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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Twelve_Tables" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Twelve_Tables"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Twelve Tables</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Twelve_Tables-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_republican_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_republican_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Early republican law</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_republican_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jurisprudence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jurisprudence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Jurisprudence</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Jurisprudence-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Jurisprudence subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Jurisprudence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Pre-classical_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pre-classical_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Pre-classical period</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pre-classical_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classical_Roman_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classical_Roman_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Classical Roman law</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classical_Roman_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Post-classical_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Post-classical_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Post-classical law</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Post-classical_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Byzantine_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Byzantine_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Byzantine law</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Byzantine_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Substance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Substance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Substance</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Substance-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Substance subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Substance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Concept_of_laws" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Concept_of_laws"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Concept of laws</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Concept_of_laws-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Public_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Public_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Public law</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Public_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Private_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Private_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Private law</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Private_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Status" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Status"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Status</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Status-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Litigation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Litigation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Litigation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Litigation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Legacy</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Legacy subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-In_the_West" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_the_West"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>In the West</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_the_West-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Today" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Today"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Today</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Today-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Roman law</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 69 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-69" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">69 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romeinse_reg" title="Romeinse reg – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Romeinse reg" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%D9%86_%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A" title="قانون روماني – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="قانون روماني" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derechu_romanu" title="Derechu romanu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Derechu romanu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roma_h%C3%BCququ" title="Roma hüququ – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Roma hüququ" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%8B%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Рымскае права – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Рымскае права" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Римско право – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Римско право" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rimsko_pravo" title="Rimsko pravo – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Rimsko pravo" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dret_rom%C3%A0" title="Dret romà – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Dret romà" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%98%C3%ADmsk%C3%A9_pr%C3%A1vo" title="Římské právo – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Římské právo" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romerret" title="Romerret – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Romerret" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%B6misches_Recht" title="Römisches Recht – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Römisches Recht" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rooma_%C3%B5igus" title="Rooma õigus – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Rooma õigus" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A1%CF%89%CE%BC%CE%B1%CF%8A%CE%BA%CF%8C_%CE%94%CE%AF%CE%BA%CE%B1%CE%B9%CE%BF" title="Ρωμαϊκό Δίκαιο – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ρωμαϊκό Δίκαιο" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derecho_romano" title="Derecho romano – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Derecho romano" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romia_juro" title="Romia juro – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Romia juro" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erromatar_zuzenbide" title="Erromatar zuzenbide – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Erromatar zuzenbide" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%D9%86_%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85" title="قانون روم – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="قانون روم" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Droit_romain" title="Droit romain – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Droit romain" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dl%C3%AD_R%C3%B3mh%C3%A1nach" title="Dlí Rómhánach – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Dlí Rómhánach" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dereito_romano" title="Dereito romano – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Dereito romano" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%A1%9C%EB%A7%88%EB%B2%95" title="로마법 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="로마법" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%BC%D5%B8%D5%B4%D5%A5%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%AB%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%BE%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6%D6%84" title="Հռոմեական իրավունք – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Հռոմեական իրավունք" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BF" title="रोमन विधि – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="रोमन विधि" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rimsko_pravo" title="Rimsko pravo – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Rimsko pravo" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hukum_Romawi" title="Hukum Romawi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Hukum Romawi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derecto_roman" title="Derecto roman – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Derecto roman" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%B3marr%C3%A9ttur" title="Rómarréttur – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Rómarréttur" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diritto_romano" title="Diritto romano – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Diritto romano" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%9E%D7%A9%D7%A4%D7%98_%D7%94%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%9E%D7%99" title="המשפט הרומי – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="המשפט הרומי" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%97%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98" title="რომის სამართალი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="რომის სამართალი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC_%D2%9B%D2%B1%D2%9B%D1%8B%D2%93%D1%8B" title="Рим құқығы – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Рим құқығы" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ius_Romanum" title="Ius Romanum – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Ius Romanum" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romie%C5%A1u_ties%C4%ABbas" title="Romiešu tiesības – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Romiešu tiesības" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rom%C4%97n%C5%B3_teis%C4%97" title="Romėnų teisė – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Romėnų teisė" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lege_roman" title="Lege roman – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Lege roman" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%B3mai_jog" title="Római jog – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Római jog" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE_%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%93%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Римско граѓанско право – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Римско граѓанско право" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%D9%86_%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%89" title="قانون رومانى – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="قانون رومانى" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%BC%D1%8B%D0%BD_%D1%8D%D1%80%D1%85_%D0%B7%D2%AF%D0%B9" title="Ромын эрх зүй – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Ромын эрх зүй" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romeins_recht" title="Romeins recht – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Romeins recht" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%AD%E3%83%BC%E3%83%9E%E6%B3%95" title="ローマ法 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ローマ法" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romerretten" title="Romerretten – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Romerretten" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drech_roman" title="Drech roman – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Drech roman" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rim_huquqi" title="Rim huquqi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Rim huquqi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85_%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%D9%86" title="د روم قانون – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د روم قانون" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%B6%C3%B6msch_Recht" title="Röömsch Recht – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Röömsch Recht" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prawo_rzymskie" title="Prawo rzymskie – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Prawo rzymskie" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direito_romano" title="Direito romano – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Direito romano" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drept_roman" title="Drept roman – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Drept roman" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Римское право – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Римское право" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Roman law" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/E_drejta_romake" title="E drejta romake – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="E drejta romake" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drittu_rumanu" title="Drittu rumanu – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Drittu rumanu" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%9D%E0%B6%B8%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%94_%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%93%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%BA" title="රෝමානු නීතිය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="රෝමානු නීතිය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Roman law" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%ADmske_pr%C3%A1vo" title="Rímske právo – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Rímske právo" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rimsko_pravo" title="Rimsko pravo – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Rimsko pravo" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Римско право – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Римско право" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rimsko_pravo" title="Rimsko pravo – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Rimsko pravo" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roomalainen_oikeus" title="Roomalainen oikeus – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Roomalainen oikeus" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romersk_r%C3%A4tt" title="Romersk rätt – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Romersk rätt" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roma_hukuku" title="Roma hukuku – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Roma hukuku" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Римське право – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Римське право" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lu%E1%BA%ADt_La_M%C3%A3" title="Luật La Mã – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Luật La Mã" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BE%85%E9%A6%AC%E6%B3%95" title="羅馬法 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="羅馬法" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>文言</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BD%97%E9%A9%AC%E6%B3%95" title="罗马法 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="罗马法" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><table class="sidebar nomobile vcard"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><div class="adr"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_ancient_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Politics of ancient Rome">Politics of ancient Rome</a></div></th></tr><tr><th><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Roman_SPQR_banner.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Roman_SPQR_banner.svg/150px-Roman_SPQR_banner.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Roman_SPQR_banner.svg/225px-Roman_SPQR_banner.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Roman_SPQR_banner.svg/300px-Roman_SPQR_banner.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="289" data-file-height="229" /></a></span></th></tr><tr><th style="border-bottom: #aaa 1px solid"></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="text-align:center; background:#e5d4a8;"> Periods</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Roman_Kingdom" title="Roman Kingdom">Roman Kingdom</a></b><br />753–509 BC</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a></b><br />509–27 BC</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a></b><br />27 BC – AD 395</li></ul> <div class="div-col" style="column-width: 8em;"> </div> <div class="div-col" style="column-width: 8em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire"><b>Western</b></a><br />AD 395–476</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire"><b>Eastern</b></a><br />AD 330–1453</li></ul> </div> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Roman_history" title="Timeline of Roman history">Timeline</a></b></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="text-align:center; background:#e5d4a8;"> <a href="/wiki/Roman_Constitution" title="Roman Constitution">Constitution</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Kingdom" title="Constitution of the Roman Kingdom">Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Republic" title="Constitution of the Roman Republic">Republic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_reforms_of_Sulla" title="Constitutional reforms of Sulla">Sullan republic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Constitution of the Roman Empire">Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_reforms_of_Augustus" title="Constitutional reforms of Augustus">Augustan reforms</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Late_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitution of the Late Roman Empire">Late Empire</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="text-align:center; background:#e5d4a8;"> <a href="/wiki/Political_institutions_of_ancient_Rome" title="Political institutions of ancient Rome">Political institutions</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="div-col" style="column-width: 8em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Imperium" title="Imperium">Imperium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collegiality" title="Collegiality">Collegiality</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Auctoritas" title="Auctoritas">Auctoritas</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_citizenship" title="Roman citizenship">Roman citizenship</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cursus_honorum" title="Cursus honorum">Cursus honorum</a></i></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="text-align:center; background:#e5d4a8;"> <a href="/wiki/Roman_assemblies" title="Roman assemblies">Assemblies</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="div-col" style="column-width: 8em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Centuriate_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Centuriate Assembly">Centuriate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curiate_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Curiate Assembly">Curiate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plebeian_council" title="Plebeian council">Plebeian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribal Assembly">Tribal</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="text-align:center; background:#e5d4a8;"> <a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">Ordinary magistrates</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="div-col" style="column-width: 8em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_consul" title="Roman consul">Consul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praetor" title="Praetor">Praetor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quaestor" title="Quaestor">Quaestor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Promagistrate" title="Promagistrate">Promagistrate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aedile" title="Aedile">Aedile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribune" title="Tribune">Tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_censor" title="Roman censor">Censor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_governor" title="Roman governor">Governor</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="text-align:center; background:#e5d4a8;"> <a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">Extraordinary magistrates</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="div-col" style="column-width: 8em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corrector" title="Corrector">Corrector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_dictator" title="Roman dictator">Dictator</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Magister_equitum" title="Magister equitum">Magister equitum</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribuni_militum_consulari_potestate" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribuni militum consulari potestate">Consular tribune</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/King_of_Rome" title="King of Rome">Rex</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Triumvirate_(ancient_Rome)" title="Triumvirate (ancient Rome)">Triumviri</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Decemviri" title="Decemviri">Decemviri</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Interrex" title="Interrex">Interrex</a></i></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="text-align:center; background:#e5d4a8;"> <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Public law</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="div-col" style="column-width: 8em;"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Mos_maiorum" title="Mos maiorum">Mos maiorum</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ius" title="Ius">Ius</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Senatus_consultum" title="Senatus consultum">Senatus consultum</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Quaestio_perpetua" title="Quaestio perpetua">Quaestio perpetua</a></i></li></ul> </div> <i><a href="/wiki/Senatus_consultum_ultimum" title="Senatus consultum ultimum">Senatus consultum ultimum</a></i></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="text-align:center; background:#e5d4a8;"> Titles and honours</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_emperor" title="Roman emperor">Emperor</a></li></ul> <div class="div-col" style="column-width: 8em;"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Legatus" class="mw-redirect" title="Legatus">Legatus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dux" title="Dux">Dux</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Officium_(ancient_Rome)" title="Officium (ancient Rome)">Officium</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Praeses" title="Praeses">Praeses</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Praefectus" title="Praefectus">Praefectus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vicarius" title="Vicarius">Vicarius</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vigintisexviri" title="Vigintisexviri">Vigintisexviri</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Triumvir_monetalis" title="Triumvir monetalis">Triumvir monetalis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lictor" title="Lictor">Lictor</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Magister_militum" title="Magister militum">Magister militum</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Imperator" title="Imperator">Imperator</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Princeps_senatus" title="Princeps senatus">Princeps senatus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pontifex_maximus" title="Pontifex maximus">Pontifex maximus</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustus_(title)" title="Augustus (title)">Augustus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caesar_(title)" title="Caesar (title)">Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetrarchy" title="Tetrarchy">Tetrarch</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:1px #aaa solid"> <div class="hlist" style="text-align:center;font-weight:normal;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_political_science#Politics_by_region" title="Outline of political science">Other countries</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar" style="text-align:center;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Politics_of_ancient_Rome" title="Template:Politics of ancient Rome"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Politics_of_ancient_Rome" title="Template talk:Politics of ancient Rome"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Politics_of_ancient_Rome" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Politics of ancient Rome"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Roman law</b> is the <a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">legal</a> system of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">ancient Rome</a>, including the legal developments spanning over a thousand years of <a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">jurisprudence</a>, from the <a href="/wiki/Twelve_Tables" title="Twelve Tables">Twelve Tables</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 449 BC</span>), to the <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Corpus_Juris_Civilis" title="Corpus Juris Civilis">Corpus Juris Civilis</a></i></span> (AD 529) ordered by Eastern Roman emperor <a href="/wiki/Justinian_I" title="Justinian I">Justinian I</a>. </p><p>Roman law also denoted the legal system applied in most of <a href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">Western Europe</a> until the end of the 18th century. In <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a>, Roman law practice remained in place longer under the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a> (963–1806). Roman law thus served as a basis for <a href="/wiki/Civil_law_(legal_system)" title="Civil law (legal system)">legal practice</a> throughout Western continental Europe, as well as in most former colonies of these European nations, including Latin America, and also in Ethiopia. </p><p>English and <a href="/wiki/Anglo-America" title="Anglo-America">Anglo-American</a> <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a> were influenced also by Roman law, notably in their Latinate legal glossary.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Eastern Europe was also influenced by the jurisprudence of the <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Corpus Juris Civilis</i></span>, especially in countries such as medieval Romania, which created a new legal system comprising a mixture of Roman and local law. </p><p>After the dissolution of the <a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Roman Empire</a>, the Roman law remained in effect in the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>. From the 7th century onward, the legal language in the East was Greek, with Eastern European law continuing to be influenced by <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_law" title="Byzantine law">Byzantine law</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Development">Development</h2></div> <p>The jurist <a href="/wiki/Sextus_Pomponius" title="Sextus Pomponius">Sextus Pomponius</a> said, "At the beginning of our city, the people began their first activities without any fixed law, and without any fixed rights: all things were ruled despotically, by kings".<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Before the <a href="/wiki/Twelve_Tables" title="Twelve Tables">Twelve Tables</a> (754–449 BC), private law comprised the Roman civil law (<i>ius civile Quiritium</i>) that applied only to Roman citizens and was bonded to religion. The <i>ius civile</i> of the time was undeveloped, with attributes of strict formalism, symbolism, and conservatism, for example, as embodied in the ritual practice of <i><a href="/wiki/Mancipatio" title="Mancipatio">mancipatio</a></i>. It is believed that Roman law is rooted in the <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_religion" title="Etruscan religion">Etruscan religion</a>, emphasizing ritual.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Twelve_Tables">Twelve Tables</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Twelve_Tables" title="Twelve Tables">Twelve Tables</a></div> <p>The first legal text of the Roman law is the <a href="/wiki/Twelve_Tables" title="Twelve Tables">Law of the Twelve Tables</a>, dating from the mid-fifth century BC. The <a href="/wiki/Plebeian" class="mw-redirect" title="Plebeian">plebeian</a> <a href="/wiki/Tribune" title="Tribune">tribune</a>, C. Terentilius Arsa, proposed that the law should be written in order to prevent magistrates from applying the law arbitrarily.<sup id="cite_ref-tellegen_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tellegen-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After eight years of political struggle, the plebeian social class convinced the <a href="/wiki/Patrician_(ancient_Rome)" title="Patrician (ancient Rome)">patricians</a> to send a delegation to <a href="/wiki/Athens" title="Athens">Athens</a> to copy the <a href="/wiki/Solonian_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Solonian Constitution">Laws of Solon</a>; they also dispatched delegations to other Greek cities for a like reason.<sup id="cite_ref-tellegen_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tellegen-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 451 BC, according to the traditional story, according to <a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a>, ten Roman citizens were chosen to record the laws, known as the <i><a href="/wiki/Decemviri" title="Decemviri">decemviri</a> legibus scribundis</i>. While they were performing this task, they were given supreme political power (<i><a href="/wiki/Imperium" title="Imperium">imperium</a></i>), whereas the power of the magistrates was restricted.<sup id="cite_ref-tellegen_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tellegen-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 450 BC, the <i>decemviri</i> produced the laws on ten tablets (<i>tabulae</i>), but these laws were regarded as unsatisfactory by the plebeians. A second decemvirate is allegedly said to have added two further tablets in 449 BC. The new Law of the Twelve Tables was approved by the people's assembly.<sup id="cite_ref-tellegen_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tellegen-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Modern scholars tend to challenge the accuracy of <a href="/wiki/Roman_historiography" title="Roman historiography">Latin historians</a>. They generally do not believe that a second decemvirate ever took place. The decemvirate of 451 BC is believed to have assumed the leading functions in Rome and included the most controversial points of customary law.<sup id="cite_ref-tellegen_4-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tellegen-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Questions concerning Greek influence on early Roman Law are still much discussed. Many scholars consider it unlikely that the patricians sent an official delegation to Greece, as the Latin historians believed. Rather, the Romans acquired Greek legislations from the Greek cities of <a href="/wiki/Magna_Graecia" title="Magna Graecia">Magna Graecia</a>, the main portal between the Roman and Greek worlds.<sup id="cite_ref-tellegen_4-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tellegen-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The original text of the Twelve Tables has not been preserved. The tablets were probably destroyed when Rome was conquered and burned by the <a href="/wiki/Gauls" title="Gauls">Gauls</a> in 387 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-tellegen_4-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tellegen-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The fragments which did survive show that it was not a law code in the modern sense. It did not provide a complete and coherent system of all applicable rules or give legal solutions for all possible cases. Rather, the tables contained specific provisions designed to change the then-existing <a href="/wiki/Customary_law" title="Customary law">customary law</a>. Although the provisions pertain to all areas of law, the largest part is dedicated to <a href="/wiki/Private_law" title="Private law">private law</a> and <a href="/wiki/Civil_procedure" title="Civil procedure">civil procedure</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_republican_law">Early republican law</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Lex_Canuleia" title="Lex Canuleia">Lex Canuleia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lex_Hortensia" title="Lex Hortensia">Lex Hortensia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Lex_Aquilia" title="Lex Aquilia">Lex Aquilia</a></div> <p>Among the most consequential laws passed during the early <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Republic</a> were the <i><a href="/wiki/Lex_Canuleia" title="Lex Canuleia">Lex Canuleia</a></i> (445 BC), which allowed marriage <i>(<a href="/wiki/Marriage_in_ancient_Rome" title="Marriage in ancient Rome">conubium</a>)</i> between <a href="/wiki/Patrician_(ancient_Rome)" title="Patrician (ancient Rome)">patricians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Plebeian" class="mw-redirect" title="Plebeian">plebeians</a>; the <i><a href="/wiki/Lex_Licinia_Sextia" class="mw-redirect" title="Lex Licinia Sextia">Leges Liciinae Sextiae</a></i> (367 BC), which restricted the amount of public land <i>(<a href="/wiki/Ager_publicus" title="Ager publicus">ager publicus</a>)</i> that any citizen could occupy, and stipulated that one of the two annual consuls must be plebeian;<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <i><a href="/wiki/Lex_Ogulnia" title="Lex Ogulnia">Lex Ogulnia</a></i> (300 BC), which permitted plebeians to hold certain priestly offices as <a href="/wiki/College_of_Pontiffs" title="College of Pontiffs">pontiffs</a> or <a href="/wiki/Augur" title="Augur">augurs</a>; and the <i><a href="/wiki/Lex_Hortensia" title="Lex Hortensia">Lex Hortensia</a></i> (287 BC), which stated that the determinations of plebeian assemblies <i>(plebiscita)</i> would henceforth be binding on the entire <i>populus Romanus</i>, both patricians and plebeians.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another important statute from the Republican era is the <i><a href="/wiki/Lex_Aquilia" title="Lex Aquilia">Lex Aquilia</a></i> of 286 BC, which may be regarded as the root of modern <a href="/wiki/Tort_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Tort law">tort law</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Jurisprudence">Jurisprudence</h2></div> <p>Rome's most important contribution to European legal culture was not the enactment of well-drafted statutes, but the emergence of a class of professional <a href="/wiki/Jurist" title="Jurist">jurists</a> (<i>prudentes</i> or <i>jurisprudentes</i>, sing. <i>prudens</i>) and of a <a href="/wiki/Legal_science" title="Legal science">legal science</a>. This was achieved in a gradual process of applying the scientific methods of <a href="/wiki/Greek_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek philosophy">Greek philosophy</a> to the subject of law, a subject which the Greeks themselves never treated as a science.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Traditionally, the origins of Roman legal science are connected to <a href="/wiki/Gnaeus_Flavius_(jurist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gnaeus Flavius (jurist)">Gnaeus Flavius</a>. Around the year 300 BC, Flavius is said to have published the formularies containing the words which had to be spoken in court to begin a legal action. Before the time of Flavius, these formularies are said to have been secret and known only to the priests. Their publication made it possible for non-priests to explore the meaning of these legal texts. Whether or not this story is credible, jurists were active, and legal treatises were written in larger numbers before the 2nd century BC. Among the famous jurists of the republican period are <a href="/wiki/Quintus_Mucius_Scaevola_Pontifex" title="Quintus Mucius Scaevola Pontifex">Quintus Mucius Scaevola</a>, who wrote an influential and voluminous treatise on all aspects of the law, and <a href="/wiki/Servius_Sulpicius_Rufus" title="Servius Sulpicius Rufus">Servius Sulpicius Rufus</a>, a friend of <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Tullius_Cicero" class="mw-redirect" title="Marcus Tullius Cicero">Marcus Tullius Cicero</a>. Thus, Rome had developed a very sophisticated legal system and a refined legal culture when the Roman republic was replaced by the monarchical system of the <a href="/wiki/Principate" title="Principate">Principate</a> in 27 BC.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pre-classical_period">Pre-classical period</h3></div> <p>In the period between about 201 to 27 BC, more flexible laws developed to match the needs of the time. In addition to the old and formal <i>ius civile</i>, a new juridical class was created: the <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ius_honorarium&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ius honorarium (page does not exist)">ius honorarium</a></i>: "The law introduced by the magistrates who had the right to promulgate edicts in order to support, supplement or correct the existing law."<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With this new law the old formalism was abandoned, and more flexible principles of <i><a href="/wiki/Ius_gentium" class="mw-redirect" title="Ius gentium">ius gentium</a></i> ("law of the nations") were used.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The adaptation of law to new needs was given over to juridical practice, to <a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">magistrates</a>, and especially to the <a href="/wiki/Praetor" title="Praetor">praetors</a>. Though the praetors were not legislators and did not technically create new law when he issued his <a href="/wiki/Praetor%27s_Edict" title="Praetor's Edict">edicts</a> (<i>magistratuum edicta</i>), the results of his rulings enjoyed legal protection (<i>actionem dare</i>) and were in effect often the source of new legal rules. A praetor's successor was not bound by the edicts of his predecessor. However, he did take rules from edicts of his predecessor that had proved to be useful. In this way a constant content was created that proceeded from edict to edict (<i>edictum traslatitium</i>).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Thus, over the course of time, parallel to the civil law and supplementing and correcting it, a new body of praetoric law emerged. In fact, praetoric law was so defined by the famous Roman jurist <a href="/wiki/Papinian" title="Papinian">Papinian</a> (142–212 AD): "<i>Ius praetorium est quod praetores introduxerunt adiuvandi vel supplendi vel corrigendi iuris civilis gratia propter utilitatem publicam</i>" ("praetoric law is that law introduced by praetors to supplement or correct civil law for public benefit"). Ultimately, civil law and praetoric law were fused in the <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Corpus_Juris_Civilis" title="Corpus Juris Civilis">Corpus Juris Civilis</a></i></span>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Classical_Roman_law">Classical Roman law</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Gaius_(jurist)" title="Gaius (jurist)">Gaius (jurist)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ulpian" title="Ulpian">Ulpian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Papinian" title="Papinian">Papinian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Julius_Paulus" title="Julius Paulus">Julius Paulus</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Herennius_Modestinus" title="Herennius Modestinus">Herennius Modestinus</a></div> <p>The first 250 years of the current era are the period during which Roman law and Roman legal science reached its greatest degree of sophistication and influence. The law of this period is often referred to as the "classical period of Roman law".<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag may use weasel words or too-vague attribution. (September 2023)">by whom?</span></a></i>]</sup> The Roman Republic had three different branches: the <a href="/wiki/Legislative_assemblies_of_the_Roman_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Legislative assemblies of the Roman Republic">Assemblies</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Senate_of_the_Roman_Republic" title="Senate of the Roman Republic">Senate</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Roman_consul" title="Roman consul">Consuls</a>. The assemblies passed laws and made declarations of war; the Senate controlled the treasury; and the consuls had the highest juridical power.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The jurists worked in different functions, including giving legal opinions at the request of private parties; advising magistrates, especially the praetors; and helping the praetors draft their <a href="/wiki/Edict" title="Edict">edicts</a>, in which they publicly announced, at the beginning of their tenure, how they would handle their duties, and the formularies, according to which specific proceedings were conducted. Some jurists also held high judicial and administrative offices themselves.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The jurists also produced various legal punishments. Around 130 AD, the jurist <a href="/wiki/Salvius_Iulianus" class="mw-redirect" title="Salvius Iulianus">Salvius Iulianus</a> drafted a standard form of the praetor's edict, which was used by all praetors from that time onwards. This edict contained detailed descriptions of all cases, in which the praetor would allow a legal action and in which he would grant a defense. The standard edict thus functioned like a comprehensive law code, even though it did not formally have the force of law. It indicated the requirements for a successful legal claim. The edict therefore became the basis for extensive legal commentaries by later classical jurists like <a href="/wiki/Paul_(jurist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Paul (jurist)">Paulus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ulpian" title="Ulpian">Ulpian</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>During the pre-classical and classical period, such laws emerged as the separation of ownership and possession; contract and tort as distinct sources of obligations; standard types of contracts (sale, contract for work, hire, contract for services) regulated in most continental codes; the <a href="/wiki/Institutes_(Gaius)" title="Institutes (Gaius)">Institutes of Gaius</a>, which invented a system of private law based on the division of all material into <i>personae</i> (persons), <i>res</i> (things) and <i>actiones</i> (legal actions). <a href="/wiki/Gaius_(jurist)" title="Gaius (jurist)">Gaius's</a> system was used for many centuries, and has been recognized in legal treatises like <a href="/wiki/William_Blackstone" title="William Blackstone">William Blackstone</a>'s <i>Commentaries on the Laws of England</i> and enactments like the <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">French</a> <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Code" title="Napoleonic Code">Code civil</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">German</a> <a href="/wiki/B%C3%BCrgerliches_Gesetzbuch" title="Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch">BGB</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Post-classical_law">Post-classical law</h3></div> <p>By the middle of the 3rd century, the conditions for the flourishing of a refined legal culture had become less favourable. The general political and economic situation deteriorated as the emperors assumed more direct control of all aspects of political life. The political system of the <a href="/wiki/Principate" title="Principate">Principate</a>, which had retained some features of the republican constitution, began to transform itself into the absolute monarchy of the <a href="/wiki/Dominate" title="Dominate">Dominate</a>. The existence of legal science and of jurists who regarded law as a science, not as an instrument to achieve the political goals set by the absolute monarch, did not fit well into the new order of things. Jurisprudential literary production all but ended. Few jurists after the mid-3rd century are known by name. While legal science and legal education persisted to some extent in the eastern part of the Empire, most of the subtleties of classical law came to be disregarded and finally forgotten in the west. Classical law was replaced by the so-called <a href="/w/index.php?title=Vulgar_law&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Vulgar law (page does not exist)">vulgar law</a> of the late <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Byzantine_law">Byzantine law</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Corpus_Juris_Civilis" title="Corpus Juris Civilis">Corpus Juris Civilis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_law" title="Byzantine law">Byzantine law</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Digesto_02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Digesto_02.jpg/150px-Digesto_02.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="222" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Digesto_02.jpg/225px-Digesto_02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Digesto_02.jpg/300px-Digesto_02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="591" data-file-height="875" /></a><figcaption>Title page of a late 16th-century edition of the <i>Digesta</i>, part of Emperor <a href="/wiki/Justinian" class="mw-redirect" title="Justinian">Justinian</a>'s <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Corpus_Juris_Civilis" title="Corpus Juris Civilis">Corpus Juris Civilis</a></i></span></figcaption></figure><p>When the centre of the Empire was moved to the <a href="/wiki/Greek_East" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek East">Greek East</a> in the 4th century, many legal concepts of Greek origin appeared in the official Roman legislation.<sup id="cite_ref-coupers_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-coupers-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The influence is visible even in the law of persons or of the family, traditionally the part of the law that changes least. For example, <a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great" title="Constantine the Great">Constantine</a> started putting restrictions on the ancient Roman concept of <i>patria potestas</i>, the power held by the male head of a family over his descendants, by acknowledging that persons <i>in potestate</i>, the descendants, could have proprietary rights. He was apparently making concessions to the much stricter concept of paternal authority under Greek-Hellenistic law.<sup id="cite_ref-coupers_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-coupers-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i><a href="/wiki/Codex_Theodosianus" title="Codex Theodosianus">Codex Theodosianus</a></i> (438 AD) was a <a href="/wiki/Codification_(law)" title="Codification (law)">codification</a> of Constantian laws. Later emperors went even further, until Justinian finally decreed that a child <i>in potestate</i> became owner of everything it acquired, except when it acquired something from its father.<sup id="cite_ref-coupers_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-coupers-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The codes of Justinian, particularly the <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Corpus_Juris_Civilis" title="Corpus Juris Civilis">Corpus Juris Civilis</a></i></span> (529–534) continued to be the basis of legal practice in the Empire throughout its so-called <i><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine</a></i> history. <a href="/wiki/Leo_III_the_Isaurian" title="Leo III the Isaurian">Leo III the Isaurian</a> issued a new code, the <i>Ecloga</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in the early 8th century. In the 9th century, the emperors <a href="/wiki/Basil_I" title="Basil I">Basil I</a> and <a href="/wiki/Leo_VI_the_Wise" title="Leo VI the Wise">Leo VI the Wise</a> commissioned a combined translation of the Code and the Digest, parts of Justinian's codes, into Greek, which became known as the <a href="/wiki/Basilika" title="Basilika"><i>Basilica</i></a>. Roman law as preserved in the codes of Justinian and in the Basilica remained the basis of legal practice in Greece and in the courts of the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Eastern Orthodox Church</a> even after the fall of the Byzantine Empire and the conquest by the Turks, and, along with the <a href="/wiki/Syro-Roman_law_book" title="Syro-Roman law book">Syro-Roman law book</a>, also formed the basis for much of the <i><a href="/wiki/Fetha_Negest" title="Fetha Negest">Fetha Negest</a></i>, which remained in force in Ethiopia until 1931.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Substance">Substance</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Wie_die_R%C3%B6mer_Recht_gesprochen_haben%28CC_BY_4.0%29.webm/220px--Wie_die_R%C3%B6mer_Recht_gesprochen_haben%28CC_BY_4.0%29.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="124" data-durationhint="44" data-mwtitle="Wie_die_Römer_Recht_gesprochen_haben(CC_BY_4.0).webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Wie_die_R%C3%B6mer_Recht_gesprochen_haben(CC_BY_4.0).webm"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/7d/Wie_die_R%C3%B6mer_Recht_gesprochen_haben%28CC_BY_4.0%29.webm/Wie_die_R%C3%B6mer_Recht_gesprochen_haben%28CC_BY_4.0%29.webm.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/7d/Wie_die_R%C3%B6mer_Recht_gesprochen_haben%28CC_BY_4.0%29.webm/Wie_die_R%C3%B6mer_Recht_gesprochen_haben%28CC_BY_4.0%29.webm.720p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="720p.vp9.webm" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7d/Wie_die_R%C3%B6mer_Recht_gesprochen_haben%28CC_BY_4.0%29.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/7d/Wie_die_R%C3%B6mer_Recht_gesprochen_haben%28CC_BY_4.0%29.webm/Wie_die_R%C3%B6mer_Recht_gesprochen_haben%28CC_BY_4.0%29.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/7d/Wie_die_R%C3%B6mer_Recht_gesprochen_haben%28CC_BY_4.0%29.webm/Wie_die_R%C3%B6mer_Recht_gesprochen_haben%28CC_BY_4.0%29.webm.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/7d/Wie_die_R%C3%B6mer_Recht_gesprochen_haben%28CC_BY_4.0%29.webm/Wie_die_R%C3%B6mer_Recht_gesprochen_haben%28CC_BY_4.0%29.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AWie_die_R%C3%B6mer_Recht_gesprochen_haben%28CC_BY_4.0%29.webm&lang=de&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="de" label="Deutsch ‪(de)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AWie_die_R%C3%B6mer_Recht_gesprochen_haben%28CC_BY_4.0%29.webm&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AWie_die_R%C3%B6mer_Recht_gesprochen_haben%28CC_BY_4.0%29.webm&lang=la&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="la" label="Latina ‪(la)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></video></span><figcaption>The basics of Roman law (in German with English captioning)</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Concept_of_laws">Concept of laws</h3></div> <p>The 2nd-century Roman <a href="/wiki/Jurist" title="Jurist">jurist</a> <a href="/wiki/Ulpian" title="Ulpian">Ulpian</a>, however, divided law into three branches: natural law, which existed in nature and governed animals as well as humans; the law of nations, which was distinctively human; and, civil law, which was the body of laws specific to a people.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i><a href="/wiki/Civil_law_(legal_system)" title="Civil law (legal system)">Ius civile</a></i> ("citizen law", originally ius civile Quiritium) was the body of common laws that applied to Roman citizens and the <a href="/wiki/Praetor#Praetor_urbanus" title="Praetor"><i>Praetores Urbani</i></a>, the individuals who had jurisdiction over cases involving citizens. <i><a href="/wiki/Ius_gentium" class="mw-redirect" title="Ius gentium">Ius gentium</a></i> ("law of peoples") was the body of common laws that applied to foreigners, and their dealings with Roman citizens. The <a href="/wiki/Praetor#Praetor_peregrinus" title="Praetor"><i>Praetores Peregrini</i></a> were the individuals who had jurisdiction over cases involving citizens and foreigners. <i><a href="/wiki/Ius_naturale" title="Ius naturale">Ius naturale</a></i> ("natural law") was the concept that all persons had a kind of common sense, which the jurists developed to explain why all people seemed to obey some laws.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p><i><a href="/wiki/Ius_scriptum" class="mw-redirect" title="Ius scriptum">Ius scriptum</a></i> ("written law") was the body of statute laws made by the legislature, known as <i>leges</i> (<abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr><span style="white-space: nowrap;"> </span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">laws</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>) and <i>plebiscita</i> (<abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr><span style="white-space: nowrap;"> </span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">plebiscites</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>, originating in the <a href="/wiki/Plebeian_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="Plebeian Council">Plebeian Council</a>). Roman lawyers would also include in the <i>ius scriptum</i> the edicts of magistrates (<i>magistratuum edicta</i>), the advice of the Senate (<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Senatus consulta</i></span>), the responses and thoughts of jurists (<i><a href="/wiki/Responsa" title="Responsa">responsa</a> prudentium</i>), and the proclamations and beliefs of the emperor (<i>principum placita</i>). <i><a href="/wiki/Ius_non_scriptum" class="mw-redirect" title="Ius non scriptum">Ius non scriptum</a></i> ("unwritten law") was the body of common laws that arose from customary practice and had become binding over time.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p><i><a href="/wiki/Ius_singulare" title="Ius singulare">Ius singulare</a></i> ("singular law") was the special law for certain groups of people, things, or legal relations, as exceptional from the general rules of the legal system. For example, the ius singulare about wills written by people in the military during a campaign exempted them from the solemnities generally required for citizens when writing wills in normal circumstances. <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Ius_commune" class="mw-redirect" title="Ius commune">Ius commune</a></i></span> ("common law") was the general, ordinary, law, as distinct from <i>ius singulare</i>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p><i><a href="/wiki/Ius_publicum" title="Ius publicum">Ius publicum</a></i> ("public law") was the law that protected the interests of the Roman state. Roman criminal law was mostly private, with only the most severe crimes prosecuted by the state. <i>Ius publicum</i> was also used to describe obligatory legal regulations (today called <i><a href="/wiki/Peremptory_norm" title="Peremptory norm">ius cogens</a></i>). <i><a href="/wiki/Ius_privatum" title="Ius privatum">Ius privatum</a></i> ("private law") was the law that protected individuals, which included personal, property, civil and criminal law as well as the procedural law of judicial proceedings (<i>iudicium privatum</i>).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Public_law">Public law</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Res_publica" title="Res publica">Res publica</a></div><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cicero_Denounces_Catiline_in_the_Roman_Senate_by_Cesare_Maccari.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Cicero_Denounces_Catiline_in_the_Roman_Senate_by_Cesare_Maccari.png/220px-Cicero_Denounces_Catiline_in_the_Roman_Senate_by_Cesare_Maccari.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Cicero_Denounces_Catiline_in_the_Roman_Senate_by_Cesare_Maccari.png/330px-Cicero_Denounces_Catiline_in_the_Roman_Senate_by_Cesare_Maccari.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Cicero_Denounces_Catiline_in_the_Roman_Senate_by_Cesare_Maccari.png/440px-Cicero_Denounces_Catiline_in_the_Roman_Senate_by_Cesare_Maccari.png 2x" data-file-width="2072" data-file-height="1349" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a>, author of the classic book <i>The Laws,</i> attacks <a href="/wiki/Catiline" title="Catiline">Catiline</a> for attempting a coup in the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Roman Senate</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Republic" title="Constitution of the Roman Republic">Roman Republic's constitution</a> or <i><a href="/wiki/Mos_maiorum" title="Mos maiorum">mos maiorum</a></i> ("custom of the ancestors") was an unwritten, informal, and unofficial set of guidelines and principles passed down mainly through precedent, constantly evolving throughout the life of the Republic.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Throughout the 1st century BC, the power and legitimacy of the Roman constitution progressively eroded. Even Roman constitutionalists, such as the senator <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a>, lost a willingness to remain faithful to it towards the end of the Republic. When the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a> ultimately <a href="/wiki/Augustus#First_settlement" title="Augustus">fell</a> in the years following the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Actium" title="Battle of Actium">Battle of Actium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mark_Antony" title="Mark Antony">Mark Antony</a>'s suicide, what was left of the Roman constitution died along with the Republic. The first <a href="/wiki/Roman_emperor" title="Roman emperor">Roman emperor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a>, attempted to manufacture the appearance of a constitution that still governed the Empire, by utilising that constitution's institutions to lend legitimacy to the <a href="/wiki/Principate" title="Principate">Principate</a>, e.g., reusing prior grants of greater <i><a href="/wiki/Imperium" title="Imperium">imperium</a></i> to substantiate Augustus' greater <i>imperium</i> over the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_province" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial province">imperial provinces</a> and the prorogation of different magistracies to justify Augustus' receipt of tribunician power. The belief in a surviving constitution lasted well into the life of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Concepts that originated in the Roman constitution live on in constitutions to this day. Examples include <a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers#Checks_and_balances" title="Separation of powers">checks and balances</a>, <a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">the separation of powers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Veto" title="Veto">vetoes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Filibuster" title="Filibuster">filibusters</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quorum" title="Quorum">quorum</a> requirements, <a href="/wiki/Term_limits" class="mw-redirect" title="Term limits">term limits</a>, <a href="/wiki/Impeachment" title="Impeachment">impeachments</a>, <a href="/wiki/Power_of_the_purse" title="Power of the purse">the powers of the purse</a>, and regularly scheduled <a href="/wiki/Elections" class="mw-redirect" title="Elections">elections</a>. Even some lesser used modern constitutional concepts, such as the block voting found in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Electoral_College" title="United States Electoral College">electoral college of the United States</a>, originate from ideas found in the Roman constitution.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Private_law">Private law</h3></div> <p><i><a href="/wiki/Stipulatio" title="Stipulatio">Stipulatio</a></i> was the basic form of <a href="/wiki/Contract" title="Contract">contract</a> in Roman law. It was made in the format of question and answer. The precise nature of the contract is disputed.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p><i><a href="/wiki/Rei_vindicatio" title="Rei vindicatio">Rei vindicatio</a></i> is a legal action by which the <a href="/wiki/Plaintiff" title="Plaintiff">plaintiff</a> demands that the <a href="/wiki/Defendant" title="Defendant">defendant</a> return a thing that belongs to the plaintiff. It was only used when the plaintiff owns the thing, and the defendant somehow impeded the plaintiff's possession of the thing. The plaintiff could also institute an <i><a href="/wiki/Furtum" title="Furtum">actio furti</a></i>, a personal <a href="/wiki/Cause_of_action" title="Cause of action">action</a>, to punish the defendant. If the thing could not be recovered, the plaintiff could also claim damages from the defendant with the aid of the <i>condictio furtiva</i>, another personal action. With the aid of the <i>actio legis Aquiliae</i>, another personal action, the plaintiff could claim damages from the defendant. <i>Rei vindicatio</i> was derived from the <i><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Ius_Civile,_Ius_Gentium,_and_Ius_Naturale">ius civile</a></i>, and was only available to Roman citizens.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Status">Status</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Status_in_Roman_legal_system" title="Status in Roman legal system">Status in Roman legal system</a></div> <p>A person's abilities and duties within the Roman legal system depended on their legal <i>status</i>. The individual could have been a Roman citizen (<i>status civitatis</i>), unlike a foreigner; been free (<i>status libertatis</i>), unlike slaves; or had a certain position in a Roman family (<i>status familiae</i>) either as the head of the family (<i><a href="/wiki/Pater_familias" title="Pater familias">pater familias</a></i>) or some lower member (<i>alieni iuris</i> "one who lives under someone else's law").<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Litigation">Litigation</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Roman_litigation" title="Roman litigation">Roman litigation</a></div> <p>The history of Roman Law can be divided into three systems of procedure: <i>legis actiones</i>, the <i>formulary system</i>, and <i>cognitio extra ordinem</i>. The periods in which these systems were in use overlapped and did not have definitive breaks. Roughly, <i>legis actio</i> system prevailed from the time of the XII Tables (c. 450 BC) until about the end of the 2nd century BC; the formulary procedure was primarily used from the last century of the Republic until the end of the classical period (c. AD 200); and <i>cognitio extra ordinem</i> was used in post-classical times.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the republic and until the bureaucratization of Roman judicial procedure, the judge was usually a private person (<i><a href="/wiki/Privatus#Iudex_privatus" title="Privatus">iudex privatus</a></i>). He had to be a Roman male citizen. The parties could agree on a judge, or they could appoint one from a list of judges known as the <i>album iudicum</i>. They went down the list until they found a judge agreeable to both parties, or if none could be found they had to take the last one on the list. </p><p>No one had a legal obligation to judge a case. Judges had great latitude in the way they conducted litigation. He considered all the evidence and ruled in the way that seemed just. Because the judge was not a jurist or a legal technician, he often consulted a jurist about the technical aspects of the case, but he was not bound by the jurist's reply. At the end of the litigation, if things were not clear to him, he could refuse to give a judgment, by swearing that it wasn't clear. Also, there was a maximum time to issue a judgment, which depended on some technical issues of law. </p><p>Later on, with the bureaucratization, this procedure disappeared, and was substituted by the so-called <i>extra ordinem</i> procedure, also known as the cognitory system. The whole case was reviewed before a magistrate in a single phase. The magistrate had obligation to judge and to issue a decision, and the decision could be appealed to a higher magistrate. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>German legal theorist <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_von_Jhering" title="Rudolf von Jhering">Rudolf von Jhering</a> famously remarked that <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">ancient Rome</a> had conquered the world three times: the first through its armies, the second through its religion, the third through its laws. He might have added: each time more thoroughly.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/David_Graeber" title="David Graeber">David Graeber</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Debt:_The_First_5,000_Years" title="Debt: The First 5,000 Years">Debt: The First 5,000 Years</a></i></cite></div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_the_West">In the West</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Early_Germanic_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Germanic law">Early Germanic law</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_law" title="Anglo-Saxon law">Anglo-Saxon law</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Roman_law" title="Medieval Roman law">Medieval Roman law</a></div> <p>In the west, Justinian's political authority never went any farther than certain portions of the Italian and Hispanic peninsulas. In <a href="/wiki/Early_Germanic_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Germanic law">Law codes</a> issued by the Germanic kings, however, the influence of early Eastern Roman codes on some of these is discernible. In many early Germanic states, Roman citizens continued to be governed by Roman laws for quite some time, even while members of the various Germanic tribes were governed by their own respective codes.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The <i><a href="/wiki/Codex_Justinianus" class="mw-redirect" title="Codex Justinianus">Codex Justinianus</a>,</i> <a href="/wiki/Institutes_of_Justinian" class="mw-redirect" title="Institutes of Justinian">Institutes of Justinian</a>, and the earlier code of <a href="/wiki/Theodosius_II" title="Theodosius II">Theodosius II</a> were well-known in Western Europe and served as models for a few of the Germanic law codes. However, the <i><a href="/wiki/Digest_(Roman_law)" title="Digest (Roman law)">Digest</a></i> portion was largely ignored for several centuries until around 1070, when a manuscript of the <i>Digest</i> was rediscovered in Italy. This was done mainly through the works of glossars who wrote their comments between lines (<i>glossa interlinearis</i>), or in the form of <a href="/wiki/Marginal_note" class="mw-redirect" title="Marginal note">marginal notes</a> (<i>glossa marginalis</i>). From that time, scholars began to study the ancient Roman legal texts, and to teach others what they learned from their studies. The center of these studies was <a href="/wiki/Bologna" title="Bologna">Bologna</a>. The law school there gradually developed into Europe's first university.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>There are several reasons that Roman law was favored in the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>. Roman law regulated the legal protection of property and the equality of legal subjects and their wills, and it prescribed the possibility that the legal subjects could dispose their property through testament. The students who were taught Roman law in Bologna (and later in many other places) found that many rules of Roman law were better suited to regulate complex economic transactions than the customary rules applicable throughout Europe. For this reason, Roman law, or at least some provisions borrowed from it, began to be re-introduced into legal practice, centuries after the end of the Roman empire. This process was actively supported by many kings and princes who employed university-trained jurists as counselors and court officials and sought to benefit from rules like <i>princeps legibus solutus est</i> ("The sovereign is not bound by the laws", a phrase initially coined by <a href="/wiki/Ulpian" title="Ulpian">Ulpian</a>, a Roman jurist).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>By the middle of the 16th century, the rediscovered Roman law dominated the legal practice of many European countries. A legal system, in which Roman law was mixed with elements of <a href="/wiki/Canon_law" title="Canon law">canon law</a> and of Germanic custom, especially <a href="/wiki/Feudal_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Feudal law">feudal law</a>, had emerged. This legal system, which was common to all of continental Europe (and <a href="/wiki/Scots_law" title="Scots law">Scotland</a>) was known as <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Ius_Commune" class="mw-redirect" title="Ius Commune">Ius Commune</a></i></span>. This <i>Ius Commune</i> and the legal systems based on it are usually referred to as <a href="/wiki/Civil_law_(legal_system)" title="Civil law (legal system)">civil law</a> in English-speaking countries.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Only <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_England" title="Kingdom of England">England</a> and the Nordic countries did not take part in the wholesale reception of Roman law. One reason for this is that the <a href="/wiki/Common_law#History" title="Common law">English legal system</a> was more developed than its continental counterparts by the time Roman law was rediscovered. Therefore, the practical advantages of Roman law were less obvious to English practitioners than to continental lawyers. As a result, the English system of <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a> developed in parallel to Roman-based civil law, with its practitioners being trained at the <a href="/wiki/Inns_of_Court" title="Inns of Court">Inns of Court</a> in London rather than receiving degrees in Canon or Civil Law at the Universities of <a href="/wiki/University_of_Oxford" title="University of Oxford">Oxford</a> or <a href="/wiki/University_of_Cambridge" title="University of Cambridge">Cambridge</a>. Elements of Romano-canon law were present in England in the <a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_courts" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecclesiastical courts">ecclesiastical courts</a> and, less directly, through the development of the <a href="/wiki/Equity_(law)" title="Equity (law)">equity</a> system. In addition, some concepts from Roman law made their way into the common law. Especially in the early 19th century, English lawyers and judges were willing to borrow rules and ideas from continental jurists and directly from Roman law. </p><p>The practical application of Roman law, and the era of the European <i>Ius Commune</i>, came to an end when national codifications were made. In 1804, the <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_code" class="mw-redirect" title="Napoleonic code">French civil code</a> came into force. In the course of the 19th century, many European states either adopted the French model or drafted their own codes. In Germany, the political situation made the creation of a national code of laws impossible. From the 17th century, Roman law in Germany had been heavily influenced by domestic (customary) law, and it was called <i>usus modernus Pandectarum</i>. In some parts of Germany, Roman law continued to be applied until the German <a href="/wiki/Civil_code" title="Civil code">civil code</a> (<a href="/wiki/B%C3%BCrgerliches_Gesetzbuch" title="Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch">Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch</a>, BGB) went into effect in 1900.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Colonial expansion spread the civil law system.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Today">Today</h3></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_the_Legal_systems_of_the_world_(en).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Map_of_the_Legal_systems_of_the_world_%28en%29.png/250px-Map_of_the_Legal_systems_of_the_world_%28en%29.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Map_of_the_Legal_systems_of_the_world_%28en%29.png/375px-Map_of_the_Legal_systems_of_the_world_%28en%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Map_of_the_Legal_systems_of_the_world_%28en%29.png/500px-Map_of_the_Legal_systems_of_the_world_%28en%29.png 2x" data-file-width="3564" data-file-height="1870" /></a><figcaption>Legal systems of the world. Blue is based on Roman law.</figcaption></figure> <p>Today, Roman law is no longer applied in legal practice, even though the legal systems of some countries like <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a> and <a href="/wiki/San_Marino" title="San Marino">San Marino</a> are still based on the old <i><a href="/wiki/Jus_commune" title="Jus commune">jus commune</a></i>. However, even where the legal practice is based on a code, many rules deriving from Roman law apply: no code completely broke with the Roman tradition. Rather, the provisions of the Roman law were fitted into a more coherent system and expressed in the national language. For this reason, knowledge of the Roman law is indispensable to understand the legal systems of today. Thus, Roman law is often still a mandatory subject for law students in <a href="/wiki/Civil_law_(legal_system)" title="Civil law (legal system)">civil law jurisdictions</a>. In this context, the annual <a href="/wiki/International_Roman_Law_Moot_Court" title="International Roman Law Moot Court">International Roman Law Moot Court</a> was developed in order to better educate the students and to network with one another internationally.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As steps towards a unification of the private law in the member states of the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a> are being taken, the old <i>jus commune</i>, which was the common basis of legal practice everywhere in Europe, but allowed for many local variants, is seen by many as a model.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/SPQRomani.svg/32px-SPQRomani.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/SPQRomani.svg/48px-SPQRomani.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/SPQRomani.svg/64px-SPQRomani.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="931" data-file-height="548" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Ancient_Rome" title="Portal:Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abalienatio" title="Abalienatio">Abalienatio</a> (legal transfer of property)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auctoritas" title="Auctoritas">Auctoritas</a> (power of the sovereign)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitis_deminutio" title="Capitis deminutio">Capitis deminutio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cessio_bonorum" title="Cessio bonorum">Cessio bonorum</a> (surrender of goods to a creditor)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compascuus" title="Compascuus">Compascuus</a> (common pasture)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_(Roman_law)" title="Constitution (Roman law)">Constitution (Roman law)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homo_sacer" title="Homo sacer">Homo sacer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inheritance_law_in_ancient_Rome" title="Inheritance law in ancient Rome">Inheritance law in ancient Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justitium" title="Justitium">Justitium</a> (akin to modern <a href="/wiki/State_of_emergency" title="State of emergency">state of exception</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_laws" title="List of Roman laws">List of Roman laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Res_extra_commercium" title="Res extra commercium">Res extra commercium</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_law" title="Ancient Greek law">Ancient Greek law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman-Dutch_law" title="Roman-Dutch law">Roman-Dutch law</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In Germany, Art. 311 BGB</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFHerbermann1913" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Roman Law"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia_(1913)/Roman_Law">"Roman Law" </a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia" title="Catholic Encyclopedia">Catholic Encyclopedia</a></i>. New York: Robert Appleton Company.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Roman+Law&rft.btitle=Catholic+Encyclopedia&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Robert+Appleton+Company&rft.date=1913&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+law" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jenő Szmodis: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jogiforum.hu/publikaciok/231"><i>The Reality of the Law – From the Etruscan Religion to the Postmodern Theories of Law</i></a>; Ed. Kairosz, Budapest, 2005.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-tellegen-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-tellegen_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tellegen_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tellegen_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tellegen_4-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tellegen_4-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tellegen_4-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tellegen_4-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">"A Short History of Roman Law", Olga Tellegen-Couperus pp. 19–20.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The Oxford Classical Dictionary</i>, Third Edition. Edited by Simon Hornblower and Antony Spawforth, Oxford University Press, 1996. Entry: <i>Licinius Stolo, Gaius</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The Oxford Classical Dictionary</i>, Third Edition. Edited by Simon Hornblower and Antony Spawforth, Oxford University Press, 1996. Entry: <i>Lex</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerger1953" class="citation book cs1">Berger, Adolf (1953). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oR0LAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA529"><i>Encyclopedic Dictionary of Roman Law</i></a>. Vol. 76. pp. <span class="nowrap">90–</span>93. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F297597">10.2307/297597</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780871694324" title="Special:BookSources/9780871694324"><bdi>9780871694324</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/291711">291711</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162540731">162540731</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedic+Dictionary+of+Roman+Law&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E90-%3C%2Fspan%3E93&rft.date=1953&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F297597&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162540731%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F291711%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.isbn=9780871694324&rft.aulast=Berger&rft.aufirst=Adolf&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DoR0LAAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA529&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+law" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> ignored (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.livius.org/articles/concept/consul/">"Consul"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Livius.org" class="mw-redirect" title="Livius.org">Livius.org</a></i>. 2002<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 June</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Livius.org&rft.atitle=Consul&rft.date=2002&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.livius.org%2Farticles%2Fconcept%2Fconsul%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+law" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-coupers-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-coupers_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-coupers_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-coupers_9-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTellegen-Couperus1993" class="citation book cs1">Tellegen-Couperus, Olga Eveline (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=R9-kvagJ_7sC"><i>A Short History of Roman Law</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Psychology_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychology Press">Psychology Press</a>. p. 174. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415072502" title="Special:BookSources/9780415072502"><bdi>9780415072502</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Short+History+of+Roman+Law&rft.pages=174&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=9780415072502&rft.aulast=Tellegen-Couperus&rft.aufirst=Olga+Eveline&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DR9-kvagJ_7sC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+law" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Ecloga">"Ecloga"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_Britannica" class="mw-redirect" title="Encyclopedia Britannica">Encyclopedia Britannica</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_Britannica,_Inc." class="mw-redirect" title="Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc.">Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc.</a> 20 July 1998<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 October</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ecloga&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft.pub=Encyclopedia+Britannica%2C+Inc.&rft.date=1998-07-20&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2FEcloga&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+law" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Digest</i> 1.1.1.4; Tierney, <i>The Idea of Natural Rights</i>, p. 136.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJolowiczNicholas1967" class="citation book cs1">Jolowicz, Herbert Felix; <a href="/wiki/Barry_Nicholas" title="Barry Nicholas">Nicholas, Barry</a> (1967). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Nwg9AAAAIAAJ"><i>Historical Introduction to the Study of Roman Law</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. p. 528. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521082532" title="Special:BookSources/9780521082532"><bdi>9780521082532</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+Introduction+to+the+Study+of+Roman+Law.&rft.pages=528&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1967&rft.isbn=9780521082532&rft.aulast=Jolowicz&rft.aufirst=Herbert+Felix&rft.au=Nicholas%2C+Barry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNwg9AAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+law" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWolff,_Hans_Julius,_1902-1983.1951" class="citation book cs1">Wolff, Hans Julius, 1902-1983. (1951). <i>Roman law : an historical introduction</i>. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. p. 208. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0585116784" title="Special:BookSources/0585116784"><bdi>0585116784</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/44953814">44953814</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Roman+law+%3A+an+historical+introduction&rft.place=Norman&rft.pages=208&rft.pub=University+of+Oklahoma+Press&rft.date=1951&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F44953814&rft.isbn=0585116784&rft.au=Wolff%2C+Hans+Julius%2C+1902-1983.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+law" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_numeric_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRheinsteinGlendonCarozza" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Max_Rheinstein" title="Max Rheinstein">Rheinstein, Max</a>; Glendon, Mary Ann; Carozza, Paolo. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/119271/civil-law">"Civil law (Romano-Germanic)"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica,_Inc." title="Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.">Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.</a><span class="reference-accessdate"> Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 October</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Civil+law+%28Romano-Germanic%29&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pub=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica%2C+Inc.&rft.aulast=Rheinstein&rft.aufirst=Max&rft.au=Glendon%2C+Mary+Ann&rft.au=Carozza%2C+Paolo&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F119271%2Fcivil-law&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+law" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.irlm.law.cam.ac.uk/">"International Roman Law Moot"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=International+Roman+Law+Moot&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.irlm.law.cam.ac.uk%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+law" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Paolo De Luca "Quattro studenti della Federico II in gara a Oxford inscenano un antico processo romano" In: La Repubblica, 05.04.2013.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Areti Kotseli "Greek Law Students Finish Second in the 2012 International Roman Law Moot Court Competition" In: Greek Reporter 13.04.2012.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2></div> <ul><li>Berger, Adolf, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oR0LAAAAIAAJ">"Encyclopedic Dictionary of Roman Law"</a>, <i>Transactions of the American Philosophical Society</i>, Vol. 43, Part 2., pp. 476. Philadelphia : <a href="/wiki/American_Philosophical_Society" title="American Philosophical Society">American Philosophical Society</a>, 1953. (reprinted 1980, 1991, 2002). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-58477-142-9" title="Special:BookSources/1-58477-142-9">1-58477-142-9</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBablitz2007" class="citation book cs1">Bablitz, Leanne E. (2007). <i>Actors and Audience in the Roman Courtroom</i>. London: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9780203946770">10.4324/9780203946770</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-203-94677-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-203-94677-0"><bdi>978-0-203-94677-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Actors+and+Audience+in+the+Roman+Courtroom&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4324%2F9780203946770&rft.isbn=978-0-203-94677-0&rft.aulast=Bablitz&rft.aufirst=Leanne+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+law" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBauman1989" class="citation book cs1">Bauman, Richard A. (1989). <i>Lawyers and Politics in the Early Roman Empire</i>. Munich: C. H. Beck. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783406337734" title="Special:BookSources/9783406337734"><bdi>9783406337734</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lawyers+and+Politics+in+the+Early+Roman+Empire&rft.place=Munich&rft.pub=C.+H.+Beck&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=9783406337734&rft.aulast=Bauman&rft.aufirst=Richard+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+law" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBorkowskiDu_Plessis2020" class="citation book cs1">Borkowski, Andrew; Du Plessis, Paul (2020). <i>Borkowski's Textbook on Roman Law</i> (6 ed.). Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fhe%2F9780198848011.001.0001">10.1093/he/9780198848011.001.0001</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-884801-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-884801-1"><bdi>978-0-19-884801-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Borkowski%27s+Textbook+on+Roman+Law&rft.edition=6&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fhe%2F9780198848011.001.0001&rft.isbn=978-0-19-884801-1&rft.aulast=Borkowski&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft.au=Du+Plessis%2C+Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+law" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBuckland1963" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_Warwick_Buckland" title="William Warwick Buckland">Buckland, William Warwick</a> (1963). <i>A Textbook of Roman Law from Augustus to Justinian</i>. Revised by P. G. Stein (3rd ed.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Textbook+of+Roman+Law+from+Augustus+to+Justinian&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1963&rft.aulast=Buckland&rft.aufirst=William+Warwick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+law" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaube1969" class="citation book cs1">Daube, David (1969). <i>Roman Law: Linguistic, Social and Philosophical Aspects</i>. Edinburgh: Edinburgh Univ. Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780852240519" title="Special:BookSources/9780852240519"><bdi>9780852240519</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Roman+Law%3A+Linguistic%2C+Social+and+Philosophical+Aspects&rft.place=Edinburgh&rft.pub=Edinburgh+Univ.+Press&rft.date=1969&rft.isbn=9780852240519&rft.aulast=Daube&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+law" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDe_Ligt2007" class="citation journal cs1">De Ligt, Luuk (2007). "Roman Law and the Roman Economy: Three Case Studies". <i>Latomus</i>. <b>66</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">10–</span>25. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41545348">41545348</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Latomus&rft.atitle=Roman+Law+and+the+Roman+Economy%3A+Three+Case+Studies&rft.volume=66&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E10-%3C%2Fspan%3E25&rft.date=2007&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F41545348%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=De+Ligt&rft.aufirst=Luuk&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+law" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDu_Plessis2006" class="citation journal cs1">Du Plessis, Paul (2006). "Janus in the Roman Law of Urban Lease". <i>Historia</i>. <b>55</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">48–</span>63. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.25162%2Fhistoria-2006-0004">10.25162/historia-2006-0004</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4436798">4436798</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Historia&rft.atitle=Janus+in+the+Roman+Law+of+Urban+Lease&rft.volume=55&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E48-%3C%2Fspan%3E63&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.25162%2Fhistoria-2006-0004&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4436798%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Du+Plessis&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+law" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGardner1986" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jane_F._Gardner" title="Jane F. Gardner">Gardner, Jane F.</a> (1986). <i>Women in Roman Law and Society</i>. London: Croom Helm. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9780203134603">10.4324/9780203134603</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-203-13460-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-203-13460-3"><bdi>978-0-203-13460-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Women+in+Roman+Law+and+Society&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Croom+Helm&rft.date=1986&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4324%2F9780203134603&rft.isbn=978-0-203-13460-3&rft.aulast=Gardner&rft.aufirst=Jane+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+law" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGardner1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jane_F._Gardner" title="Jane F. Gardner">Gardner, Jane F.</a> (1998). <i>Family and Familia in Roman Law and Life</i>. Oxford: Clarendon Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foso%2F9780198152170.001.0001">10.1093/oso/9780198152170.001.0001</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-815217-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-815217-0"><bdi>978-0-19-815217-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Family+and+Familia+in+Roman+Law+and+Life&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Foso%2F9780198152170.001.0001&rft.isbn=978-0-19-815217-0&rft.aulast=Gardner&rft.aufirst=Jane+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+law" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarries1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jill_Harries" title="Jill Harries">Harries, Jill</a> (1999). <i>Law and Empire in Late Antiquity</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9780511482809">10.1017/CBO9780511482809</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-41087-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-41087-8"><bdi>978-0-521-41087-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Law+and+Empire+in+Late+Antiquity&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FCBO9780511482809&rft.isbn=978-0-521-41087-8&rft.aulast=Harries&rft.aufirst=Jill&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+law" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNicholas1962" class="citation book cs1">Nicholas, Barry (1962). <i>An Introduction to Roman Law</i>. Oxford: Clarendon Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Roman+Law&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1962&rft.aulast=Nicholas&rft.aufirst=Barry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+law" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNicholasBirks1989" class="citation book cs1">Nicholas, Barry; Birks, Peter (1989). <i>New Perspectives in the Roman Law of Property</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780198256144" title="Special:BookSources/9780198256144"><bdi>9780198256144</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=New+Perspectives+in+the+Roman+Law+of+Property&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=9780198256144&rft.aulast=Nicholas&rft.aufirst=Barry&rft.au=Birks%2C+Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+law" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPowellPaterson2004" class="citation book cs1">Powell, Jonathan; Paterson, Jeremy, eds. (2004). <i>Cicero the Advocate</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facprof%3Aoso%2F9780198152804.001.0001">10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198152804.001.0001</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-815280-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-815280-9"><bdi>0-19-815280-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cicero+the+Advocate&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Facprof%3Aoso%2F9780198152804.001.0001&rft.isbn=0-19-815280-9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+law" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRives2003" class="citation journal cs1">Rives, James B. (2003). "Magic in Roman Law: The Reconstruction of a Crime". <i>Classical Antiquity</i>. <b>22</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">313–</span>39. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Fca.2003.22.2.313">10.1525/ca.2003.22.2.313</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Classical+Antiquity&rft.atitle=Magic+in+Roman+Law%3A+The+Reconstruction+of+a+Crime&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E313-%3C%2Fspan%3E39&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1525%2Fca.2003.22.2.313&rft.aulast=Rives&rft.aufirst=James+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+law" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchulz1946" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Fritz_Schulz_(jurist)" title="Fritz Schulz (jurist)">Schulz, Fritz</a> (1946). <i>History of Roman Legal Science</i>. Oxford: Clarendon Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Roman+Legal+Science&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1946&rft.aulast=Schulz&rft.aufirst=Fritz&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+law" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStein1999" class="citation book cs1">Stein, Peter (1999). <i>Roman Law in European History</i>. New York: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9780511814723">10.1017/CBO9780511814723</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-64372-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-64372-6"><bdi>978-0-521-64372-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Roman+Law+in+European+History&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FCBO9780511814723&rft.isbn=978-0-521-64372-6&rft.aulast=Stein&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+law" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTellegen-Couperus1993" class="citation book cs1">Tellegen-Couperus, Olga E. (1993). <i>A Short History of Roman Law</i>. London: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9780203416464">10.4324/9780203416464</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-203-41646-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-203-41646-4"><bdi>978-0-203-41646-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Short+History+of+Roman+Law&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1993&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4324%2F9780203416464&rft.isbn=978-0-203-41646-4&rft.aulast=Tellegen-Couperus&rft.aufirst=Olga+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+law" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWenger1953" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Leopold_Wenger" title="Leopold Wenger">Wenger, Leopold</a> (1953). <i>Die Quellen des römischen Rechts</i> (in German). Vienna: Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Die+Quellen+des+r%C3%B6mischen+Rechts&rft.place=Vienna&rft.pub=%C3%96sterreichische+Akademie+der+Wissenschaften&rft.date=1953&rft.aulast=Wenger&rft.aufirst=Leopold&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+law" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 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href="https://droitromain.univ-grenoble-alpes.fr/"><i>The Roman Law Library</i> by Professor Yves Lassard and Alexandr Koptev</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/SMIGRA/Law/home.html">The Roman Law Articles of Smith's Dictionary</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.romanlegaltradition.org/"><i>Roman Legal Tradition</i>: open access journal devoted to Roman law</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Roman Law"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Roman_Law">"Roman Law" </a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i> (11th ed.). 1911.</cite><span 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navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Founding_of_Rome" title="Founding of Rome">Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Kingdom" title="Roman Kingdom">Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Overthrow_of_the_Roman_monarchy" title="Overthrow of the Roman monarchy">overthrow</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Republic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Empire</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="History of the Roman Empire">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pax_Romana" title="Pax Romana">Pax Romana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principate" title="Principate">Principate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominate" title="Dominate">Dominate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">fall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire">historiography of the fall</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decline_of_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Decline of the Byzantine Empire">decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">fall</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Later_Roman_Empire" title="Later Roman Empire">Later Roman Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Later_Roman_Empire" title="History of the Later Roman Empire">History</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Constitution" title="Roman Constitution">Constitution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Roman_Constitution" title="History of the Roman Constitution">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Kingdom" title="Constitution of the Roman Kingdom">Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Republic" title="Constitution of the Roman Republic">Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Constitution of the Roman Empire">Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Late_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitution of the Late Roman Empire">Late Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Senate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_assemblies" title="Roman assemblies">Legislative assemblies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curiate_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Curiate Assembly">Curiate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centuriate_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Centuriate Assembly">Centuriate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribal Assembly">Tribal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plebeian_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="Plebeian Council">Plebeian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">Executive magistrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SPQR" title="SPQR">SPQR</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Twelve_Tables" title="Twelve Tables">Twelve Tables</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mos_maiorum" title="Mos maiorum">Mos maiorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_citizenship" title="Roman citizenship">Citizenship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auctoritas" title="Auctoritas">Auctoritas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperium" title="Imperium">Imperium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Status_in_Roman_legal_system" title="Status in Roman legal system">Status</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_litigation" title="Roman litigation">Litigation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Political_institutions_of_ancient_Rome" title="Political institutions of ancient Rome">Government</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curia" title="Curia">Curia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forum_(Roman)" title="Forum (Roman)">Forum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cursus_honorum" title="Cursus honorum">Cursus honorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collegiality#In_the_Roman_Republic" title="Collegiality">Collegiality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_emperor" title="Roman emperor">Emperor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legatus" class="mw-redirect" title="Legatus">Legatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dux" title="Dux">Dux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Officium_(ancient_Rome)" title="Officium (ancient Rome)">Officium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praefectus" title="Praefectus">Praefectus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vicarius" title="Vicarius">Vicarius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vigintisexviri" title="Vigintisexviri">Vigintisexviri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lictor" title="Lictor">Lictor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magister_militum" title="Magister militum">Magister militum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperator" title="Imperator">Imperator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princeps_senatus" title="Princeps senatus">Princeps senatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pontifex_maximus" title="Pontifex maximus">Pontifex maximus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustus_(title)" title="Augustus (title)">Augustus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caesar_(title)" title="Caesar (title)">Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetrarchy" title="Tetrarchy">Tetrarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optimates_and_populares" title="Optimates and populares">Optimates and populares</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_province" title="Roman province">Province</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">Magistrates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Ordinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_consul" title="Roman consul">Consul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_censor" title="Roman censor">Censor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praetor" title="Praetor">Praetor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribune" title="Tribune">Tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribune_of_the_plebs" title="Tribune of the plebs">Tribune of the plebs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_tribune" title="Military tribune">Military tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quaestor" title="Quaestor">Quaestor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aedile" title="Aedile">Aedile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Promagistrate" title="Promagistrate">Promagistrate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_governor" title="Roman governor">Governor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Extraordinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/King_of_Rome" title="King of Rome">Rex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interrex" title="Interrex">Interrex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_dictator" title="Roman dictator">Dictator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magister_equitum" title="Magister equitum">Magister equitum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decemviri" title="Decemviri">Decemviri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribuni_militum_consulari_potestate" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribuni militum consulari potestate">Consular tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triumvirate_(ancient_Rome)" title="Triumvirate (ancient Rome)">Triumvir</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Military_of_ancient_Rome" title="Military of ancient Rome">Military</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_ancient_Rome" title="Military history of ancient Rome">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borders_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Borders of the Roman Empire">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_establishment_of_the_Roman_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Military establishment of the Roman Republic">Establishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Structural history of the Roman military">Structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campaign_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Campaign history of the Roman military">Campaigns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Political history of the Roman military">Political control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategy_of_the_Roman_military" title="Strategy of the Roman military">Strategy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_engineering" title="Roman military engineering">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_frontiers_and_fortifications" title="Roman military frontiers and fortifications">Frontiers and fortifications</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Castra" title="Castra">castra</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Technological history of the Roman military">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_army" title="Roman army">Army</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_legion" title="Roman legion">Legion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_infantry_tactics" title="Roman infantry tactics">Infantry tactics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_personal_equipment" title="Roman military personal equipment">Personal equipment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_siege_engines" title="Roman siege engines">Siege engines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_(Roman_history)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege (Roman history)">Siege in Ancient Rome</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_navy" title="Roman navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auxilia" title="Auxilia">Auxiliaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_decorations_and_punishments" title="Roman military decorations and punishments">Decorations and punishments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippika_gymnasia" title="Hippika gymnasia">Hippika gymnasia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_economy" title="Roman economy">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_ancient_Rome" title="Agriculture in ancient Rome">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_during_the_Roman_period" title="Deforestation during the Roman period">Deforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_commerce" title="Roman commerce">Commerce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_finance" title="Roman finance">Finance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_currency" title="Roman currency">Currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republican_currency" title="Roman Republican currency">Republican currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Imperial_currency" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Imperial currency">Imperial currency</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_ancient_Rome" title="Culture of ancient Rome">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_architecture" title="Ancient Roman architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_art" title="Roman art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_bathing" title="Ancient Roman bathing">Bathing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_calendar" title="Roman calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clothing_in_ancient_Rome" title="Clothing in ancient Rome">Clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmetics_in_ancient_Rome" title="Cosmetics in ancient Rome">Cosmetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_cuisine" title="Ancient Roman cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_ancient_Rome" title="Education in ancient Rome">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_folklore" title="Roman folklore">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_hairstyles" title="Roman hairstyles">Hairstyles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_ancient_Rome" title="Music of ancient Rome">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_mythology" title="Roman mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_deities" title="List of Roman deities">Deities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_(cultural)" title="Romanization (cultural)">Romanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_people" title="Roman people">Romans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexuality_in_ancient_Rome" title="Sexuality in ancient Rome">Sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectacles_in_ancient_Rome" title="Spectacles in ancient Rome">Spectacles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_ancient_Rome" title="Theatre of ancient Rome">Theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toys_and_games_in_ancient_Rome" title="Toys and games in ancient Rome">Toys and games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome_and_wine" title="Ancient Rome and wine">Wine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_ancient_Rome" title="Social class in ancient Rome">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patrician_(ancient_Rome)" title="Patrician (ancient Rome)">Patricians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plebeians" title="Plebeians">Plebs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_of_the_Orders" title="Conflict of the Orders">Conflict of the Orders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secessio_plebis" title="Secessio plebis">Secessio plebis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equites" title="Equites">Equites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gens" title="Gens">Gens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_tribe" title="Roman tribe">Tribes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribal Assembly">Assembly</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patronage_in_ancient_Rome" title="Patronage in ancient Rome">Patronage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_naming_conventions" title="Roman naming conventions">Naming conventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demography_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Demography of the Roman Empire">Demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_ancient_Rome" title="Women in ancient Rome">Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marriage_in_ancient_Rome" title="Marriage in ancient Rome">Marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adoption_in_ancient_Rome" title="Adoption in ancient Rome">Adoption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Rome" title="Slavery in ancient Rome">Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bagaudae" title="Bagaudae">Bagaudae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_technology" title="Ancient Roman technology">Technology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_amphitheatre" title="Roman amphitheatre">Amphitheatres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_aqueduct" title="Roman aqueduct">Aqueducts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_bridge" title="Roman bridge">Bridges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_circus" title="Roman circus">Circuses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_engineering" title="Ancient Roman engineering">Civil engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_concrete" title="Roman concrete">Concrete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Roman_and_Byzantine_domes" title="History of Roman and Byzantine domes">Domes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_metallurgy" title="Roman metallurgy">Metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_numerals" title="Roman numerals">Numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_roads" title="Roman roads">Roads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitation_in_ancient_Rome" title="Sanitation in ancient Rome">Sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ships_of_ancient_Rome" title="Ships of ancient Rome">Ships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_temple" title="Roman temple">Temples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_theatre_(structure)" title="Roman theatre (structure)">Theatres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermae" title="Thermae">Thermae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Latin" title="History of Latin">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">Alphabet</a></li> <li>Versions <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Latin" title="Old Latin">Old</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Latin" title="Classical Latin">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulgar_Latin" title="Vulgar Latin">Vulgar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Latin" title="Late Latin">Late</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Latin" title="Medieval Latin">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_Latin" title="Renaissance Latin">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Latin" title="Neo-Latin">Neo-Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_Latin" title="Contemporary Latin">Contemporary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_Latin" title="Ecclesiastical Latin">Ecclesiastical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance languages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Writers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Latin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aelius_Donatus" title="Aelius Donatus">Aelius Donatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" title="Ammianus Marcellinus">Ammianus Marcellinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apuleius" title="Apuleius">Appuleius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Asconius_Pedianus" title="Quintus Asconius Pedianus">Asconius Pedianus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aurelius_Victor" title="Aurelius Victor">Aurelius Victor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ausonius" title="Ausonius">Ausonius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boëthius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catullus" title="Catullus">Catullus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cassiodorus" title="Cassiodorus">Cassiodorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorinus" title="Censorinus">Censorinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudian" title="Claudian">Claudian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columella" title="Columella">Columella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornelius_Nepos" title="Cornelius Nepos">Cornelius Nepos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ennius" title="Ennius">Ennius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eutropius_(historian)" title="Eutropius (historian)">Eutropius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Fabius_Pictor" title="Quintus Fabius Pictor">Fabius Pictor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sextus_Pompeius_Festus" title="Sextus Pompeius Festus">Sextus Pompeius Festus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Festus_(historian)" title="Festus (historian)">Rufus Festus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Works_attributed_to_Florus" class="mw-redirect" title="Works attributed to Florus">Florus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frontinus" title="Frontinus">Frontinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Cornelius_Fronto" title="Marcus Cornelius Fronto">Fronto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fabius_Planciades_Fulgentius" title="Fabius Planciades Fulgentius">Fulgentius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aulus_Gellius" title="Aulus Gellius">Gellius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horace" title="Horace">Horace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydatius" title="Hydatius">Hydatius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaius_Julius_Hyginus" title="Gaius Julius Hyginus">Hyginus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerome" title="Jerome">Jerome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordanes" title="Jordanes">Jordanes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Paulus" title="Julius Paulus">Julius Paulus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justin_(historian)" title="Justin (historian)">Justin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juvenal" title="Juvenal">Juvenal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucan" title="Lucan">Lucan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucretius" title="Lucretius">Lucretius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macrobius" title="Macrobius">Macrobius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcellus_Empiricus" title="Marcellus Empiricus">Marcellus Empiricus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Manilius" title="Marcus Manilius">Manilius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martial" title="Martial">Martial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolaus_of_Damascus" title="Nicolaus of Damascus">Nicolaus Damascenus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonius_Marcellus" title="Nonius Marcellus">Nonius Marcellus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Obsequens" title="Julius Obsequens">Obsequens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orosius" title="Orosius">Orosius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovid" title="Ovid">Ovid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petronius" title="Petronius">Petronius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phaedrus_(fabulist)" title="Phaedrus (fabulist)">Phaedrus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plautus" title="Plautus">Plautus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Younger" title="Pliny the Younger">Pliny the Younger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomponius_Mela" title="Pomponius Mela">Pomponius Mela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscian" title="Priscian">Priscian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propertius" title="Propertius">Propertius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Claudius_Quadrigarius" title="Quintus Claudius Quadrigarius">Quadrigarius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintilian" title="Quintilian">Quintilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Curtius_Rufus" title="Quintus Curtius Rufus">Quintus Curtius Rufus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sallust" title="Sallust">Sallust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Elder" title="Seneca the Elder">Seneca the Elder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger" title="Seneca the Younger">Seneca the Younger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurus_Servius_Honoratus" class="mw-redirect" title="Maurus Servius Honoratus">Servius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidonius_Apollinaris" title="Sidonius Apollinaris">Sidonius Apollinaris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silius_Italicus" title="Silius Italicus">Silius Italicus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statius" title="Statius">Statius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suetonius" title="Suetonius">Suetonius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Aurelius_Symmachus" title="Quintus Aurelius Symmachus">Symmachus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terence" title="Terence">Terence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibullus" title="Tibullus">Tibullus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valerius_Antias" title="Valerius Antias">Valerius Antias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valerius_Maximus" title="Valerius Maximus">Valerius Maximus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Terentius_Varro" title="Marcus Terentius Varro">Varro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velleius_Paterculus" title="Velleius Paterculus">Velleius Paterculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verrius_Flaccus" title="Verrius Flaccus">Verrius Flaccus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virgil" title="Virgil">Vergil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitruvius" title="Vitruvius">Vitruvius</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_literature" title="Ancient Greek literature">Greek</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Claudius_Aelianus" title="Claudius Aelianus">Aelian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A%C3%ABtius_of_Amida" title="Aëtius of Amida">Aëtius of Amida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appian" title="Appian">Appian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arrian" title="Arrian">Arrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cassius_Dio" title="Cassius Dio">Cassius Dio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus" title="Diodorus Siculus">Diodorus Siculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diogenes_La%C3%ABrtius" class="mw-redirect" title="Diogenes Laërtius">Diogenes Laërtius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dionysius_of_Halicarnassus" title="Dionysius of Halicarnassus">Dionysius of Halicarnassus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedanius_Dioscorides" class="mw-redirect" title="Pedanius Dioscorides">Dioscorides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eusebius" title="Eusebius">Eusebius of Caesaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herodian" title="Herodian">Herodian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josephus" title="Josephus">Josephus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_(emperor)" title="Julian (emperor)">Julian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libanius" title="Libanius">Libanius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucian" title="Lucian">Lucian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pausanias_(geographer)" title="Pausanias (geographer)">Pausanias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philostratus" title="Philostratus">Philostratus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phlegon_of_Tralles" title="Phlegon of Tralles">Phlegon of Tralles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photios_I_of_Constantinople" title="Photios I of Constantinople">Photius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyaenus" title="Polyaenus">Polyaenus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porphyry_(philosopher)" title="Porphyry (philosopher)">Porphyrius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscus" title="Priscus">Priscus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procopius" title="Procopius">Procopius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simplicius_of_Cilicia" title="Simplicius of Cilicia">Simplicius of Cilicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sozomen" title="Sozomen">Sozomen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephanus_of_Byzantium" title="Stephanus of Byzantium">Stephanus Byzantinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Themistius" title="Themistius">Themistius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodoret" title="Theodoret">Theodoret</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joannes_Zonaras" title="Joannes Zonaras">Zonaras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zosimus_(historian)" title="Zosimus (historian)">Zosimus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Major cities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antioch" title="Antioch">Antioch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquileia" title="Aquileia">Aquileia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berytus" title="Berytus">Berytus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bologna" title="Bologna">Bononia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinopolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eboracum" title="Eboracum">Eboracum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leptis_Magna" title="Leptis Magna">Leptis Magna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Londinium" title="Londinium">Londinium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lugdunum" title="Lugdunum">Lugdunum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutetia" title="Lutetia">Lutetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediolanum" title="Mediolanum">Mediolanum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pompeii" title="Pompeii">Pompeii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ravenna" title="Ravenna">Ravenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Roma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smyrna" title="Smyrna">Smyrna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vindobona" title="Vindobona">Vindobona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volubilis" title="Volubilis">Volubilis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists <span class="nobold">and other<br />topics</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_founded_by_the_Romans" title="List of cities founded by the Romans">Cities and towns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_of_ancient_Rome" title="Climate of ancient Rome">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_consuls" title="List of Roman consuls">Consuls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dictators" title="List of Roman dictators">Dictators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_women" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Roman women">Distinguished women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dynasties" title="List of Roman dynasties">Dynasties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_emperors" title="List of Roman emperors">Emperors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_and_Byzantine_empresses" title="List of Roman and Byzantine empresses">Empresses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiction_set_in_ancient_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Fiction set in ancient Rome">Fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_films_set_in_ancient_Rome" title="List of films set in ancient Rome">Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_generals" title="List of Roman generals">Generals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_gentes" title="List of Roman gentes">Gentes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Graeco-Roman_geographers" title="List of Graeco-Roman geographers">Geographers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_institutions_of_ancient_Rome" title="Political institutions of ancient Rome">Institutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_laws" title="List of Roman laws">Laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Legacy of the Roman Empire">Legacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_legions" title="List of Roman legions">Legions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dictators" title="List of Roman dictators">Magistri equitum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_nomina" title="List of Roman nomina">Nomina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pontifices_maximi" title="List of pontifices maximi">Pontifices maximi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_praetors" title="List of Roman praetors">Praetors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_quaestors" title="List of Roman quaestors">Quaestors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_tribunes" title="List of Roman tribunes">Tribunes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Iranian_relations" title="Roman–Iranian relations">Roman–Iranian relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_external_wars_and_battles" title="List of Roman external wars and battles">External wars and battles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_civil_wars_and_revolts" title="List of Roman civil wars and revolts">Civil wars and revolts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Law519" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Law" title="Template:Law"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Law" title="Template talk:Law"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Law" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Law"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Law519" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">Law</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Core subjects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Administrative_law" title="Administrative law">Administrative law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_civil_law_(common_law)" title="Outline of civil law (common law)">Civil law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_law" title="Constitutional law">Constitutional law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contract" title="Contract">Contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_law" title="Criminal law">Criminal law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crime" title="Crime">Crime</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deed" title="Deed">Deed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_doctrine" title="Legal doctrine">Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equity_(law)" title="Equity (law)">Equity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence_(law)" title="Evidence (law)">Evidence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">International law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_obligations" title="Law of obligations">Law of obligations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Private_law" title="Private law">Private law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procedural_law" title="Procedural law">Procedure</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_procedure" title="Civil procedure">Civil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_procedure" title="Criminal procedure">Criminal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_law" title="Property law">Property law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_law" title="Public law">Public law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punishment" title="Punishment">Punishment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corporal_punishment" title="Corporal punishment">Corporal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restitution_and_unjust_enrichment" title="Restitution and unjust enrichment">Restitution and unjust enrichment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statutory_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Statutory law">Statutory law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tort" title="Tort">Tort</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Disciplines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_law" title="Abortion law">Abortion law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_law" title="Agricultural law">Agricultural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aviation_law" title="Aviation law">Aviation law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amnesty_law" title="Amnesty law">Amnesty law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bank_regulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Bank regulation">Banking law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bankruptcy" title="Bankruptcy">Bankruptcy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_law" title="Commercial law">Commercial law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competition_law" title="Competition law">Competition law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_of_laws" title="Conflict of laws">Conflict of laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction_law" title="Construction law">Construction law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer_protection" title="Consumer protection">Consumer protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_law" title="Corporate law">Corporate law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IT_law" class="mw-redirect" title="IT law">Cyberlaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_policy" title="Drug policy">Drugs law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Election_law" title="Election law">Election law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_law" title="Energy law">Energy law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entertainment_law" title="Entertainment law">Entertainment law</a> (Media law)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_law" title="Environmental law">Environmental law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_law" title="Family law">Family law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_law" title="Financial law">Financial law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_regulation" title="Financial regulation">Financial regulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_law" title="Health law">Health law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_law" title="Immigration law">Immigration law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intellectual_property" title="Intellectual property">Intellectual property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_criminal_law" title="International criminal law">International criminal law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_human_rights_law" title="International human rights law">International human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_international_law" title="Slavery in international law">International slavery laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_trade_law" title="International trade law">International trade law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jurimetrics" title="Jurimetrics">Jurimetrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labour_law" title="Labour law">Labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landlord%E2%80%93tenant_law" title="Landlord–tenant law">Landlord–tenant law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_war" title="Law of war">Law of war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_archaeology" title="Legal archaeology">Legal archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_fiction" title="Legal fiction">Legal fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Admiralty_law" title="Admiralty law">Maritime law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marriage_law" title="Marriage law">Marriage law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_justice" title="Military justice">Military law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationality_law" title="Nationality law">Nationality law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Probate" title="Probate">Probate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Estate_(law)" title="Estate (law)">Estate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Will_and_testament" title="Will and testament">Will and testament</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Product_liability" title="Product liability">Product liability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">Public international law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refugee_law" title="Refugee law">Refugee law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reparation_(legal)" title="Reparation (legal)">Reparations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_law" title="Space law">Space law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sports_law_in_the_United_States" title="Sports law in the United States">Sports law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_emergency" title="State of emergency">State of emergency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_law" title="Tax law">Tax law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_law" title="Transport law">Transport law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trust_(law)" title="Trust (law)">Trust law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unenforced_law" title="Unenforced law">Unenforced law</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sources_of_law" title="Sources of law">Sources of law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charter" title="Charter">Charter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code_of_law" title="Code of law">Legal code</a> / <a href="/wiki/Statutory_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Statutory law">Statutory law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution" title="Constitution">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Customary_law" title="Customary law">Custom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_law" title="Divine law">Divine law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Divine_right_of_kings" title="Divine right of kings">Divine right</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legitimacy_(political)" class="mw-redirect" title="Legitimacy (political)">Legitimacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Letters_patent" title="Letters patent">Letters patent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Man-made_law" title="Man-made law">Man-made law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_rights_and_legal_rights" title="Natural rights and legal rights">Natural and legal rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Case_law" title="Case law">Case law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Precedent" title="Precedent">Precedent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_report" title="Law report">Law reports</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_treatise" title="Legal treatise">Legal treatise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulation" title="Regulation">Regulations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lawmaking" title="Lawmaking">Law making</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Referendum" title="Referendum">Ballot measure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Codification_(law)" title="Codification (law)">Codification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decree" title="Decree">Decree</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Edict" title="Edict">Edict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_order_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Executive order (disambiguation)">Executive order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proclamation" title="Proclamation">Proclamation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legislation" title="Legislation">Legislation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Primary_and_secondary_legislation" title="Primary and secondary legislation">Delegated legislation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulation" title="Regulation">Regulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rulemaking" title="Rulemaking">Rulemaking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Promulgation" title="Promulgation">Promulgation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ratification" title="Ratification">Ratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Repeal" title="Repeal">Repeal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty" title="Treaty">Treaty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Concordat" title="Concordat">Concordat</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statutory_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Statutory law">Statutory law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Statute" title="Statute">Statute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Act_of_parliament" title="Act of parliament">Act of parliament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Act_of_Congress" title="Act of Congress">Act of Congress</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basic_structure_doctrine" title="Basic structure doctrine">Basic structure doctrine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_legal_systems" title="List of national legal systems">Legal systems</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_law_(legal_system)" title="Civil law (legal system)">Civil law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">Common law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_law" title="Chinese law">Chinese law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_pluralism" title="Legal pluralism">Legal pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_law" title="Religious law">Religious law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canon_law" title="Canon law">Canon law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canon_law_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Canon law of the Catholic Church">Catholic canon law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_law" title="Hindu law">Hindu law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_law" title="Jain law">Jain law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halakha" title="Halakha">Jewish law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parsi_law" title="Parsi law">Parsi law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">Sharia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Roman law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_law" title="Byzantine law">Byzantine law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_law" title="Socialist law">Socialist law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statutory_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Statutory law">Statutory law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xeer" title="Xeer">Xeer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yassa" title="Yassa">Yassa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Legal theory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchist_law" title="Anarchist law">Anarchist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contract_theory" title="Contract theory">Contract theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_law" title="Comparative law">Comparative law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expressive_function_of_law" title="Expressive function of law">Expressive function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_legal_theory" title="Feminist legal theory">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_and_economics" title="Law and economics">Law and economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_formalism" title="Legal formalism">Legal formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_history" title="Legal history">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_theories_of_law" title="Libertarian theories of law">Libertarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_legal_theories" title="International legal theories">International legal theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legality" title="Legality">Principle of legality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principle_of_typicality" title="Principle of typicality">Principle of typicality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudolaw" title="Pseudolaw">Pseudolaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">Rule of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_man" title="Rule of man">Rule of man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_law" title="Sociology of law">Sociology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">Jurisprudence</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adjudication" title="Adjudication">Adjudication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Administration_of_justice" title="Administration of justice">Administration of justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutionalism" title="Constitutionalism">Constitutionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_justice" title="Criminal justice">Criminal justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Court-martial" title="Court-martial">Court-martial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dispute_resolution" title="Dispute resolution">Dispute resolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiqh" title="Fiqh">Fiqh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawsuit" title="Lawsuit">Lawsuit/Litigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_opinion" title="Legal opinion">Legal opinion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_remedy" title="Legal remedy">Legal remedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judge" title="Judge">Judge</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Justice_of_the_peace" title="Justice of the peace">Justice of the peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magistrate" title="Magistrate">Magistrate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judgment_(law)" title="Judgment (law)">Judgment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_interpretation" title="Judicial interpretation">Judicial interpretation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_review" title="Judicial review">Judicial review</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jurisdiction" title="Jurisdiction">Jurisdiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jury" title="Jury">Jury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Practice_of_law" title="Practice of law">Practice of law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attorney_at_law" title="Attorney at law">Attorney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barrister" title="Barrister">Barrister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counsel" title="Counsel">Counsel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawyer" title="Lawyer">Lawyer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defense_(legal)" title="Defense (legal)">Legal representation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prosecutor" 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