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href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ergativitat_escindida" title="Ergativitat escindida – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Ergativitat escindida" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ergatividad_escindida" title="Ergatividad escindida – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Ergatividad escindida" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ergativit%C3%A9_scind%C3%A9e" title="Ergativité scindée – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Ergativité scindée" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gespleten_ergativiteit" title="Gespleten ergativiteit – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Gespleten ergativiteit" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%88%86%E8%A3%82%E8%83%BD%E6%A0%BC" title="分裂能格 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="分裂能格" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%89%D0%B5%D0%BF%D0%BB%D1%91%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%8D%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C" title="Расщеплённая эргативность – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Расщеплённая эргативность" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kluven_ergativitet" title="Kluven ergativitet – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Kluven ergativitet" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%88%86%E8%A3%82%E8%83%BD%E6%A0%BC%E5%9E%8B" title="分裂能格型 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="分裂能格型" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%83%A8%E4%BB%BD%E4%BD%9C%E6%A0%BC%E6%80%A7" 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a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="width:auto"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_typology" title="Linguistic typology">Linguistic typology</a></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="border-bottom: 1px solid #aaa;"> <a href="/wiki/Morphological_typology" title="Morphological typology">Morphological</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align: left;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Analytic_language" title="Analytic language">Analytic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isolating_language" title="Isolating language">Isolating</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synthetic_language" title="Synthetic language">Synthetic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fusional_language" title="Fusional language">Fusional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agglutinative_language" title="Agglutinative language">Agglutinative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polysynthetic_language" title="Polysynthetic language">Polysynthetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oligosynthetic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Oligosynthetic language">Oligosynthetic</a></li></ul></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="border-bottom: 1px solid #aaa;"> <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)#Paradigms_and_morphosyntax" title="Morphology (linguistics)">Morphosyntactic</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align: left;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Morphosyntactic_alignment" title="Morphosyntactic alignment">Alignment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nominative%E2%80%93accusative_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Nominative–accusative language">Nominative–accusative</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marked_nominative_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Marked nominative language">Marked nominative</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ergative%E2%80%93absolutive_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ergative–absolutive language">Ergative–absolutive</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Split ergative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symmetrical_voice" title="Symmetrical voice">Symmetrical voice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Active%E2%80%93stative_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Active–stative language">Active–stative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tripartite_alignment" title="Tripartite alignment">Tripartite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nominative%E2%80%93absolutive_alignment" title="Nominative–absolutive alignment">Nominative–absolutive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct%E2%80%93inverse_alignment" title="Direct–inverse alignment">Direct-inverse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ditransitive_verb#Ditransitive.2Fmonotransitive_alignment" title="Ditransitive verb">Ditransitive/Monotransitive</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Secundative_language" title="Secundative language">Secundative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indirective_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Indirective language">Indirective</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zero-marking_language" title="Zero-marking language">Zero-marking </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dependent-marking_language" title="Dependent-marking language">Dependent-marking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double-marking_language" title="Double-marking language">Double-marking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Head-marking_language" title="Head-marking language">Head-marking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Null-subject_language" title="Null-subject language">Null-subject</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syntactic_pivot" title="Syntactic pivot">Syntactic pivot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theta_role" title="Theta role">Theta role</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="border-bottom: 1px solid #aaa;"> <a href="/wiki/Word_order" title="Word order">Word order</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align: left;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Verb%E2%80%93object_word_order" title="Verb–object word order">VO languages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Subject%E2%80%93verb%E2%80%93object_word_order" title="Subject–verb–object word order">Subject–verb–object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verb%E2%80%93subject%E2%80%93object_word_order" title="Verb–subject–object word order">Verb–subject–object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verb%E2%80%93object%E2%80%93subject_word_order" title="Verb–object–subject word order">Verb–object–subject</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Object%E2%80%93verb_word_order" title="Object–verb word order">OV languages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Subject%E2%80%93object%E2%80%93verb_word_order" title="Subject–object–verb word order">Subject–object–verb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Object%E2%80%93subject%E2%80%93verb_word_order" title="Object–subject–verb word order">Object–subject–verb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Object%E2%80%93verb%E2%80%93subject_word_order" title="Object–verb–subject word order">Object–verb–subject</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verb-initial_word_order" title="Verb-initial word order">V1 word order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V2_word_order" title="V2 word order">V2 word order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Object%E2%80%93subject_word_order" title="Object–subject word order">OS word order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_word_order" class="mw-redirect" title="Free word order">Free word order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time%E2%80%93manner%E2%80%93place" title="Time–manner–place">Time–manner–place</a></li> <li>Place–manner–time</li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="border-bottom: 1px solid #aaa;"> <a href="/wiki/Lexicon" title="Lexicon">Lexicon</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align: left;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Color_term" title="Color term">Color terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numeral_(linguistics)" title="Numeral (linguistics)">Numerals</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Linguistic_typology_topics" title="Template:Linguistic typology topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Linguistic_typology_topics" title="Template talk:Linguistic typology topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Linguistic_typology_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Linguistic typology topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_typology" title="Linguistic typology">linguistic typology</a>, <b>split ergativity</b> is a feature of certain languages where some constructions use <a href="/wiki/Ergative%E2%80%93absolutive_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ergative–absolutive language">ergative</a> syntax and morphology, but other constructions show another pattern, usually <a href="/wiki/Nominative%E2%80%93accusative_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Nominative–accusative language">nominative–accusative</a>. The conditions in which ergative constructions are used vary among different languages. <sup id="cite_ref-Dixon_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dixon-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Nominative–accusative_vs._ergative–absolutive"><span id="Nominative.E2.80.93accusative_vs._ergative.E2.80.93absolutive"></span>Nominative–accusative vs. ergative–absolutive</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Split_ergativity&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Nominative–accusative vs. ergative–absolutive"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ergative%E2%80%93absolutive_alignment" title="Ergative–absolutive alignment">Ergative–absolutive alignment</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Nominative%E2%80%93accusative_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Nominative–accusative language">Nominative–accusative languages</a> (including European languages, with the notable exception of <a href="/wiki/Basque_language" title="Basque language">Basque</a>) treat both the actor in a clause with a <a href="/wiki/Transitive_verb" title="Transitive verb">transitive verb</a> and the experiencer in a clause with an <a href="/wiki/Intransitive_verb" title="Intransitive verb">intransitive verb</a> in the same way grammatically. If the language uses <a href="/wiki/Case_marker" class="mw-redirect" title="Case marker">case markers</a>, they take the same case. If it uses word order, it is parallel. </p><p>For example, consider these two English sentences: </p> <ul><li>Jane was chasing Max.</li> <li>Jane was sweating.</li></ul> <p>The grammatical role of "Jane" is identical. In both cases, "Jane" is the <a href="/wiki/Subject_(grammar)" title="Subject (grammar)">subject</a>. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Ergative%E2%80%93absolutive_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ergative–absolutive language">ergative–absolutive languages</a> (such as <a href="/wiki/Basque_language" title="Basque language">Basque</a> and <a href="/wiki/Georgian_language" title="Georgian language">Georgian</a>, or the <a href="/wiki/Eskaleut_languages" title="Eskaleut languages">Eskaleut</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mayan_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Mayan language">Mayan</a> languages), there is a different pattern. The patient (or target) of a transitive verb and the experiencer of an intransitive verb are treated the same grammatically. If the two sentences above were expressed in an ergative language, "Max" in the former and "Jane" in the latter would be parallel grammatically. Also, a different form (the <i>ergative</i>) would be used for "Jane" in the first sentence. </p><p>For example, in the following <a href="/wiki/Inuktitut_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Inuktitut language">Inuktitut</a> sentences, the subject 'the woman' is in ergative case (<i>arnaup</i>) when occurring with a transitive verb, while the object 'the apple' (<i>aapu</i>) is in absolutive case. In the intransitive sentence, the subject 'the woman' <i>arnaq</i> is in absolutive case.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><i>Arnaup nirijanga aapu.</i> 'The woman is eating the apple.'</li> <li><i>Arnaq pisuktuq.</i> 'The woman is walking.'</li></ul> <p>In split ergative languages, some constructions pattern with nominative–accusative, and others with ergative–absolutive. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Split_conditions">Split conditions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Split_ergativity&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Split conditions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The split is usually conditioned by one of the following: </p> <ol><li>The presence of a <b>discourse participant</b> (a first or second person) in the proposition. The Australian language <a href="/wiki/Dyirbal_language" title="Dyirbal language">Dyirbal</a> behaves ergatively in all <a href="/wiki/Morphosyntax" class="mw-redirect" title="Morphosyntax">morphosyntactic</a> contexts unless one of those is involved. When a first- or second-person pronoun appears, however, it is marked according to a <a href="/wiki/Nominative%E2%80%93accusative_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Nominative–accusative language">nominative–accusative</a> pattern (with the least-marked case, when it is the agent or intransitive, or with the most marked case, when it is the patient). That can be explained in terms of the high <a href="/wiki/Animacy" title="Animacy">animacy</a> of a first-person or second-person speaker in the animacy hierarchy.</li> <li>The use of certain <b><a href="/wiki/Grammatical_aspect" title="Grammatical aspect">aspects</a></b> and/or <b><a href="/wiki/Grammatical_tense" title="Grammatical tense">tenses</a></b> in the verb. The <a href="/wiki/Indo-Iranian_languages" title="Indo-Iranian languages">Indo-Iranian</a> family, for example, shows a split between the <a href="/wiki/Perfective_aspect" title="Perfective aspect">perfective</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Imperfective_aspect" title="Imperfective aspect">imperfective aspect</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Hindustani_grammar" title="Hindustani grammar">Hindustani</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hindi" title="Hindi">Hindi</a>-<a href="/wiki/Urdu" title="Urdu">Urdu</a>), a <a href="/wiki/Transitive_verb" title="Transitive verb">transitive verb</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Perfective_aspect" title="Perfective aspect">perfective aspect</a> causes its arguments to be marked by an ergative pattern, and the <a href="/wiki/Imperfective_aspect" title="Imperfective aspect">imperfective aspects</a> trigger accusative marking.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The type of <b>marking</b> involved. Some languages (including various <a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian languages</a> of <a href="/wiki/New_Guinea" title="New Guinea">New Guinea</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Sinaugoro_language" title="Sinaugoro language">Sinaugoro</a>) have an ergative–absolutive pattern with respect to <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_case" title="Grammatical case">case marking</a> of nouns, but a nominative–accusative pattern with respect to <a href="/wiki/Agreement_(linguistics)" title="Agreement (linguistics)">agreement</a> by means of <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_person" title="Grammatical person">person-marking</a> affixes on the verb.</li> <li>The <b>agentivity of the intransitive subject</b>. In languages like <a href="/wiki/Dakota_language" title="Dakota language">Dakota</a>, arguments of active verbs, such as <i>to run</i>, are marked like transitive agents, as in accusative languages, but arguments of inactive verbs, such as <i>to stand</i> are marked like transitive objects, as in ergative languages. Languages with such a marking are known as <a href="/wiki/Split-S_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Split-S language">split-S languages</a> and are formally a subtype of <a href="/wiki/Active_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Active language">active languages</a>.</li> <li>Pragmatic considerations or for <b>emphasis, contrast, or clarity</b>. In certain <a href="/wiki/Tibeto-Burman_languages" title="Tibeto-Burman languages">Tibeto-Burmese languages</a>, elicited data has consistent ergative, aspectually split-ergative or active-stative case marking pattern, and in natural discourse the “ergative” marking is found only in some clauses, often a minority, usually with some pragmatic sense of emphasis or contrast (DeLancey, 2011).<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Examples">Examples</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Split_ergativity&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Examples"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hindi–Urdu"><span id="Hindi.E2.80.93Urdu"></span>Hindi–Urdu</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Split_ergativity&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Hindi–Urdu"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Hindi_verbs#Ergativity_and_Light_verbs" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindi verbs">Hindi verbs § Ergativity and Light verbs</a></div> <p>An example of split ergativity conditioned by the <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_aspect" title="Grammatical aspect">grammatical aspect</a> is found in <a href="/wiki/Hindustani_grammar" title="Hindustani grammar">Hindustani</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hindi" title="Hindi">Hindi</a>-<a href="/wiki/Urdu" title="Urdu">Urdu</a>); in the <a href="/wiki/Perfective_aspect" title="Perfective aspect">perfective aspect</a> of transitive verbs (in active voice), the subject takes <a href="/wiki/Ergative_case" title="Ergative case">ergative case</a> and the direct object takes an unmarked <a href="/wiki/Absolutive_case" title="Absolutive case">absolutive case</a> identical to the <a href="/wiki/Nominative_case" title="Nominative case">nominative case</a>, which is sometimes called <a href="/wiki/Direct_case" title="Direct case">direct case</a>. However, in all other aspects (<a href="/wiki/Habitual_aspect" title="Habitual aspect">habitual</a> & <a href="/wiki/Continuous_and_progressive_aspects" title="Continuous and progressive aspects">progressive</a>), subjects appear either in the <a href="/wiki/Direct_case" title="Direct case">direct</a>/<a href="/wiki/Nominative_case" title="Nominative case">nominative case</a> or <a href="/wiki/Dative_case" title="Dative case">dative case</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Dative_subject" class="mw-redirect" title="Dative subject">dative subjects</a>), while direct objects continue to appear in the <a href="/wiki/Direct_case" title="Direct case">direct case</a> (the subject of such sentences is differentiated from the direct object not from a difference in case but from the agreement of the verb with the subject as well as other syntactic and contextual cues such as word order and meaning<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>). </p><p>In the following perfective sentence, the agent <i>laṛke-ne</i> <i>(boy)</i> is marked for <a href="/wiki/Ergative_case" title="Ergative case">ergative case</a>, while the undergoer <i>kitāb</i> <i>(book)</i> is in unmarked nominative case. The verb <i>kharīdī</i> (bought) has the feminine ending <i>-ī</i>, showing <a href="/wiki/Agreement_(linguistics)" title="Agreement (linguistics)">gender agreement</a> with the undergoer <i>kitāb (book)</i>. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1209690778">.mw-parser-output .interlinear .bold{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .interlinear .smallcaps{text-transform:uppercase;font-size:smaller}</style><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">लड़के-ने</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">laṛke-ne</p><p style="margin: 0px;">boy:<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="masculine" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">MASC</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SG</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="ergative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ERG</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">किताब</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">kitāb</p><p style="margin: 0px;">book:<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="feminine" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">FEM</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SG</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="nominative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">NOM</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">ख़रीदी</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">xarīdī</p><p style="margin: 0px;">buy:<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="perfective participle" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PRF</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="feminine" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">FEM</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SG</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">है</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">hai.</p><p style="margin: 0px;">be:<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3P</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SG</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="present tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PRS</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">लड़के-ने किताब ख़रीदी है</p><p style="display: none;">laṛke-ne kitāb xarīdī hai.</p><p style="display: none;">boy:MASC.SG.ERG book:FEM.SG.NOM buy:PRF.FEM.SG be:3P.SG.PRS</p><p style="clear: left;">'The boy has bought a book'</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>In the corresponding <a href="/wiki/Imperfective_aspect" title="Imperfective aspect">imperfective</a> (<a href="/wiki/Habitual_aspect" title="Habitual aspect">habitual aspect</a>) sentence, the agent <i>laṛkā</i> <i>(boy)</i> is in unmarked <a href="/wiki/Nominative_case" title="Nominative case">nominative case</a>. The habitual participle form <i>kharīdatā</i> <i>(buy)</i> has the masculine ending <i>-ā</i> and thus agrees with the agent <i>laṛkā (boy)</i>. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">लड़का</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">laṛkā</p><p style="margin: 0px;">boy:<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="masculine" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">MASC</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SG</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="nominative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">NOM</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">किताब</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">kitāb</p><p style="margin: 0px;">book:<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="feminine" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">FEM</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SG</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="nominative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">NOM</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">ख़रीदता</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">xarīdatā</p><p style="margin: 0px;">buy:<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="habitual aspect participle" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">HAB</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="masculine" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">MASC</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SG</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">है</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">hai.</p><p style="margin: 0px;">be:<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3P</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SG</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="present tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PRS</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">लड़का किताब ख़रीदता है</p><p style="display: none;">laṛkā kitāb xarīdatā hai.</p><p style="display: none;">boy:MASC.SG.NOM book:FEM.SG.NOM buy:HAB.MASC.SG be:3P.SG.PRS</p><p style="clear: left;">'The boy buys a book'</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>Perfective constructions with certain VV (verb-verb) complexes do not employ ergative case marking (seeː <a href="/wiki/Hindi_verbs" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindi verbs">light verbs in Hindi-Urdu</a>). In perfective constructions, the agent argument is ideally assigned with an ergative case; however in cases like the first example shown below that does not happen. This is because the explicator verb <i>gayī</i> (gone) which although undergoes <a href="/wiki/Semantic_bleaching" class="mw-redirect" title="Semantic bleaching">semantic bleaching</a> but still retains its intransitivity which does not allow for an ergative case assignment to the agent argument (i.e., <i>ninā</i>). This is why as shown in the second example below, VV complexes involving a transitive <a href="/wiki/Explicator_verb" class="mw-redirect" title="Explicator verb">explicator verb</a> (e.g., <i>phẽkā</i> "threw") can employ ergative case to agent arguments.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">नीना</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ninā</p><p style="margin: 0px;">nina:<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="feminine" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">FEM</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SG</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="nominative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">NOM</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">आम</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ām</p><p style="margin: 0px;">mango.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="masculine" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">MASC</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SG</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="nominative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">NOM</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">खा</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">khā</p><p style="margin: 0px;">eat.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="non-finite" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">NF</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">गयी</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">gayī.</p><p style="margin: 0px;">go:<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="perfective" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PRF</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="feminine" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">FEM</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SG</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">नीना आम खा गयी</p><p style="display: none;">ninā ām khā gayī.</p><p style="display: none;">nina:FEM.SG.NOM mango.MASC.SG.NOM eat.NF go:PRF.FEM.SG</p><p style="clear: left;">'Nina has eaten the mango.'</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">नीना-ने</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ninā-ne</p><p style="margin: 0px;">nina:<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="feminine" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">FEM</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SG</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="ergative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ERG</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">तकिया</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">takiyā</p><p style="margin: 0px;">pillow.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="masculine" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">MASC</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SG</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="nominative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">NOM</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">उठा</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">uṭhā</p><p style="margin: 0px;">pick.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="non-finite" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">NF</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;">फेंका</p><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">phẽkā.</p><p style="margin: 0px;">throw:<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="perfective" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PRF</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="masculine" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">MASC</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SG</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">नीना-ने तकिया उठा फेंका</p><p style="display: none;">ninā-ne takiyā uṭhā phẽkā.</p><p style="display: none;">nina:FEM.SG.ERG pillow.MASC.SG.NOM pick.NF throw:PRF.MASC.SG</p><p style="clear: left;">'Nina (picked up and) threw the pillow.'</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chol_(Mayan)"><span id="Chol_.28Mayan.29"></span>Chol (Mayan)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Split_ergativity&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Chol (Mayan)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Mayan_languages" title="Mayan languages">Mayan</a> language <a href="/wiki/Chol_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Chol language">Chol</a> has split-ergative person marking.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In transitive clauses, verbs are framed by a person marking prefix (called "set A" in Mayan linguistics) that expresses the subject, and a suffix that expresses the object (= "set B"). </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Mi</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="imperfective" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">IMPF</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">a-mek'-oñ</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="second person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">2SG</abbr>.<span class="smallcaps"><span style="font-variant: small-caps; text-transform: lowercase;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="prefixed person marker">A</abbr></span></span>-hug-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="first person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">1SG</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="suffixed person marker" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">B</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">Mi a-mek'-oñ</p><p style="display: none;">IMPF 2SG.<span class="smallcaps"><span style="font-variant: small-caps; text-transform: lowercase;">A</span></span>-hug-1SG.B</p><p style="clear: left;">'You hug me.'</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>In intransitive clauses, the subject can either be represented by a set A-person marker, or a set B-person marker, depending on <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_aspect" title="Grammatical aspect">aspect</a>. </p><p>In <i>perfective</i> aspect, Chol has <i>ergative–absolutive</i> alignment: the subject of the intransitive verb is expressed by a suffixed person marker, thus in the same way as the object of transitive verbs. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Tyi</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="perfect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PRF</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">wayi-yoñ</p><p style="margin: 0px;">sleep-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="first person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">1SG</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="suffixed person marker" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">B</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">Tyi wayi-yoñ</p><p style="display: none;">PRF sleep-1SG.B</p><p style="clear: left;">'I slept.'</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>In <i>imperfective</i> aspect, Chol has <i>nominative–accusative</i> alignment: the subject of the intransitive verb is expressed by a prefixed person marker, thus in the same way as the subject of transitive verbs. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Mi</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="inperfective" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">IMPF</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">a-wayel</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="second person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">2SG</abbr>.<span class="smallcaps"><span style="font-variant: small-caps; text-transform: lowercase;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="prefixed person marker">A</abbr></span></span>-sleep</p></div><p style="display: none;">Mi a-wayel</p><p style="display: none;">IMPF 2SG.<span class="smallcaps"><span style="font-variant: small-caps; text-transform: lowercase;">A</span></span>-sleep</p><p style="clear: left;">'You sleep.'</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sahaptin">Sahaptin</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Split_ergativity&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Sahaptin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Columbia_River" title="Columbia River">Columbia River</a> <a href="/wiki/Sahaptin_language" title="Sahaptin language">Sahaptin</a>, the split is determined by the person of both subject and object. The ergative suffix <i>-nɨm</i> occurs only for third-person subjects for which the direct object is in the first or the second person. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ku=š</p><p style="margin: 0px;">and=<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="first person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">1SG</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">i-q̓ínu-šan-a</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="nominative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">NOM</abbr>-see-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="imperfective aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">IPFV</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="past tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PST</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ína</p><p style="margin: 0px;">me</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">wínš-<b>nɨm</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;">man-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="ergative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ERG</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">ku=š i-q̓ínu-šan-a ína wínš-<b>nɨm</b></p><p style="display: none;">and=1SG 3.NOM-see-IPFV-PST me man-ERG</p><p style="clear: left;">"And the man saw me."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ku=nam</p><p style="margin: 0px;">and=<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="second person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">2SG</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">i-q̓ínu-šan-a</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="nominative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">NOM</abbr>-see-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="imperfective aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">IPFV</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="past tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PST</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">imaná</p><p style="margin: 0px;">you.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="accusative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ACC</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">wínš-<b>nɨm</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;">man-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="ergative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ERG</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">ku=nam i-q̓ínu-šan-a imaná wínš-<b>nɨm</b></p><p style="display: none;">and=2SG 3.NOM-see-IPFV-PST you.ACC man-ERG</p><p style="clear: left;">"And the man saw you."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ku</p><p style="margin: 0px;">and</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">i-q̓ínu-šan-a</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="nominative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">NOM</abbr>-see-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="imperfective aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">IPFV</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="past tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PST</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">paanáy</p><p style="margin: 0px;">him/her/it</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">wínš</p><p style="margin: 0px;">man</p></div><p style="display: none;">ku i-q̓ínu-šan-a paanáy wínš</p><p style="display: none;">and 3.NOM-see-IPFV-PST him/her/it man</p><p style="clear: left;">"And the man saw him."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>Another ergative suffix, <i>-in</i>, marks the subject in the inverse. Both subject and object are then always in the third-person. </p><p>Direct (same as above example): </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ku</p><p style="margin: 0px;">and</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">i-q̓ínu-šan-a</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="nominative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">NOM</abbr>-see-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="imperfective aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">IPFV</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="past tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PST</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">paanáy</p><p style="margin: 0px;">him/her/it</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">wínš</p><p style="margin: 0px;">man-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="ergative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ERG</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">ku i-q̓ínu-šan-a paanáy wínš</p><p style="display: none;">and 3.NOM-see-IPFV-PST him/her/it man-ERG</p><p style="clear: left;">"And <b>the man</b> saw him."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>Inverse: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ku</p><p style="margin: 0px;">and</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">pá-q̓inu-šan-a</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="inverse" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">INV</abbr>-see-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="imperfective aspect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">IPFV</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="past tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PST</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">paanáy</p><p style="margin: 0px;">him/her/it</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">wínš-<b>in</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;">man</p></div><p style="display: none;">ku pá-q̓inu-šan-a paanáy wínš-<b>in</b></p><p style="display: none;">and INV-see-IPFV-PST him/her/it man</p><p style="clear: left;">"And the man saw <b>him</b>."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Split_ergativity&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Dixon-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Dixon_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFDixon1994" class="citation book cs1">Dixon, R. M. W. (1994). <i>Ergativity</i>. Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ergativity&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.aulast=Dixon&rft.aufirst=R.+M.+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASplit+ergativity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCompton2017" class="citation book cs1">Compton, Richard (2017). "Ergativity in Inuktitut". In Jessica Coon; Diane Massam; Lisa Demena Travis (eds.). <i>The Oxford Handbook of Ergativity</i>. pp. 832–850.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ergativity+in+Inuktitut&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Ergativity&rft.pages=832-850&rft.date=2017&rft.aulast=Compton&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASplit+ergativity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPiepers2016" class="citation thesis cs1">Piepers, J. (19 May 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://theses.ubn.ru.nl/handle/123456789/2440"><i>Optional ergative case marking in Hindi</i></a> (Thesis). <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:197863131">197863131</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Optional+ergative+case+marking+in+Hindi&rft.date=2016-05-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A197863131%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Piepers&rft.aufirst=J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftheses.ubn.ru.nl%2Fhandle%2F123456789%2F2440&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASplit+ergativity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeLancey2011" class="citation journal cs1">DeLancey, Scott (October 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.informit.org/doi/abs/10.3316/INFORMIT.980387710679676">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'Optional' 'ergativity' in Tibeto-Burman languages"</a>. <i>Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area</i>. <b>34</b> (2): 9–20.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Linguistics+of+the+Tibeto-Burman+Area&rft.atitle=%27Optional%27+%27ergativity%27+in+Tibeto-Burman+languages&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=9-20&rft.date=2011-10&rft.aulast=DeLancey&rft.aufirst=Scott&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsearch.informit.org%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.3316%2FINFORMIT.980387710679676&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASplit+ergativity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMukherjee2017" class="citation journal cs1">Mukherjee, Atreyee (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/325734608">"Revisiting Ergativity in Hindi"</a>. <i>Jadavpur Journal of Languages and Linguistics</i>. <b>1</b> (1): 18–28<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-02-05</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Jadavpur+Journal+of+Languages+and+Linguistics&rft.atitle=Revisiting+Ergativity+in+Hindi&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=18-28&rft.date=2017&rft.aulast=Mukherjee&rft.aufirst=Atreyee&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F325734608&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASplit+ergativity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoon2010" class="citation journal cs1">Coon, Jessica (2010). "Rethinking Split Ergativity In Chol". <i>International Journal of American Linguistics</i>. <b>76</b> (2): 207–253. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F652266">10.1086/652266</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/652266">10.1086/652266</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144864177">144864177</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+American+Linguistics&rft.atitle=Rethinking+Split+Ergativity+In+Chol&rft.volume=76&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=207-253&rft.date=2010&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144864177%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.1086%2F652266%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F652266&rft.aulast=Coon&rft.aufirst=Jessica&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASplit+ergativity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Split_ergativity&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li>Dixon, R. M. W. (1994). <i>Ergativity</i>. 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