:Criminal law"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Criminal_law" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Criminal law"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table><p>The exact definition of crime is a philosophical issue without an agreed upon answer. Fields such as law, politics, sociology, and psychology define crime in different ways.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFattah199730–37_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFattah199730–37-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Crimes may be variously considered as wrongs against individuals, against the community, or against the state.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAshworthHorder20132–3_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAshworthHorder20132–3-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The criminality of an action is dependent on its context; acts of violence will be seen as crimes in many circumstances but as permissible or desirable in others.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFattah199749_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFattah199749-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Crime was historically seen as a manifestation of <a href="/wiki/Evil" title="Evil">evil</a>, but this has been superseded by modern criminal theories.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESumner20045_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESumner20045-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Legalism">Legalism</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Western_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Western philosophy)">Legalism (Western philosophy)</a></div> <p>Legal and political definitions of crime consider actions that are banned by authorities or punishable by law.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFattah199731–35_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFattah199731–35-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Crime is defined by the criminal law of a given jurisdiction, including all actions that are subject to <a href="/wiki/Criminal_procedure" title="Criminal procedure">criminal procedure</a>. There is no limit to what can be considered a crime in a legal system, so there may not be a unifying principle used to determine whether an action should be designated as a crime.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From a legal perspective, crimes are generally wrong actions that are severe enough to warrant punishment that infringes on the perpetrator's liberties.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAshworthHorder20131–2_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAshworthHorder20131–2-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/English_criminal_law" title="English criminal law">English criminal law</a> and the related <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a> of <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Nations" title="Commonwealth of Nations">Commonwealth</a> countries can define offences that the courts alone have developed over the years, without any actual legislation: <a href="/wiki/Common_law_offence" title="Common law offence">common law offences</a>. The courts used the concept of <i><a href="/wiki/Malum_in_se" title="Malum in se">malum in se</a></i> to develop various common law offences.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sociology">Sociology</h3></div> <p>As a sociological concept, crime is associated with actions that cause <a href="/wiki/Harm" title="Harm">harm</a> and violate <a href="/wiki/Social_norm" title="Social norm">social norms</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFattah199735–36_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFattah199735–36-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under this definition, crime is a type of <a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">social construct</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESumner20043_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESumner20043-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and societal attitudes determine what is considered criminal.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFattah199729_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFattah199729-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoth201410_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoth201410-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In legal systems based on <a href="/wiki/Legal_moralism" title="Legal moralism">legal moralism</a>, the predominant moral beliefs of society determine the legal definition as well as the social definition of crime. This system is less prominent in <a href="/wiki/Liberal_democratic" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberal democratic">liberal democratic</a> societies that prioritize <a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">individualism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">multiculturalism</a> over other moral beliefs.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFattah199738_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFattah199738-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Paternalism" title="Paternalism">Paternalism</a> defines crime not only as harm to others or to society, but also as harm to the self.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFattah199738_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFattah199738-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Psychology">Psychology</h3></div> <p>Psychological definitions consider the state of mind of perpetrators and their relationship with their environment.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFattah199736–37_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFattah199736–37-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Study">Study</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Criminology" title="Criminology">Criminology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Crime_science" title="Crime science">Crime science</a></div> <p>The study of crime is called <i>criminology</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFattah199729_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFattah199729-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Criminology is a subfield of <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociology</a> that addresses issues of <a href="/wiki/Social_norm" title="Social norm">social norms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Social_order" title="Social order">social order</a>, <a href="/wiki/Deviance_(sociology)" title="Deviance (sociology)">deviance</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Violence" title="Violence">violence</a>. It includes the <a href="/wiki/Motivations_for_hate_crime" class="mw-redirect" title="Motivations for hate crime">motivations</a> and <a href="/wiki/Criminal_justice" title="Criminal justice">consequences</a> of crime and its <a href="/wiki/Suspect" title="Suspect">perpetrators</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/Crime_prevention" title="Crime prevention">preventative measures</a>, either studying criminal acts on an individual level or the relationship of crime and the community.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Due to the wide range of concepts associated with crime and the disagreement on a precise definition, the focus of criminology can vary considerably.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFattah199729_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFattah199729-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Various theories within criminology provide different descriptions and explanations for crime, including <a href="/wiki/Social_control_theory" title="Social control theory">social control theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Subcultural_theory" title="Subcultural theory">subcultural theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Strain_theory_(sociology)" title="Strain theory (sociology)">strain theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Differential_association" title="Differential association">differential association</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Labeling_theory" title="Labeling theory">labeling theory</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Subfields of criminology and related fields of study include <a href="/wiki/Crime_prevention" title="Crime prevention">crime prevention</a>, <a href="/wiki/Criminal_law" title="Criminal law">criminal law</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crime_statistics" title="Crime statistics">crime statistics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anthropological_criminology" title="Anthropological criminology">anthropological criminology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Criminal_psychology" title="Criminal psychology">criminal psychology</a>, criminal sociology, criminal <a href="/wiki/Psychiatry" title="Psychiatry">psychiatry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Victimology" title="Victimology">victimology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Penology" title="Penology">penology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Forensic_science" title="Forensic science">forensic science</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoefnagels197357–66_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoefnagels197357–66-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Besides sociology, criminology is often associated with law and psychology.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPease20107_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPease20107-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Crime_statistics">Crime statistics</h2></div> <p>Information and statistics about crime in a given jurisdiction are collected as crime estimates, typically produced by national or international agencies. Methods to collect <a href="/wiki/Crime_statistics" title="Crime statistics">crime statistics</a> may vary, even between jurisdictions within the same nation.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Under-reporting" title="Under-reporting">Under-reporting</a> of crime is common, particularly in developing nations, resulting in the <a href="/wiki/Dark_figure_of_crime" title="Dark figure of crime">dark figure of crime</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Victim_study" title="Victim study">Victim studies</a> may be used to determine the frequency of crime in a given population.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The gap to official statistics is generally smaller with higher <a href="/wiki/Crime_harm_index" title="Crime harm index">severity of the crime</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-walsh_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-walsh-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Clearance_rate" title="Clearance rate">Clearance rate</a> measures the fraction of crimes where a <a href="/wiki/Criminal_charge" title="Criminal charge">criminal charge</a> has been laid or the responsible person <a href="/wiki/Conviction" title="Conviction">convicted</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-d087_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-d087-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Fear_of_crime" title="Fear of crime">Fear of crime</a> can be distinct from crime <a href="/wiki/Probability" title="Probability">probability</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Public_perception">Public perception</h2></div> <p>Crime is often a high priority political issue in developed countries, regardless of the country's crime rates. People that are not regularly exposed to crime most often experience it through media, including news reporting and <a href="/wiki/Crime_fiction" title="Crime fiction">crime fiction</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFattah19974_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFattah19974-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Exposure of crime through news stories is associated with <a href="/wiki/Alarmism" title="Alarmism">alarmism</a> and inaccurate perceptions of crime trends. <a href="/wiki/Selection_bias" title="Selection bias">Selection bias</a> in new stories about criminals significantly over-represent the prevalence of violent crime, and news reporting will often overemphasize a specific type of crime for a period of time, creating a "crime wave" effect.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFattah199714–16_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFattah199714–16-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As public opinion of morality changes over time, actions that were once condemned as crimes may be considered justifiable.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFattah199763–64_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFattah199763–64-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Natural-law_theory">Natural-law theory</h2></div> <p>Justifying the state's use of <a href="/wiki/Coercion" title="Coercion">force</a> to coerce compliance with its laws has proven a consistent theoretical problem. One of the earliest justifications involved the theory of <a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">natural law</a>. This posits that the nature of the world or of human beings underlies the standards of <a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">morality</a> or constructs them. <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a> wrote in the 13th century: "the rule and measure of human acts is the <a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">reason</a>, which is the first principle of human acts".<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He regarded people as by nature <a href="/wiki/Rationality" title="Rationality">rational</a> beings, concluding that it becomes morally appropriate that they should behave in a way that conforms to their rational nature. Thus, to be valid, any law must conform to natural law and coercing people to conform to that law is morally acceptable. In the 1760s, <a href="/wiki/William_Blackstone" title="William Blackstone">William Blackstone</a> described the thesis:<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd>"This law of nature, being co-eval with mankind and dictated by God himself, is of course superior in obligation to any other. It is binding over all the globe, in all countries, and at all times: no human laws are of any validity, if contrary to this; and such of them as are valid derive all their force, and all their authority, mediately or immediately, from this original."</dd></dl> <p>But <a href="/wiki/John_Austin_(legal_philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="John Austin (legal philosophy)">John Austin</a> (1790–1859), an early <a href="/wiki/Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">positivist</a>, applied <a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">utilitarianism</a> in accepting the calculating nature of human beings and the existence of an objective morality. He denied that the legal validity of a norm depends on whether its content conforms to morality. Thus, in Austinian terms, a moral code can objectively determine what people ought to do, the law can embody whatever norms the legislature decrees to achieve social utility, but every individual remains free to choose what to do. Similarly, <a href="/wiki/H._L._A._Hart" title="H. L. A. Hart">H.L.A. Hart</a> saw the law as an aspect of <a href="/wiki/Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">sovereignty</a>, with lawmakers able to adopt any law as a means to a moral end.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Thus the necessary and sufficient conditions for the truth of a proposition of law involved internal <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Consistency" title="Consistency">consistency</a>, and that the state's agents used state power with <a href="/wiki/Social_responsibility" title="Social responsibility">responsibility</a>. <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Dworkin" title="Ronald Dworkin">Ronald Dworkin</a> rejects Hart's theory and proposes that all individuals should expect the equal respect and concern of those who govern them as a fundamental political right. He offers a theory of compliance overlaid by a theory of <a href="/wiki/Deference" title="Deference">deference</a> (the citizen's duty to obey the law) and a theory of enforcement, which identifies the legitimate goals of enforcement and punishment. Legislation must conform to a theory of legitimacy, which describes the circumstances under which a particular person or group is entitled to make law, and a theory of legislative justice, which describes the law they are entitled or obliged to make.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are natural-law theorists who have accepted the idea of enforcing the prevailing morality as a primary function of the law.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This view entails the problem that it makes any moral criticism of the law impossible: if conformity with natural law forms a necessary condition for legal validity, all valid law must, by definition, count as morally just. Thus, on this line of reasoning, the legal validity of a norm necessarily entails its moral justice.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_history">Early history</h3></div> <p>Restrictions on behavior existed in all prehistoric societies.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoth201418_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoth201418-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Crime in early human society was seen as a personal transgression and was addressed by the community as a whole rather than through a formal legal system,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoth20149_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoth20149-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> often through the use of custom, religion, or the rule of a tribal leader.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoth201446_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoth201446-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some of the oldest extant writings are ancient <a href="/wiki/Criminal_code" title="Criminal code">criminal codes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoth20149_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoth20149-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The earliest known criminal code was the <a href="/wiki/Code_of_Ur-Nammu" title="Code of Ur-Nammu">Code of Ur-Nammu</a> (<span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 2100</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 2050 BC</span>),<sup id="cite_ref-schoyen_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-schoyen-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the first known criminal code that incorporated retaliatory justice was the <a href="/wiki/Code_of_Hammurabi" title="Code of Hammurabi">Code of Hammurabi</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoth201426_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoth201426-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The latter influenced the conception of crime across several civilizations over the following millennia.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoth201447_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoth201447-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Romans</a> systematized law and applied their system across the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>. The initial rules of <a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Roman law</a> regarded assaults as a matter of private compensation. The most significant Roman law concept involved <i>dominion</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most acts recognized as crimes in ancient societies, such as violence and theft, have persisted to the modern era.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoth201442_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoth201442-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The criminal justice system of Imperial China existed unbroken for over 2,000 years.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoth201436_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoth201436-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many of the earliest conceptions of crime are associated with <a href="/wiki/Sin" title="Sin">sin</a> and corresponded to acts that were believed to invoke the anger of a deity.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoth201418_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoth201418-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This idea was further popularized with the development of the <a href="/wiki/Abrahamic_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Abrahamic religion">Abrahamic religions</a>. The understanding of crime and sin were closely associated with one another for much of history, and conceptions of crime took on many of the ideas associated with sin.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoth20148_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoth20148-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Islamic_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic law">Islamic law</a> developed its own system of criminal justice as <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> spread in the seventh and eighth centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoth201464_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoth201464-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Post-classical_era">Post-classical era</h3></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Post-classical" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-classical">post-classical</a> Europe and East Asia, central government was limited and crime was defined locally. Towns established their own criminal justice systems, while crime in the countryside was defined by the social hierarchies of <a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">feudalism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoth201484,_91–94_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoth201484,_91–94-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In some places, such as the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Kingdom of Italy">Kingdom of Italy</a>, feudal justice survived into the 19th century.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoth201497–105_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoth201497–105-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">Common law</a> first developed in England under the rule of <a href="/wiki/Henry_II_of_England" title="Henry II of England">Henry II</a> in the 12th century. He established a system of traveling judges that tried accused criminals in each region of England by applying precedent from previous rulings.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoth201463–64_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoth201463–64-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Legal developments in 12th century England also resulted in the earliest known recording of official crime data.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoth20149_39-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoth20149-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_era">Modern era</h3></div> <p>In the modern era, crime came to be seen as an issue affecting society rather than conflicts between individuals. Writers such as <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Thomas Hobbes</a> saw crime as a societal issue as early as the 17th century.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESumner20045_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESumner20045-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Imprisonment" title="Imprisonment">Imprisonment</a> developed as a long-term penalty for crime in the 18th century.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoth20148_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoth20148-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Increasing <a href="/wiki/Urbanization" title="Urbanization">urbanization</a> and <a href="/wiki/Industrialization" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrialization">industrialization</a> in the 19th century caused crime to become an immediate issue that affected society, prompting government intervention in crime and the establishment of criminology as its own field.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESumner20045_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESumner20045-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Anthropological_criminology" title="Anthropological criminology">Anthropological criminology</a> was popularized by <a href="/wiki/Cesare_Lombroso" title="Cesare Lombroso">Cesare Lombroso</a> in the late-19th century. This was a <a href="/wiki/Biological_determinist" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological determinist">biological determinist</a> school of thought based in <a href="/wiki/Social_darwinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Social darwinism">social darwinism</a>, arguing that certain people are naturally born as criminals.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavie201023–24_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavie201023–24-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Eugenics" title="Eugenics">eugenics</a> movement of the early-20th century similarly held that crime was caused primarily by genetic factors.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavie201038_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavie201038-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The concept of crime underwent a period of change as <a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">modernism</a> was widely accepted in the years following <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>. Crime increasingly came to be seen as a societal issue, and criminal law was seen as a means to protect the public from <a href="/wiki/Anti-social_behaviour" title="Anti-social behaviour">antisocial</a> behavior. This idea was associated with a larger trend in the western world toward <a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">social democracy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Centre-left_politics" title="Centre-left politics">centre-left politics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESumner20044–5_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESumner20044–5-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Through most of history, reporting of crime was generally local. The advent of <a href="/wiki/Mass_media" title="Mass media">mass media</a> through radio and television in the mid-20th century allowed for the sensationalism of crime. This created well-known stories of criminals such as <a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_Dahmer" title="Jeffrey Dahmer">Jeffrey Dahmer</a>, and it allowed for dramatization that perpetuates misconceptions about crime.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFattah199714_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFattah199714-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Forensic science was popularized in the 1980s, establishing <a href="/wiki/DNA_profiling" title="DNA profiling">DNA profiling</a> as a new method to prevent and analyze crime.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavie201043_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavie201043-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types">Types</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="White-collar_crime">White-collar crime</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/White-collar_crime" title="White-collar crime">White-collar crime</a></div> <p>White-collar crime refers to financially motivated, nonviolent or non-directly violent crime committed by individuals, businesses and government professionals.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The crimes are believed to be committed by middle- or upper-class individuals for financial gains. Typical white-collar crimes could include <a href="/wiki/Wage_theft" title="Wage theft">wage theft</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fraud" title="Fraud">fraud</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bribery" title="Bribery">bribery</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ponzi_scheme" title="Ponzi scheme">Ponzi schemes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Insider_trading" title="Insider trading">insider trading</a>, <a href="/wiki/Racketeering" title="Racketeering">labor racketeering</a>, <a href="/wiki/Embezzlement" title="Embezzlement">embezzlement</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cybercrime" title="Cybercrime">cybercrime</a>, <a href="/wiki/Copyright_infringement" title="Copyright infringement">copyright infringement</a>, <a href="/wiki/Money_laundering" title="Money laundering">money laundering</a>, <a href="/wiki/Identity_theft" title="Identity theft">identity theft</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Forgery" title="Forgery">forgery</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Blue-collar_crime">Blue-collar crime</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Blue-collar_crime" title="Blue-collar crime">Blue-collar crime</a></div> <p>Blue-collar crime is any crime committed by an individual from a lower <a href="/wiki/Social_class" title="Social class">social class</a> as opposed to white-collar crime which is associated with crime committed by someone of a higher-level social class. These crimes are primarily small scale, for immediate beneficial gain to the individual or group involved in them. Examples of blue-collar crime include Narcotic production or distribution, <a href="/wiki/Sexual_assault" title="Sexual assault">sexual assault</a>, <a href="/wiki/Theft" title="Theft">theft</a>, <a href="/wiki/Burglary" title="Burglary">burglary</a>, <a href="/wiki/Assault" title="Assault">assault</a> or <a href="/wiki/Murder" title="Murder">murder</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Violent_crime">Violent crime</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Violent_crime" title="Violent crime">Violent crime</a> and <a href="/wiki/Offence_against_the_person" title="Offence against the person">Offence against the person</a></div> <p>Violent crime is crime that involves an act of violent <a href="/wiki/Aggression" title="Aggression">aggression</a> against another person.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Common examples of violent crime include <a href="/wiki/Homicide" title="Homicide">homicide</a>, <a href="/wiki/Assault" title="Assault">assault</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sexual_assault" title="Sexual assault">sexual assault</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Robbery" title="Robbery">robbery</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some violent crimes, such as assault, may be committed with the intention of causing harm. Other violent crimes, such as robbery, may use violence to further another goal. Violent crime is distinct from noncriminal types of violence, such as <a href="/wiki/Self-defense" title="Self-defense">self-defense</a>, <a href="/wiki/Use_of_force" title="Use of force">use of force</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Acts_of_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Acts of war">acts of war</a>. Acts of violence are most often perceived as deviant when they are committed as an overreaction or a disproportionate response to provocation.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_58-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Property_crime">Property crime</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Property_crime" title="Property crime">Property crime</a></div> <p>Common examples of property crime include <a href="/wiki/Burglary" title="Burglary">burglary</a>, <a href="/wiki/Theft" title="Theft">theft</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Vandalism" title="Vandalism">vandalism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Examples of financial crimes include <a href="/wiki/Counterfeiting" class="mw-redirect" title="Counterfeiting">counterfeiting</a>, <a href="/wiki/Smuggling" title="Smuggling">smuggling</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tax_evasion" title="Tax evasion">tax evasion</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Bribery" title="Bribery">bribery</a>. The scope of financial crimes has expanded significantly since the beginning of modern economics in the 17th century.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoth201413_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoth201413-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Occupational_crime" title="Occupational crime">occupational crime</a>, the complexity and anonymity of computer systems may help criminal employees camouflage their operations. The victims of the most costly <a href="/wiki/Confidence_trick" class="mw-redirect" title="Confidence trick">scams</a> include banks, brokerage houses, insurance companies, and other large financial institutions.<sup id="cite_ref-Computing1_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Computing1-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Public_order_crime">Public order crime</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Public-order_crime" title="Public-order crime">Public-order crime</a></div> <p>Public order crime is crime that violates a society's norms about what constitutes socially acceptable behavior. Examples of public order crimes include <a href="/wiki/Gambling" title="Gambling">gambling</a>, <a href="/wiki/Drug-related_crime" title="Drug-related crime">drug-related crime</a>, <a href="/wiki/Public_intoxication" title="Public intoxication">public intoxication</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prostitution" title="Prostitution">prostitution</a>, <a href="/wiki/Loitering" title="Loitering">loitering</a>, <a href="/wiki/Breach_of_the_peace" title="Breach of the peace">breach of the peace</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aggressive_panhandling" title="Aggressive panhandling">panhandling</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vagrancy" title="Vagrancy">vagrancy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Street_harassment" title="Street harassment">street harassment</a>, <a href="/wiki/Noise_regulation" title="Noise regulation">excessive noise</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Littering" class="mw-redirect" title="Littering">littering</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESkogan2012173–174_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESkogan2012173–174-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Public order crime is associated with the <a href="/wiki/Broken_windows_theory" title="Broken windows theory">broken windows theory</a>, which posits that public order crimes increase the likelihood of other types of crime.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESkogan2012173_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESkogan2012173-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some public order crimes are considered <a href="/wiki/Victimless_crime" title="Victimless crime">victimless crimes</a> in which no specific victim can be identified.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most nations in the <a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">Western world</a> have moved toward decriminalization of victimless crimes in the modern era.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETonry20113_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETonry20113-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Adultery" title="Adultery">Adultery</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fornication" title="Fornication">fornication</a>, <a href="/wiki/Blasphemy" title="Blasphemy">blasphemy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Apostasy" title="Apostasy">apostasy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Thou_shalt_not_take_the_name_of_the_Lord_thy_God_in_vain" title="Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord thy God in vain">invoking the name of God</a> are commonly recognized as crimes in <a href="/wiki/Theocratic" class="mw-redirect" title="Theocratic">theocratic</a> societies or those heavily influenced by religion.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoth201411_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoth201411-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Political_crime">Political crime</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Political_crime" title="Political crime">Political crime</a></div> <p>Political crime is crime that directly challenges or threatens the state. Examples of political crimes include <a href="/wiki/Subversion" title="Subversion">subversion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rebellion" title="Rebellion">rebellion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Treason" title="Treason">treason</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mutiny" title="Mutiny">mutiny</a>, <a href="/wiki/Espionage" title="Espionage">espionage</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sedition" title="Sedition">sedition</a>, <a href="/wiki/Terrorism" title="Terrorism">terrorism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Riot" title="Riot">riot</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Unlawful_assembly" title="Unlawful assembly">unlawful assembly</a>. Political crimes are associated with the <a href="/wiki/Political_agenda" title="Political agenda">political agenda</a> of a given state, and they are necessarily applied against political <a href="/wiki/Dissident" title="Dissident">dissidents</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHead20161_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHead20161-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Due to their unique relation to the state, political crimes are often encouraged by one nation against another, and it is political alignment rather than the act itself that determines criminality.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoefnagels1973111_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoefnagels1973111-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHead20162_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHead20162-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/State_crime" title="State crime">State crime</a> that is carried out by the state to <a href="/wiki/Political_repression" title="Political repression">repress</a> law-abiding citizens may also be considered political crime.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoss20033–4_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoss20033–4-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Inchoate_crime">Inchoate crime</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Inchoate_offense" title="Inchoate offense">Inchoate offense</a></div> <p>Inchoate crime is crime that is carried out in anticipation of other illegal actions but does not cause direct harm. Examples of inchoate crimes include <a href="/wiki/Attempt" title="Attempt">attempt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Conspiracy" title="Conspiracy">conspiracy</a>. Inchoate crimes are defined by substantial action to facilitate a crime with the intention of the crime's occurrence. This is distinct from simple preparation for or consideration of criminal activity. They are unique in that <a href="/wiki/Renunciation" title="Renunciation">renunciation</a> of criminal intention is generally enough to absolve the perpetrator of criminal liability, as their actions are no longer facilitating a potential future crime.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Participants">Participants</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Criminal">Criminal</h3></div> <p>A criminal is an individual who commits a crime. What constitutes a criminal can vary depending on the context and the law, and it often carries a pejorative connotation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFattah1997123–124_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFattah1997123–124-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Criminals are often seen as embodying certain stereotypes or traits and are seen as a distinct type of person from law-abiding citizens. Despite this, no mental or physical trend is identifiable that differentiates criminals from non-criminals.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFattah1997125–126_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFattah1997125–126-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Public response to criminals may be indignant or sympathetic. Indignant responses involve resentment and a desire for vengeance, wishing to see criminals removed from society or made to suffer for harm that they cause. Sympathetic responses involve compassion and understanding, seeking to rehabilitate or forgive criminals and absolve them of blame.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoefnagels197316–17_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoefnagels197316–17-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Victim">Victim</h3></div> <p>A victim is an individual who has been treated unjustly or made to suffer.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpalek20174_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpalek20174-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the context of crime, the victim is the individual that is harmed by a violation of criminal law.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpalek20173_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpalek20173-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Victimization is associated with <a href="/wiki/Post-traumatic_stress" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-traumatic stress">post-traumatic stress</a> and a long-term decrease in <a href="/wiki/Quality_of_life" title="Quality of life">quality of life</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Victimology is the study of victims, including their role in crime and how they are affected.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpalek20173_79-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpalek20173-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Several factors affect an individual's likelihood of becoming a victim. Some factors may cause victims of crime to experience short-term or long-term "repeat victimization".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBottomsCostello2010674–675_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBottomsCostello2010674–675-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFattah1997153_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFattah1997153-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Common long-term victims are those that have close relationships with the criminal, manifesting in crimes such as <a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence" title="Domestic violence">domestic violence</a>, <a href="/wiki/Embezzlement" title="Embezzlement">embezzlement</a>, <a href="/wiki/Child_abuse" title="Child abuse">child abuse</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Bullying" title="Bullying">bullying</a>. Repeat victimization may also occur when a potential victim appears to be a viable target, such as when indicating wealth in a less affluent region.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBottomsCostello2010674–675_81-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBottomsCostello2010674–675-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many of the traits that indicate criminality also indicate victimality; victims of crime are more likely to engage in unlawful behavior and respond to provocation. Overall demographic trends of victims and criminals are often similar, and victims are more likely to have engaged in criminal activities themselves.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFattah1997150_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFattah1997150-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpalek20172_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpalek20172-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The victims may only want compensation for the injuries suffered, while remaining indifferent to a possible desire for <a href="/wiki/Deterrence_(psychology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Deterrence (psychology)">deterrence</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Victims, on their own, may lack the economies of scale that could allow them to administer a penal system, let alone to collect any fines levied by a court.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historically, from ancient times until the 19th century, many societies believed that non-human <a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">animals</a> were capable of committing crimes, and prosecuted and punished them accordingly.<sup id="cite_ref-Girgen_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Girgen-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Prosecutions of animals gradually dwindled during the 19th century, although a few were recorded as late as the 1910s and 1920s.<sup id="cite_ref-Girgen_87-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Girgen-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criminal_law">Criminal law</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Criminal_law" title="Criminal law">Criminal law</a></div> <p>Virtually all countries in the 21st century have criminal law grounded in <a href="/wiki/Civil_law_(common_law)" title="Civil law (common law)">civil law</a>, <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a>, <a href="/wiki/Islamic_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic law">Islamic law</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Socialist_law" title="Socialist law">socialist law</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoth201448_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoth201448-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historically, criminal codes have often divided criminals by class or caste, prescribing different penalties depending on status.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoth201411_69-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoth201411-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In some tribal societies, an entire clan is recognized as liable for a crime. In many cases, disputes over a crime in this system lead to a <a href="/wiki/Feud" title="Feud">feud</a> that lasts over several generations.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoth201423–24_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoth201423–24-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Criminalization">Criminalization</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Criminalization" title="Criminalization">Criminalization</a></div> <p>The state determines what actions are considered criminal in the scope of the law.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAshworthHorder201322_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAshworthHorder201322-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Criminalization has significant <a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">human rights</a> considerations, as it can infringe on rights of autonomy and subject individuals to unjust punishment.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAshworthHorder201332–33_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAshworthHorder201332–33-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Criminal_justice">Criminal justice</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Criminal_justice" title="Criminal justice">Criminal justice</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Law_enforcement">Law enforcement</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement" title="Law enforcement">Law enforcement</a></div> <p>The enforcement of criminal law seeks to prevent crime and sanction crimes that do occur. This enforcement is carried out by the state through <a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement_agency" title="Law enforcement agency">law enforcement agencies</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Police" title="Police">police</a>, which are empowered to <a href="/wiki/Arrest" title="Arrest">arrest</a> suspected perpetrators of crimes.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Law enforcement may focus on policing individual crimes, or it may focus on bringing down overall crime rates.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Neill2010485–486_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Neill2010485–486-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One common variant, <a href="/wiki/Community_policing" title="Community policing">community policing</a>, seeks to prevent crime by integrating police into the community and public life.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Neill2010487_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Neill2010487-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Criminal_procedure">Criminal procedure</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Criminal_procedure" title="Criminal procedure">Criminal procedure</a></div> <p>When the perpetrator of a crime is found guilty of the crime, the state delivers a <a href="/wiki/Sentence_(law)" title="Sentence (law)">sentence</a> to determine the penalty for the crime.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAshworthHorder201318_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAshworthHorder201318-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Corrections_and_punishment">Corrections and punishment</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Corrections" title="Corrections">Corrections</a> and <a href="/wiki/Punishment" title="Punishment">Punishment</a></div> <p>Authorities may respond to crime through corrections, carrying out punishment as a means to <a href="/wiki/Censure" title="Censure">censure</a> the criminal act.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoefnagels1973138_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoefnagels1973138-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Punishment is generally reserved for serious offenses. Individuals regularly engage in activity that could be scrutinized under criminal law but are deemed inconsequential.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoefnagels1973133_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoefnagels1973133-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Retributive_justice" title="Retributive justice">Retributive justice</a> seeks to create a system of <a href="/wiki/Accountability" title="Accountability">accountability</a> and punish criminals in a way that knowingly causes suffering.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoefnagels197317–18_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoefnagels197317–18-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This may arise out of a feeling that criminals deserve to suffer and that punishment should exist for its own sake. The existence of punishment also creates an effect of <a href="/wiki/Deterrence_(penology)" title="Deterrence (penology)">deterrence</a> that discourages criminal action for fear of punishment.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAshworthHorder201316_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAshworthHorder201316-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Rehabilitation_(penology)" title="Rehabilitation (penology)">Rehabilitation</a> seeks to understand and mitigate the causes of a criminal's unlawful action to prevent <a href="/wiki/Recidivism" title="Recidivism">recidivism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELipseyLandenbergerChapman2004211_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELipseyLandenbergerChapman2004211-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Different criminological theories propose different methods of rehabilitation, including strengthening <a href="/wiki/Social_network" title="Social network">social networks</a>, reducing <a href="/wiki/Poverty" title="Poverty">poverty</a>, influencing <a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics_and_social_sciences)" class="mw-redirect" title="Value (ethics and social sciences)">values</a>, and providing <a href="/wiki/Therapy" title="Therapy">therapy</a> for physical and mental ailments.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELipseyLandenbergerChapman2004212–213_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELipseyLandenbergerChapman2004212–213-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rehabilitative programs may include <a href="/wiki/Counseling" class="mw-redirect" title="Counseling">counseling</a> or <a href="/wiki/Vocational_education" title="Vocational education">vocational education</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELipseyLandenbergerChapman2004215_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELipseyLandenbergerChapman2004215-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Developed nations are less likely to use physical punishments. Instead, they will impose financial penalties or imprisonment.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoth201411_69-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoth201411-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In places with widespread corruption or limited <a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">rule of law</a>, crime may be punished extralegally through <a href="/wiki/Mob_rule" title="Mob rule">mob rule</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lynching" title="Lynching">lynching</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoth201424_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoth201424-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Whether a crime can be resolved through financial compensation varies depending on the culture and the specific context of the crime. Historically, many societies have absolved acts of homicide through compensation to the victim's relatives.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoth201423_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoth201423-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Liability">Liability</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Legal_liability" title="Legal liability">Legal liability</a></div> <p>If a crime is committed, the individual responsible is considered to be liable for the crime. For liability to exist, the individual must be capable of understanding the criminal process and the relevant authority must have legitimate power to establish what constitutes a crime.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="International_criminal_law">International criminal law</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/International_criminal_law" title="International criminal law">International criminal law</a></div> <p>International criminal law typically addresses serious offenses, such as <a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">genocide</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crimes_against_humanity" title="Crimes against humanity">crimes against humanity</a>, and <a href="/wiki/War_crime" title="War crime">war crimes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As with all international law, these laws are created through <a href="/wiki/Treaties" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaties">treaties</a> and <a href="/wiki/Customary_international_law" title="Customary international law">international custom</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBantekasNash20092–3_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBantekasNash20092–3-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and they are defined through the consensus of the involved states.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBantekasNash20096_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBantekasNash20096-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> International crimes are not prosecuted through a standard legal system, though international organizations may establish <a href="/wiki/Tribunal" title="Tribunal">tribunals</a> to investigate and rule on egregious offenses such as genocide.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBantekasNash200910–11_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBantekasNash200910–11-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Causes_and_correlates">Causes and correlates</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Causes_and_correlates_of_crime" class="mw-redirect" title="Causes and correlates of crime">Causes and correlates of crime</a></div> <p>Criminal behavior determinants include <a href="/wiki/Cost%E2%80%93benefit_analysis" title="Cost–benefit analysis">cost–benefit analysis</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-:2_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Crime_of_opportunity" title="Crime of opportunity">opportunity</a> or <a href="/wiki/Crime_of_passion" title="Crime of passion">crime of passion</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-a498_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-a498-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A person that commits a criminal act typically believes that its benefits will outweigh the risk of being caught and punished. Negative economic factors, such as <a href="/wiki/Unemployment" title="Unemployment">unemployment</a> and <a href="/wiki/Income_inequality" class="mw-redirect" title="Income inequality">income inequality</a>, can increase the incentive to commit crime, while severe punishments can <a href="/wiki/Deterrence_theory" title="Deterrence theory">deter</a> crime in some cases.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_25-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Social factors similarly affect the likelihood of criminal activity.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_25-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Crime corresponds heavily with <a href="/wiki/Social_integration" title="Social integration">social integration</a>; groups that are less integrated with society or that are forcibly integrated with society are more likely to engage in crime.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESumner20045–6_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESumner20045–6-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Involvement in the community, such as through a church, decreases the likelihood of crime, while associating with criminals increases the likelihood of becoming a criminal as well.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_25-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There is no known <a href="/wiki/Genetics_and_crime" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetics and crime">genetic cause of crime</a>. Some genes have been found to affect traits that may incline individuals toward criminal activity, but no biological or physiological trait has been found to directly cause or compel criminal actions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavie201044–45_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavie201044–45-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One biological factor is the <a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_crime" title="Sex differences in crime">disparity between men and women</a>, as men are significantly more likely to commit crimes than women in virtually all cultures. Crimes committed by men also tend to be more severe than those committed by women.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Crime distribution shows a <a href="/wiki/Long_tail" title="Long tail">long tail</a> with a small fraction of individuals re-offending many times due to high <a href="/wiki/Recidivism" title="Recidivism">recidivism</a>, while onset of crime at younger age predicts a longer criminal career.<sup id="cite_ref-f204_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-f204-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Balance,_by_David.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/30px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/46px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/61px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="606" data-file-height="558" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Law" title="Portal:Law">Law portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_displacement" title="Crime displacement">Crime displacement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_and_order_(politics)" title="Law and order (politics)">Law and order (politics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">Rule of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organized_crime" title="Organized crime">Organized crime</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-oed-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-oed_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-oed_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation book cs1">"Crime". <i>Oxford English Dictionary Second Edition on CD-ROM</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Crime&rft.btitle=Oxford+English+Dictionary+Second+Edition+on+CD-ROM&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrime" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Farmer-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Farmer_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Farmer_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Farmer, Lindsay: "Crime, definitions of", in Cane and Conoghan (editors), <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_Oxford_Companion_to_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="The New Oxford Companion to Law">The New Oxford Companion to Law</a></i>, Oxford University Press, 2008 (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-929054-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-929054-3">978-0-19-929054-3</a>), p. 263 (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xjo5AQAAIAAJ">Google Books</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160604015215/https://books.google.com/books?id=xjo5AQAAIAAJ">Archived</a> 2016-06-04 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In the United Kingdom, for instance, the definitions provided by section 243(2) of the <a href="/wiki/Trade_Union_and_Labour_Relations_(Consolidation)_Act_1992" title="Trade Union and Labour Relations (Consolidation) Act 1992">Trade Union and Labour Relations (Consolidation) Act 1992</a> and by the Schedule to the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Prevention_of_Crimes_Act_1871&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Prevention of Crimes Act 1871 (page does not exist)">Prevention of Crimes Act 1871</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-oxdic-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-oxdic_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-oxdic_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElizabeth_A._Martin2003" class="citation book cs1">Elizabeth A. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 June</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=What+is+crime%3F&rft.date=2010-06-17&rft.aulast=Easton&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fblogs%2Fthereporters%2Fmarkeaston%2F2010%2F06%2Fwhat_is_crime.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrime" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFattah199730–37-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFattah199730–37_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFattah1997">Fattah 1997</a>, pp. 30–37.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAshworthHorder20132–3-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAshworthHorder20132–3_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAshworthHorder2013">Ashworth & Horder 2013</a>, pp. 2–3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFattah199749-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFattah199749_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFattah1997">Fattah 1997</a>, p. 49.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESumner20045-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESumner20045_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESumner20045_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESumner20045_9-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSumner2004">Sumner 2004</a>, p. 5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFattah199731–35-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFattah199731–35_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFattah1997">Fattah 1997</a>, pp. 31–35.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLamond2007" class="citation journal cs1">Lamond, G. 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Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4522-5820-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4522-5820-1"><bdi>978-1-4522-5820-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Criminology%3A+A+Text%2FReader&rft.place=Thousand+Oaks%2C+CA&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=SAGE+Publications%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-4522-5820-1&rft.aulast=Walsh&rft.aufirst=Anthony&rft.au=Hemmens%2C+Craig&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrime" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-d087-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-d087_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiemSuonpääLehtiKivivuori2018" class="citation journal cs1">Liem, Marieke; Suonpää, Karoliina; Lehti, Martti; Kivivuori, Janne; Granath, Sven; Walser, Simone; Killias, Martin (30 March 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1477370818764840">"Homicide clearance in Western Europe"</a>. <i>European Journal of Criminology</i>. <b>16</b> (1). SAGE Publications: <span class="nowrap">81–</span>101. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1477370818764840">10.1177/1477370818764840</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/1887%2F64091">1887/64091</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1477-3708">1477-3708</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=European+Journal+of+Criminology&rft.atitle=Homicide+clearance+in+Western+Europe&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E81-%3C%2Fspan%3E101&rft.date=2018-03-30&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F1887%2F64091&rft.issn=1477-3708&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F1477370818764840&rft.aulast=Liem&rft.aufirst=Marieke&rft.au=Suonp%C3%A4%C3%A4%2C+Karoliina&rft.au=Lehti%2C+Martti&rft.au=Kivivuori%2C+Janne&rft.au=Granath%2C+Sven&rft.au=Walser%2C+Simone&rft.au=Killias%2C+Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1177%252F1477370818764840&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrime" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:6-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:6_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLee2001" class="citation journal cs1">Lee, Murray (November 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1362480601005004004">"The Genesis of 'Fear of Crime'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>Theoretical Criminology</i>. <b>5</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">467–</span>485. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1362480601005004004">10.1177/1362480601005004004</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1362-4806">1362-4806</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Theoretical+Criminology&rft.atitle=The+Genesis+of+%27Fear+of+Crime%27&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E467-%3C%2Fspan%3E485&rft.date=2001-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F1362480601005004004&rft.issn=1362-4806&rft.aulast=Lee&rft.aufirst=Murray&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjournals.sagepub.com%2Fdoi%2F10.1177%2F1362480601005004004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrime" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFattah19974-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFattah19974_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFattah1997">Fattah 1997</a>, p. 4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFattah199714–16-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFattah199714–16_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFattah1997">Fattah 1997</a>, pp. 14–16.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFattah199763–64-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFattah199763–64_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFattah1997">Fattah 1997</a>, pp. 63–64.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomas,_Aquinas2002" class="citation book cs1">Thomas, Aquinas (2002). <i>On law, morality, and politics</i>. Regan, Richard J., Baumgarth, William P. (2nd ed.). Indianapolis: Hackett Pub. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0872206637" title="Special:BookSources/0872206637"><bdi>0872206637</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/50423002">50423002</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=On+law%2C+morality%2C+and+politics&rft.place=Indianapolis&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Hackett+Pub&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F50423002&rft.isbn=0872206637&rft.au=Thomas%2C+Aquinas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrime" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlackstone,_William1979" class="citation book cs1">Blackstone, William (1979). <i>Commentaries on the laws of England</i>. William Blackstone Collection (Library of Congress). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 41. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0226055361" title="Special:BookSources/0226055361"><bdi>0226055361</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/4832359">4832359</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Commentaries+on+the+laws+of+England&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=41&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1979&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F4832359&rft.isbn=0226055361&rft.au=Blackstone%2C+William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrime" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHart,_Herbert_Lionel_Adolphus1994" class="citation book cs1">Hart, Herbert Lionel Adolphus (1994). <i>The concept of law</i> (2nd ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0198761228" title="Special:BookSources/0198761228"><bdi>0198761228</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/31410701">31410701</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+concept+of+law&rft.place=Oxford&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1994&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F31410701&rft.isbn=0198761228&rft.au=Hart%2C+Herbert+Lionel+Adolphus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrime" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDworkin,_Ronald.1978" class="citation book cs1">Dworkin, Ronald. (1978). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/takingrightsseri00dwor"><i>Taking rights seriously : [with a new appendix, a response to critics]</i></a></span>. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0674867114" title="Special:BookSources/0674867114"><bdi>0674867114</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/4313351">4313351</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Taking+rights+seriously+%3A+%5Bwith+a+new+appendix%2C+a+response+to+critics%5D&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1978&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F4313351&rft.isbn=0674867114&rft.au=Dworkin%2C+Ronald.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftakingrightsseri00dwor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrime" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFinnis2015" class="citation book cs1">Finnis, John (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/natural-law-theories/"><i>Natural Law & Natural Rights</i></a>. 3.2 Natural law & (purely) positive law as concurrent dimensions of legal reasoning. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">OUP</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0199599141" title="Special:BookSources/978-0199599141"><bdi>978-0199599141</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190806015838/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/natural-law-theories/">Archived</a> from the original on 2019-08-06<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-07-17</span></span>. <q>The moral standards...which Dworkin (in line with natural law theory) treats as capable of being morally objective & true, thus function as a direct source of law and...as already law, except when their fit with the whole set of social-fact sources in the relevant community is so weak that it would be more accurate (according to Dworkin) to say that judges who apply them are applying morality not law.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Natural+Law+%26+Natural+Rights&rft.pub=OUP&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0199599141&rft.aulast=Finnis&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fnatural-law-theories%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrime" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBix2015" class="citation journal cs1">Bix, Brian H. (August 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4000%2Frevus.3984">"Kelsen, Hart, & legal normativity"</a>. 3.3 Law and morality. <i>Revus</i>. <b>34</b> (34). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4000%2Frevus.3984">10.4000/revus.3984</a></span>. <q>...it was part of the task of a legal theorist to explain the 'normativity' or 'authority' of law, by which they meant 'our sense that 'legal' norms provide agents with special reasons for acting, reasons they would not have if the norm were not a 'legal' one'...this may be a matter calling more for a psychological or sociological explanation, rather than a philosophical one.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Revus&rft.atitle=Kelsen%2C+Hart%2C+%26+legal+normativity&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=34&rft.date=2015-08&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4000%2Frevus.3984&rft.aulast=Bix&rft.aufirst=Brian+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.4000%252Frevus.3984&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrime" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoth201418-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoth201418_38-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoth201418_38-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoth2014">Roth 2014</a>, p. 18.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoth20149-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoth20149_39-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoth20149_39-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoth20149_39-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoth2014">Roth 2014</a>, p. 9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoth201446-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoth201446_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoth2014">Roth 2014</a>, p. 46.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-schoyen-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-schoyen_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.schoyencollection.com/law/sumerian/ur-nammu-ms-2064">"The Ur-Nammu Law Code"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Sch%C3%B8yen_Collection" title="Schøyen Collection">Schøyen Collection</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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(2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2910433">"The impact of crime victimization on quality of life"</a>. <i>Journal of Traumatic Stress</i>. <b>23</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">189–</span>197. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fjts.20508">10.1002/jts.20508</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2910433">2910433</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20419728">20419728</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Traumatic+Stress&rft.atitle=The+impact+of+crime+victimization+on+quality+of+life&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E189-%3C%2Fspan%3E197&rft.date=2010&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2910433%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20419728&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fjts.20508&rft.aulast=Hanson&rft.aufirst=Rochelle+F.&rft.au=Sawyer%2C+Genelle+K.&rft.au=Begle%2C+Angela+M.&rft.au=Hubel%2C+Grace+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2910433&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrime" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBottomsCostello2010674–675-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBottomsCostello2010674–675_81-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBottomsCostello2010674–675_81-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBottomsCostello2010">Bottoms & Costello 2010</a>, pp. 674–675.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFattah1997153-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFattah1997153_82-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFattah1997">Fattah 1997</a>, p. 153.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFattah1997150-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFattah1997150_83-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFattah1997">Fattah 1997</a>, p. 150.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESpalek20172-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpalek20172_84-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSpalek2017">Spalek 2017</a>, p. 2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Polinsky & Shavell (1997) on the fundamental divergence between the private and the social motivation for using the legal system.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Polinsky (1980) on the enforcement of fines</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Girgen-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Girgen_87-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Girgen_87-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGirgen2003" class="citation journal cs1">Girgen, Jen (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://law.lclark.edu/live/files/26566-9cgirgen">"The Historical and Contemporary Prosecution and Punishment of Animals"</a>. <i>Animal Law Journal</i>. <b>9</b>: 97. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191229201226/https://law.lclark.edu/live/files/26566-9cgirgen">Archived</a> from the original on 29 December 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 October</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Animal+Law+Journal&rft.atitle=The+Historical+and+Contemporary+Prosecution+and+Punishment+of+Animals&rft.volume=9&rft.pages=97&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Girgen&rft.aufirst=Jen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flaw.lclark.edu%2Flive%2Ffiles%2F26566-9cgirgen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrime" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoth201448-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoth201448_88-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoth2014">Roth 2014</a>, p. 48.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoth201423–24-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoth201423–24_89-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoth2014">Roth 2014</a>, pp. 23–24.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAshworthHorder201322-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAshworthHorder201322_90-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAshworthHorder2013">Ashworth & Horder 2013</a>, p. 22.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAshworthHorder201332–33-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAshworthHorder201332–33_91-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAshworthHorder2013">Ashworth & Horder 2013</a>, pp. 32–33.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShavell1993" class="citation journal cs1">Shavell, Steven (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/467275">"The Optimal Structure of Law Enforcement"</a>. <i>The Journal 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href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Neill2010487_94-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFO'Neill2010">O'Neill 2010</a>, p. 487.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAshworthHorder201318-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAshworthHorder201318_95-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAshworthHorder2013">Ashworth & Horder 2013</a>, p. 18.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoefnagels1973138-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoefnagels1973138_96-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHoefnagels1973">Hoefnagels 1973</a>, p. 138.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoefnagels1973133-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoefnagels1973133_97-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHoefnagels1973">Hoefnagels 1973</a>, p. 133.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoefnagels197317–18-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoefnagels197317–18_98-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHoefnagels1973">Hoefnagels 1973</a>, pp. 17–18.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAshworthHorder201316-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAshworthHorder201316_99-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAshworthHorder2013">Ashworth & Horder 2013</a>, p. 16.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELipseyLandenbergerChapman2004211-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELipseyLandenbergerChapman2004211_100-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLipseyLandenbergerChapman2004">Lipsey, Landenberger & Chapman 2004</a>, p. 211.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELipseyLandenbergerChapman2004212–213-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELipseyLandenbergerChapman2004212–213_101-0">^</a></b></span> <span 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Palgrave Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781137505330" title="Special:BookSources/9781137505330"><bdi>9781137505330</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Crime+Victims%3A+Theory%2C+Policy+and+Practice&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9781137505330&rft.aulast=Spalek&rft.aufirst=Basia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbhtHEAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrime" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSumner2004" class="citation book cs1">Sumner, Colin, ed. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gcGUEAAAQBAJ"><i>The Blackwell Companion to Criminology</i></a>. Wiley. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780631220923" title="Special:BookSources/9780631220923"><bdi>9780631220923</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Blackwell+Companion+to+Criminology&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9780631220923&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgcGUEAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrime" class="Z3988"></span> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><span id="CITEREFLipseyLandenbergerChapman2004" class="citation">Lipsey, Mark W.; Landenberger, Nana A.; Chapman, Gabrielle L. "Rehabilitation: An Assessment of Theory and Research". In <a href="#CITEREFSumner2004">Sumner (2004)</a>, pp. 211–227.</span></li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTonry2011" class="citation book cs1">Tonry, Michael, ed. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.oup.com/edited-volume/28211"><i>The Oxford Handbook of Crime and Public Policy</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199940264" title="Special:BookSources/9780199940264"><bdi>9780199940264</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Crime+and+Public+Policy&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9780199940264&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Facademic.oup.com%2Fedited-volume%2F28211&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrime" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWelshFarrington2012" class="citation book cs1">Welsh, Brandon C.; Farrington, David P., eds. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.oup.com/edited-volume/36312"><i>The Oxford Handbook of Crime Prevention</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199940783" title="Special:BookSources/9780199940783"><bdi>9780199940783</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Crime+Prevention&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9780199940783&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Facademic.oup.com%2Fedited-volume%2F36312&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrime" class="Z3988"></span> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><span id="CITEREFSkogan2012" class="citation">Skogan, Wesley G. "Disorder and Crime". In <a href="#CITEREFWelshFarrington2012">Welsh & Farrington (2012)</a>, pp. 173–188.</span></li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output 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aria-labelledby="Types_of_crime505" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Types_of_crime" title="Template:Types of crime"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Types_of_crime" title="Template talk:Types of crime"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Types_of_crime" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Types of crime"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Types_of_crime505" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Types of <a class="mw-selflink selflink">crime</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div><i>Note: Crimes vary by <a href="/wiki/Jurisdiction_(area)" title="Jurisdiction (area)">jurisdiction</a>. Not all types are listed here.</i></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Classes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Infraction" class="mw-redirect" title="Infraction">Infraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misdemeanor" title="Misdemeanor">Misdemeanor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Felony" title="Felony">Felony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Summary_offence" title="Summary offence">Summary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indictable_offence" title="Indictable offence">Indictable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hybrid_offence" title="Hybrid offence">Hybrid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption" title="Corruption">Corruption</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="9" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Scale_of_justice_2.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Scales of Justice"><img alt="Scales of Justice" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Scale_of_justice_2.svg/65px-Scale_of_justice_2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="65" height="66" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Scale_of_justice_2.svg/98px-Scale_of_justice_2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Scale_of_justice_2.svg/130px-Scale_of_justice_2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="204" data-file-height="208" /></a></span><br /><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Balance,_by_David.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/30px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/46px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/61px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="606" data-file-height="558" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Law" title="Portal:Law">Law portal</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Offense_against_the_person" class="mw-redirect" title="Offense against the person">Against the person</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assassination" title="Assassination">Assassination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assault" title="Assault">Assault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battery_(crime)" title="Battery (crime)">Battery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_abuse" title="Child abuse">Child abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_negligence" title="Criminal negligence">Criminal negligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence" title="Domestic violence">Domestic violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_imprisonment" title="False imprisonment">False imprisonment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frameup" title="Frameup">Frameup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harassment" title="Harassment">Harassment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Home_invasion" title="Home invasion">Home invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_crime" title="Hate crime">Hate crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homicide" title="Homicide">Homicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking" title="Human trafficking">Human trafficking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intimidation" title="Intimidation">Intimidation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kidnapping" title="Kidnapping">Kidnapping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menacing" title="Menacing">Menacing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manslaughter" title="Manslaughter">Manslaughter</a> (<a href="/wiki/Corporate_manslaughter" title="Corporate manslaughter">corporate</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mayhem_(crime)" title="Mayhem (crime)">Mayhem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder" title="Murder">Murder</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Felony_murder_rule" title="Felony murder rule">felony</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preterintention" title="Preterintention">Preterintention</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Homicide" title="Homicide">Homicide</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negligent_homicide" title="Negligent homicide">Negligent homicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reckless_homicide" title="Reckless homicide">Reckless homicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robbery" title="Robbery">Robbery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalking" title="Stalking">Stalking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stabbing" title="Stabbing">Stabbing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torture" title="Torture">Torture</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Against <a href="/wiki/Property" title="Property">property</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <li><a href="/wiki/Arson" title="Arson">Arson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arms_trafficking" title="Arms trafficking">Arms trafficking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackmail" title="Blackmail">Blackmail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bribery" title="Bribery">Bribery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burglary" title="Burglary">Burglary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cybercrime" title="Cybercrime">Cybercrime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embezzlement" title="Embezzlement">Embezzlement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extortion" title="Extortion">Extortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_pretenses" title="False pretenses">False pretenses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forgery" title="Forgery">Forgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fraud" title="Fraud">Fraud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gambling" title="Gambling">Gambling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intellectual_property" title="Intellectual property">Intellectual property violation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larceny" title="Larceny">Larceny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Looting" title="Looting">Looting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Payola" title="Payola">Payola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pickpocketing" title="Pickpocketing">Pickpocketing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Possession_of_stolen_goods" title="Possession of stolen goods">Possessing stolen property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robbery" title="Robbery">Robbery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smuggling" title="Smuggling">Smuggling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_evasion" title="Tax evasion">Tax evasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theft" title="Theft">Theft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trespass_to_land" title="Trespass to land">Trespass to land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vandalism" title="Vandalism">Vandalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mischief" title="Mischief">Mischief</a></li></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Against the public</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <li><a href="/wiki/Apostasy" title="Apostasy">Apostasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Begging" title="Begging">Begging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption" title="Corruption">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorship" title="Censorship">Censorship violation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duel" title="Duel">Dueling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">Genocide</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing" title="Ethnic cleansing">Ethnic cleansing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hostage" title="Hostage">Hostage-taking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insider_trading" title="Insider trading">Insider trading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smuggling" title="Smuggling">Smuggling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumptuary_law" title="Sumptuary law">Illegal consumption</a> (such as prohibition of <a href="/wiki/Prohibition_of_drugs" class="mw-redirect" title="Prohibition of drugs">drugs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prohibition" title="Prohibition">alcohol</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Smoking_ban" title="Smoking ban">smoking</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-miscegenation_laws" title="Anti-miscegenation laws">Miscegenation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piracy" title="Piracy">Piracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_corruption" title="Political corruption">Political corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regicide" title="Regicide">Regicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrorism" title="Terrorism">Terrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Usurper" title="Usurper">Usurpation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crime" title="War crime">War crimes</a></li></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Against the <a href="/wiki/State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">state</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%A8se-majest%C3%A9" title="Lèse-majesté">Lèse-majesté</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treason" title="Treason">Treason</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Espionage" title="Espionage">Espionage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secession" title="Secession">Secession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sedition" title="Sedition">Sedition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subversion" title="Subversion">Subversion</a></li></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Against <a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">justice</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <li><a href="/wiki/Compounding_a_felony" title="Compounding a felony">Compounding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malfeasance_in_office" title="Malfeasance in office">Malfeasance in office</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miscarriage_of_justice" title="Miscarriage of justice">Miscarriage of justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misprision_of_felony" title="Misprision of felony">Misprision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obstruction_of_justice" class="mw-redirect" title="Obstruction of justice">Obstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perjury" title="Perjury">Perjury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perverting_the_course_of_justice" title="Perverting the course of justice">Perverting the course of justice</a></li></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Against animals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <li><a href="/wiki/Cruelty_to_animals" title="Cruelty to animals">Cruelty to animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poaching" title="Poaching">Poaching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_smuggling" title="Wildlife smuggling">Wildlife smuggling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoophilia" title="Zoophilia">Bestiality</a></li></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sex_and_the_law" title="Sex and the law">Sexual offenses</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <li><a href="/wiki/Adultery" title="Adultery">Adultery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bigamy" title="Bigamy">Bigamy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_sexual_abuse" title="Child sexual abuse">Child sexual abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cybersex_trafficking" title="Cybersex trafficking">Cybersex trafficking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fornication#Across_history,_cultures,_and_laws" title="Fornication">Fornication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminalization_of_homosexuality" title="Criminalization of homosexuality">Homosexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legality_of_incest" title="Legality of incest">Incest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indecent_exposure" title="Indecent exposure">Indecent exposure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masturbation#Law" title="Masturbation">Masturbation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obscenity" title="Obscenity">Obscenity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution" title="Prostitution">Prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rape" title="Rape">Rape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pederasty" title="Pederasty">Pederasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_trafficking" title="Sex trafficking">Sex trafficking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_assault" title="Sexual assault">Sexual assault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_harassment" title="Sexual harassment">Sexual harassment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_slavery" title="Sexual slavery">Sexual slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voyeurism" title="Voyeurism">Voyeurism</a></li></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Inchoate_offense" title="Inchoate offense">Inchoate offenses</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <li><a href="/wiki/Attempt" title="Attempt">Attempt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_conspiracy" title="Criminal conspiracy">Conspiracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incitement" title="Incitement">Incitement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solicitation" title="Solicitation">Solicitation</a></li></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <li><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Special:Search/Crime" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Special:Search/Crime">WikiSource</a></li> <li><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Crime" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Crime">Wikimedia Commons</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Crime" class="extiw" title="wikiquote:Crime">Wikiquote</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Category:Crime_and_law" class="extiw" title="wikinews:Category:Crime and law">Wikinews</a></li> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="International_criminal_law467" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:International_criminal_law" title="Template:International criminal law"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:International_criminal_law" title="Template talk:International criminal law"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:International_criminal_law" title="Special:EditPage/Template:International criminal law"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="International_criminal_law467" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/International_criminal_law" title="International criminal law">International criminal law</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sources_of_international_law" title="Sources of international law">Sources</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Customary_international_law" title="Customary international law">Customary international law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geneva_Conventions" title="Geneva Conventions">Geneva Conventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hague_Conventions_of_1899_and_1907" title="Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907">Hague Conventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_legal_theories" title="International legal theories">International legal theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_Charter" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuremberg Charter">Nuremberg Charter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_principles" title="Nuremberg principles">Nuremberg principles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peremptory_norm" title="Peremptory norm">Peremptory norm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charter_of_the_United_Nations" title="Charter of the United Nations">United Nations Charter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide_Convention" title="Genocide Convention">Genocide Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Convention_against_Corruption" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations Convention against Corruption">Convention against Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Convention_Against_Transnational_Organized_Crime" title="United Nations Convention Against Transnational Organized Crime">Convention Against Transnational Organized Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Convention_Against_Torture" title="United Nations Convention Against Torture">Convention Against Torture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rome_Statute" title="Rome Statute">Rome Statute</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/International_criminal_law" title="International criminal law">Crimes against<br />international law</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crimes_against_humanity" title="Crimes against humanity">Crimes against humanity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_of_aggression" title="Crime of aggression">Crime of aggression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_of_apartheid" title="Crime of apartheid">Crime of apartheid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">Genocide</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genocidal_intent" title="Genocidal intent">Genocidal intent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incitement_to_genocide" title="Incitement to genocide">Incitement to genocide</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piracy" title="Piracy">Piracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery" title="History of slavery">Slave trading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Starvation_(crime)" title="Starvation (crime)">Starvation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crime" title="War crime">War crime</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/International_court" title="International court">International courts</a><br /><span class="nobold">(in order of foundation)</span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_trials" title="Nuremberg trials">International Military Tribunal (Nuremberg Trials)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Military_Tribunal_for_the_Far_East" title="International Military Tribunal for the Far East">International Military Tribunal for the Far East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Tribunal_for_the_former_Yugoslavia" title="International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia">International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Tribunal_for_Rwanda" title="International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda">International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Court_for_Sierra_Leone" title="Special Court for Sierra Leone">Special Court for Sierra Leone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Court" title="International Criminal Court">International Criminal Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khmer_Rouge_Tribunal" title="Khmer Rouge Tribunal">Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Panels_for_Serious_Crimes_(East_Timor)" class="mw-redirect" title="Special Panels for Serious Crimes (East Timor)">Special Panels of the Dili District Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Tribunal_for_Lebanon" title="Special Tribunal for Lebanon">Special Tribunal for Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Residual_Mechanism_for_Criminal_Tribunals" title="International Residual Mechanism for Criminal Tribunals">International Residual Mechanism for Criminal Tribunals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International anti-crime bodies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Global_Initiative_Against_Transnational_Organized_Crime" title="Global Initiative Against Transnational Organized Crime">Global Initiative Against Transnational Organized Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Association_of_Anti-Corruption_Authorities" title="International Association of Anti-Corruption Authorities">International Association of Anti-Corruption Authorities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Congress_on_Crime_Prevention_and_Criminal_Justice" title="United Nations Congress on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice">UN Congress on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Office_on_Drugs_and_Crime" title="United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime">UN Office on Drugs and Crime</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Command_responsibility" title="Command responsibility">Command responsibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superior_orders" title="Superior orders">Superior orders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joint_criminal_enterprise" title="Joint criminal enterprise">Joint criminal enterprise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_humanitarian_law" title="International humanitarian law">International humanitarian law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_speech_crimes" title="International speech crimes">International speech crimes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_jurisdiction" title="Universal jurisdiction">Universal jurisdiction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Law519" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Law" title="Template:Law"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Law" title="Template talk:Law"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Law" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Law"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Law519" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">Law</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Core subjects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Administrative_law" title="Administrative law">Administrative law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_civil_law_(common_law)" title="Outline of civil law (common law)">Civil law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_law" title="Constitutional law">Constitutional law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contract" title="Contract">Contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_law" title="Criminal law">Criminal law</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Crime</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deed" title="Deed">Deed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_doctrine" title="Legal doctrine">Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equity_(law)" title="Equity (law)">Equity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence_(law)" title="Evidence (law)">Evidence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">International law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_obligations" title="Law of obligations">Law of obligations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Private_law" title="Private law">Private law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procedural_law" title="Procedural law">Procedure</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_procedure" title="Civil procedure">Civil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_procedure" title="Criminal procedure">Criminal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_law" title="Property law">Property law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_law" title="Public law">Public law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punishment" title="Punishment">Punishment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corporal_punishment" title="Corporal punishment">Corporal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restitution_and_unjust_enrichment" title="Restitution and unjust enrichment">Restitution and unjust enrichment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statutory_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Statutory law">Statutory law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tort" title="Tort">Tort</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Disciplines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_law" title="Abortion law">Abortion law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_law" title="Agricultural law">Agricultural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aviation_law" title="Aviation law">Aviation law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amnesty_law" title="Amnesty law">Amnesty law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bank_regulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Bank regulation">Banking law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bankruptcy" title="Bankruptcy">Bankruptcy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_law" title="Commercial law">Commercial law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competition_law" title="Competition law">Competition law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_of_laws" title="Conflict of laws">Conflict of laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction_law" title="Construction law">Construction law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer_protection" title="Consumer protection">Consumer protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_law" title="Corporate law">Corporate law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IT_law" class="mw-redirect" title="IT law">Cyberlaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_policy" title="Drug policy">Drugs law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Election_law" title="Election law">Election law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_law" title="Energy law">Energy law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entertainment_law" title="Entertainment law">Entertainment law</a> (Media law)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_law" title="Environmental law">Environmental law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_law" title="Family law">Family law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_law" title="Financial law">Financial law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_regulation" title="Financial regulation">Financial regulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_law" title="Health law">Health law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_law" title="Immigration law">Immigration law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intellectual_property" title="Intellectual property">Intellectual property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_criminal_law" title="International criminal law">International criminal law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_human_rights_law" title="International human rights law">International human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_international_law" title="Slavery in international law">International slavery laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_trade_law" title="International trade law">International trade law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jurimetrics" title="Jurimetrics">Jurimetrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labour_law" title="Labour law">Labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landlord%E2%80%93tenant_law" title="Landlord–tenant law">Landlord–tenant law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_war" title="Law of war">Law of war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_archaeology" title="Legal archaeology">Legal archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_fiction" title="Legal fiction">Legal fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Admiralty_law" title="Admiralty law">Maritime law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marriage_law" title="Marriage law">Marriage law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_justice" title="Military justice">Military law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationality_law" title="Nationality law">Nationality law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Probate" title="Probate">Probate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Estate_(law)" title="Estate (law)">Estate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Will_and_testament" title="Will and testament">Will and testament</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Product_liability" title="Product liability">Product liability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">Public international law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refugee_law" title="Refugee law">Refugee law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reparation_(legal)" title="Reparation (legal)">Reparations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_law" title="Space law">Space law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sports_law_in_the_United_States" title="Sports law in the United States">Sports law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_emergency" title="State of emergency">State of emergency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_law" title="Tax law">Tax law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_law" title="Transport law">Transport law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trust_(law)" title="Trust (law)">Trust law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unenforced_law" title="Unenforced law">Unenforced law</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sources_of_law" title="Sources of law">Sources of law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charter" title="Charter">Charter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code_of_law" title="Code of law">Legal code</a> / <a href="/wiki/Statutory_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Statutory law">Statutory law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution" title="Constitution">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Customary_law" title="Customary law">Custom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_law" title="Divine law">Divine law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Divine_right_of_kings" title="Divine right of kings">Divine right</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legitimacy_(political)" class="mw-redirect" title="Legitimacy (political)">Legitimacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Letters_patent" title="Letters patent">Letters patent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Man-made_law" title="Man-made law">Man-made law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_rights_and_legal_rights" title="Natural rights and legal rights">Natural and legal rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Case_law" title="Case law">Case law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Precedent" title="Precedent">Precedent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_report" title="Law report">Law reports</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_treatise" title="Legal treatise">Legal treatise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulation" title="Regulation">Regulations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lawmaking" title="Lawmaking">Law making</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Referendum" title="Referendum">Ballot measure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Codification_(law)" title="Codification (law)">Codification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decree" title="Decree">Decree</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Edict" title="Edict">Edict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_order_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Executive order (disambiguation)">Executive order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proclamation" title="Proclamation">Proclamation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legislation" title="Legislation">Legislation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Primary_and_secondary_legislation" title="Primary and secondary legislation">Delegated legislation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulation" title="Regulation">Regulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rulemaking" title="Rulemaking">Rulemaking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Promulgation" title="Promulgation">Promulgation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ratification" title="Ratification">Ratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Repeal" title="Repeal">Repeal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty" title="Treaty">Treaty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Concordat" title="Concordat">Concordat</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statutory_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Statutory law">Statutory law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Statute" title="Statute">Statute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Act_of_parliament" title="Act of parliament">Act of parliament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Act_of_Congress" title="Act of Congress">Act of Congress</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basic_structure_doctrine" title="Basic structure doctrine">Basic structure doctrine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_legal_systems" title="List of national legal systems">Legal systems</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_law_(legal_system)" title="Civil law (legal system)">Civil law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">Common law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_law" title="Chinese law">Chinese law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_pluralism" title="Legal pluralism">Legal pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_law" title="Religious law">Religious law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canon_law" title="Canon law">Canon law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canon_law_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Canon law of the Catholic Church">Catholic canon law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_law" title="Hindu law">Hindu law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_law" title="Jain law">Jain law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halakha" title="Halakha">Jewish law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parsi_law" title="Parsi law">Parsi law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">Sharia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Roman law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_law" title="Byzantine law">Byzantine law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_law" title="Socialist law">Socialist law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statutory_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Statutory law">Statutory law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xeer" title="Xeer">Xeer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yassa" title="Yassa">Yassa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Legal theory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchist_law" title="Anarchist law">Anarchist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contract_theory" title="Contract theory">Contract theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_law" title="Comparative law">Comparative law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expressive_function_of_law" title="Expressive function of law">Expressive function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_legal_theory" title="Feminist legal theory">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_and_economics" title="Law and economics">Law and economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_formalism" title="Legal formalism">Legal formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_history" title="Legal history">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_theories_of_law" title="Libertarian theories of law">Libertarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_legal_theories" title="International legal theories">International legal theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legality" title="Legality">Principle of legality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principle_of_typicality" title="Principle of typicality">Principle of typicality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudolaw" title="Pseudolaw">Pseudolaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">Rule of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_man" title="Rule of man">Rule of man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_law" title="Sociology of law">Sociology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">Jurisprudence</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adjudication" title="Adjudication">Adjudication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Administration_of_justice" title="Administration of justice">Administration of justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutionalism" title="Constitutionalism">Constitutionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_justice" title="Criminal justice">Criminal justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Court-martial" title="Court-martial">Court-martial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dispute_resolution" title="Dispute resolution">Dispute resolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiqh" title="Fiqh">Fiqh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawsuit" title="Lawsuit">Lawsuit/Litigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_opinion" title="Legal opinion">Legal opinion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_remedy" title="Legal remedy">Legal remedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judge" title="Judge">Judge</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Justice_of_the_peace" title="Justice of the peace">Justice of the peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magistrate" title="Magistrate">Magistrate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judgment_(law)" title="Judgment (law)">Judgment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_interpretation" title="Judicial interpretation">Judicial interpretation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_review" title="Judicial review">Judicial review</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jurisdiction" title="Jurisdiction">Jurisdiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jury" title="Jury">Jury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Practice_of_law" title="Practice of law">Practice of law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attorney_at_law" title="Attorney at law">Attorney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barrister" title="Barrister">Barrister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counsel" title="Counsel">Counsel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawyer" title="Lawyer">Lawyer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defense_(legal)" title="Defense (legal)">Legal representation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prosecutor" title="Prosecutor">Prosecutor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solicitor" title="Solicitor">Solicitor</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Question_of_law#Question_of_fact" title="Question of law">Question of fact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Question_of_law" title="Question of law">Question of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trial" title="Trial">Trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trial_advocacy" title="Trial advocacy">Trial advocacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trier_of_fact" title="Trier of fact">Trier of fact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verdict" title="Verdict">Verdict</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Legal institutions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barristers%27_chambers" title="Barristers' chambers">Barristers' chambers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureaucracy" title="Bureaucracy">Bureaucracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bar_(law)" title="Bar (law)">The bar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bench_(law)" title="Bench (law)">The bench</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_society" title="Civil society">Civil society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Court" title="Court">Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Court_of_equity" title="Court of equity">Court of equity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Election_commission" title="Election commission">Election commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_(government)" title="Executive (government)">Executive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary" title="Judiciary">Judiciary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement" title="Law enforcement">Law enforcement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement_agency" title="Law enforcement agency">Agency</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_education" title="Legal education">Legal education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Law_school" title="Law school">Law school</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legislature" title="Legislature">Legislature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military" title="Military">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Police" title="Police">Police</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_party" title="Political party">Political party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribunal" title="Tribunal">Tribunal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_legal_profession" title="History of the legal profession">History of the legal profession</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_American_legal_profession" title="History of the American legal profession">History of the American legal profession</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_law" title="Women in law">Women in law</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><div> <ul><li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Balance,_by_David.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/30px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/46px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/61px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="606" data-file-height="558" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Law" title="Portal:Law">Law portal</a></b></li> <li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Category:Law" title="Category:Law">Category</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Index_of_law_articles" title="Index of law articles">Index</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_law" title="Outline of law">Outline</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1266661725"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Criminal_procedure_(investigation)455" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Criminal_procedure_(investigation)" title="Template:Criminal procedure (investigation)"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Criminal_procedure_(investigation)" title="Template talk:Criminal procedure (investigation)"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Criminal_procedure_(investigation)" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Criminal procedure (investigation)"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Criminal_procedure_(investigation)455" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Criminal_procedure" title="Criminal procedure">Criminal procedure</a> (investigation)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Criminal_investigation" title="Criminal investigation">Criminal investigation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Arguido" title="Arguido">Arguido</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arrest" title="Arrest">Arrest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arrest_warrant" title="Arrest warrant">Arrest warrant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consent_search" title="Consent search">Consent search</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Remand_(detention)" class="mw-redirect" title="Remand (detention)">Detention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exigent_circumstance" title="Exigent circumstance">Exigent circumstance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knock-and-announce" title="Knock-and-announce">Knock-and-announce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miranda_warning" title="Miranda warning">Miranda warning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pretextual_stop" class="mw-redirect" title="Pretextual stop">Pretextual stop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Probable_cause" title="Probable cause">Probable cause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reasonable_suspicion" title="Reasonable suspicion">Reasonable suspicion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_silence" title="Right to silence">Right to silence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Search_and_seizure" title="Search and seizure">Search and seizure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Search_of_persons" title="Search of persons">Search of persons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Search_warrant" title="Search warrant">Search warrant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suspect" title="Suspect">Suspect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terry_stop" title="Terry stop">Terry stop</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Balance,_by_David.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/30px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/46px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/61px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="606" data-file-height="558" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Law" title="Portal:Law">Law portal</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Criminal_procedure" title="Criminal procedure">Criminal prosecution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adversarial_system" title="Adversarial system">Adversarial system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bail" title="Bail">Bail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_of_attainder" title="Bill of attainder">Bill of attainder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_jurisdiction" title="Criminal jurisdiction">Criminal jurisdiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deferred_prosecution" title="Deferred prosecution">Deferred prosecution agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ex_post_facto_law" title="Ex post facto law"><i>Ex post facto</i> law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extradition" title="Extradition">Extradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_jury" title="Grand jury">Grand jury</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Habeas_corpus" title="Habeas corpus">Habeas corpus</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indictment" title="Indictment">Indictment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inquisitorial_system" title="Inquisitorial system">Inquisitorial system</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nolle_prosequi" title="Nolle prosequi">Nolle prosequi</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precognition_(Scots_law)" title="Precognition (Scots law)">Precognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preliminary_hearing" title="Preliminary hearing">Preliminary hearing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statute_of_limitations" title="Statute of limitations">Statute of limitations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Charges and pleas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alford_plea" title="Alford plea">Alford plea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arraignment" title="Arraignment">Arraignment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indictment" title="Indictment">Indictment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_(formal_criminal_charge)" title="Information (formal criminal charge)">Information</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nolo_contendere" title="Nolo contendere">Nolo contendere</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peremptory_plea" title="Peremptory plea">Peremptory plea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plea" title="Plea">Plea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plea_bargain" title="Plea bargain">Plea bargain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presentence_investigation_report" title="Presentence investigation report">Presentence investigation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_defenses" title="Criminal defenses">Criminal defenses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_law" title="Criminal law">Criminal law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence_(law)" title="Evidence (law)">Evidence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence_law_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Evidence law in the United States">Evidence law in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_abuse" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal abuse">Legal abuse</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="font-weight: bold;"><div> <ul><li><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Criminal_procedure" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Criminal procedure">Wiktionary</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Special:Search/Criminal_procedure" class="extiw" title="wikibooks:Special:Search/Criminal procedure">Wikibooks</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Crime" class="extiw" title="wikiquote:Crime">Wikiquote</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Category:Crime" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Category:Crime">WikiSource</a></li> <li><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Criminal_law" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Criminal law">Wikimedia Commons</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Category:Crime_and_law" class="extiw" title="wikinews:Category:Crime and law">Wikinews</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Crime" class="extiw" title="wikiversity:Crime">Wikiversity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="By_country4882" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:World_topic" title="Template:World topic"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:World_topic" title="Template talk:World topic"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:World_topic" title="Special:EditPage/Template:World topic"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="By_country4882" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">By country</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Afghanistan" title="Crime in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Albania" title="Crime in Albania">Albania</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Antigua_and_Barbuda" title="Crime in Antigua and Barbuda">Antigua and Barbuda</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Argentina" title="Crime in Argentina">Argentina</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Armenia" title="Crime in Armenia">Armenia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Australia" title="Crime in Australia">Australia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Austria" title="Crime in Austria">Austria</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Azerbaijan" class="mw-redirect" title="Crime in Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Bahrain" title="Crime in Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Bangladesh" title="Crime in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Belgium" title="Crime in Belgium">Belgium</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Belize" class="mw-redirect" title="Crime in Belize">Belize</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Benin" title="Crime in Benin">Benin</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Bhutan" title="Crime in Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Bolivia" title="Crime in Bolivia">Bolivia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Brazil" title="Crime in Brazil">Brazil</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Bulgaria" title="Crime in Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Cambodia" title="Crime in Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Canada" title="Crime in Canada">Canada</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Cape_Verde" title="Crime in Cape Verde">Cape Verde</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Chile" title="Crime in Chile">Chile</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_China" title="Crime in China">China</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Colombia" title="Crime in Colombia">Colombia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Costa_Rica" title="Crime in Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Cuba" title="Crime in Cuba">Cuba</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Cyprus" title="Crime in Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_the_Czech_Republic" title="Crime in the Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Crime in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Denmark" title="Crime in Denmark">Denmark</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_the_Dominican_Republic" title="Crime in the Dominican Republic">Dominican Republic</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Ecuador" title="Crime in Ecuador">Ecuador</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Egypt" title="Crime in Egypt">Egypt</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_El_Salvador" title="Crime in El Salvador">El Salvador</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Estonia" title="Crime in Estonia">Estonia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Ethiopia" title="Crime in Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Finland" title="Crime in Finland">Finland</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_France" title="Crime in France">France</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Georgia" class="mw-redirect" title="Crime in Georgia">Georgia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Germany" title="Crime in Germany">Germany</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Ghana" title="Crime in Ghana">Ghana</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Greece" title="Crime in Greece">Greece</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Guatemala" title="Crime in Guatemala">Guatemala</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Guyana" title="Crime in Guyana">Guyana</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Haiti" title="Crime in Haiti">Haiti</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Honduras" title="Crime in Honduras">Honduras</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Hungary" title="Crime in Hungary">Hungary</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_India" title="Crime in India">India</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Indonesia" title="Crime in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Iran" title="Crime in Iran">Iran</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Israel" title="Crime in Israel">Israel</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Italy" title="Crime in Italy">Italy</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Ivory_Coast" title="Crime in Ivory Coast">Ivory Coast</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Jamaica" title="Crime in Jamaica">Jamaica</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Japan" title="Crime in Japan">Japan</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Jordan" title="Crime in Jordan">Jordan</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Kazakhstan" class="mw-redirect" title="Crime in Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Kenya" title="Crime in Kenya">Kenya</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Kosovo" title="Crime in Kosovo">Kosovo</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Kuwait" title="Crime in Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Laos" title="Crime in Laos">Laos</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Latvia" title="Crime in Latvia">Latvia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Lesotho" title="Crime in Lesotho">Lesotho</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Liberia" title="Crime in Liberia">Liberia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Malawi" title="Crime in Malawi">Malawi</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Malaysia" title="Crime in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Maldives" class="mw-redirect" title="Crime in Maldives">Maldives</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Mauritania" title="Crime in Mauritania">Mauritania</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Mauritius" class="mw-redirect" title="Crime in Mauritius">Mauritius</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Mexico" title="Crime in Mexico">Mexico</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Moldova" title="Crime in Moldova">Moldova</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Montenegro" title="Crime in Montenegro">Montenegro</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Myanmar" title="Crime in Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Namibia" title="Crime in Namibia">Namibia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Nauru" title="Crime in Nauru">Nauru</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Nepal" class="mw-redirect" title="Crime in Nepal">Nepal</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_New_Zealand" title="Crime in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Nigeria" title="Crime in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_North_Korea" title="Crime in North Korea">North Korea</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Norway" title="Crime in Norway">Norway</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Oman" title="Crime in Oman">Oman</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Pakistan" title="Crime in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_State_of_Palestine" class="mw-redirect" title="Crime in State of Palestine">Palestine</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Panama" title="Crime in Panama">Panama</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Papua_New_Guinea" title="Crime in Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Paraguay" title="Crime in Paraguay">Paraguay</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Peru" title="Crime in Peru">Peru</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_the_Philippines" title="Crime in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Poland" title="Crime in Poland">Poland</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Portugal" title="Crime in Portugal">Portugal</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Qatar" title="Crime in Qatar">Qatar</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Romania" title="Crime in Romania">Romania</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Russia" title="Crime in Russia">Russia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Saint_Kitts_and_Nevis" title="Crime in Saint Kitts and Nevis">Saint Kitts and Nevis</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Saint_Lucia" title="Crime in Saint Lucia">Saint Lucia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Crime in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Serbia" title="Crime in Serbia">Serbia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Singapore" title="Crime in Singapore">Singapore</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Slovakia" title="Crime in Slovakia">Slovakia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Slovenia" title="Crime in Slovenia">Slovenia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_South_Africa" title="Crime in South Africa">South Africa</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_South_Korea" title="Crime in South Korea">South Korea</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Spain" title="Crime in Spain">Spain</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Sri_Lanka" title="Crime in Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Suriname" title="Crime in Suriname">Suriname</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Sweden" title="Crime in Sweden">Sweden</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Switzerland" title="Crime in Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Taiwan" title="Crime in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Thailand" title="Crime in Thailand">Thailand</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Tonga" class="mw-redirect" title="Crime in Tonga">Tonga</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Trinidad_and_Tobago" title="Crime in Trinidad and Tobago">Trinidad and Tobago</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Turkey" title="Crime in Turkey">Turkey</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Tuvalu" title="Crime in Tuvalu">Tuvalu</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Ukraine" title="Crime in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates" title="Crime in the United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Crime in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_the_United_States" title="Crime in the United States">United States</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Vatican_City" title="Crime in Vatican City">Vatican City</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Venezuela" title="Crime in Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Vietnam" title="Crime in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Yemen" title="Crime in Yemen">Yemen</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Zambia" title="Crime in Zambia">Zambia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Zimbabwe" title="Crime in Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a></li></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236088147">.mw-parser-output .sister-bar{display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline;font-size:88%;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em 0 0;padding:0 2em}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;padding:0.2em 0;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px;line-height:22px}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;align-items:baseline;padding:0.2em 0;column-gap:1em;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-item{display:flex;align-items:baseline;margin:0.15em 0;min-height:24px;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-logo{width:22px;line-height:22px;margin:0 0.2em;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-link{margin:0 0.2em;text-align:left}@media screen and (max-width:960px){.mw-parser-output .sister-bar{flex-flow:column wrap;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-header{flex:0 1}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-content{flex:1;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-item{flex:0 0 20em;min-width:20em}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+link+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+style+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+.navbox-styles+.portal-bar{margin-top:-1px}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sister-bar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="noprint metadata sister-bar" role="navigation" aria-label="sister-projects"><div class="sister-bar-header"><b>Crime</b> at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects"><span id="sister-projects" style="white-space:nowrap;">sister projects</span></a>:</div><ul class="sister-bar-content"><li class="sister-bar-item"><span class="sister-bar-logo"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/19px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/29px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/38px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="391" data-file-height="391" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-bar-link"><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/Crime" class="extiw" title="wikt:Special:Search/Crime">Definitions</a></b> from Wiktionary</span></li><li class="sister-bar-item"><span class="sister-bar-logo"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/14px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/21px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/28px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-bar-link"><b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Crimes" class="extiw" title="c:Category:Crimes">Media</a></b> from Commons</span></li><li class="sister-bar-item"><span class="sister-bar-logo"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/16px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/24px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/32px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-bar-link"><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Crime" class="extiw" title="q:Crime">Quotations</a></b> from Wikiquote</span></li><li class="sister-bar-item"><span class="sister-bar-logo"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/19px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/29px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/38px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="193" data-file-height="193" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-bar-link"><b><a href="https://en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/Crime" class="extiw" title="voy:Crime">Travel guides</a></b> from Wikivoyage</span></li><li class="sister-bar-item"><span class="sister-bar-logo"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/21px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/32px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/42px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1050" data-file-height="590" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-bar-link"><b><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q83267" class="extiw" title="d:Q83267">Data</a></b> from Wikidata</span></li></ul></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q83267#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata1136" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q83267#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata1136" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q83267#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/882984/">FAST</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4062653-2">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85033993">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00562960">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="trestné činy"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph116480&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007533422005171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalog.archives.gov/id/10638047">NARA</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Crime&oldid=1269337141">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Crime&oldid=1269337141</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" 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