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class="vector-toc-link" href="#心灵、器官或本能"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.1 心灵、器官或本能 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-心灵、器官或本能-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-符号形式系统" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#符号形式系统"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2 符号形式系统 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-符号形式系统-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-交流工具" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#交流工具"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3 交流工具 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-交流工具-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-人类语言的独特地位" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#人类语言的独特地位"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.4 人类语言的独特地位 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-人类语言的独特地位-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-起源" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#起源"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 起源 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-起源-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-研究" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#研究"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 研究 </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-研究-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> 开关研究子章节 </button> <ul id="toc-研究-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-分支学科" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#分支学科"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 分支学科 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-分支学科-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-早期历史" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#早期历史"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 早期历史 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-早期历史-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-当代语言学" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#当代语言学"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 当代语言学 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-当代语言学-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-语言和言语的生理和精神结构" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#语言和言语的生理和精神结构"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 语言和言语的生理和精神结构 </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-语言和言语的生理和精神结构-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> 开关语言和言语的生理和精神结构子章节 </button> <ul id="toc-语言和言语的生理和精神结构-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-大脑" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#大脑"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 大脑 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-大脑-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-言语剖析与语音" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#言语剖析与语音"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 言语剖析与语音 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-言语剖析与语音-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-结构" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#结构"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 结构 </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-结构-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> 开关结构子章节 </button> <ul id="toc-结构-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-语义" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#语义"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 语义 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-语义-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-语音和符号" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#语音和符号"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 语音和符号 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-语音和符号-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-语法" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#语法"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 语法 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-语法-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-语法范畴" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#语法范畴"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.1 语法范畴 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-语法范畴-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-词类" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#词类"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.2 词类 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-词类-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-词法" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#词法"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.3 词法 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-词法-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-句法" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#句法"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.4 句法 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-句法-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-类型学和普遍性" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#类型学和普遍性"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 类型学和普遍性 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-类型学和普遍性-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-语言使用和传播的社会背景" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#语言使用和传播的社会背景"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 语言使用和传播的社会背景 </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-语言使用和传播的社会背景-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> 开关语言使用和传播的社会背景子章节 </button> <ul id="toc-语言使用和传播的社会背景-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-语用" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#语用"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 语用 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-语用-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-语言习得" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#语言习得"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 语言习得 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-语言习得-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-语言与文化" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#语言与文化"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 语言与文化 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-语言与文化-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-文字书写" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#文字书写"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 文字书写 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-文字书写-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-语言变化" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#语言变化"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.5 语言变化 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-语言变化-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-语言接触" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#语言接触"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.6 语言接触 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-语言接触-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-语言多样性" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#语言多样性"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 语言多样性 </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-语言多样性-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> 开关语言多样性子章节 </button> <ul id="toc-语言多样性-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-语言和方言" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#语言和方言"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 语言和方言 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-语言和方言-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-世界语言系属" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#世界语言系属"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 世界语言系属 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-世界语言系属-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-濒危语言" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#濒危语言"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 濒危语言 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-濒危语言-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-参见" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#参见"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 参见 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-参见-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-注释" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#注释"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 注释 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-注释-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-参考文献" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#参考文献"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 参考文献 </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-参考文献-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> 开关参考文献子章节 </button> <ul id="toc-参考文献-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-引用" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#引用"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1 引用 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-引用-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-来源" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#来源"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.2 来源 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-来源-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-外部链接" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#外部链接"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 外部链接 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-外部链接-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="目录" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="开关目录" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > 开关目录 </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">語言</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="前往另一种语言写成的文章。260种语言可用" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-260" aria-hidden="true" > 260种语言 </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ace mw-list-item"><a href="https://ace.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahsa" title="Bahsa – 亚齐语" lang="ace" hreflang="ace" data-title="Bahsa" data-language-autonym="Acèh" data-language-local-name="亚齐语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Acèh</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="典范条目"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taal" title="Taal – 南非荷兰语" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Taal" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="南非荷兰语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sprache" title="Sprache – 瑞士德语" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Sprache" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="瑞士德语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-alt mw-list-item"><a href="https://alt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B8%D0%BB" title="Тил – 南阿尔泰语" lang="alt" hreflang="alt" data-title="Тил" data-language-autonym="Алтай тил" data-language-local-name="南阿尔泰语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Алтай тил</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%89%8B%E1%8A%95%E1%89%8B" title="ቋንቋ – 阿姆哈拉语" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ቋንቋ" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="阿姆哈拉语" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ami mw-list-item"><a href="https://ami.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sowal" title="Sowal – Amis" lang="ami" hreflang="ami" data-title="Sowal" data-language-autonym="Pangcah" data-language-local-name="Amis" class="interlanguage-link-target">Pangcah</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luengache" title="Luengache – 阿拉贡语" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Luengache" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="阿拉贡语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ang mw-list-item"><a href="https://ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spr%C3%A6c" title="Spræc – 古英语" lang="ang" hreflang="ang" data-title="Spræc" data-language-autonym="Ænglisc" data-language-local-name="古英语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ænglisc</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%A9" title="لغة – 阿拉伯语" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="لغة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="阿拉伯语" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arc mw-list-item"><a href="https://arc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DC%A0%DC%AB%DC%A2%DC%90_(%DC%A1%DC%A1%DC%A0%DC%A0%DC%90)" title="ܠܫܢܐ (ܡܡܠܠܐ) – 阿拉米语" lang="arc" hreflang="arc" data-title="ܠܫܢܐ (ܡܡܠܠܐ)" data-language-autonym="ܐܪܡܝܐ" data-language-local-name="阿拉米语" class="interlanguage-link-target">ܐܪܡܝܐ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D9%88%D8%BA%D8%A9" title="لوغة – 摩洛哥阿拉伯文" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="لوغة" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="摩洛哥阿拉伯文" class="interlanguage-link-target">الدارجة</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%BA%D9%87" title="لغه – 埃及阿拉伯文" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="لغه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="埃及阿拉伯文" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%BE" title="ভাষা – 阿萨姆语" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="ভাষা" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="阿萨姆语" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Llinguaxe" title="Llinguaxe – 阿斯图里亚斯语" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Llinguaxe" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="阿斯图里亚斯语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-av mw-list-item"><a href="https://av.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%86%D3%80" title="МацӀ – 阿瓦尔语" lang="av" hreflang="av" data-title="МацӀ" data-language-autonym="Авар" data-language-local-name="阿瓦尔语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Авар</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-awa mw-list-item"><a href="https://awa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="भाषा – 阿瓦德语" lang="awa" hreflang="awa" data-title="भाषा" data-language-autonym="अवधी" data-language-local-name="阿瓦德语" class="interlanguage-link-target">अवधी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ay mw-list-item"><a href="https://ay.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aru" title="Aru – 艾马拉语" lang="ay" hreflang="ay" data-title="Aru" data-language-autonym="Aymar aru" data-language-local-name="艾马拉语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aymar aru</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dil" title="Dil – 阿塞拜疆语" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Dil" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="阿塞拜疆语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%84" title="دیل – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="دیل" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D0%BB_(%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0)" title="Тел (лингвистика) – 巴什基尔语" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Тел (лингвистика)" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="巴什基尔语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ban mw-list-item"><a href="https://ban.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basa" title="Basa – 巴厘语" lang="ban" hreflang="ban" data-title="Basa" data-language-autonym="Basa Bali" data-language-local-name="巴厘语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Basa Bali</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sproch" title="Sproch – 巴伐利亞文" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Sproch" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="巴伐利亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target">Boarisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalba" title="Kalba – 薩莫吉希亞文" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Kalba" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="薩莫吉希亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target">Žemaitėška</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bbc mw-list-item"><a href="https://bbc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hata" title="Hata – 巴塔克托巴文" lang="bbc" hreflang="bbc" data-title="Hata" data-language-autonym="Batak Toba" data-language-local-name="巴塔克托巴文" class="interlanguage-link-target">Batak Toba</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tataramon" title="Tataramon – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Tataramon" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Мова – 白俄罗斯语" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Мова" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="白俄罗斯语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Мова – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Мова" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bew mw-list-item"><a href="https://bew.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basa" title="Basa – 貝塔維文" lang="bew" hreflang="bew" data-title="Basa" data-language-autonym="Betawi" data-language-local-name="貝塔維文" class="interlanguage-link-target">Betawi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA_(%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0)" title="Език (лингвистика) – 保加利亚语" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Език (лингвистика)" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="保加利亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="भाषा – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="भाषा" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">भोजपुरी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bjn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bjn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Langue" title="Langue – 班亞爾文" lang="bjn" hreflang="bjn" data-title="Langue" data-language-autonym="Banjar" data-language-local-name="班亞爾文" class="interlanguage-link-target">Banjar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-blk mw-list-item"><a href="https://blk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%98%E1%80%AC%E1%82%8F%E1%80%9E%E1%80%AC%E1%82%8F%E1%80%84%E1%80%9D%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8%E1%80%84%E1%80%BD%E1%80%AB" title="ဘာႏသာႏငဝ်းငွါ – Pa'O" lang="blk" hreflang="blk" data-title="ဘာႏသာႏငဝ်းငွါ" data-language-autonym="ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ" data-language-local-name="Pa'O" class="interlanguage-link-target">ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bm mw-list-item"><a href="https://bm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kan" title="Kan – 班巴拉语" lang="bm" hreflang="bm" data-title="Kan" data-language-autonym="Bamanankan" data-language-local-name="班巴拉语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bamanankan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%BE" title="ভাষা – 孟加拉语" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ভাষা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="孟加拉语" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%A6%E0%BE%90%E0%BD%91%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A2%E0%BD%B2%E0%BD%82%E0%BD%A6%E0%BC%8D" title="སྐད་རིགས། – 藏语" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="སྐད་རིགས།" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="藏语" class="interlanguage-link-target">བོད་ཡིག</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yezh" title="Yezh – 布列塔尼语" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Yezh" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="布列塔尼语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jezik" title="Jezik – 波斯尼亚语" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Jezik" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="波斯尼亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-btm mw-list-item"><a href="https://btm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saro" title="Saro – Batak Mandailing" lang="btm" hreflang="btm" data-title="Saro" data-language-autonym="Batak Mandailing" data-language-local-name="Batak Mandailing" class="interlanguage-link-target">Batak Mandailing</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D1%8D%D0%BB%D1%8D%D0%BD" title="Хэлэн – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Хэлэн" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target">Буряад</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Llenguatge" title="Llenguatge – 加泰罗尼亚语" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Llenguatge" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="加泰罗尼亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cbk-zam mw-list-item"><a href="https://cbk-zam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenguaje" title="Lenguaje – Chavacano" lang="cbk" hreflang="cbk" data-title="Lenguaje" data-language-autonym="Chavacano de Zamboanga" data-language-local-name="Chavacano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Chavacano de Zamboanga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ng%E1%B9%B3%CC%84-ngi%C3%B2ng" title="Ngṳ̄-ngiòng – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Ngṳ̄-ngiòng" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D1%82%D1%82" title="Мотт – 车臣语" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Мотт" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="车臣语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Нохчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinulongan" title="Pinulongan – 宿务语" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Pinulongan" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="宿务语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cebuano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ch mw-list-item"><a href="https://ch.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenggu%C3%A5hi" title="Lengguåhi – 查莫罗语" lang="ch" hreflang="ch" data-title="Lengguåhi" data-language-autonym="Chamoru" data-language-local-name="查莫罗语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Chamoru</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-chr mw-list-item"><a href="https://chr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8E%A6%E1%8F%AC%E1%8F%82%E1%8E%AF%E1%8F%8D%E1%8F%97" title="ᎦᏬᏂᎯᏍᏗ – 切罗基语" lang="chr" hreflang="chr" data-title="ᎦᏬᏂᎯᏍᏗ" data-language-autonym="ᏣᎳᎩ" data-language-local-name="切罗基语" class="interlanguage-link-target">ᏣᎳᎩ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86" title="زمان – 中库尔德语" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="زمان" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="中库尔德语" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-crh mw-list-item"><a href="https://crh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Til" title="Til – 克里米亚鞑靼语" lang="crh" hreflang="crh" data-title="Til" data-language-autonym="Qırımtatarca" data-language-local-name="克里米亚鞑靼语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qırımtatarca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jazyk_(lingvistika)" title="Jazyk (lingvistika) – 捷克语" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Jazyk (lingvistika)" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="捷克语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cu mw-list-item"><a href="https://cu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D1%A8%EA%99%81%EA%99%91%D0%BA%D1%8A" title="Ѩꙁꙑкъ – 教会斯拉夫语" lang="cu" hreflang="cu" data-title="Ѩꙁꙑкъ" data-language-autonym="Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ" data-language-local-name="教会斯拉夫语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%C4%95%D0%BB%D1%85%D0%B5" title="Чĕлхе – 楚瓦什语" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Чĕлхе" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="楚瓦什语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iaith" title="Iaith – 威尔士语" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Iaith" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="威尔士语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="推荐条目"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sprog" title="Sprog – 丹麦语" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Sprog" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="丹麦语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dag mw-list-item"><a href="https://dag.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y%C9%9Bt%C9%94%C9%A3ili" title="Yɛtɔɣili – Dagbani" lang="dag" hreflang="dag" data-title="Yɛtɔɣili" data-language-autonym="Dagbanli" data-language-local-name="Dagbani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dagbanli</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sprache" title="Sprache – 德语" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Sprache" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="德语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z%C4%B1wan_(l%C4%B1san)" title="Zıwan (lısan) – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Zıwan (lısan)" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zazaki</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dty mw-list-item"><a href="https://dty.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="भाषा – Doteli" lang="dty" hreflang="dty" data-title="भाषा" data-language-autonym="डोटेली" data-language-local-name="Doteli" class="interlanguage-link-target">डोटेली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dv mw-list-item"><a href="https://dv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DE%84%DE%A6%DE%90%DE%B0" title="ބަސް – 迪维希语" lang="dv" hreflang="dv" data-title="ބަސް" data-language-autonym="ދިވެހިބަސް" data-language-local-name="迪维希语" class="interlanguage-link-target">ދިވެހިބަސް</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CE%BB%CF%8E%CF%83%CF%83%CE%B1" title="Γλώσσα – 希腊语" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Γλώσσα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="希腊语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eml mw-list-item"><a href="https://eml.wikipedia.org/wiki/Langua" title="Langua – Emiliano-Romagnolo" lang="egl" hreflang="egl" data-title="Langua" data-language-autonym="Emiliàn e rumagnòl" data-language-local-name="Emiliano-Romagnolo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Emiliàn e rumagnòl</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-en badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="优良条目"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language" title="Language – 英语" lang="en" hreflang="en" data-title="Language" data-language-autonym="English" data-language-local-name="英语" class="interlanguage-link-target">English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingvo" title="Lingvo – 世界语" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Lingvo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="世界语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenguaje" title="Lenguaje – 西班牙语" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Lenguaje" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="西班牙语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keel" title="Keel – 爱沙尼亚语" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Keel" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="爱沙尼亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mintzaira" title="Mintzaira – 巴斯克语" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Mintzaira" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="巴斯克语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenguagi" title="Lenguagi – 埃斯特雷馬杜拉文" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Lenguagi" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="埃斯特雷馬杜拉文" class="interlanguage-link-target">Estremeñu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86" title="زبان – 波斯语" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="زبان" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="波斯语" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kieli" title="Kieli – 芬兰语" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kieli" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="芬兰语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiil_(keeletiid%C3%BCs)" title="Kiil (keeletiidüs) – 佛羅文" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Kiil (keeletiidüs)" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="佛羅文" class="interlanguage-link-target">Võro</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fj mw-list-item"><a href="https://fj.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vosa" title="Vosa – 斐济语" lang="fj" hreflang="fj" data-title="Vosa" data-language-autonym="Na Vosa Vakaviti" data-language-local-name="斐济语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Na Vosa Vakaviti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A1l" title="Mál – 法罗语" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Mál" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="法罗语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Langage" title="Langage – 法语" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Langage" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="法语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frp mw-list-item"><a href="https://frp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lengoua" title="Lengoua – 法蘭克-普羅旺斯文" lang="frp" hreflang="frp" data-title="Lengoua" data-language-autonym="Arpetan" data-language-local-name="法蘭克-普羅旺斯文" class="interlanguage-link-target">Arpetan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spr%C3%A4ke_(iinjt%C3%A5l)" title="Spräke (iinjtål) – 北弗里西亚语" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Spräke (iinjtål)" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="北弗里西亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenga%C3%A7" title="Lengaç – 弗留利语" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Lengaç" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="弗留利语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Furlan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taal" title="Taal – 西弗里西亚语" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Taal" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="西弗里西亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teanga" title="Teanga – 爱尔兰语" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Teanga" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="爱尔兰语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80" title="語言 – 赣语" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="語言" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="赣语" class="interlanguage-link-target">贛語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lanng" title="Lanng – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Lanng" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl gwiyannen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%A0nan" title="Cànan – 苏格兰盖尔语" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Cànan" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="苏格兰盖尔语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguaxe" title="Linguaxe – 加利西亚语" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Linguaxe" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="加利西亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-glk mw-list-item"><a href="https://glk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86" title="زوان – 吉拉基文" lang="glk" hreflang="glk" data-title="زوان" data-language-autonym="گیلکی" data-language-local-name="吉拉基文" class="interlanguage-link-target">گیلکی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%91e%27%E1%BA%BDte" title="Ñe'ẽte – 瓜拉尼语" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Ñe'ẽte" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="瓜拉尼语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gom mw-list-item"><a href="https://gom.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8_%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="भास आनी भासविज्ञान – 孔卡尼文" lang="gom" hreflang="gom" data-title="भास आनी भासविज्ञान" data-language-autonym="गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni" data-language-local-name="孔卡尼文" class="interlanguage-link-target">गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gor mw-list-item"><a href="https://gor.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa" title="Bahasa – 哥伦打洛语" lang="gor" hreflang="gor" data-title="Bahasa" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Hulontalo" data-language-local-name="哥伦打洛语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Hulontalo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-got mw-list-item"><a href="https://got.wikipedia.org/wiki/%F0%90%8D%82%F0%90%8C%B0%F0%90%8C%B6%F0%90%8C%B3%F0%90%8C%B0" title="𐍂𐌰𐌶𐌳𐌰 – 哥特语" lang="got" hreflang="got" data-title="𐍂𐌰𐌶𐌳𐌰" data-language-autonym="𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺" data-language-local-name="哥特语" class="interlanguage-link-target">𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%AD%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%B7%E0%AA%BE" title="ભાષા – 古吉拉特语" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="ભાષા" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="古吉拉特语" class="interlanguage-link-target">ગુજરાતી</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87hengey_(%C3%A7haghteraght)" title="Çhengey (çhaghteraght) – 马恩语" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Çhengey (çhaghteraght)" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="马恩语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaelg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harshe_(yare)" title="Harshe (yare) – 豪萨语" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Harshe (yare)" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="豪萨语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ng%C3%AE-ngi%C3%A8n" title="Ngî-ngièn – 客家语" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Ngî-ngièn" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="客家语" class="interlanguage-link-target">客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A9%D7%A4%D7%94" title="שפה – 希伯来语" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="שפה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="希伯来语" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="भाषा – 印地语" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="भाषा" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="印地语" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhasa" title="Bhasa – 斐濟印地文" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Bhasa" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="斐濟印地文" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jezik" title="Jezik – 克罗地亚语" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Jezik" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="克罗地亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lang_(paw%C3%B2l)" title="Lang (pawòl) – 海地克里奥尔语" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Lang (pawòl)" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="海地克里奥尔语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nyelv" title="Nyelv – 匈牙利语" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Nyelv" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="匈牙利语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BC%D5%A5%D5%A6%D5%B8%D6%82" title="Լեզու – 亚美尼亚语" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Լեզու" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="亚美尼亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BC%D5%A5%D5%A6%D5%B8%D6%82" title="Լեզու – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Լեզու" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Արեւմտահայերէն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguage" title="Linguage – 国际语" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Linguage" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="国际语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-iba mw-list-item"><a href="https://iba.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaku" title="Jaku – 伊班语" lang="iba" hreflang="iba" data-title="Jaku" data-language-autonym="Jaku Iban" data-language-local-name="伊班语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jaku Iban</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa" title="Bahasa – 印度尼西亚语" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Bahasa" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="印度尼西亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingue" title="Lingue – 国际文字（E）" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Lingue" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="国际文字（E）" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingue</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ig mw-list-item"><a href="https://ig.wikipedia.org/wiki/As%E1%BB%A5s%E1%BB%A5" title="Asụsụ – 伊博语" lang="ig" hreflang="ig" data-title="Asụsụ" data-language-autonym="Igbo" data-language-local-name="伊博语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Igbo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ik mw-list-item"><a href="https://ik.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uqautchit" title="Uqautchit – 伊努皮克语" lang="ik" hreflang="ik" data-title="Uqautchit" data-language-autonym="Iñupiatun" data-language-local-name="伊努皮克语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Iñupiatun</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pagsasao" title="Pagsasao – 伊洛卡诺语" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Pagsasao" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="伊洛卡诺语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-inh mw-list-item"><a href="https://inh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D1%82%D1%82" title="Мотт – 印古什语" lang="inh" hreflang="inh" data-title="Мотт" data-language-autonym="ГӀалгӀай" data-language-local-name="印古什语" class="interlanguage-link-target">ГӀалгӀай</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguo" title="Linguo – 伊多语" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Linguo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="伊多语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tungum%C3%A1l" title="Tungumál – 冰岛语" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Tungumál" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="冰岛语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguaggio" title="Linguaggio – 意大利语" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Linguaggio" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="意大利语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A8%80%E8%AA%9E" title="言語 – 日语" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="言語" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="日语" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languij" title="Languij – 牙買加克里奧爾英文" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Languij" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="牙買加克里奧爾英文" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo mw-list-item"><a href="https://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/bangu" title="bangu – 逻辑语" lang="jbo" hreflang="jbo" data-title="bangu" data-language-autonym="La .lojban." data-language-local-name="逻辑语" class="interlanguage-link-target">La .lojban.</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basa" title="Basa – 爪哇语" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Basa" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="爪哇语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90" title="ენა – 格鲁吉亚语" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ენა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="格鲁吉亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tutlayt" title="Tutlayt – 卡拜尔语" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Tutlayt" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="卡拜尔语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taqbaylit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kcg mw-list-item"><a href="https://kcg.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%CC%B1lyem_(nwap)" title="A̱lyem (nwap) – 卡塔布语" lang="kcg" hreflang="kcg" data-title="A̱lyem (nwap)" data-language-autonym="Tyap" data-language-local-name="卡塔布语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tyap</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kg mw-list-item"><a href="https://kg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nd%C3%AEnga" title="Ndînga – 刚果语" lang="kg" hreflang="kg" data-title="Ndînga" data-language-autonym="Kongo" data-language-local-name="刚果语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kongo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kge mw-list-item"><a href="https://kge.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa" title="Bahasa – Komering" lang="kge" hreflang="kge" data-title="Bahasa" data-language-autonym="Kumoring" data-language-local-name="Komering" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kumoring</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%96%D0%BB_(%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0)" title="Тіл (лингвистика) – 哈萨克语" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Тіл (лингвистика)" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="哈萨克语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kl mw-list-item"><a href="https://kl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oqaatsit" title="Oqaatsit – 格陵兰语" lang="kl" hreflang="kl" data-title="Oqaatsit" data-language-autonym="Kalaallisut" data-language-local-name="格陵兰语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kalaallisut</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%97%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%B6" title="ភាសា – 高棉语" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="ភាសា" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="高棉语" class="interlanguage-link-target">ភាសាខ្មែរ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AD%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B7%E0%B3%86" title="ಭಾಷೆ – 卡纳达语" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಭಾಷೆ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="卡纳达语" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%96%B8%EC%96%B4" title="언어 – 韩语" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="언어" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="韩语" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-koi mw-list-item"><a href="https://koi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%8B%D0%B2" title="Кыв – 科米-彼尔米亚克语" lang="koi" hreflang="koi" data-title="Кыв" data-language-autonym="Перем коми" data-language-local-name="科米-彼尔米亚克语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Перем коми</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-krc mw-list-item"><a href="https://krc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B8%D0%BB" title="Тил – 卡拉恰伊巴尔卡尔语" lang="krc" hreflang="krc" data-title="Тил" data-language-autonym="Къарачай-малкъар" data-language-local-name="卡拉恰伊巴尔卡尔语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Къарачай-малкъар</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ks mw-list-item"><a href="https://ks.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D9%8E%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86" title="زَبان – 克什米尔语" lang="ks" hreflang="ks" data-title="زَبان" data-language-autonym="कॉशुर / کٲشُر" data-language-local-name="克什米尔语" class="interlanguage-link-target">कॉशुर / کٲشُر</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ksh mw-list-item"><a href="https://ksh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sprooch" title="Sprooch – 科隆语" lang="ksh" hreflang="ksh" data-title="Sprooch" data-language-autonym="Ripoarisch" data-language-local-name="科隆语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ripoarisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ziman" title="Ziman – 库尔德语" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Ziman" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="库尔德语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kv mw-list-item"><a href="https://kv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%8B%D0%B2" title="Кыв – 科米语" lang="kv" hreflang="kv" data-title="Кыв" data-language-autonym="Коми" data-language-local-name="科米语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Коми</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yeth" title="Yeth – 康沃尔语" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Yeth" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="康沃尔语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B8%D0%BB" title="Тил – 柯尔克孜语" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Тил" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="柯尔克孜语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua" title="Lingua – 拉丁语" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Lingua" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="拉丁语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sprooch" title="Sprooch – 卢森堡语" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Sprooch" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="卢森堡语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lbe mw-list-item"><a href="https://lbe.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%B7" title="Маз – Lak" lang="lbe" hreflang="lbe" data-title="Маз" data-language-autonym="Лакку" data-language-local-name="Lak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Лакку</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lez mw-list-item"><a href="https://lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D3%80%D0%B0%D0%BB" title="ЧӀал – 列兹金语" lang="lez" hreflang="lez" data-title="ЧӀал" data-language-autonym="Лезги" data-language-local-name="列兹金语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Лезги</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua" title="Lingua – 新共同語言" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Lingua" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="新共同語言" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taol" title="Taol – 林堡语" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Taol" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="林堡语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingaz" title="Lingaz – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Lingaz" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladin</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idioma" title="Idioma – 倫巴底文" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Idioma" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="倫巴底文" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ln mw-list-item"><a href="https://ln.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lok%C3%B3t%C3%A1" title="Lokótá – 林加拉语" lang="ln" hreflang="ln" data-title="Lokótá" data-language-autonym="Lingála" data-language-local-name="林加拉语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingála</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%9E%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%AA%E0%BA%B2" title="ພາສາ – 老挝语" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ພາສາ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="老挝语" class="interlanguage-link-target">ລາວ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalba" title="Kalba – 立陶宛语" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Kalba" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="立陶宛语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ltg mw-list-item"><a href="https://ltg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vol%C5%ABda" title="Volūda – 拉特加萊文" lang="ltg" hreflang="ltg" data-title="Volūda" data-language-autonym="Latgaļu" data-language-local-name="拉特加萊文" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latgaļu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valoda" title="Valoda – 拉脱维亚语" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Valoda" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="拉脱维亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mad mw-list-item"><a href="https://mad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bh%C3%A2sa" title="Bhâsa – 马都拉语" lang="mad" hreflang="mad" data-title="Bhâsa" data-language-autonym="Madhurâ" data-language-local-name="马都拉语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Madhurâ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai mw-list-item"><a href="https://mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="भाषा – 迈蒂利语" lang="mai" hreflang="mai" data-title="भाषा" data-language-autonym="मैथिली" data-language-local-name="迈蒂利语" class="interlanguage-link-target">मैथिली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-map-bms mw-list-item"><a href="https://map-bms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basa" title="Basa – Banyumasan" lang="jv-x-bms" hreflang="jv-x-bms" data-title="Basa" data-language-autonym="Basa Banyumasan" data-language-local-name="Banyumasan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Basa Banyumasan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mdf mw-list-item"><a href="https://mdf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%8F%D0%BB%D1%8C" title="Кяль – 莫克沙语" lang="mdf" hreflang="mdf" data-title="Кяль" data-language-autonym="Мокшень" data-language-local-name="莫克沙语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Мокшень</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiteny_(heviny_mivelatra)" title="Fiteny (heviny mivelatra) – 马拉加斯语" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Fiteny (heviny mivelatra)" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="马拉加斯语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mhr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%99%D1%8B%D0%BB%D0%BC%D0%B5" title="Йылме – Eastern Mari" lang="mhr" hreflang="mhr" data-title="Йылме" data-language-autonym="Олык марий" data-language-local-name="Eastern Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target">Олык марий</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahaso" title="Bahaso – 米南佳保语" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Bahaso" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="米南佳保语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Minangkabau</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%88%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Јазик – 马其顿语" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Јазик" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="马其顿语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AD%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B7" title="ഭാഷ – 马拉雅拉姆语" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഭാഷ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="马拉雅拉姆语" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D1%8D%D0%BB" title="Хэл – 蒙古语" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Хэл" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="蒙古语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mni mw-list-item"><a href="https://mni.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%AF%82%EA%AF%A3%EA%AF%9C" title="ꯂꯣꯜ – 曼尼普尔语" lang="mni" hreflang="mni" data-title="ꯂꯣꯜ" data-language-autonym="ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ" data-language-local-name="曼尼普尔语" class="interlanguage-link-target">ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="भाषा – 马拉地语" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="भाषा" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="马拉地语" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa" title="Bahasa – 马来语" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Bahasa" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="马来语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingwa" title="Lingwa – 马耳他语" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Lingwa" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="马耳他语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%98%E1%80%AC%E1%80%9E%E1%80%AC%E1%80%85%E1%80%80%E1%80%AC%E1%80%B8" title="ဘာသာစကား – 缅甸语" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ဘာသာစကား" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="缅甸语" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D9%88%D9%88%D9%86" title="زوون – 马赞德兰语" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="زوون" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="马赞德兰语" class="interlanguage-link-target">مازِرونی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nap mw-list-item"><a href="https://nap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lengua" title="Lengua – 那不勒斯语" lang="nap" hreflang="nap" data-title="Lengua" data-language-autonym="Napulitano" data-language-local-name="那不勒斯语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Napulitano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spraak" title="Spraak – 低地德语" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Spraak" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="低地德语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taol" title="Taol – 低萨克森语" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Taol" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="低萨克森语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nedersaksies</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="भाषा – 尼泊尔语" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="भाषा" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="尼泊尔语" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8D" title="भाय् – 尼瓦尔语" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="भाय्" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="尼瓦尔语" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nia mw-list-item"><a href="https://nia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Li" title="Li – 尼亚斯语" lang="nia" hreflang="nia" data-title="Li" data-language-autonym="Li Niha" data-language-local-name="尼亚斯语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Li Niha</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taal" title="Taal – 荷兰语" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Taal" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="荷兰语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spr%C3%A5k" title="Språk – 挪威尼诺斯克语" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Språk" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="挪威尼诺斯克语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spr%C3%A5k" title="Språk – 书面挪威语" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Språk" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="书面挪威语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nov mw-list-item"><a href="https://nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingues" title="Lingues – 諾維亞文" lang="nov" hreflang="nov" data-title="Lingues" data-language-autonym="Novial" data-language-local-name="諾維亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target">Novial</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nqo mw-list-item"><a href="https://nqo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DF%9E%DF%8A%DF%B2" title="ߞߊ߲ – 西非书面文字" lang="nqo" hreflang="nqo" data-title="ߞߊ߲" data-language-autonym="ߒߞߏ" data-language-local-name="西非书面文字" class="interlanguage-link-target">ߒߞߏ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nrm mw-list-item"><a href="https://nrm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laungue" title="Laungue – Norman" lang="nrf" hreflang="nrf" data-title="Laungue" data-language-autonym="Nouormand" data-language-local-name="Norman" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nouormand</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lengatge" title="Lengatge – 奥克语" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Lengatge" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="奥克语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%AD%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%B7%E0%AC%BE" title="ଭାଷା – 奥里亚语" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ଭାଷା" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="奥里亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">ଓଡ଼ିଆ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%86%D0%B2%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B3" title="Æвзаг – 奥塞梯语" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Æвзаг" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="奥塞梯语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ирон</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AD%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%BE" title="ਭਾਸ਼ਾ – 旁遮普语" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਭਾਸ਼ਾ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="旁遮普语" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pam mw-list-item"><a href="https://pam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amanu" title="Amanu – 邦板牙语" lang="pam" hreflang="pam" data-title="Amanu" data-language-autonym="Kapampangan" data-language-local-name="邦板牙语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kapampangan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idioma" title="Idioma – 帕皮阿门托语" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Idioma" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="帕皮阿门托语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Papiamentu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pcd mw-list-item"><a href="https://pcd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Langache" title="Langache – 庇卡底文" lang="pcd" hreflang="pcd" data-title="Langache" data-language-autonym="Picard" data-language-local-name="庇卡底文" class="interlanguage-link-target">Picard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pdc mw-list-item"><a href="https://pdc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schprooch" title="Schprooch – 賓夕法尼亞德文" lang="pdc" hreflang="pdc" data-title="Schprooch" data-language-autonym="Deitsch" data-language-local-name="賓夕法尼亞德文" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deitsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pi mw-list-item"><a href="https://pi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="भाषा – 巴利语" lang="pi" hreflang="pi" data-title="भाषा" data-language-autonym="पालि" data-language-local-name="巴利语" class="interlanguage-link-target">पालि</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pih mw-list-item"><a href="https://pih.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laenghwij" title="Laenghwij – Norfuk / Pitkern" lang="pih" hreflang="pih" data-title="Laenghwij" data-language-autonym="Norfuk / Pitkern" data-language-local-name="Norfuk / Pitkern" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norfuk / Pitkern</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C4%99zyk_(mowa)" title="Język (mowa) – 波兰语" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Język (mowa)" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="波兰语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Langagi" title="Langagi – 皮埃蒙特文" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Langagi" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="皮埃蒙特文" class="interlanguage-link-target">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%84%DB%8C" title="بولی – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="بولی" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%98%D8%A8%D9%87" title="ژبه – 普什图语" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="ژبه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="普什图语" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguagem" title="Linguagem – 葡萄牙语" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Linguagem" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="葡萄牙语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rimay" title="Rimay – 克丘亚语" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Rimay" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="克丘亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rm mw-list-item"><a href="https://rm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua" title="Lingua – 罗曼什语" lang="rm" hreflang="rm" data-title="Lingua" data-language-autonym="Rumantsch" data-language-local-name="罗曼什语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Rumantsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rmy mw-list-item"><a href="https://rmy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chib" title="Chib – Vlax Romani" lang="rmy" hreflang="rmy" data-title="Chib" data-language-autonym="Romani čhib" data-language-local-name="Vlax Romani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Romani čhib</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limb%C4%83_(comunicare)" title="Limbă (comunicare) – 罗马尼亚语" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Limbă (comunicare)" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="罗马尼亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-roa-rup mw-list-item"><a href="https://roa-rup.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limb%C3%A2" title="Limbâ – 阿罗马尼亚语" lang="rup" hreflang="rup" data-title="Limbâ" data-language-autonym="Armãneashti" data-language-local-name="阿罗马尼亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Armãneashti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA" title="Язык – 俄语" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Язык" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="俄语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA" title="Язык – 盧森尼亞文" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Язык" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="盧森尼亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="भाषा – 梵语" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="भाषा" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="梵语" class="interlanguage-link-target">संस्कृतम्</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%8B%D0%BB_(%D1%81%D0%B0%D2%A5%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%80)" title="Тыл (саҥарар) – 萨哈语" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Тыл (саҥарар)" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="萨哈语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%AF%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%B9%E1%B1%A8%E1%B1%A5%E1%B1%A4" title="ᱯᱟᱹᱨᱥᱤ – 桑塔利语" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱯᱟᱹᱨᱥᱤ" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="桑塔利语" class="interlanguage-link-target">ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limbas" title="Limbas – 萨丁语" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Limbas" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="萨丁语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_(parr%C3%A0ta)" title="Lingua (parràta) – 西西里语" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Lingua (parràta)" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="西西里语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leid" title="Leid – 苏格兰语" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Leid" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="苏格兰语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BB%D9%88%D9%84%D9%8A" title="ٻولي – 信德语" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="ٻولي" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="信德语" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-se mw-list-item"><a href="https://se.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giella" title="Giella – 北方萨米语" lang="se" hreflang="se" data-title="Giella" data-language-autonym="Davvisámegiella" data-language-local-name="北方萨米语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Davvisámegiella</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sg mw-list-item"><a href="https://sg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y%C3%A2ng%C3%A2k%C3%B6d%C3%B6r%C3%B6" title="Yângâködörö – 桑戈语" lang="sg" hreflang="sg" data-title="Yângâködörö" data-language-autonym="Sängö" data-language-local-name="桑戈语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sängö</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jezik" title="Jezik – 塞尔维亚-克罗地亚语" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Jezik" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="塞尔维亚-克罗地亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-shi mw-list-item"><a href="https://shi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tutlayt" title="Tutlayt – 希尔哈语" lang="shi" hreflang="shi" data-title="Tutlayt" data-language-autonym="Taclḥit" data-language-local-name="希尔哈语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taclḥit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B7%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%82%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%80" title="භාෂාව – 僧伽罗语" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="භාෂාව" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="僧伽罗语" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language" title="Language – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Language" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jazyk_(jazykoveda)" title="Jazyk (jazykoveda) – 斯洛伐克语" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Jazyk (jazykoveda)" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="斯洛伐克语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-skr mw-list-item"><a href="https://skr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86" title="زبان – 色莱基语" lang="skr" hreflang="skr" data-title="زبان" data-language-autonym="سرائیکی" data-language-local-name="色莱基语" class="interlanguage-link-target">سرائیکی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jezik_(sredstvo_sporazumevanja)" title="Jezik (sredstvo sporazumevanja) – 斯洛文尼亚语" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Jezik (sredstvo sporazumevanja)" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="斯洛文尼亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sm mw-list-item"><a href="https://sm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gagana" title="Gagana – 萨摩亚语" lang="sm" hreflang="sm" data-title="Gagana" data-language-autonym="Gagana Samoa" data-language-local-name="萨摩亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gagana Samoa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-smn mw-list-item"><a href="https://smn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiel%C3%A2" title="Kielâ – 伊纳里萨米语" lang="smn" hreflang="smn" data-title="Kielâ" data-language-autonym="Anarâškielâ" data-language-local-name="伊纳里萨米语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Anarâškielâ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutauro" title="Mutauro – 绍纳语" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Mutauro" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="绍纳语" class="interlanguage-link-target">ChiShona</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luuqad_(Af)" title="Luuqad (Af) – 索马里语" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Luuqad (Af)" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="索马里语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Soomaaliga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gjuha_(komunikim)" title="Gjuha (komunikim) – 阿尔巴尼亚语" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Gjuha (komunikim)" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="阿尔巴尼亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%88%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Језик – 塞尔维亚语" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Језик" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="塞尔维亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-srn mw-list-item"><a href="https://srn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tongo" title="Tongo – 苏里南汤加语" lang="srn" hreflang="srn" data-title="Tongo" data-language-autonym="Sranantongo" data-language-local-name="苏里南汤加语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sranantongo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-st mw-list-item"><a href="https://st.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dipuo" title="Dipuo – 南索托语" lang="st" hreflang="st" data-title="Dipuo" data-language-autonym="Sesotho" data-language-local-name="南索托语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sesotho</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sproake" title="Sproake – 沙特菲士蘭文" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Sproake" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="沙特菲士蘭文" class="interlanguage-link-target">Seeltersk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basa" title="Basa – 巽他语" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Basa" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="巽他语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spr%C3%A5k" title="Språk – 瑞典语" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Språk" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="瑞典语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lugha" title="Lugha – 斯瓦希里语" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Lugha" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="斯瓦希里语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szl mw-list-item"><a href="https://szl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Godka" title="Godka – 西里西亚语" lang="szl" hreflang="szl" data-title="Godka" data-language-autonym="Ślůnski" data-language-local-name="西里西亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ślůnski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szy mw-list-item"><a href="https://szy.wikipedia.org/wiki/kamu" title="kamu – Sakizaya" lang="szy" hreflang="szy" data-title="kamu" data-language-autonym="Sakizaya" data-language-local-name="Sakizaya" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sakizaya</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%B4%E0%AE%BF" title="மொழி – 泰米尔语" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="மொழி" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="泰米尔语" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tcy mw-list-item"><a href="https://tcy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AC%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%86" title="ಬಾಸೆ – 圖盧文" lang="tcy" hreflang="tcy" data-title="ಬಾಸೆ" data-language-autonym="ತುಳು" data-language-local-name="圖盧文" class="interlanguage-link-target">ತುಳು</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AD%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B7" title="భాష – 泰卢固语" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="భాష" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="泰卢固语" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Забон – 塔吉克语" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Забон" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="塔吉克语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A9%E0%B8%B2" title="ภาษา – 泰语" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ภาษา" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="泰语" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dil" title="Dil – 土库曼语" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Dil" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="土库曼语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkmençe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wika" title="Wika – 他加禄语" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Wika" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="他加禄语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tly mw-list-item"><a href="https://tly.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zyvon" title="Zyvon – 塔里什文" lang="tly" hreflang="tly" data-title="Zyvon" data-language-autonym="Tolışi" data-language-local-name="塔里什文" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tolışi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tpi mw-list-item"><a href="https://tpi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokples" title="Tokples – 托克皮辛语" lang="tpi" hreflang="tpi" data-title="Tokples" data-language-autonym="Tok Pisin" data-language-local-name="托克皮辛语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tok Pisin</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dil" title="Dil – 土耳其语" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Dil" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="土耳其语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-trv mw-list-item"><a href="https://trv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kari" title="Kari – 赛德克语" lang="trv" hreflang="trv" data-title="Kari" data-language-autonym="Seediq" data-language-local-name="赛德克语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Seediq</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ts mw-list-item"><a href="https://ts.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ririmi" title="Ririmi – 聪加语" lang="ts" hreflang="ts" data-title="Ririmi" data-language-autonym="Xitsonga" data-language-local-name="聪加语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Xitsonga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D0%BB" title="Тел – 鞑靼语" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Тел" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="鞑靼语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%89%D9%84" title="تىل – 维吾尔语" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="تىل" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="维吾尔语" class="interlanguage-link-target">ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Мова – 乌克兰语" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Мова" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="乌克兰语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86" title="زبان – 乌尔都语" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="زبان" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="乌尔都语" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Til" title="Til – 乌兹别克语" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Til" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="乌兹别克语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenguajo" title="Lenguajo – 威尼斯语" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Lenguajo" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="威尼斯语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vèneto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kel%27" title="Kel' – 维普森语" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Kel'" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="维普森语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vepsän kel’</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ng%C3%B4n_ng%E1%BB%AF" title="Ngôn ngữ – 越南语" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Ngôn ngữ" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="越南语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vo mw-list-item"><a href="https://vo.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%BCk" title="Pük – 沃拉普克语" lang="vo" hreflang="vo" data-title="Pük" data-language-autonym="Volapük" data-language-local-name="沃拉普克语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Volapük</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingaedje" title="Lingaedje – 瓦隆语" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Lingaedje" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="瓦隆语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Walon</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yinaknan" title="Yinaknan – 瓦瑞语" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Yinaknan" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="瓦瑞语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wo mw-list-item"><a href="https://wo.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%A0llaama" title="Kàllaama – 沃洛夫语" lang="wo" hreflang="wo" data-title="Kàllaama" data-language-autonym="Wolof" data-language-local-name="沃洛夫语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Wolof</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80" title="語言 – 吴语" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="語言" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="吴语" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xh mw-list-item"><a href="https://xh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulwimi" title="Ulwimi – 科萨语" lang="xh" hreflang="xh" data-title="Ulwimi" data-language-autonym="IsiXhosa" data-language-local-name="科萨语" class="interlanguage-link-target">IsiXhosa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90" title="ნინა – 明格列爾文" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ნინა" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="明格列爾文" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A9%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%9A" title="שפראך – 意第绪语" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="שפראך" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="意第绪语" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%88d%C3%A8" title="Èdè – 约鲁巴语" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Èdè" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="约鲁巴语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Yorùbá</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za mw-list-item"><a href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vah" title="Vah – 壮语" lang="za" hreflang="za" data-title="Vah" data-language-autonym="Vahcuengh" data-language-local-name="壮语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vahcuengh</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zea mw-list-item"><a href="https://zea.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taele" title="Taele – 西蘭文" lang="zea" hreflang="zea" data-title="Taele" data-language-autonym="Zeêuws" data-language-local-name="西蘭文" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zeêuws</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zgh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zgh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E2%B5%9C%E2%B4%B0%E2%B5%8E%E2%B5%99%E2%B5%8D%E2%B4%B0%E2%B5%A2%E2%B5%9C" title="ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵍⴰⵢⵜ – 标准摩洛哥塔马塞特语" lang="zgh" hreflang="zgh" data-title="ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵍⴰⵢⵜ" data-language-autonym="ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ" data-language-local-name="标准摩洛哥塔马塞特语" class="interlanguage-link-target">ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80" title="語言 – 文言文" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="語言" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="文言文" class="interlanguage-link-target">文言</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gi%C3%A2n-g%C3%BA" title="Giân-gú – 闽南语" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Giân-gú" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="闽南语" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80" title="語言 – 粤语" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="語言" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="粤语" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Izilimi" title="Izilimi – 祖鲁语" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="Izilimi" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="祖鲁语" class="interlanguage-link-target">IsiZulu</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q315#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="编辑跨语言链接" class="wbc-editpage">编辑链接</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="命名空间"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu 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height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Plimpton_322.jpg/330px-Plimpton_322.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Plimpton_322.jpg/440px-Plimpton_322.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1246" data-file-height="863" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/%E6%A5%94%E5%BD%A2%E6%96%87%E5%AD%97" title="楔形文字">楔形文字</a>是最早的<a href="/wiki/%E4%B9%A6%E9%9D%A2%E8%AF%AD" title="书面语">书面语</a>，但<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%A3%E8%AF%AD" title="口语">口语</a>比文字早了上萬年</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:222px;max-width:222px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Girls_learning_sign_language.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Girls_learning_sign_language.jpg/220px-Girls_learning_sign_language.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Girls_learning_sign_language.jpg/330px-Girls_learning_sign_language.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Girls_learning_sign_language.jpg/440px-Girls_learning_sign_language.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2187" data-file-height="1728" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">两個女孩在學習<a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%8E%E5%9C%8B%E6%89%8B%E8%AA%9E" title="美國手語">美國手語</a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:222px;max-width:222px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:DSC_4050-MR-Braille.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/DSC_4050-MR-Braille.jpg/220px-DSC_4050-MR-Braille.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="296" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/DSC_4050-MR-Braille.jpg/330px-DSC_4050-MR-Braille.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/54/DSC_4050-MR-Braille.jpg 2x" data-file-width="363" data-file-height="489" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/%E7%9B%B2%E6%96%87" title="盲文">盲文</a>也是一種<a href="/wiki/%E6%96%87%E5%AD%97" title="文字">文字</a></div></div></div></div></div> 语言（英語：language，词源为<a href="/wiki/%E6%8B%89%E4%B8%81%E8%AA%9E" class="mw-redirect" title="拉丁語">拉丁語</a>：lingua，意为“舌”）<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a>是一类复合<a href="/wiki/%E6%B2%9F%E9%80%9A" title="沟通">交流</a>系统，主要包含其形成、习得、维护及应用，特别是相应的人类能力。某一门语言则是这类系统的具体例子。除了交流溝通外，語言也是一個人的身分認同中主要的構成部分，也是一個文化的主要成分之一。 <a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E5%AD%A6" title="语言学">语言学</a>是对语言的科学研究。<a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="语言哲学">语言哲学</a>方面相关的辩论，比如词汇能否能表述经历，至少可追溯至<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E5%B8%8C%E8%85%8A" title="古希腊">古希腊</a>的<a href="/wiki/%E9%AB%98%E7%88%BE%E5%90%89%E4%BA%9E" title="高爾吉亞">高爾吉亞</a>与<a href="/wiki/%E6%9F%8F%E6%8B%89%E5%9B%BE" title="柏拉图">柏拉图</a>。以<a href="/wiki/%E8%AE%A9-%E9%9B%85%E5%85%8B%C2%B7%E5%8D%A2%E6%A2%AD" title="让-雅克·卢梭">卢梭</a>为代表的一些思想家認為語言源自<a href="/wiki/%E6%83%85%E7%BB%AA" title="情绪">情绪</a>，而<a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%8A%E6%9B%BC%E5%8A%AA%E5%B0%94%C2%B7%E5%BA%B7%E5%BE%B7" title="伊曼努尔·康德">康德</a>认为其源于理性和逻辑的思辨。诸如<a href="/wiki/%E8%B7%AF%E5%BE%B7%E7%BB%B4%E5%B8%8C%C2%B7%E7%BB%B4%E7%89%B9%E6%A0%B9%E6%96%AF%E5%9D%A6" title="路德维希·维特根斯坦">维特根斯坦</a>等20世紀的哲學家论证说哲學实质上就是对語言的研究。著名的<a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E5%AD%A6%E5%AE%B6" class="mw-redirect" title="语言学家">语言学家</a>有<a href="/wiki/%E5%BC%97%E8%BF%AA%E5%8D%97%C2%B7%E5%BE%B7%C2%B7%E7%B4%A2%E7%B7%92%E7%88%BE" class="mw-redirect" title="弗迪南·德·索緒爾">弗迪南·德·索緒爾</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%BA%E5%A7%86%C2%B7%E4%B9%94%E5%A7%86%E6%96%AF%E5%9F%BA" title="诺姆·乔姆斯基">诺姆·乔姆斯基</a>等。 人类语言据估算约有5000到7000种，由于语言与<a href="/wiki/%E6%96%B9%E8%A8%80" title="方言">方言</a>的差别难以定义，难以有准确的统计。<a href="/wiki/%E8%87%AA%E7%84%B6%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80" title="自然语言">自然语言</a>常以<a href="/wiki/%E8%AA%AA%E8%A9%B1" title="說話">口述</a>或<a href="/wiki/%E6%89%8B%E8%AA%9E" title="手語">手語</a>方式表達，但任何語言都可以用聲音（如<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%A3%E5%93%A8%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80" title="口哨語言">口哨語言</a>）、視覺（如<a href="/wiki/%E6%89%8B%E8%AA%9E" title="手語">手語</a>）或是觸覺剌激（如<a href="/wiki/%E7%9B%B2%E6%96%87" title="盲文">盲文</a>）来表现。<a href="/wiki/%E7%AC%A6%E8%99%9F%E5%AD%B8" title="符號學">符號學</a>中将这一现象描述为模态无关（modality-independent）。依照<a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="语言哲学">语言哲学</a>對语言与意义的定义，广义上，“语言”可以指代学习并使用该复杂交流系统的<a href="/wiki/%E8%AE%A4%E7%9F%A5" class="mw-redirect" title="认知">认知</a>能力，也可以描述构成这一系统的规则集合，还可以指由语言规则生成（produce）的词句的集合。所有的語言都依靠<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%AC%A6%E5%8F%B7%E8%BF%87%E7%A8%8B&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="符号过程（页面不存在）">符号过程</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/semiosis" class="extiw" title="en:semiosis">semiosis</a>）來將特定的<a href="/wiki/%E8%A8%98%E8%99%9F" title="記號">记号</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E8%AA%9E%E6%84%8F" title="語意">意义</a>相連結。<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%A3%E8%AF%AD" title="口语">口语</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E6%89%8B%E8%AA%9E" title="手語">手語</a>及觸覺語言都有<a href="/wiki/%E9%9F%B3%E4%BD%8D%E5%AD%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="音位學">音位學</a>系統來將符號組合成詞或是<a href="/wiki/%E8%AA%9E%E7%B4%A0" title="語素">語素</a>的系統，也有<a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E6%B3%95%E5%AD%A6" class="mw-redirect" title="语法学">语法学</a>系統來將詞及語素組合成短语和话语。 人類語言具有<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%88%9B%E9%80%A0%E6%80%A7_(%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E5%AD%A6)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="创造性 (语言学)（页面不存在）">创造性</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Productivity_(linguistics)" class="extiw" title="en:Productivity (linguistics)">Productivity (linguistics)</a>）和<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A7%BB%E4%BD%8D%E6%80%A7_(%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E5%AD%A6)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="移位性 (语言学)（页面不存在）">移位性</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Displacement_(linguistics)" class="extiw" title="en:Displacement (linguistics)">Displacement (linguistics)</a>），完全靠社會習俗及學習而來。語言的複雜結構使得其可表達的範圍比任何已知的<a href="/wiki/%E5%8B%95%E7%89%A9%E4%BA%A4%E6%B5%81" title="動物交流">動物交流</a>系統都要廣。依心理學的觀點，語言是起源於<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%BA%E6%97%8F" title="人族">人族</a>有了形成<a href="/wiki/%E5%BF%83%E6%99%BA%E7%90%86%E8%AB%96" title="心智理論">心智理論</a>的能力，以及有分享的<a href="/wiki/%E6%84%8F%E5%90%91%E6%80%A7" title="意向性">意向</a>，之後漸漸由其原始的溝通系統演變而來<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hauser_2002-3">[3]</a>。這個發展出現的時期也和人類腦容量擴展的時期大致相同，許多語言學家認為語言的結構有因為一些特定的溝通及社會機能而演變。<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%BA%E8%85%A6" title="人腦">人腦</a>有許多部份會處理語言，但主要是在<a href="/wiki/%E5%B8%83%E8%8B%A5%E5%8D%A1%E6%B0%8F%E5%8C%BA" title="布若卡氏区">布若卡氏区</a>及<a href="/wiki/%E9%9F%A6%E5%B0%BC%E5%85%8B%E5%8C%BA" title="韦尼克区">韦尼克区</a>。人類的<a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E4%B9%A0%E5%BE%97" title="语言习得">语言习得</a>是在童年早期的社會互動中學習的，小孩大約三歲就可以流利的說話了。語言的使用已深深紮根於人類<a href="/wiki/%E6%96%87%E5%8C%96" title="文化">文化</a>之中。因此語言除了用在溝通上，也有許多社會及文化上的用途，例如強化群體<a href="/wiki/%E8%BA%AB%E4%BB%BD%E8%AE%A4%E5%90%8C" title="身份认同">身份认同</a>及<a href="/wiki/%E7%A4%BE%E6%9C%83%E9%9A%8E%E5%B1%A4" title="社會階層">社會階層</a>，也用來<a href="/wiki/%E7%A4%BE%E4%BA%A4%E6%A2%B3%E7%90%86" title="社交梳理">社交梳理</a>及<a href="/wiki/%E5%A8%9B%E6%A8%82" title="娛樂">娛樂</a>。 語言會隨時間<a href="/wiki/%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80%E8%AE%8A%E5%8C%96" title="語言變化">演进</a>与分化。其演化歷史可以通过与现代语言的<a href="/wiki/%E6%AF%94%E7%85%A7%E6%B3%95" class="mw-redirect" title="比照法">比較</a>來<a href="/wiki/%E6%AD%B7%E5%8F%B2%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80%E5%AD%B8" title="歷史語言學">构拟</a>：从现代语言中确定哪些特质是祖语存在的，由此在语言的后续发展阶段得以存续。有共同祖语的一组語言稱為<a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E7%B3%BB%E5%B1%9E%E5%88%86%E7%B1%BB" title="语言系属分类">语系</a>。<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%B0%E6%AC%A7%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="印欧语系">印欧语系</a>的语言在今天为使用人数之最，其主要成员有<a href="/wiki/%E8%8B%B1%E8%AF%AD" title="英语">英语</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E4%BF%84%E8%AF%AD" title="俄语">俄语</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%B0%E5%9C%B0%E8%AF%AD" title="印地语">印地语</a>。<a href="/wiki/%E6%B1%89%E8%97%8F%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="汉藏语系">汉藏语系</a>包括<a href="/wiki/%E6%B1%89%E8%AF%AD%E6%97%8F" title="汉语族">汉语诸方言</a><a href="#cite_note-4">[註 1]</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E8%97%8F%E8%AA%9E" title="藏語">藏语</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%9A%E5%A4%9A%E8%AF%AD" title="博多语">博多语</a>等。<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%9A%E9%9D%9E%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="亚非语系">亚非语系</a>包括<a href="/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E6%8B%89%E4%BC%AF%E8%AF%AD" title="阿拉伯语">阿拉伯语</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%B4%A2%E9%A6%AC%E9%87%8C%E8%AA%9E" title="索馬里語">索馬里語</a>及<a href="/wiki/%E5%B8%8C%E4%BC%AF%E6%9D%A5%E8%AF%AD" title="希伯来语">希伯来语</a>。<a href="/wiki/%E7%8F%AD%E5%9B%BE%E8%AF%AD%E6%94%AF" title="班图语支">班图语支</a>中有<a href="/wiki/%E6%96%AF%E7%93%A6%E5%B8%8C%E9%87%8C%E8%AF%AD" title="斯瓦希里语">斯瓦希里语</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%A5%96%E9%B2%81%E8%AF%AD" title="祖鲁语">祖鲁语</a>和其他數百種<a href="/wiki/%E9%9D%9E%E6%B4%B2" title="非洲">非洲</a>語言。<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%97%E5%B3%B6%E8%AA%9E%E7%B3%BB" title="南島語系">南島語系</a>包括<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%B0%E5%B0%BC%E8%AF%AD" class="mw-redirect" title="印尼语">印尼语</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E9%A9%AC%E6%9D%A5%E8%AF%AD" title="马来语">马来语</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E4%BB%96%E5%8A%A0%E7%A5%BF%E8%AA%9E" title="他加祿語">他加祿語</a>及数百种遍布<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%AA%E5%B9%B3%E6%B4%8B" title="太平洋">太平洋</a>的語言。<a href="/wiki/%E8%BE%BE%E7%BD%97%E6%AF%97%E8%8D%BC%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="达罗毗荼语系">达罗毗荼语系</a>主要分布于<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%B0%E5%BA%A6%E5%8D%97%E9%83%A8" title="印度南部">印度南部</a>，其中有<a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%B0%E7%B1%B3%E5%B0%94%E8%AF%AD" title="泰米尔语">泰米尔语</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%B0%E5%8D%A2%E5%9B%BA%E8%AF%AD" title="泰卢固语">泰卢固语</a>。學術界认为现存口语中有50%至90%會在2100年前滅絕<a href="#cite_note-Handbook-5">[4]</a>。 <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="定义">定义</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80&action=edit&section=1" title="编辑章节：定义">编辑</a>]</div> <div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目：<a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="语言哲学">语言哲学</a></div> 当今“语言”一词是英语“language”或者法语“langage”的翻译，它可能源於<a href="/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%A7%8B%E5%8D%B0%E6%AD%90%E8%AA%9E" title="原始印歐語">原始印歐語</a>的 <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r61209503">.mw-parser-output .IPA{font-family:"Charis SIL","Doulos SIL","Linux Libertine","Segoe UI","Lucida Sans Unicode","Code2000","Gentium","Gentium Alternative","TITUS Cyberbit Basic","Arial Unicode MS","IPAPANNEW","Chrysanthi Unicode","GentiumAlt","Bitstream Vera","Bitstream Cyberbit","Hiragino Kaku Gothic Pro","Lucida Grande",sans-serif;text-decoration:none!important}.mw-parser-output .IPA a:link,.mw-parser-output .IPA a:visited{text-decoration:none!important}</style>*dn̥ǵʰwéh₂s（舌頭、說話、語言）、<a href="/wiki/%E6%8B%89%E4%B8%81%E8%AF%AD" title="拉丁语">拉丁语</a>的“lingua”（舌頭、語言）或<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E6%B3%95%E8%AA%9E" title="古法語">古法語</a>的“<a href="https://zh.wiktionary.org/wiki/language" class="extiw" title="wikt:language">language</a>”<a href="#cite_note-AHD-6">[5]</a>。有时“语言”也指代码、密码或者是其他人工创造的交流系统，如编程语言或者是人工语言。在这个意义上，<a href="/wiki/%E5%BD%A2%E5%BC%8F%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80" title="形式语言">形式语言</a>和先天的人类语言不同，它是一个用于<a href="/wiki/%E7%BC%96%E7%A0%81" title="编码">编码</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E7%BC%96%E7%A0%81" title="编码">解码</a><a href="/wiki/%E4%BF%A1%E6%81%AF" title="信息">信息</a>的<a href="/wiki/%E8%A8%98%E8%99%9F" title="記號">记号</a><a href="/wiki/%E7%B3%BB%E7%BB%9F" class="mw-redirect" title="系统">系统</a>。本条目主要关注<a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E5%AD%A6" title="语言学">语言学</a>所研究的<a href="/wiki/%E8%87%AA%E7%84%B6%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80" title="自然语言">自然语言</a>。 在汉语中，一人自說叫言，兩人相應答叫語。《<a href="/wiki/%E8%A9%A9%E7%B6%93" class="mw-redirect" title="詩經">詩經</a>·大雅》<a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%97%E7%BB%8F#相关著作及研究" title="诗经">疏</a>“于時言言，于時語語”云：“直言曰言，謂一人自言；答難曰語，謂二人相對。”<a href="#cite_note-7">[6]</a>鄭注<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%A7%E5%8F%B8%E6%A8%82" title="大司樂">大司樂</a>曰：“發端曰言，答述曰語。”<a href="#cite_note-8">[7]</a> 而作为语言学研究的对象，“语言”有两个初始含义：一种抽象概念，一种特定的语言系统，比如指<a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%95%E8%AF%AD" title="法语">法语</a>。<a href="/wiki/%E7%91%9E%E5%A3%AB" title="瑞士">瑞士</a>语言学家<a href="/wiki/%E5%BC%97%E8%BF%AA%E5%8D%97%C2%B7%E5%BE%B7%C2%B7%E7%B4%A2%E7%B7%92%E7%88%BE" class="mw-redirect" title="弗迪南·德·索緒爾">弗迪南·德·索緒爾</a>定义了现代语言学的基本原则，他最先区分开了言语（parole）和语言（langue）两个概念。“语言”这一概念指的是某个特定的语言系统实例，而“言语”则指在特定语言里具体的言语运用。<a href="#cite_note-Lyons2-9">[8]</a> 而就一个笼统概念而言，语言的定义可以用来强调语言现象的各个方面<a href="#cite_note-LyonsIntro-10">[9]</a>，形成相左、甚至互斥的各个语言学派别。<a href="#cite_note-TraskLanguage-11">[10]</a><a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="语言哲学">语言哲学</a>中的关键问题，例如语言的起源和本质，其争论可追溯至<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E5%B8%8C%E8%85%8A" title="古希腊">古希腊</a>。哲学家<a href="/wiki/%E9%AB%98%E7%88%BE%E5%90%89%E4%BA%9E" title="高爾吉亞">高爾吉亞</a>与<a href="/wiki/%E6%9F%8F%E6%8B%89%E5%9B%BE" title="柏拉图">柏拉图</a>曾就词语、概念与现实三者的关系作过辩论。<a href="/wiki/%E9%AB%98%E7%88%BE%E5%90%89%E4%BA%9E" title="高爾吉亞">高爾吉亞</a>认为语言无法表达客观经验和主观体验，于是乎语言交流和真实也就不可能存在；而柏拉图则坚持意志和概念先于语言存在，故语言交流是存在的。<a href="#cite_note-Bett_2010-12">[11]</a> <a href="/wiki/%E5%95%9F%E8%92%99%E6%99%82%E4%BB%A3" title="啟蒙時代">啟蒙時代</a>关注人类起源，连带关于语言起源的问题也变得引人注目。<a href="/wiki/%E8%AE%A9-%E9%9B%85%E5%85%8B%C2%B7%E5%8D%A2%E6%A2%AD" title="让-雅克·卢梭">卢梭</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%BA%A6%E7%BF%B0%C2%B7%E6%88%88%E7%89%B9%E5%BC%97%E9%87%8C%E5%BE%B7%C2%B7%E8%B5%AB%E5%B0%94%E5%BE%B7" title="约翰·戈特弗里德·赫尔德">赫尔德</a>等思想家认为语言来源于<a href="/wiki/%E6%83%85%E7%BB%AA" title="情绪">情绪</a>的<a href="/wiki/%E6%9C%AC%E8%83%BD" title="本能">本能</a>表达，故语言较之<a href="/wiki/%E9%80%BB%E8%BE%91" title="逻辑">逻辑</a>表达和<a href="/wiki/%E7%90%86%E6%80%A7" title="理性">理性</a>思考，与<a href="/wiki/%E9%9F%B3%E4%B9%90" title="音乐">音乐</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%97%E6%AD%8C" title="诗歌">诗歌</a>等<a href="/wiki/%E6%84%9F%E6%80%A7" title="感性">感性</a>认知的关系更紧密一些。而<a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%8A%E6%9B%BC%E5%8A%AA%E5%B0%94%C2%B7%E5%BA%B7%E5%BE%B7" title="伊曼努尔·康德">康德</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%8B%92%E5%86%85%C2%B7%E7%AC%9B%E5%8D%A1%E5%B0%94" title="勒内·笛卡尔">笛卡尔</a>等理性主义哲学家则相反，认为语言源于理性和逻辑思辨。20世纪以来，思想家开始疑问语言是单纯反映了客观世界的构造，还是创造某些概念将人类自己的主观体验强加到了对世界的认识中去，语言在此到底扮演了什么角色。这个问题深究下去，就变成了哲学的实质是否语言的研究。故20世纪的哲学发展中，语言在概念的创造和循环上起了重要作用的观点又重新出现，<a href="/wiki/%E8%B7%AF%E5%BE%B7%E7%BB%B4%E5%B8%8C%C2%B7%E7%BB%B4%E7%89%B9%E6%A0%B9%E6%96%AF%E5%9D%A6" title="路德维希·维特根斯坦">路德维希·维特根斯坦</a>等哲学家以及<a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E8%BD%AC%E5%90%91" class="mw-redirect" title="语言转向">语言转向</a>便是其代表。直到今天，关于语言的意义与关联、认知与意识的争论依然活跃。<a href="#cite_note-Devitt_Setrelny_1999-13">[12]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="心灵、器官或本能">心灵、器官或本能</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80&action=edit&section=2" title="编辑章节：心灵、器官或本能">编辑</a>]</div> 一种定义将语言主要解释为让人们从事语言行为（学习，表达并理解语言）的<a href="/wiki/%E5%BF%83%E7%81%B5" class="mw-redirect" title="心灵">心智</a>。这种定义侧重于语言对于人类的通用性，并强调人类语言能力的生物学基础是<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%BA%E8%85%A6" title="人腦">人脑</a>的一种独特的演化。“人类与生俱来地具有获得语言的动力”这一观念的支持者提出，所有认知能力正常的孩子，只要成长环境里能接触到语言，就能在没有正式教学的情况下习得语言，这一事实正好支持了这个观念。语言甚至可以在不使用同一种语言的人们聚居或共同成长的环境中自发产生；例如<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%8B%E9%87%8C%E5%A5%A7%E7%88%BE%E8%AA%9E" title="克里奧爾語">克里奥尔语</a>，以及自发产生的手语如<a href="/wiki/%E5%B0%BC%E5%8A%A0%E6%8B%89%E7%93%9C%E6%89%8B%E8%AF%AD" title="尼加拉瓜手语">尼加拉瓜手语</a>。这个可以追溯到哲学家康德和笛卡尔的观点认为语言是<a href="/w/index.php?title=Innatism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Innatism（页面不存在）">与生俱来的</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/innatism" class="extiw" title="en:innatism">innatism</a>）的，比如<a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%BA%E5%A7%86%C2%B7%E4%B9%94%E5%A7%86%E6%96%AF%E5%9F%BA" title="诺姆·乔姆斯基">诺姆·乔姆斯基</a>的<a href="/wiki/%E6%99%AE%E9%81%8D%E6%96%87%E6%B3%95" title="普遍文法">普遍文法</a>理论，或者美国哲学家<a href="/wiki/%E6%9D%B0%E7%91%9E%C2%B7%E7%A6%8F%E5%A4%9A" title="杰瑞·福多">杰瑞·福多</a>的极端先天理论。这些定义经常被使用于语言在<a href="/wiki/%E8%AE%A4%E7%9F%A5%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6" title="认知科学">认知科学</a>以及<a href="/wiki/%E7%A5%9E%E7%BB%8F%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E5%AD%A6" title="神经语言学">神经语言学</a>领域的研究中。<a href="#cite_note-Hauser_Fitch_2003-14">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-Language_Instinct-15">[14]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="符号形式系统">符号形式系统</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80&action=edit&section=3" title="编辑章节：符号形式系统">编辑</a>]</div> 另一项定义将语言视作由组合语法规则制约、旨在传达语义的记号<a href="/wiki/%E5%BD%A2%E5%BC%8F%E7%B3%BB%E7%BB%9F" class="mw-redirect" title="形式系统">形式系统</a>。这项定义强调了人类语言可被描述为封闭的结构系统，该系统还包括了特定记号与特定意义的关联规则<a href="#cite_note-16">[15]</a>。这种语言的<a href="/wiki/%E7%BB%93%E6%9E%84%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" class="mw-redirect" title="结构主义">结构主义</a>观点最初由<a href="/wiki/%E8%B4%B9%E8%BF%AA%E5%8D%97%C2%B7%E5%BE%B7%C2%B7%E7%B4%A2%E7%BB%AA%E5%B0%94" title="费迪南·德·索绪尔">费尔迪南·德·索绪尔</a>提出<a href="#cite_note-Saussure-17">[16]</a>，他的结构主义为诸多语言学方法奠定了基础<a href="#cite_note-18">[17]</a>。 一些索绪尔语言学观点的支持者主张采用形式方法来研究语言结构，即通过辨别语言结构的基本元素，并正式表述这些元素结合成词、成句的规则。这一理论的主要支持者是<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E6%88%90%E6%96%87%E6%B3%95" title="生成文法">生成文法</a>的提出者<a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%BA%E5%A7%86%C2%B7%E4%B9%94%E5%A7%86%E6%96%AF%E5%9F%BA" title="诺姆·乔姆斯基">诺姆·乔姆斯基</a>。他将语言定义为可用转换语法生成的句法<a href="#cite_note-19">[18]</a>，认为这些规则是人类思维的固有特征和构成语言的基本原理<a href="#cite_note-Chomsky_1957-20">[19]</a>。通过对照，这样的转换语法也被广泛用于提供<a href="/wiki/%E6%95%B0%E7%90%86%E9%80%BB%E8%BE%91" title="数理逻辑">数理逻辑</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%BD%A2%E5%BC%8F%E6%96%87%E6%B3%95" title="形式文法">形式文法</a><a href="/wiki/%E7%90%86%E8%AE%BA%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E5%AD%A6" title="理论语言学">理论语言学</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E8%AE%A1%E7%AE%97%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E5%AD%A6" title="计算语言学">计算语言学</a><a href="#cite_note-21">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-NewmeyerForm-22">[21]</a>中语言的定义。在这种语言学中，<a href="/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E5%B0%94%E5%BC%97%E9%9B%B7%E5%BE%B7%C2%B7%E5%A1%94%E6%96%AF%E5%9F%BA" title="阿尔弗雷德·塔斯基">阿尔弗雷德·塔斯基</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%AF%E7%89%B9%E5%85%B0%C2%B7%E7%BD%97%E7%B4%A0" title="伯特兰·罗素">伯特兰·罗素</a>和其他数理逻辑学家对这种语言学继续发展，认为语义存在于命题和现实之间的逻辑关系中。 <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="交流工具">交流工具</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80&action=edit&section=4" title="编辑章节：交流工具">编辑</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ASL_family.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/ASL_family.jpg/220px-ASL_family.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/ASL_family.jpg/330px-ASL_family.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/ASL_family.jpg/440px-ASL_family.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>正在用<a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%8E%E5%9C%8B%E6%89%8B%E8%AA%9E" title="美國手語">美國手語</a>交谈</figcaption></figure> 另一种定义则将语言看作一种口头或符号上的人类交流系统。这种定义强调语言的社会功能，着眼于人类使用语言去表达自己或者是控制周围环境中的客体。<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%AF%AD%E6%B3%95%E5%8A%9F%E8%83%BD%E8%AE%BA&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="语法功能论（页面不存在）">语法功能论</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_theories_of_grammar" class="extiw" title="en:Functional theories of grammar">Functional theories of grammar</a>）用语言的交流功能解释语言，理解语言的<a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E6%B3%95" title="语法">语法</a>结构能够令语法有一个过程去适应并满足语言使用者的交流需求。<a href="#cite_note-“Myths”-23">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-24">[23]</a> 这种语言观点还涉及到<a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E7%94%A8%E5%AD%A6" title="语用学">语用学</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E8%AE%A4%E7%9F%A5%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E5%AD%A6" class="mw-redirect" title="认知语言学">认知语言学</a>和互动框架，还有<a href="/wiki/%E7%A4%BE%E4%BC%9A%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E5%AD%A6" title="社会语言学">社会语言学</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80%E4%BA%BA%E9%A1%9E%E5%AD%B8" title="語言人類學">语言人类学</a>。作为一种功能主义理论，它倾向于把语言作为动态现象、永远在语言运用当中变化的结构来研究。<a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E7%B1%BB%E5%9E%8B%E5%AD%A6" title="语言类型学">语言类型学</a>的研究，特别是对于语言结构特征的分类也受到这种观点的重视，因为语言类型往往会部分地影响到语法化进程的轨迹。<a href="#cite_note-NewmeyerForm-22">[21]</a>在语言哲学中，作为语言和意义的中心，语用观点被拿来与后来<a href="/wiki/%E8%B7%AF%E5%BE%B7%E7%BB%B4%E5%B8%8C%C2%B7%E7%BB%B4%E7%89%B9%E6%A0%B9%E6%96%AF%E5%9D%A6" title="路德维希·维特根斯坦">路德维希·维特根斯坦</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E7%B4%84%E7%BF%B0%C2%B7%E5%A5%A7%E6%96%AF%E4%B8%81" title="約翰·奧斯丁">約翰·奧斯丁</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E4%BF%9D%E7%BE%85%C2%B7%E6%A0%BC%E8%90%8A%E6%96%AF" title="保羅·格萊斯">保羅·格萊斯</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%BA%A6%E7%BF%B0%C2%B7%E7%BD%97%E6%9D%B0%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E5%B8%8C%E5%B0%94%E5%8B%92" class="mw-redirect" title="约翰·罗杰斯·希尔勒">约翰·罗杰斯·希尔勒</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E5%A8%81%E6%8B%89%E5%BE%B7%C2%B7%E5%86%AF%C2%B7%E5%A5%A5%E6%9B%BC%C2%B7%E8%92%AF%E5%9B%A0" class="mw-redirect" title="威拉德·冯·奥曼·蒯因">威拉德·冯·奥曼·蒯因</a>等其他一般的语言学家所做的工作相提并论。<a href="#cite_note-25">[24]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="人类语言的独特地位">人类语言的独特地位</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80&action=edit&section=5" title="编辑章节：人类语言的独特地位">编辑</a>]</div> 相比于其他形式的交流系统，例如人类以外的动物所使用的<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8A%A8%E7%89%A9%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="动物语言（页面不存在）">动物语言</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_language" class="extiw" title="en:Animal language">Animal language</a>），人类语言是独特的。其他动物，比如<a href="/wiki/%E8%9C%82" title="蜂">蜂</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E7%8C%BF" title="猿">猿</a>所使用的交流系统都是封闭系统，其可表达的思想往往非常有限<a href="#cite_note-26">[25]</a>。而人类语言则相反，没有上限且富有<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%88%9B%E9%80%A0%E6%80%A7&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="创造性（页面不存在）">创造性</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Productivity_(linguistics)" class="extiw" title="en:Productivity (linguistics)">Productivity (linguistics)</a>），允许人类从有限元素中产生大量话语，并创造新的词语和句子。这是因为人类语言是一种<a href="/wiki/%E5%AF%B9%E5%81%B6%E7%A0%81" title="对偶码">对偶码</a>，语言当中有限数量的元素本身并没有意义（如声音、文字和手势），但意义的组合（包括词语和句子）是无限量的，有限的元素和无限的意义相结合即可产生无限的人类语言<a href="#cite_note-Trask5-27">[26]</a>。 然而，有研究指出<a href="/wiki/%E6%BE%B3%E5%A4%A7%E5%88%A9%E4%BA%9A" title="澳大利亚">澳大利亚</a>的<a href="/wiki/%E6%A0%97%E5%86%A0%E5%BC%AF%E5%98%B4%E9%B9%9B" title="栗冠弯嘴鹛">栗冠弯嘴鹛</a>能够将相同的声音元素以不同方式编排，来产生两种功能迥异的发音<a href="#cite_note-28">[27]</a>。此外，<a href="/wiki/%E6%96%91%E9%B8%AB%E9%B9%9B" title="斑鸫鹛">斑鸫鹛</a>也显露出利用两种相同类型的声音作类似行为的能力，这两种类型的声音只能靠声音元素重复的次数去辨别<a href="#cite_note-29">[28]</a>。的确，一些物种确实能够通过<a href="/wiki/%E7%A4%BE%E4%BC%9A%E5%AD%A6%E4%B9%A0%E7%90%86%E8%AE%BA" class="mw-redirect" title="社会学习理论">社会学习</a>来获得一些交流形式。比如，一只名叫<a href="/wiki/%E5%9D%8E%E8%8C%B2" title="坎茲">坎茲</a>的<a href="/wiki/%E5%80%AD%E9%BB%91%E7%8C%A9%E7%8C%A9" title="倭黑猩猩">倭黑猩猩</a>学会了用一套<a href="/wiki/%E8%80%B6%E5%9F%BA%E6%96%AF%E8%AA%9E" title="耶基斯語">耶基斯語</a><a href="/wiki/%E6%89%8B%E8%AF%AD" class="mw-redirect" title="手语">手语</a>来表达自己的意愿；很多<a href="/wiki/%E9%B8%9F" title="鸟">鸟类</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E9%AF%A8%E8%B1%9A%E9%A1%9E" title="鯨豚類">鲸类</a>也通过模仿同类学会歌唱。然而，虽然这些动物可以掌握大量的词语和符号<a href="#cite_note-31">[註 2]</a>，但它们能学会的记号数量最多只相当于平均4岁的人类儿童，也没有掌握任何类似人类语言里面<a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E6%B3%95" title="语法">语法</a>一样的规则<a href="#cite_note-Deacon_1997-32">[30]</a>。 人类语言异于动物的交流系统，还在于人类语言存在<a href="/wiki/%E6%96%87%E6%B3%95%E7%AF%84%E7%96%87" class="mw-redirect" title="文法範疇">语法范畴</a>，如名词和动词、现在和过去等，用来表达极其复杂的意义<a href="#cite_note-Deacon_1997-32">[30]</a>。人类语言还拥有独特的<a href="/wiki/%E9%80%92%E5%BD%92" title="递归">递归</a>层级属性，例如，一个名词短语里面能够包含另一个名词短语（如“[[猩猩]的嘴唇]”），有一个从句里面也能包含另外一个从句（如“[我看见[狗在跑]]”）<a href="#cite_note-Hauser_2002-3">[3]</a>。人类语言也是唯一一种模态无关的自然交流系统，其适应性令它可以应用于各种媒介。如<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%A3%E8%AF%AD" title="口语">口语</a>使用听觉情态，而<a href="/wiki/%E6%89%8B%E8%AF%AD" class="mw-redirect" title="手语">手语</a>使用视觉情态，<a href="/wiki/%E7%9B%B2%E6%96%87" title="盲文">盲文</a>使用触觉情态<a href="#cite_note-33">[31]</a>。 人类语言的独特性，也体现在能够使用抽象概念；拥有移位性，允许人类语言描述一些假想的、在过去或未来而非当下发生的事情。有些动物的交流系统也有移位性（例如，<a href="/wiki/%E8%9C%82" title="蜂">蜂</a>可以传递自己探测范围以外的位置信息），但远远达不到人类的水平<a href="#cite_note-Trask5-27">[26]</a>。 <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="起源">起源</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80&action=edit&section=6" title="编辑章节：起源">编辑</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r70089473/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:224px;max-width:224px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:222px;max-width:222px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Pieter_Bruegel_the_Elder_-_The_Tower_of_Babel_(Vienna)_-_Google_Art_Project_-_edited.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Pieter_Bruegel_the_Elder_-_The_Tower_of_Babel_%28Vienna%29_-_Google_Art_Project_-_edited.jpg/220px-Pieter_Bruegel_the_Elder_-_The_Tower_of_Babel_%28Vienna%29_-_Google_Art_Project_-_edited.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Pieter_Bruegel_the_Elder_-_The_Tower_of_Babel_%28Vienna%29_-_Google_Art_Project_-_edited.jpg/330px-Pieter_Bruegel_the_Elder_-_The_Tower_of_Babel_%28Vienna%29_-_Google_Art_Project_-_edited.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Pieter_Bruegel_the_Elder_-_The_Tower_of_Babel_%28Vienna%29_-_Google_Art_Project_-_edited.jpg/440px-Pieter_Bruegel_the_Elder_-_The_Tower_of_Babel_%28Vienna%29_-_Google_Art_Project_-_edited.jpg 2x" data-file-width="30000" data-file-height="21952" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/%E8%80%81%E5%BD%BC%E5%BE%97%C2%B7%E5%8B%83%E9%B2%81%E7%9B%96%E5%B0%94" title="老彼得·勃鲁盖尔">老彼得·勃鲁盖尔</a>于1563年创作的"<a href="/wiki/%E5%B7%B4%E5%88%A5%E5%A1%94" title="巴別塔">巴別塔</a>"油画。 人类一直在思考语言的起源，<a href="/wiki/%E5%B7%B4%E5%88%A5%E5%A1%94" title="巴別塔">巴别塔</a>就是这样的一个例子，其他文化对语言也有不同的说法。<a href="#cite_note-Haugen-34">[32]</a></div></div></div></div></div> <div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目：<a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E7%9A%84%E8%B5%B7%E6%BA%90" title="语言的起源">语言的起源</a></div> <div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">参见：<a href="/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%A7%8B%E4%BA%BA%E9%A1%9E%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80" title="原始人類語言">原始人類語言</a></div> 对语言定义的假设有别，导致对语言起源的理论有异。有观点认为，语言十分复杂，很难想象它会无中生有并一下子进化到终极形态，因此语言一定是从人类祖先早期的前语言系统（pre-linguistic systems）演化而来。基于这一观点的理论被称为延续性发展理论（continuity-based theories）。相反观点认为，语言是人类独有的特质，不能将它与非人类的任何事物相比较，因而语言一定是在史前人类（pre-hominids）向早期人类（early man）转变的过程中突然出现的。类似地，基于乔姆斯基生成文法的理论，大多将语言视作编码在基因中的内在禀赋；而功能主义理论则将其视作与文化高度相关、通过社交习得的系统。<a href="#cite_note-Ulbaek_1998-35">[33]</a> 语言学家、哲学家<a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%BA%E5%A7%86%C2%B7%E4%B9%94%E5%A7%86%E6%96%AF%E5%9F%BA" title="诺姆·乔姆斯基">诺姆·乔姆斯基</a>是<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%9D%9E%E8%BF%9E%E7%BB%AD%E6%80%A7_(%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="非连续性 (语言)（页面不存在）">非连续性</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discontinuity_(linguistics)" class="extiw" title="en:Discontinuity (linguistics)">Discontinuity (linguistics)</a>）（Discontinuity）人类语言起源理论的重要支持者。<a href="#cite_note-Ulbaek_1998-35">[33]</a>他解释：“或许很久以前某些灵长类动物在到处闲逛，突然间，可能是受到某些奇异的宇宙辐射过后，产生了一些随机突变，它重组了灵长类的大脑，在里面植入了一个语言器官。”<a href="#cite_note-#1-36">[34]</a>虽然这番描述有些文学化，他仍坚持“和包括语言在内的其他跟演化有关的神话故事相比，这可能更接近于事实”。<a href="#cite_note-#1-36">[34]</a> 大多数学者则更倾向于连续性假说，但对于演变的过程他们各自有着不同的看法。有一些把语言能力看作很大程度上是天生的，其中包括<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%B2%E8%BF%AA%E8%8A%AC%C2%B7%E5%B9%B3%E5%85%8B" class="mw-redirect" title="史迪芬·平克">史迪芬·平克</a>在内，他们避免去研究灵长类中明确的语言雏型，而单纯认为那只是<a href="/wiki/%E5%8B%95%E7%89%A9%E8%AA%8D%E7%9F%A5" title="動物認知">動物認知</a>的先例<a href="#cite_note-Language_Instinct-15">[14]</a>，“语言本能”是通过通常的方式渐进演化而来<a href="#cite_note-Language_Instinct-15">[14]</a>。另外有一些学者如<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%BF%88%E5%85%8B%E5%B0%94%C2%B7%E6%89%98%E9%A9%AC%E5%A1%9E%E6%B4%9B&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="迈克尔·托马塞洛（页面不存在）">迈克尔·托马塞洛</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Tomasello" class="extiw" title="en:Michael Tomasello">Michael Tomasello</a>），则认为语言是一种交流工具，它可以通过认知控制的社会交流方式中发展而来，这些方式更多地是基于手势而非发声的。<a href="#cite_note-Tomasello_2008-37">[35]</a>还有一些连续性假说的观点认为语言发源于<a href="/wiki/%E9%9F%B3%E4%B9%90" title="音乐">音乐</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E6%AD%8C%E5%94%B1" title="歌唱">歌唱</a>，这种观点受到了<a href="/wiki/%E8%AE%A9-%E9%9B%85%E5%85%8B%C2%B7%E5%8D%A2%E6%A2%AD" title="让-雅克·卢梭">卢梭</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%BA%A6%E7%BF%B0%C2%B7%E6%88%88%E7%89%B9%E5%BC%97%E9%87%8C%E5%BE%B7%C2%B7%E8%B5%AB%E5%B0%94%E5%BE%B7" title="约翰·戈特弗里德·赫尔德">赫尔德</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%A8%81%E5%BB%89%C2%B7%E9%A6%AE%C2%B7%E6%B4%AA%E5%A0%A1" title="威廉·馮·洪堡">洪堡</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E6%9F%A5%E5%B0%94%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E8%BE%BE%E5%B0%94%E6%96%87" title="查尔斯·达尔文">达尔文</a><a href="#cite_note-Dunn_2011-38">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-Atkinson_2011-39">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-40">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-Cross_Woodruff_2009-41">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-Rudolf_2009-42">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-auto-43">[41]</a>，以及其最主要的支持者、考古学家<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8F%B2%E8%92%82%E8%8A%AC%C2%B7%E7%B1%B3%E6%A3%AE&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="史蒂芬·米森（页面不存在）">史蒂芬·米森</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steven_Mithen" class="extiw" title="en:Steven Mithen">Steven Mithen</a>）的支持<a href="#cite_note-44">[42]</a>。语言学家<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%96%AF%E8%92%82%E8%8A%AC%C2%B7%E5%AE%89%E5%BE%B7%E6%A3%AE_(%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E5%AD%A6%E5%AE%B6)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="斯蒂芬·安德森 (语言学家)（页面不存在）">斯蒂芬·安德森</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_R._Anderson" class="extiw" title="en:Stephen R. Anderson">Stephen R. Anderson</a>）推测口语已经存在了6万至10万年<a href="#cite_note-45">[43]</a>。他说： <table class="cquote pullquote" role="presentation" style="margin:auto; display:table; border-collapse: collapse; border: none; background-color: transparent; color: inherit;width: auto;"> <tbody><tr> <td class="skin-invert" style="width: 20px; vertical-align: top; border: none; color: #B2B7F2; font-size: 40px; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif; font-weight: bold; line-height: .6em; text-align: left; padding: 10px; text-orientation: upright">“ </td> <td style="vertical-align: top; border: none; padding: 4px 10px;">语言进化起源的研究者们大体上认为语言皆源自一处，于是乎所有现代口语之间都存在某些亲缘关系，即使这些关系如今已不可考……因为<a href="/wiki/%E9%87%8D%E6%9E%84" class="mw-disambig" title="重构">重构</a>的可行方法有限。<a href="#cite_note-46">[44]</a> </td> <td class="skin-invert" style="width: 20px; vertical-align: bottom; border: none; color: #B2B7F2; font-size: 40px; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif; font-weight: bold; line-height: .6em; text-align: right; padding: 10px; text-orientation: upright">” </td></tr> </tbody></table> 由于语言的起源处于人类<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%B2%E5%89%8D%E6%99%82%E4%BB%A3" title="史前時代">史前時代</a>的早期，当时并没有任何形式的书面记载，因而其发展过程未能留下直接的历史遗迹，同时如今也没有发现可与之相比较的发展过程。尽管如此，现代新诞生的一些<a href="/wiki/%E6%89%8B%E8%AF%AD" class="mw-redirect" title="手语">手语</a>（如<a href="/wiki/%E5%B0%BC%E5%8A%A0%E6%8B%89%E7%93%9C%E6%89%8B%E8%AF%AD" title="尼加拉瓜手语">尼加拉瓜手语</a>）可能可以让我们看到语言发展中必定出现的阶段与过程。<a href="#cite_note-47">[45]</a>另一种研究方法是通过观察早期人类<a href="/wiki/%E5%8C%96%E7%9F%B3" title="化石">化石</a>，以图找到适应语言使用的生理结构变化的踪迹。<a href="#cite_note-48">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-49">[47]</a>这些踪迹显示，脑的大小关系到体型，而<a href="/wiki/%E5%96%89" title="喉">喉咙</a>的出现提高了发声，以及使用工具和其他制造物品的能力。<a href="#cite_note-50">[48]</a>而对一些已灭绝人类的DNA的检测中，能否找到与语言功能有关的基因（如<a href="/wiki/FOXP2" title="FOXP2">FOXP2</a>）或许也能为我们提供许多信息。<a href="#cite_note-51">[49]</a>还有一种考古学方法，是去寻找象征行为（如重复的仪式活动）所留下的考古学遗迹，比如用作人体彩绘的颜料，同时从理论上论证由象征行为到语言的逻辑关系。<a href="#cite_note-52">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-53">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-54">[52]</a> 语言的演化与其所需的解剖学上的先决条件，理论上其时间跨度从<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%BA%E5%B1%9E" title="人属">人属</a>（230至240万年前）自<a href="/wiki/%E9%BB%91%E7%8C%A9%E7%8C%A9%E5%B1%9E" class="mw-redirect" title="黑猩猩属">黑猩猩属</a>（500至600万年前）分化出来一直到<a href="/wiki/%E8%A1%8C%E4%B8%BA%E7%8E%B0%E4%BB%A3%E6%80%A7" title="行为现代性">行为现代性</a>（behavioral modernity）的完全出现为止（约5至15万年前）。一般都认同<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%97%E7%8C%BF" title="南猿">南猿</a>与<a href="/wiki/%E7%B1%BB%E4%BA%BA%E7%8C%BF" class="mw-redirect" title="类人猿">类人猿</a>的交流方式并无显著区别<a href="#cite_note-55">[53]</a>，但也有对于<a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E7%8C%BF#始祖地猿" title="地猿">始祖地猿</a>的研究提出了异议<a href="#cite_note-56">[54]</a>。而对于<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%BA%E5%B1%9E" title="人属">人属</a>约250万年前出现后的发展，学者间有着不同的意见。有一些认为<a href="/wiki/%E8%83%BD%E4%BA%BA" title="能人">能人</a>（约230万年前）就已经有了原始的类语言系统，另一些则认为到<a href="/wiki/%E7%9B%B4%E7%AB%8B%E4%BA%BA" title="直立人">直立人</a>（180万年前）或<a href="/wiki/%E6%B5%B7%E5%BE%B7%E5%A0%A1%E4%BA%BA" title="海德堡人">海德堡人</a>（60万年前）时才有原始符号交流，而到10万年前具有行为现代性的<a href="/wiki/%E6%99%BA%E4%BA%BA" title="智人">智人</a>出现之时语言才开始发展。<a href="#cite_note-57">[55]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="研究">研究</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80&action=edit&section=7" title="编辑章节：研究">编辑</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sir_William_Jones.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Sir_William_Jones.jpg/220px-Sir_William_Jones.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="263" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f7/Sir_William_Jones.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="263" data-file-height="315" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/%E5%A8%81%E5%BB%89%C2%B7%E7%90%BC%E6%96%AF_(%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E5%AD%A6%E5%AE%B6)" title="威廉·琼斯 (语言学家)">威廉·琼斯</a>發現了<a href="/wiki/%E6%8B%89%E4%B8%81%E8%AF%AD" title="拉丁语">拉丁语</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E6%A2%B5%E8%AF%AD" title="梵语">梵语</a>之間的<a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E7%B3%BB%E5%B1%9E%E5%88%86%E7%B1%BB" title="语言系属分类">親緣關係</a>，为<a href="/wiki/%E6%AD%B7%E5%8F%B2%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80%E5%AD%B8" title="歷史語言學">歷史語言學</a>这一門分支奠基</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ferdinand_de_Saussure_by_Jullien.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Ferdinand_de_Saussure_by_Jullien.png/220px-Ferdinand_de_Saussure_by_Jullien.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="332" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Ferdinand_de_Saussure_by_Jullien.png/330px-Ferdinand_de_Saussure_by_Jullien.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Ferdinand_de_Saussure_by_Jullien.png/440px-Ferdinand_de_Saussure_by_Jullien.png 2x" data-file-width="1405" data-file-height="2119" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/%E5%BC%97%E8%BF%AA%E5%8D%97%C2%B7%E5%BE%B7%C2%B7%E7%B4%A2%E7%B7%92%E7%88%BE" class="mw-redirect" title="弗迪南·德·索緒爾">弗迪南·德·索緒爾</a>對以<a href="/wiki/%E7%B5%90%E6%A7%8B%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" title="結構主義">結構主義</a>起始的語言學研究有着重大贡献</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Noam_chomsky_cropped.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/db/Noam_chomsky_cropped.jpg" decoding="async" width="187" height="217" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="187" data-file-height="217" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%BA%E5%A7%86%C2%B7%E4%B9%94%E5%A7%86%E6%96%AF%E5%9F%BA" title="诺姆·乔姆斯基">诺姆·乔姆斯基</a>是20世紀的著名语言学家之一</figcaption></figure> <div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目：<a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E5%AD%A6" title="语言学">语言学</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80%E5%AD%B8%E5%8F%B2" title="語言學史">語言學史</a></div>2000多年前，随着<a href="/wiki/%E5%A9%86%E7%BD%97%E7%B1%B3%E6%96%87" title="婆罗米文">婆罗米文</a>的发展，<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%B0%E5%BA%A6" title="印度">印度</a>出现了第一份对于个别语言的语法描述，它被认为是世界上最早的语言学研究。如今，现代语言学已经发展成为了一门<a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6" title="科学">科学</a>，基于前述的各种语言学理论观点审视语言及语言学的所有方面。<a href="#cite_note-58">[56]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="分支学科">分支学科</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80&action=edit&section=8" title="编辑章节：分支学科">编辑</a>]</div> 语言学研究从不同的理论角度和研究思路可以分为许多不同的专业分支领域。例如，<a href="/wiki/%E6%8F%8F%E5%86%99%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E5%AD%A6" title="描写语言学">描写语言学</a>考察个别语言的语法；<a href="/wiki/%E7%90%86%E8%AE%BA%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E5%AD%A6" title="理论语言学">理论语言学</a>基于现存不同的人类语言数据建立如何概念化并定义语言本质的理论；<a href="/wiki/%E7%A4%BE%E4%BC%9A%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E5%AD%A6" title="社会语言学">社会语言学</a>研究语言的社会运用，从社会的角度描述语法，探寻语言的社会功能；<a href="/wiki/%E7%A5%9E%E7%BB%8F%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E5%AD%A6" title="神经语言学">神经语言学</a>测试并研究人类<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%A7%E8%84%91" title="大脑">大脑</a><a href="/wiki/%E7%A5%9E%E7%BB%8F" title="神经">神经</a>对于语言的理解、产出和习得；<a href="/wiki/%E8%AE%A1%E7%AE%97%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E5%AD%A6" title="计算语言学">计算语言学</a>基于描写语言学和理论语言学，构建语言的<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%B5%E5%AD%90%E8%AE%A1%E7%AE%97%E6%9C%BA" title="电子计算机">计算机</a>模型来处理自然语言，测试语言学假说；而<a href="/wiki/%E6%AD%B7%E5%8F%B2%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80%E5%AD%B8" title="歷史語言學">历史语言学</a>利用<a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%8D%E6%B1%87" title="词汇">词汇</a>和语法描述追溯个别语言的历史，并常利用<a href="/wiki/%E6%AF%94%E8%BE%83%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E5%AD%A6" title="比较语言学">比较语言学</a>的<a href="/wiki/%E6%AF%94%E7%85%A7%E6%B3%95" class="mw-redirect" title="比照法">研究方法</a>重构<a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E7%B3%BB%E5%B1%9E%E5%88%86%E7%B1%BB" title="语言系属分类">语言谱系</a>。<a href="#cite_note-59">[57]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="早期历史">早期历史</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80&action=edit&section=9" title="编辑章节：早期历史">编辑</a>]</div> 一般认为，正式意义上的语言学最初始于公元前5世纪印度文法家波你尼对于梵语词法规则的1959条归纳。<a href="#cite_note-60">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-61">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-62">[60]</a>而苏美尔人也早在公元前1900年左右就研究了<a href="/wiki/%E8%8B%8F%E7%BE%8E%E5%B0%94%E8%AF%AD" title="苏美尔语">苏美尔语</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E5%8D%A1%E5%BE%B7%E8%AA%9E" title="阿卡德語">阿卡德語</a>之间的区别。随后，所有拥有书写系统的文明都产生了自己的文法传统。<a href="#cite_note-63">[61]</a> 17世纪，法国<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%99%AE%E9%81%8D%E5%94%AF%E7%90%86%E8%AF%AD%E6%B3%95&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="普遍唯理语法（页面不存在）">普遍唯理语法</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port-Royal_Grammar" class="extiw" title="en:Port-Royal Grammar">Port-Royal Grammar</a>）提出，任何语言的语法都反映了思想的普遍基础，故语法本身也具有普遍性。18世纪，英国<a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E6%96%87%E5%AD%A6" title="语文学">语文学家</a>、古印度专家<a href="/wiki/%E5%A8%81%E5%BB%89%C2%B7%E7%90%BC%E6%96%AF_(%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E5%AD%A6%E5%AE%B6)" title="威廉·琼斯 (语言学家)">威廉·琼斯</a>首次使用了<a href="/wiki/%E6%AF%94%E7%85%A7%E6%B3%95" class="mw-redirect" title="比照法">对照</a>的方法来研究语言，开创了<a href="/wiki/%E6%AF%94%E8%BE%83%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E5%AD%A6" title="比较语言学">比较语言学</a><a href="#cite_note-64">[62]</a>，而<a href="/wiki/%E5%A8%81%E5%BB%89%C2%B7%E9%A6%AE%C2%B7%E6%B4%AA%E5%A0%A1" title="威廉·馮·洪堡">威廉·馮·洪堡</a>则将语言的科学研究从<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%B0%E6%AC%A7%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="印欧语系">印欧语言</a>拓宽到所有语言。20世纪早期的<a href="/wiki/%E8%B4%B9%E8%BF%AA%E5%8D%97%C2%B7%E5%BE%B7%C2%B7%E7%B4%A2%E7%BB%AA%E5%B0%94" title="费迪南·德·索绪尔">弗迪南·德·索緒爾</a>是最重要的<a href="/wiki/%E5%BD%A2%E5%BC%8F%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="形式主义">形式主义</a>语言学家之一，他对比分析了语言及其各个要素，认为语言是一种内部要素相互关联的静态系统<a href="#cite_note-Saussure-17">[16]</a>，又对比了语言学研究的几个基本研究角度，如<a href="/wiki/%E6%AD%B7%E5%8F%B2%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80%E5%AD%B8" title="歷史語言學">历史语言学</a>与<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%B1%E6%97%B6%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E5%AD%A6" title="共时语言学">共时语言学</a>，<a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80#定义" class="mw-redirect" title="语言">语言与言语</a>，奠定了现代语言学的基本研究原则。<a href="#cite_note-:0-65">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-66">[64]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="当代语言学">当代语言学</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80&action=edit&section=10" title="编辑章节：当代语言学">编辑</a>]</div> 1960年代，<a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%BA%E5%A7%86%C2%B7%E4%B9%94%E5%A7%86%E6%96%AF%E5%9F%BA" title="诺姆·乔姆斯基">诺姆·乔姆斯基</a>提出<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E6%88%90%E6%96%87%E6%B3%95" title="生成文法">生成文法</a>理论。该理论认为语言最基本的形式是一套全人类共有的语法规则。这套规则叫做<a href="/wiki/%E6%99%AE%E9%81%8D%E6%96%87%E6%B3%95" title="普遍文法">普遍文法</a>，它是所有人类语言语法的基础。乔姆斯基认为语言学的基本任务就是描述普遍文法，而个别语言的语法研究对语言学的重要意义在于能够从中推导出是怎样的底层普遍规则产生了该语言能被观察到的语法特点。<a href="#cite_note-67">[65]</a> 与生成学派的<a href="/wiki/%E5%BD%A2%E5%BC%8F%E6%96%87%E6%B3%95#正规文法" title="形式文法">正规文法</a>理论不同，功能主义认为既然语言是一个工具，根据它的功能就可以最彻底地分析其结构。<a href="/wiki/%E5%BD%A2%E5%BC%8F%E6%96%87%E6%B3%95" title="形式文法">形式文法</a>寻求定义语言当中不同的系统要素，描写要素的相互关系、正规文法规律和文法操作，而功能主义理论则寻求定义语言功能，并将具现它的语言要素跟它联系起来。<a href="#cite_note-NewmeyerForm-22">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-69">[註 3]</a> <a href="/wiki/%E8%AA%8D%E7%9F%A5%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80%E5%AD%B8" title="認知語言學">認知語言學</a>的理论框架从影响了语言形式的概念这一角度来解释语言，主要关注意识如何通过语言产生意义。<a href="#cite_note-70">[67]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="语言和言语的生理和精神结构">语言和言语的生理和精神结构</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80&action=edit&section=11" title="编辑章节：语言和言语的生理和精神结构">编辑</a>]</div> 所有文化当中，口语都是语言的默认形式。口语的产生依赖于控制嘴唇，舌头和声乐装置的其他部件的复杂能力，声学解码言语语音的能力，以及获取和产生语言所需的神经装置。<a href="#cite_note-71">[68]</a>对人类语言<a href="/wiki/%E9%81%97%E4%BC%A0" class="mw-redirect" title="遗传">遗传</a>基础的研究处于早期阶段：唯一一个与语言生成有关的唯一基因是<a href="/wiki/FOXP2" title="FOXP2">FOXP2</a>，如果受<a href="/wiki/%E7%AA%81%E5%8F%98" title="突变">突变</a>影响，可能会导致一种<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%92%E7%AB%A5%E6%9C%9F%E8%A8%80%E8%AA%9E%E5%A4%B1%E7%94%A8%E7%97%87" title="兒童期言語失用症">先天性语言障碍</a>。<a href="#cite_note-72">[69]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="大脑">大脑</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80&action=edit&section=12" title="编辑章节：大脑">编辑</a>]</div> <div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目：<a href="/wiki/%E7%A5%9E%E7%BB%8F%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E5%AD%A6" title="神经语言学">神经语言学</a></div> <figure class="skin-invert-image" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Brain_Surface_Gyri.SVG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Brain_Surface_Gyri.SVG/220px-Brain_Surface_Gyri.SVG.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Brain_Surface_Gyri.SVG/330px-Brain_Surface_Gyri.SVG.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Brain_Surface_Gyri.SVG/440px-Brain_Surface_Gyri.SVG.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="731" /></a><figcaption>大脑中处理语言的区域。橙色区域为<a href="/wiki/%E8%A7%92%E5%9B%9E" title="角回">角回</a>，黄色为<a href="/wiki/%E7%BC%98%E4%B8%8A%E5%9B%9E" title="缘上回">緣上回</a>，蓝色为<a href="/wiki/%E5%B8%83%E8%8B%A5%E5%8D%A1%E5%8C%BA" class="mw-redirect" title="布若卡区">布若卡区</a>，绿色为<a href="/wiki/%E9%9F%A6%E5%B0%BC%E5%85%8B%E5%8C%BA" title="韦尼克区">韦尼克区</a>，而粉红色为<a href="/wiki/%E5%90%AC%E8%A7%89%E7%9A%AE%E5%B1%82" title="听觉皮层">听觉皮层</a></figcaption></figure> 大脑是所有语言活动的协调中心：它控制着语言认知和意义的产生以及言语的产生机制。尽管现代采用了成像技术，脑科学研究已经取得了相当大的进步，但我们对语言神经学基础的了解非常有限。<a href="/wiki/%E7%A5%9E%E7%BB%8F%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E5%AD%A6" title="神经语言学">神经语言学</a>致力于研究与语言相关的神经系统。<a href="#cite_note-Lesser205-73">[70]</a> 神经语言学最初的工作是脑部病变患者的语言研究，以了解特定区域的病变如何影响语言和言语。通过这些研究，19世纪的神经科学家发现大脑中的两个区域与语言处理密切相关。一个是<a href="/wiki/%E9%9F%A6%E5%B0%BC%E5%85%8B%E5%8C%BA" title="韦尼克区">韦尼克区</a>，位于势半大脑半球（通常为<a href="/wiki/%E5%88%A9%E6%89%8B#左右利手的脑部" title="利手">利手</a>的反侧<a href="#cite_note-大腦的奧秘-74">[71]</a>）的<a href="/wiki/%E9%A2%9E%E4%B8%8A%E5%9B%9E" title="颞上回">颞上回</a>的后部。在这个大脑区域有病变的人会出现<a href="/wiki/%E6%84%9F%E8%A7%89%E6%80%A7%E5%A4%B1%E8%AF%AD%E7%97%87" title="感觉性失语症">感觉性失语症</a>，其语言理解会受到严重损害，但言语保留了自然的节奏和相对正常的句子结构。第二个区域是<a href="/wiki/%E5%B8%83%E8%8B%A5%E5%8D%A1%E5%8C%BA" class="mw-redirect" title="布若卡区">布若卡区</a>，位于优势半球的<a href="/wiki/%E9%A2%9D%E5%8F%B6" class="mw-redirect" title="额叶">额叶</a>。该区域患有病变的人会出现<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%A1%A8%E8%BE%BE%E6%80%A7%E5%A4%B1%E8%AF%AD%E7%97%87&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="表达性失语症（页面不存在）">表达性失语症</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/expressive_aphasia" class="extiw" title="en:expressive aphasia">expressive aphasia</a>），这意味着他们知道自己想说什么，但就是无法正常地说出来。<a href="#cite_note-75">[72]</a>表达性失语症患者还可能有流利性、清晰度、词汇发现、单词重复上的问题，也很难在口头和书面形成或理解语法复杂的句子。患有这种失语症的人也很难说出合乎语法的言语，并且无法利用句法信息来确定句子的含义。表现性和接受性失语也会影响手语的使用，与它对语言的影响类似，表现性失语症患者只能慢慢打出语法不正确的手语，而接受性失语症患者则可以流利地使用手语，但是他们的手语别人难以理解，他们也很难理解别人的手语。这表明脑部损伤损害的是使用语言的特定能力，而非语音生成的生理能力。<a href="#cite_note-76">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-77">[74]</a> 20世纪后期，随着技术进步，神经语言学家还采用了非侵入性技术，如功能磁共振成像（fMRI）和电生理学，来研究无损伤个体的语言处理。<a href="#cite_note-Lesser205-73">[70]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="言语剖析与语音">言语剖析与语音</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80&action=edit&section=13" title="编辑章节：言语剖析与语音">编辑</a>]</div> <div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目：<a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E9%9F%B3%E5%AD%A6" title="语音学">语音学</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E8%B0%83%E9%9F%B3" title="调音">调音</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r70089473/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:204px;max-width:204px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Illu01_head_neck_zh.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Illu01_head_neck_zh.jpg/200px-Illu01_head_neck_zh.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="203" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Illu01_head_neck_zh.jpg/300px-Illu01_head_neck_zh.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Illu01_head_neck_zh.jpg/400px-Illu01_head_neck_zh.jpg 2x" data-file-width="424" data-file-height="430" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">人类声道</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Spectrogram_-iua-.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Spectrogram_-iua-.png/200px-Spectrogram_-iua-.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Spectrogram_-iua-.png/300px-Spectrogram_-iua-.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Spectrogram_-iua-.png/400px-Spectrogram_-iua-.png 2x" data-file-width="946" data-file-height="705" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%8E%E5%9B%BD%E8%8B%B1%E8%AF%AD" title="美国英语">美国英语</a>元音 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r61209503">[i, u, ɑ] 在<a href="/wiki/%E6%97%B6%E9%A2%91%E8%B0%B1" title="时频谱">时频谱</a>中呈现的<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%B1%E6%8C%AF%E5%B3%B0" title="共振峰">共振峰</a> f1 和 f2</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Real-time_MRI_-_Speaking_%28Chinese%29.ogv/200px--Real-time_MRI_-_Speaking_%28Chinese%29.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="200" height="200" data-durationhint="15" data-mwtitle="Real-time_MRI_-_Speaking_(Chinese).ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/e/e1/Real-time_MRI_-_Speaking_%28Chinese%29.ogv/Real-time_MRI_-_Speaking_%28Chinese%29.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="256" data-height="256" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e1/Real-time_MRI_-_Speaking_%28Chinese%29.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora, vorbis"" data-width="256" data-height="256" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/e/e1/Real-time_MRI_-_Speaking_%28Chinese%29.ogv/Real-time_MRI_-_Speaking_%28Chinese%29.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="240" data-height="240" /></video></div><div class="thumbcaption">讲<a href="/wiki/%E6%99%AE%E9%80%9A%E8%AF%9D" title="普通话">普通话</a>的实时<a href="/wiki/%E6%A0%B8%E7%A3%81%E5%85%B1%E6%8C%AF%E6%88%90%E5%83%8F" class="mw-redirect" title="核磁共振成像">核磁共振成像</a>。</div></div></div></div></div> 口语依赖于人体产生声音，即产生以可振动<a href="/wiki/%E9%BC%93%E8%86%9C" title="鼓膜">鼓膜</a>的频率在空气中传播的纵波的能力，这种能力取决于人类语言器官的生理学。这些器官包括肺部喉部和上部声道（<a href="/wiki/%E5%96%89" title="喉">喉咙</a>、嘴巴和鼻子）。通过控制不同的<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%91%E9%9F%B3%E9%83%A8%E4%BD%8D" class="mw-redirect" title="发音部位">发音部位</a>，可以操纵气流以产生不同的语音。<a href="#cite_note-78">[75]</a> 语音可分为<a href="/wiki/%E9%9F%B3%E7%B4%A0" class="mw-redirect" title="音素">音段</a>成分和<a href="/wiki/%E8%B6%85%E9%9F%B3%E6%AE%B5%E6%88%90%E5%88%86" class="mw-redirect" title="超音段成分">超音段成分</a>。音段按顺序前后排列，通常由不同字母表示，例如罗马字母。在自由流畅的言语中，一个音段与下一个音段之间没有明确的界限，在单词之间通常也没有任何明显可听见的暂停，故音段的区别在于发音时不同的<a href="/wiki/%E8%B0%83%E9%9F%B3" title="调音">调音</a>方法，例如元音和辅音的区别。超音段成分包括诸如<a href="/wiki/%E8%BC%95%E9%87%8D%E8%AE%80" title="輕重讀">輕重讀</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%99%BC%E8%81%B2%E6%85%8B" title="發聲態">发声</a>类型、<a href="/wiki/%E9%9F%B3%E8%89%B2" title="音色">音色</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E9%9F%B5%E5%BE%8B_(%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E5%AD%A6)" title="韵律 (语言学)">音韵</a>或<a href="/wiki/%E8%AA%9E%E8%AA%BF" title="語調">語調</a>等要素，所有这些超音段成分都可能影响多个音段。<a href="#cite_note-MacMahon5-79">[76]</a> <a href="/wiki/%E8%BE%85%E9%9F%B3" title="辅音">辅音</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%83%E9%9F%B3" title="元音">元音</a>音段组合形成音节，而音节又组合形成话语；这些语音学上可以由两次吸气相之间的空隙来区分。在声学上，这些不同的音段的特征在于不同的<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%B1%E6%8C%AF%E5%B3%B0" title="共振峰">共振峰</a>结构，可见于<a href="/wiki/%E6%97%B6%E9%A2%91%E8%B0%B1" title="时频谱">时频谱</a>中（见右图）。共振峰是特定声音的<a href="/wiki/%E9%A2%91%E8%B0%B1" title="频谱">频谱</a>中的振幅峰值。<a href="#cite_note-MacMahon5-79">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-IPA-80">[77]</a> <a href="/wiki/%E5%85%83%E9%9F%B3" title="元音">元音</a>指气流在没有<a href="/wiki/%E8%B0%83%E9%9F%B3" title="调音">调音</a>的情况下不受阻碍地通过口腔而发出的音。它们的音值根据嘴唇张开的程度和舌头在口腔内的位置而有所不同。<a href="#cite_note-MacMahon5-79">[76]</a>当嘴唇相对闭合时发出的元音为<a href="/wiki/%E9%96%89%E5%85%83%E9%9F%B3" title="閉元音">閉元音</a>，如元音 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r61209503">[i]（<a href="/wiki/%E6%B1%89%E8%AF%AD" title="汉语">汉语</a>“依”的韵母），而当嘴唇相对开放时发出的元音则为<a href="/wiki/%E9%96%8B%E5%85%83%E9%9F%B3" title="開元音">開元音</a>，如元音 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r61209503">[a]（汉语“啊”）。如果舌头往后，则音值会变为 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r61209503">[u]（汉语“乌”的韵母）等元音。音值也会随<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%83%E9%9F%B3%E5%9C%93%E5%94%87%E5%BA%A6" title="元音圓唇度">嘴唇形状</a>发生变化，例如 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r61209503">[i]（不圆唇前元音）圆唇则变为 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r61209503">[y]（圆唇前元音，如<a href="/wiki/%E5%BE%B7%E8%AF%AD" title="德语">德语</a>“ü”或粤语“于”）。<a href="#cite_note-81">[78]</a> <a href="/wiki/%E8%BE%85%E9%9F%B3" title="辅音">辅音</a>指气流在<a href="/wiki/%E8%B0%83%E9%9F%B3" title="调音">调音</a>（上部声道的某些部分变窄或阻塞）是出现摩擦或闭合而发出的音。辅音音值因<a href="/wiki/%E8%B0%83%E9%9F%B3%E9%83%A8%E4%BD%8D" title="调音部位">调音部位</a>即声道中阻塞气流的位置而异，这些位置通常在嘴唇、牙齿、<a href="/wiki/%E7%89%99%E6%A7%BD%E5%B5%B4" title="牙槽嵴">牙槽嵴</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E8%85%AD" title="腭">硬腭</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E8%BD%AF%E9%A2%9A" class="mw-redirect" title="软颚">软颚</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E6%82%AC%E9%9B%8D%E5%9E%82" title="悬雍垂">悬雍垂</a>或<a href="/wiki/%E5%A3%B0%E9%97%A8" title="声门">声门</a>。每个调音位置产生一组不同的辅音，依<a href="/wiki/%E8%B0%83%E9%9F%B3%E6%96%B9%E6%B3%95" title="调音方法">调音方法</a>或阻塞类型还能细分，一种是完全阻塞的<a href="/wiki/%E9%97%AD%E5%90%88%E9%9F%B3" class="mw-redirect" title="闭合音">闭合音</a>或<a href="/wiki/%E5%A1%9E%E9%9F%B3" title="塞音">塞音</a>，另一种是不完全阻塞的<a href="/wiki/%E6%93%A6%E9%9F%B3" title="擦音">擦音</a>或<a href="/wiki/%E8%BF%91%E9%9F%B3" title="近音">近音</a>。根据发声时<a href="/wiki/%E5%A3%B0%E5%B8%A6" title="声带">声带</a>有无振动，辅音也可分<a href="/wiki/%E6%B8%85%E6%BF%81%E9%9F%B3" title="清濁音">清浊音</a>，如英语中 bus 的 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r61209503">[s] 为清音（<a href="/wiki/%E5%92%9D%E9%9F%B3" title="咝音">咝音</a>）而 buzz 的 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r61209503">[z] 为浊音（<a href="/wiki/%E6%BF%81%E9%BD%92%E9%BD%A6%E6%93%A6%E9%9F%B3" title="濁齒齦擦音">濁齒齦擦音</a>）。<a href="#cite_note-82">[79]</a> 一些音素，包括元音和辅音，都能利用鼻腔调音，这些音被称为<a href="/wiki/%E9%BC%BB%E9%9F%B3_(%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80)" class="mw-redirect" title="鼻音 (語言)">鼻音</a>或<a href="/wiki/%E9%BC%BB%E9%9F%B3%E5%8C%96" title="鼻音化">鼻音化</a>语音。其他音则取决于舌头在声道中与气流的相对位置，例如 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r61209503">[l]（称为<a href="/wiki/%E8%BE%B9%E9%9F%B3" title="边音">边音</a>，因为空气沿着舌头的两侧流动）和 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r61209503">[ɹ]（称为<a href="/wiki/%E9%BD%BF%E9%BE%88%E8%BF%91%E9%9F%B3" class="mw-redirect" title="齿龈近音">齿龈近音</a>）。<a href="#cite_note-IPA-80">[77]</a> 通过调用发声器官和调音部位，人类可以产生数百种不同的声音：有些声音在世界各种语言中都非常常见，而有些罕见音素则只见于某些语系、语族，某些语言区域甚至单一语言。<a href="#cite_note-LadefogedMaddieson-83">[80]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="结构">结构</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80&action=edit&section=14" title="编辑章节：结构">编辑</a>]</div> 一般把语言看作是一种由三部分组成的<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%AC%A6%E5%8F%B7%E4%BA%A4%E6%B5%81%E7%B3%BB%E7%BB%9F&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="符号交流系统（页面不存在）">符号交流系统</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/symbolic_communication" class="extiw" title="en:symbolic communication">symbolic communication</a>）：<a href="/wiki/%E8%A8%98%E8%99%9F" title="記號">记号</a>，<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%84%8F%E4%B9%89_(%E7%AC%A6%E5%8F%B7%E5%AD%A6)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="意义 (符号学)（页面不存在）">意义</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/meaning_(semiotics)" class="extiw" title="en:meaning (semiotics)">meaning (semiotics)</a>）和连接两者的<a href="/wiki/%E7%AC%A6%E7%A2%BC" title="符碼">符碼</a>。<a href="/wiki/%E7%AC%A6%E8%99%9F%E5%AD%B8" title="符號學">符號學</a>负责研究<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%AC%A6%E5%8F%B7%E8%BF%87%E7%A8%8B&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="符号过程（页面不存在）">符号过程</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/semiosis" class="extiw" title="en:semiosis">semiosis</a>），记号和意义如何组合，以及记号的使用和解释。记号可以由声音，手势，字母或符号组成，具体取决于语言是去说、去做手语还是去写，并且它们可以组合成复杂的记号，例如单词和短语。当用于交流时，记号由发送者编码并通过信道发送给接收者，后者对其进行解码。<a href="#cite_note-Lyons17-84">[81]</a> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ancient_Tamil_Script.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Ancient_Tamil_Script.jpg/220px-Ancient_Tamil_Script.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Ancient_Tamil_Script.jpg/330px-Ancient_Tamil_Script.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Ancient_Tamil_Script.jpg/440px-Ancient_Tamil_Script.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>在<a href="/wiki/%E5%9D%A6%E8%B4%BE%E6%AD%A6%E5%B0%94" title="坦贾武尔">坦贾武尔</a>的古代<a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%B0%E7%B1%B3%E5%B0%94%E8%AF%AD" title="泰米尔语">泰米尔语</a>的铭文</figcaption></figure> 一些定义将人类语言与其他的交流系统区别开来：语言记号具有的恣意性，故语言记号与其意义之间没有必然的联系；语言系统具有二元性，故语言具有分层嵌套结构，如声音组成词，而词组成短语；语言语言要素具有离散性，故构建语言记号的要素都是离散单元，如声音和单词可以相互区分，并以不同的模式重新排列；语言系统具有能产性，故有限的语言要素理论上可以组合成无限多的组合。<a href="#cite_note-Lyons17-84">[81]</a> 将记号组合成单词和短语的规则称为<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%A5%E6%B3%95" title="句法">句法</a>或<a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E6%B3%95" title="语法">语法</a>，而与独立的记号、音素、词、短语和文本相联系的意义则称为<a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E4%B9%89" class="mw-redirect" title="语义">语义</a>。<a href="#cite_note-85">[82]</a><a href="/wiki/%E8%B4%B9%E8%BF%AA%E5%8D%97%C2%B7%E5%BE%B7%C2%B7%E7%B4%A2%E7%BB%AA%E5%B0%94" title="费迪南·德·索绪尔">索緒爾</a>的语言学研究当中最早将语言划分为独立但又相互联系的记号和意义系统，现在这一观点几乎被所有语言学分支采纳<a href="#cite_note-86">[83]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="语义">语义</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80&action=edit&section=15" title="编辑章节：语义">编辑</a>]</div> <div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目：<a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E4%B9%89%E5%AD%A6" title="语义学">语义学</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%AC%A6%E5%8F%B7%E5%AD%A6" class="mw-redirect" title="符号学">符号学</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E8%AA%9E%E6%84%8F" title="語意">語意</a></div> 人们通过将一个记号联系到一种意义来进行语言表达。这些语言记号必须能为人所感知，例如声音、图像或是手势，它们根据人们的习惯被联系到一个个具体的意义。由于它们的最基础的意义来源于人们交流中的约定。语言符号的约定是建立在社会和历史上的，而非是具体的某种符号生来便具有与它的意义间的关系。以这种观点看来，语言符号可以认为是任定的。 因此，语言必须拥有与特定意义相关联的<a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%8D%E6%B1%87" title="词汇">词汇</a>。例如，英语单词“dog”表示<a href="/wiki/%E7%8B%BC" title="狼">灰狼种</a>下的<a href="/wiki/%E7%8A%AC" title="犬">犬亚种</a>（Canis familiaris）。在一门语言中，与意义相关联的任意一组符号的集合被称作<a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%8D%E6%B1%87" title="词汇">词汇</a>，与意义相关联的单一符号称为<a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%8D%E4%BD%8D" title="词位">词位</a>。语言中并非所有的意义都以单词表示，很多情况下，意义会以<a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E6%B3%95%E8%8C%83%E7%95%B4" title="语法范畴">语法范畴</a>的形式嵌入到语言的词法（morphology）与句法（syntax）中去。<a href="#cite_note-Levinson_1983-87">[84]</a> 所有语言都包含表达属性、状态或行为的谓语语义结构。语义学一般被视作关于说话者如何将<a href="/wiki/%E7%9C%9F%E5%80%BC" title="真值">真值</a>分配给<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%99%88%E8%BF%B0_(%E9%80%BB%E8%BE%91)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="陈述 (逻辑)（页面不存在）">陈述</a>的研究，故意义也被视作判断谓语关于某个实体为真或假的一种过程。例如，“[x [是 y]]”或者“[x [做 y]]”。最近，这种语义模型得到了更多动态意义模型的补充，这些模型结合了一些共享知识，这些知识说明了意义生成过程中记号是如何被解释为语言的。这种意义模型在<a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E7%94%A8%E5%AD%A6" title="语用学">语用学</a>领域得到了探索。<a href="#cite_note-Levinson_1983-87">[84]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="语音和符号">语音和符号</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80&action=edit&section=16" title="编辑章节：语音和符号">编辑</a>]</div> <div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目：<a href="/wiki/%E9%9F%B3%E4%BD%8D%E5%AD%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="音位學">音位學</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E6%9B%B8%E5%AF%AB" title="書寫">書寫</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r70089473/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:154px;max-width:154px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:152px;max-width:152px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:ManSpec.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/ManSpec.png/150px-ManSpec.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/ManSpec.png/225px-ManSpec.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/ManSpec.png/300px-ManSpec.png 2x" data-file-width="902" data-file-height="603" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">声谱图显示了英语口语单词 “man”，音标记作<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r61209503">[mæn]。值得注意的是在连续的讲话中，语段之间没有明确分别，只有发音器的动作平稳过渡。</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:152px;max-width:152px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Hangul_wi.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Hangul_wi.svg/150px-Hangul_wi.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Hangul_wi.svg/225px-Hangul_wi.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Hangul_wi.svg/300px-Hangul_wi.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1024" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">在<a href="/wiki/%E8%AB%BA%E6%96%87" title="諺文">諺文</a>中的字符“wi”。</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:152px;max-width:152px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:KSL_wi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/KSL_wi.jpg/150px-KSL_wi.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/KSL_wi.jpg/225px-KSL_wi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/68/KSL_wi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="240" data-file-height="320" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">“wi”在<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%9F%A9%E6%96%87%E6%89%8B%E8%AF%AD&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="韩文手语（页面不存在）">韩文手语</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_Sign_Language" class="extiw" title="en:Korean Sign Language">Korean Sign Language</a>）中的符号。（参见<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%9F%A9%E5%9B%BD%E6%89%8B%E8%AF%AD%E5%AD%97%E6%AF%8D%E8%A1%A8&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="韩国手语字母表（页面不存在）">韩国手语字母表</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_manual_alphabet" class="extiw" title="en:Korean manual alphabet">Korean manual alphabet</a>））</div></div></div></div></div> 根据形式，语言结构可以基于声音（语言），手势（手语），图形或触觉符号（文字）系统。<a href="/wiki/%E9%9F%B3%E4%BD%8D%E5%AD%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="音位學">音位学</a>对语言使用声音和符号表达意义的方式进行了研究。<a href="#cite_note-88">[85]</a>研究人类如何发音及感知声音的学科称为<a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E9%9F%B3%E5%AD%A6" title="语音学">语音学</a>。<a href="#cite_note-89">[86]</a>在口语中，意义产生于声音作为一个系统的一部分时，一些声音有助于表达意义，而其它的却没有。在任何给定的语言中，只有有限数目的许多不同的声音可以由人类的发音器发出有助于构建意义。<a href="#cite_note-LadefogedMaddieson-83">[80]</a> 作为语言系统的一部分的声音被称作<a href="/wiki/%E9%9F%B3%E4%BD%8D" title="音位">音素</a>。<a href="#cite_note-90">[87]</a>音素是声音的抽象单位，定义为语言中最小的可以区分一对差异最小的词（所谓的<a href="/wiki/%E6%9C%80%E5%B0%8F%E5%B0%8D%E7%AB%8B%E9%AB%94" title="最小對立體">最小对立体</a>）的意义的单位。在英语中，举个例子，单词bat <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r61209503">[bæt]和pat <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r61209503">[pʰæt]形成一个最小对立体，在此之中<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r61209503">/b/和<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r61209503">/p/ 区别了这两个具有不同意义的词。但是，每种语言都有不同的区别声音的方式。例如说，在一种不区分清音与浊音的语言中，音位<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r61209503">[p]和<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r61209503">[b]（如果它们都存在）可以被认为是一个音素，因此这两种发音具有同种意思。类似的，英语并不区分辅音<a href="/wiki/%E9%80%81%E6%B0%A3" title="送氣">送气与不送气</a>发音的区别，但许多其他语言却区分开（如<a href="/wiki/%E6%9C%9D%E9%AE%AE%E8%AA%9E" title="朝鮮語">韩语</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%B0%E5%9C%B0%E8%AF%AD" title="印地语">印地语</a>）：在单词spin <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r61209503">[spɪn]中的不送气音<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r61209503">/p/和单词pin <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r61209503">[pʰɪn]中的送气音<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r61209503">/p/被认为仅仅是相同音素的不同发音方式（单个音素的这种变化称为<a href="/wiki/%E5%90%8C%E4%BD%8D%E7%95%B0%E9%9F%B3" title="同位異音">同位异音</a>），而在<a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%98%E8%AF%9D" title="官话">官话</a>中，同样的发音差异区别词“趴”<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r61209503">[pʰá] 和“八”<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r61209503">[pá]（á上面的变音符号表示高音调）。<a href="#cite_note-Trask214-91">[88]</a> 所有的<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%A3%E8%AF%AD" title="口语">口头语言</a>都至少拥有两种音素：<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%83%E9%9F%B3" title="元音">元音</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E8%BE%85%E9%9F%B3" title="辅音">辅音</a>，可以结合构成<a href="/wiki/%E9%9F%B3%E8%8A%82" title="音节">音节</a>。<a href="#cite_note-MacMahon5-79">[76]</a>在拥有音素如辅音和元音的同时，一些语言也使用声音的其他形式去传达意义。许多语言使用例如<a href="/wiki/%E8%BC%95%E9%87%8D%E8%AE%80" title="輕重讀">轻重重音</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E9%AB%98%E4%BD%8E%E9%87%8D%E9%9F%B3" title="高低重音">高低重音</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%83%E9%9F%B3%E9%95%B7%E5%BA%A6" class="mw-redirect" title="元音長度">元音长度</a>以及<a href="/wiki/%E8%81%B2%E8%AA%BF" title="聲調">声调</a>的方式去区别意义。由于这些语音现象运作于单个音段水平之外，它们被称为<a href="/wiki/%E8%B6%85%E9%9F%B3%E6%AE%B5%E6%88%90%E5%88%86" class="mw-redirect" title="超音段成分">超音段成分</a>。<a href="#cite_note-92">[89]</a>一些语言只有几个音素，例如<a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%85%E6%89%98%E5%8D%A1%E7%89%B9%E8%AA%9E" title="羅托卡特語">罗托卡特语</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E7%9A%AE%E6%8B%89%E7%BD%95%E8%AA%9E" title="皮拉罕語">皮拉罕语</a>分别只有11和10个音位，而另外一些语言像<a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%8F%E8%AF%AD" title="宏语">宏语</a>也许会拥有像141个这样多的音素。<a href="#cite_note-Trask214-91">[88]</a>在<a href="/wiki/%E6%89%8B%E8%AA%9E" title="手語">手语</a>中，<a href="/wiki/%E9%9F%B3%E4%BD%8D" title="音位">音素的替代</a>（曾称为<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%89%8B%E8%AF%AD%E8%AF%AD%E7%B4%A0&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="手语语素（页面不存在）">手语语素</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/chereme" class="extiw" title="en:chereme">chereme</a>））被定义为手势的基本元素，如手的形状、方向、位置、和运动对应于口语中的种类。<a href="#cite_note-93">[90]</a><a href="#cite_note-94">[91]</a><a href="#cite_note-95">[92]</a> <a href="/wiki/%E6%96%87%E5%AD%97" title="文字">书写系统</a>使用视觉符号代表语言，这可能会或可能不会对应语言的声音。<a href="/wiki/%E6%8B%89%E4%B8%81%E5%AD%97%E6%AF%8D" title="拉丁字母">拉丁字母</a>（以及基于或派生于它的）最初是基于单一声音的表现，因此单词通常是由表示一个辅音或元音的结构的字母构成。在音节文字中，如<a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%8A%E5%8A%AA%E5%85%8B%E6%8F%90%E5%9C%96%E7%89%B9%E8%AA%9E" title="伊努克提圖特語">因纽特</a>音节表，每个符号都表示一个音节。在<a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E7%B4%A0%E6%96%87%E5%AD%97" title="语素文字">语素文字</a>中，每个符号代表整个词。<a href="#cite_note-96">[93]</a>并一般不会与这个词在口语中的发音有联系。 由于所有的语言都有大量词汇，所以并不存在纯粹的语标的文字。书面语言代表了口语中的声音，文字逐个的遵循被安排显示符号模式，遵循一个特定的方向。书写系统使用的书写顺序完全是任意的但有一定的惯例。一些书写系统使用水平方向（像拉丁文字一样从左到右或像<a href="/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E6%8B%89%E4%BC%AF%E6%96%87%E5%AD%97" title="阿拉伯文字">阿拉伯文字</a>一样从右到左），有一些却用竖直方向，例如古代中文（从上到下）。一些书写系统使用交错行反向书写的方式，或者其他，例如古玛雅文字，可以用任意一种方向书写并可依靠图形给阅读者提示阅读的方向。<a href="#cite_note-Coulmas-97">[94]</a> 为了以书面形式表达世界语言的声音，语音学家创造了<a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%8B%E9%9A%9B%E9%9F%B3%E6%A8%99" title="國際音標">国际音标</a>，用来表达人类语言中所有离散的声音以有助于理解人类语言的意义。<a href="#cite_note-98">[95]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="语法">语法</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80&action=edit&section=17" title="编辑章节：语法">编辑</a>]</div> <div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目：<a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E6%B3%95" title="语法">语法</a></div> 语法（Grammar）是对语言中能组成话语意义的最基本元素<a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E7%B4%A0" class="mw-redirect" title="语素">语素</a>的研究。语素既可自由运用，也能连在一起。在话语中自由运用的时候，一般称作<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%95%E8%AF%8D" class="mw-redirect" title="单词">词</a>，和其他词或语素连在一起，便称作<a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%8D%E6%A0%B9" title="词根">词根</a>或<a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%8D%E7%BC%80" class="mw-redirect" title="词缀">词缀</a>。语素在语言中的组合方式受规则约束。词内部结构的规则称作<a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%8D%E6%B3%95%E5%AD%A6" title="词法学">词法学</a>，短语或句子内部结构的规则称作句法。<a href="#cite_note-99">[96]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="语法范畴">语法范畴</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80&action=edit&section=18" title="编辑章节：语法范畴">编辑</a>]</div> <div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目：<a href="/wiki/%E6%96%87%E6%B3%95%E7%AF%84%E7%96%87" class="mw-redirect" title="文法範疇">文法範疇</a></div> <a href="/wiki/%E6%96%87%E6%B3%95%E7%AF%84%E7%96%87" class="mw-redirect" title="文法範疇">语法范畴</a>是对句子成分所体现的<a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E4%B9%89" class="mw-redirect" title="语义">语义</a>内容和相应语法形式的分类。<a href="#cite_note-100">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-101">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-102">[99]</a>同一语法范畴内的要素（语义内容-语法形式）之间是相互对立的，只有一个要素可以作为该语法范畴表现出来。<a href="#cite_note-103">[100]</a>对于句子成分的位置和<a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%8D%E5%BD%A2%E5%8F%98%E5%8C%96" class="mw-redirect" title="词形变化">词形变化</a>（形态变化），可以分出各种<a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%8D%E7%B1%BB" class="mw-redirect" title="词类">词类</a>（名词、动词等）以体现<a href="/wiki/%E6%80%A7_(%E8%AF%AD%E6%B3%95)" title="性 (语法)">性</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E6%95%B0_(%E8%AF%AD%E6%B3%95)" title="数 (语法)">数</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E6%A0%BC_(%E8%AF%AD%E6%B3%95)" title="格 (语法)">格</a>（<a href="/wiki/%E8%AE%BA%E5%85%83" title="论元">论元</a>和谓语之间的语法关系，体现主语、谓语等<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%AF%AD%E6%B3%95%E5%8A%9F%E8%83%BD&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="语法功能（页面不存在）">语法功能</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_relation" class="extiw" title="en:Grammatical relation">Grammatical relation</a>），格的差异涉及到格在<a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E6%B3%95%E5%BD%A2%E6%80%81%E9%85%8D%E5%88%97" class="mw-redirect" title="语法形态配列">语法形态学上呈现的配列方式</a>的差异）等许多语法范畴。<a href="#cite_note-104">[101]</a>不同语言所覆盖的语法范畴也不一，有些范畴则非常普遍，几乎是所有语言共通的，如<a href="/wiki/%E6%A0%BC_(%E8%AF%AD%E6%B3%95)" title="格 (语法)">格</a>。 <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="词类">词类</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80&action=edit&section=19" title="编辑章节：词类">编辑</a>]</div> 語言會根據它們的语法功能和在語句中的位置分類為不同的<a href="/wiki/%E8%A9%9E%E9%A1%9E" title="詞類">詞類</a>或者称为<a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%8D%E6%80%A7" class="mw-redirect" title="词性">词性</a>。所有的语言都会对物品、概念跟表示行为或事件的词加以区分，如“狗”和“歌”为<a href="/wiki/%E5%90%8D%E8%A9%9E" title="名詞">名词</a>，而“跑”和“唱”为<a href="/wiki/%E5%8A%A8%E8%AF%8D" title="动词">动词</a>。还有一类词是<a href="/wiki/%E5%BD%A2%E5%AE%B9%E8%AF%8D" title="形容词">形容词</a>，即描述名词性质或品质的词，如英语“red”（红的）或“big”（大）。如果新词能够持续地加入到某个词性中，那么这个词性就是开放的，反之则是封闭的。在英语中，<a href="/wiki/%E4%BB%A3%E8%A9%9E" title="代詞">代词</a>属于封闭词性，而形容词则是开放的，一些形容词可以从动词（如“saddened”）或名词（如“-like”后缀，以“名词+like”的形式转换）转换得来。在别的一些语言，如<a href="/wiki/%E6%9C%9D%E9%B2%9C%E8%AF%AD" class="mw-redirect" title="朝鲜语">朝鲜语</a>中则正好相反，代词能够转换产生，但形容词的数目则是固定的。<a href="#cite_note-105">[102]</a> 词性也能体现不同的语法功能。典型者如<a href="/wiki/%E5%8A%A8%E8%AF%8D" title="动词">动词</a>作<a href="/wiki/%E8%B0%93%E8%AF%AD" class="mw-redirect" title="谓语">谓语</a>，而<a href="/wiki/%E5%90%8D%E8%A9%9E" title="名詞">名词</a>则作谓语的<a href="/wiki/%E8%AE%BA%E5%85%83" title="论元">论元</a>，即<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%BB%E8%AF%AD" class="mw-redirect" title="主语">主语</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%BE%E8%AF%AD" class="mw-redirect" title="宾语">宾语</a>。例如句子“Sally runs”，动词“runs”作谓语，因为它描述了其论元“Sally”的特定状态。论元的数目被称为<a href="/wiki/%E9%85%8D%E4%BB%B7" title="配价">配价</a>（valence），不同动词可以有不同配价，持有一个或多个论元。一价动词只能有一个论元，且一般只能作主语，这种动词一般被称为<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%8D%E5%8F%8A%E7%89%A9%E5%8B%95%E8%A9%9E" title="不及物動詞">不及物动词</a>；二价以上的动词则可以有两个或以上的论元，主语以外的论元为宾语，这种动词一般被称为<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%8A%E7%89%A9%E5%8B%95%E8%A9%9E" title="及物動詞">及物动词</a>。故配价也时常被称为<a href="/wiki/%E9%85%8D%E4%BB%B7" title="配价">及物性</a>。<a href="#cite_note-106">[103]</a> 不同语言还有其他各种各样的词类，如<a href="/wiki/%E8%BF%9E%E8%AF%8D" class="mw-redirect" title="连词">连词</a>连接两个句子，<a href="/wiki/%E5%86%A0%E8%AF%8D" title="冠词">冠词</a>（<a href="/wiki/%E5%89%8D%E7%BD%AE%E8%A9%9E" title="前置詞">前置词</a>）引出名词并界定名词定性，还有<a href="/wiki/%E6%84%9F%E5%8F%B9%E8%AF%8D" title="感叹词">感叹词</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E6%93%AC%E6%85%8B%E8%A9%9E" title="擬態詞">拟态词</a>等。很多语言里面存在<a href="/wiki/%E9%87%8F%E8%AF%8D" title="量词">量词</a>，用来定义名词可数、描述名词样态。如日语使用量词“人”来数人：<a href="#cite_note-107">[104]</a> <dl><dd>三人の学生／さんにんのがくせい san-nin no gakusei <a href="/wiki/Help:%E6%97%A5%E8%AA%9E" class="mw-redirect" title="Help:日語">?</a>，字面意思上是“三人的学生”，即“三位学生”</dd></dl> 而数树木的时候： <dl><dd>三本の木／さんぼんのき san-bon no ki <a href="/wiki/Help:%E6%97%A5%E8%AA%9E" class="mw-redirect" title="Help:日語">?</a>，字面意思上是“三个长条物体的树”，即“三棵树”</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="词法">词法</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80&action=edit&section=20" title="编辑章节：词法">编辑</a>]</div> 词法（Morphology）在语言学上指<a href="/wiki/%E8%A9%9E_(%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80)" title="詞 (語言)">词</a>的语构成及其过程，对词法的研究称为<a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%8D%E6%B3%95%E5%AD%A6" title="词法学">词法学</a>或者形态学。在大多数语言里面，合成词由数个<a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E7%B4%A0" class="mw-redirect" title="语素">语素</a>构成。例如，“unexpected”一词可以分析出 un-、expect 和 -ed 三个语素。<a href="#cite_note-108">[105]</a> 语素可以分为<a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%8D%E6%A0%B9" title="词根">词根</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%8D%E7%BC%80" class="mw-redirect" title="词缀">词缀</a>，词根可以独立作为语素存在，而词缀则必须依附于其他语素。词缀根据它与词根的相对位置，又可以分为<a href="/wiki/%E5%89%8D%E7%BC%80" class="mw-redirect" title="前缀">前缀</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E7%B6%B4" title="中綴">中缀</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E5%90%8E%E7%BC%80" class="mw-redirect" title="后缀">后缀</a>。词缀会改变、阐释词根的<a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E4%B9%89%E5%AD%A6" title="语义学">语义</a>，通过添加词缀创造<a href="/wiki/%E5%90%88%E6%88%90%E8%AF%8D" title="合成词">合成词</a>的方法称为<a href="/wiki/%E6%B4%BE%E7%94%9F" class="mw-redirect" title="派生">派生</a>，如动词“sing”后加上 -er 变为“singer”。与之相对，<a href="/wiki/%E5%B1%88%E6%8A%98%E5%8F%98%E5%8C%96" title="屈折变化">屈折变化</a>（形态变化）通过改变语素的形态来改变词的语法功能，进而改变词义，但并不创造新词。有些语言通过改变词的音韵结构的屈折变化来改变词义，例如英语词“sing”通过<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%83%E9%9F%B3%E5%8F%98%E6%8D%A2" class="mw-redirect" title="元音变换">元音变换</a>变成过去时“sang”和过去分词“sung”。<a href="#cite_note-109">[106]</a> 不同语言依赖形态变化的程度不一，故基于形态和<a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E6%B3%95" title="语法">语法</a>的关系产生了<a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E7%9A%84%E5%BD%A2%E6%80%81%E5%88%86%E7%B1%BB" class="mw-redirect" title="语言的形态分类">形态上的分类</a>。<a href="/wiki/%E5%AD%A4%E7%AB%8B%E8%AF%AD" title="孤立语">孤立语</a>是低语素单词比（morpheme-per-word ratio）的语言，并不对语素进行形态变化，而是以<a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E5%BA%8F" class="mw-redirect" title="语序">语序</a>表示文法关系，如<a href="/wiki/%E6%B1%89%E8%AF%AD" title="汉语">汉语</a>。孤立语同时也是<a href="/wiki/%E5%88%86%E6%9E%90%E8%AF%AD" title="分析语">分析语</a>，因为大多数时候单个词及其语义也是一一对应的（但并非汉语没有派生），如汉语“不易破损”由不、易、破、损四个自由语素组成，不像英语“unbreakable”一样由 un-（不自由语素）、break（自由语素）、-able（不自由语素）组成合成词。<a href="#cite_note-110">[107]</a>包括<a href="/wiki/%E8%8B%B1%E8%AF%AD" title="英语">英语</a>在内的大部分<a href="/wiki/%E7%BB%BC%E5%90%88%E8%AF%AD" title="综合语">综合语</a>都允许含有多个语素的合成词存在，但是根据语素结合的程度即语素单词比的高低，又可分为<a href="/wiki/%E5%B1%88%E6%8A%98%E8%AF%AD" title="屈折语">屈折语</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E9%BB%8F%E7%9D%80%E8%AF%AD" title="黏着语">黏着语</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%9A%E5%BC%8F%E7%BB%BC%E5%90%88%E8%AF%AD" title="多式综合语">多式综合语</a>等。<a href="/wiki/%E5%B1%88%E6%8A%98%E8%AF%AD" title="屈折语">屈折语</a>拥有丰富的屈折变化，其语素可有多个语义或语法功能且不可再分解，但语素的结合会受到限制。世界上大多数语言，尤其是<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%B0%E6%AC%A7%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="印欧语系">印欧语系</a>的语言，都属于屈折语。如拉丁语“bonus”（好），包括了词根 bon-（好）和后缀 -us（<a href="/wiki/%E6%80%A7_(%E8%AF%AD%E6%B3%95)" title="性 (语法)">阳性</a><a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%BB%E6%A0%BC" title="主格">主格</a><a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%95%E6%95%B0" class="mw-disambig" title="单数">单数</a>）。而<a href="/wiki/%E9%BB%8F%E7%9D%80%E8%AF%AD" title="黏着语">黏着语</a>虽有屈折变化，但主要通过在词根上几乎不受限制地黏着若干词缀改变语法功能，其词缀的语法功能单一，如土耳其语“evlerinizden”通过语素列ev-ler-iniz-den（房子-复数-第二人称所有格-来自）表示“从你家”的意思。传统上所谓<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%9A%E5%BC%8F%E7%BB%BC%E5%90%88%E8%AF%AD" title="多式综合语">多式综合语</a>最为依赖形态变化，综合程度也最高，通常会将一个句子地内容用一个词来表示。如波斯语“نفهمیدمش” nafāmidamesh（我没搞懂），是由语素列na-fahm-id-am-esh（否定-明白-过去时-第一人称-第三人称）组成的，里面完整包含了表示明白的语素 -fahm- 的<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%BB%E8%AF%AD" class="mw-redirect" title="主语">主语</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%BE%E8%AF%AD" class="mw-redirect" title="宾语">宾语</a>两个<a href="/wiki/%E8%AE%BA%E5%85%83" title="论元">论元</a>。又如<a href="/wiki/%E5%B0%A4%E7%9A%AE%E5%85%8B%E8%AF%AD" title="尤皮克语">尤皮克语</a>“tuntussuqatarniksatengqiggtuq”一词由语素列tuntu-ssur-qatar-ni-ksaite-ngqiggte-uq（驯鹿-打猎-未来时-说-否定-重复-第三人称单数陈述）构成，表示“他还没再说他要去抓驯鹿”。在这个例子中，除了 tuntu（驯鹿）以外，其他的所有语素都不自由，不能独立存在。<a href="#cite_note-111">[108]</a> 在很多语言里，其句子内的词的形态会在一些语法范畴上相互保持<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%80%E8%87%B4_(%E8%AA%9E%E6%B3%95)" title="一致 (語法)">一致</a>。如很多印欧语系的语言里，<a href="/wiki/%E5%BD%A2%E5%AE%B9%E8%AF%8D" title="形容词">形容词</a>的形态必须与其修饰的名词在<a href="/wiki/%E6%80%A7_(%E8%AF%AD%E6%B3%95)" title="性 (语法)">性</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E6%95%B0_(%E8%AF%AD%E6%B3%95)" title="数 (语法)">数</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E6%A0%BC_(%E8%AF%AD%E6%B3%95)" title="格 (语法)">格</a>上保持一致，故拉丁语“bonus”（好）所呈现的形态本身就是与某个阳性主格单数名词保持相互一致的结果。在很多多式综合语里面，<a href="/wiki/%E8%B0%93%E8%AF%AD" class="mw-redirect" title="谓语">谓语</a>语素的形态与其主语和宾语即论元保持相互一致。如<a href="/wiki/%E5%B7%B4%E6%96%AF%E5%85%8B%E8%AF%AD" class="mw-redirect" title="巴斯克语">巴斯克语</a>短语“ikusi nauzu”ikusi n-au-zu（看第二人称-助动-第一人称）意为“你看见了我”，“nauzu”里面过去时助动语素 -au-（做）同时与前缀 n-（你）和后缀 -zu（我）保持相互一致。<a href="#cite_note-112">[109]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="句法">句法</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80&action=edit&section=21" title="编辑章节：句法">编辑</a>]</div> <div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目：<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%A5%E6%B3%95" title="句法">句法</a></div> <figure class="skin-invert-image" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Constituent_structure_analysis_English_sentence.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Constituent_structure_analysis_English_sentence.svg/300px-Constituent_structure_analysis_English_sentence.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="221" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Constituent_structure_analysis_English_sentence.svg/450px-Constituent_structure_analysis_English_sentence.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Constituent_structure_analysis_English_sentence.svg/600px-Constituent_structure_analysis_English_sentence.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="531" data-file-height="392" /></a><figcaption>可在语法功能的层面上进行分析得出，句子中“the cat”是主语短语，“on the mat”是方位格短语，“sit”是作为核心的谓语。图中呈现生成语法典型的树状结构，在该理论当中“the cat”是指示语，“on the mat”是补足语，而“sit”是中心语</figcaption></figure> 是语言传递意义的另一种方式是词通过一定<a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E5%BA%8F" class="mw-redirect" title="语序">语序</a>构成句子，在这里语序这种语法规则称为<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%A5%E6%B3%95" title="句法">句法</a>（Syntax）。句法规则决定了词序和句子结构的约束形式，以及这些限制对意义起到的作用<a href="#cite_note-113">[110]</a>。例如英语中，像“I love you”（我爱你）一般的英语句子是说得通的，而“*love you I”（爱你我）则说不通<a href="#cite_note-114">[註 4]</a>。又如“The slaves were cursing the master”（奴隶在咒骂主人）和“The master was cursing the slaves”（主人在咒骂奴隶）指的是不同的东西，因为语法上对语序敏感，动词前面的名词起到了主语的作用，而跟在动词后面的名词则是宾语。相反，在<a href="/wiki/%E6%8B%89%E4%B8%81%E8%AF%AD" title="拉丁语">拉丁语</a>中，Dominus servos vituperabat和Servos vituperabat dominus的意思都是“主人在咒骂奴隶”，因为“servos”（奴隶）在形态上是<a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%BE%E6%A0%BC" title="宾格">宾格</a>，表明他们是句子的<a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%BE%E8%AF%AD" class="mw-redirect" title="宾语">宾语</a>，而“dominus”（主人）是<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%BB%E6%A0%BC" title="主格">主格</a>，表明他是主语，所以语序调换了也能表达相同的意思<a href="#cite_note-115">[111]</a>。可见拉丁语利用词法（形态）区分主语和宾语，而英语则使用语序这一句法手段。 句法规则促成意义的另一个例子是许多语种存在的<a href="/wiki/%E7%96%91%E5%95%8F%E8%A9%9E%E7%A7%BB%E4%BD%8D" title="疑問詞移位">疑问词移位</a>规则。该规则解释了为何英语句子“约翰正和露西交谈”（John is talking to Lucy）转变为疑问句时会变成“Who is John talking to?”（约翰在和谁讲话）而不是“John is talking to who?”。后者或许<a href="/wiki/%E7%84%A6%E9%BB%9E_(%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80%E5%AD%B8)" title="焦點 (語言學)">着重强调</a>“谁”，使得疑问句的意义稍微发生了变化。<a href="/wiki/%E7%9F%AD%E8%AF%AD" title="短语">短语</a>形成的规则也是句法的一部分，词可以通过组成<a href="/wiki/%E7%9F%AD%E8%AF%AD" title="短语">短语</a>进入到更大的句法结构的不同位置当中，而短语在不同层次上相互连接，最终以树状结构连接成为句子<a href="#cite_note-116">[112]</a>。如右图，在句法分析中，英语句子“坐在垫子上的猫”（The cat sat on the mat）被分为名词短语“the cat”、动词“sit”和介词短语“on the mat”，其中名词短语“the cat”由冠词和名词构成，介词短语“on the mat”由介词和名词短语构成<a href="#cite_note-Trask_2007_218–19-117">[113]</a>。这么分析是因为进行句法操作时这些短语作为单个元素移动，如欲强调“on the mat”时，可以把它作为一个整体前移，得到“[And] on the mat, the cat sat”（垫子上，猫坐着），故它应当被视为一个单元。<a href="#cite_note-Trask_2007_218–19-117">[113]</a>依据语言的不同假设及其描述，如今有各种各样的理论提出不同的形式和功能框架，来分析句子、描述语言结构。<a href="#cite_note-NewmeyerForm-22">[21]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="类型学和普遍性">类型学和普遍性</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80&action=edit&section=22" title="编辑章节：类型学和普遍性">编辑</a>]</div> <div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目：<a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E7%B1%BB%E5%9E%8B%E5%AD%A6" title="语言类型学">语言类型学</a>、<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%99%AE%E9%81%8D%E6%80%A7_(%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="普遍性 (语言)（页面不存在）">普遍性</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_universal" class="extiw" title="en:Linguistic universal">Linguistic universal</a>）和<a href="/wiki/%E9%85%8D%E5%88%97" title="配列">配列</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MorphSyntAlignSP-A.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/MorphSyntAlignSP-A.png/100px-MorphSyntAlignSP-A.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="85" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/MorphSyntAlignSP-A.png/150px-MorphSyntAlignSP-A.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/MorphSyntAlignSP-A.png/200px-MorphSyntAlignSP-A.png 2x" data-file-width="431" data-file-height="366" /></a><figcaption>作通格語言的格配列“作格阵线”（SP-A）</figcaption></figure><figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MorphSyntAlignAS-P.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/MorphSyntAlignAS-P.png/100px-MorphSyntAlignAS-P.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="85" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/MorphSyntAlignAS-P.png/150px-MorphSyntAlignAS-P.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/MorphSyntAlignAS-P.png/200px-MorphSyntAlignAS-P.png 2x" data-file-width="430" data-file-height="367" /></a><figcaption>主賓格語言的格配列“宾格阵线”（AS-P）</figcaption></figure> 语言可依其语法特点分类，一些语言虽分属不同分支，但二者仍会有不少共同特征，而且这些共同特征之间往往有所关联。<a href="#cite_note-118">[114]</a>比方说，语言可以依据其基本<a href="/wiki/%E8%AA%9E%E5%BA%8F" title="語序">語序</a>，即陈述句中<a href="/wiki/%E5%8A%A8%E8%AF%8D" title="动词">动词</a>与其他<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%A5%E5%AD%90" title="句子">句子</a>成分之间的位置关系进行分类。譬如，英语的基本语序和汉语一样，是<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%BB%E5%8B%95%E8%B3%93%E8%AA%9E%E5%BA%8F" title="主動賓語序">主動賓語序</a>（SVO）如“The snake(S) bit(V) the man(O)”（蛇咬人），而在<a href="/wiki/%E6%BE%B3%E5%A4%A7%E5%88%A9%E4%BA%9A%E5%8E%9F%E4%BD%8F%E6%B0%91%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80" title="澳大利亚原住民语言">澳大利亚原住民语言</a><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gamilaraay_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gamilaraay language（页面不存在）">卡米拉罗伊语</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamilaraay_language" class="extiw" title="en:Gamilaraay language">Gamilaraay language</a>）当中，其基本语序是<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%BB%E8%B3%93%E5%8B%95%E8%AA%9E%E5%BA%8F" title="主賓動語序">主賓動語序</a>（SOV），如“<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r61209503">d̪uyugu n̪ama d̪ayn yiːy”（蛇人咬）。<a href="#cite_note-CroftErg-119">[115]</a>因为基本语序类型与其他一系列的语法类型要素相对应，如<a href="/wiki/%E5%90%8D%E8%A9%9E" title="名詞">名词</a>与<a href="/wiki/%E5%BD%A2%E5%AE%B9%E8%AF%8D" title="形容词">形容词</a>的相对顺序、<a href="/wiki/%E5%89%8D%E7%BD%AE%E8%A9%9E" title="前置詞">前置词</a>或<a href="/wiki/%E5%BE%8C%E7%BD%AE%E8%A9%9E" title="後置詞">后置词</a>等，故语序类型也被视为一种类型要素。这种相互关联被称为<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%99%AE%E9%81%8D%E6%80%A7_(%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="普遍性 (语言)（页面不存在）">语言的普遍性</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_universal" class="extiw" title="en:Linguistic universal">Linguistic universal</a>），<a href="#cite_note-120">[116]</a>例如大部分（但不是全部）主賓動語序（SOV）的语言里都存在后置词而非前置词，都将形容词置于名词之前。<a href="#cite_note-121">[117]</a> 虽然所有语言的句子都由主语、谓语和宾语构成，但不同语言处理<a href="/wiki/%E6%A0%BC_(%E8%AF%AD%E6%B3%95)" title="格 (语法)">语法格</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E4%B9%89%E8%A7%92%E8%89%B2" title="语义角色">语义角色</a>两者关系，即<a href="/wiki/%E6%A0%BC_(%E8%AF%AD%E6%B3%95)" title="格 (语法)">格</a>关系的方式不尽相同，故在<a href="/wiki/%E9%85%8D%E5%88%97" title="配列">语法形态学上呈现的配列方式</a>也有所不同。英语属于<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%BB%E5%AE%BE%E5%9E%8B%E9%85%8D%E5%88%97" title="主宾型配列">主宾格语言</a>，无论是<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%8D%E5%8F%8A%E7%89%A9%E5%8B%95%E8%A9%9E" title="不及物動詞">不及物动词</a>句（如“I run”我跑）还是<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%8A%E7%89%A9%E5%8B%95%E8%A9%9E" title="及物動詞">及物动词</a>句（如“I love you” 我爱你），其主语（施事 Agent，在不及物动词句中亦为核心变元 Subject）都是相同形态的前置名词 I，二者等价。而<a href="/wiki/%E4%BD%9C%E9%80%9A%E5%9E%8B%E9%85%8D%E5%88%97" title="作通型配列">作通格語言</a>，如卡米拉罗伊语，其不及物动词句的主语（施事）等价于及物动词句的宾语（受事 Patient，即 Object），而区别对待及物动词句的主语。<a href="#cite_note-CroftErg-119">[115]</a>如此，<a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E4%B9%89%E8%A7%92%E8%89%B2" title="语义角色">语义角色</a>便能够以<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%BB%E5%AE%BE%E5%9E%8B%E9%85%8D%E5%88%97" title="主宾型配列">主宾格语言</a>的“<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%BB%E6%A0%BC" title="主格">主格</a>-<a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%BE%E6%A0%BC" title="宾格">宾格</a>”或者<a href="/wiki/%E4%BD%9C%E9%80%9A%E5%9E%8B%E9%85%8D%E5%88%97" title="作通型配列">作通格語言</a>的“<a href="/wiki/%E4%BD%9C%E6%A0%BC" title="作格">作格</a>-<a href="/wiki/%E9%80%9A%E6%A0%BC" title="通格">通格</a>”等不同的格关系呈现，甚至像<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%89%E5%88%86%E6%B3%95%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80" class="mw-redirect" title="三分法語言">三分型语言</a>那样，及物动词句的主语和宾语，以及不及物动词句的主语分别用三个不同的格来表示。<a href="#cite_note-122">[118]</a> 即便是语言类型学上被划为相同类型的两种语言，其共同特征也有可能是分别独立产生的。这些特征成群出现，可能出于统率自然语言结构的普遍规律即<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%99%AE%E9%81%8D%E6%80%A7_(%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="普遍性 (语言)（页面不存在）">语言的普遍性</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_universal" class="extiw" title="en:Linguistic universal">Linguistic universal</a>），也有可能是人类在不断解决沟通问题的过程中其解决方式渐渐趋同的结果。<a href="#cite_note-Myths-123">[119]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="语言使用和传播的社会背景">语言使用和传播的社会背景</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80&action=edit&section=23" title="编辑章节：语言使用和传播的社会背景">编辑</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Place_des_Abbesse_(the_plaque_with_the_je_t%27aime%3Dte_iubesc_in_311_laguages).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Place_des_Abbesse_%28the_plaque_with_the_je_t%27aime%3Dte_iubesc_in_311_laguages%29.jpg/220px-Place_des_Abbesse_%28the_plaque_with_the_je_t%27aime%3Dte_iubesc_in_311_laguages%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Place_des_Abbesse_%28the_plaque_with_the_je_t%27aime%3Dte_iubesc_in_311_laguages%29.jpg/330px-Place_des_Abbesse_%28the_plaque_with_the_je_t%27aime%3Dte_iubesc_in_311_laguages%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Place_des_Abbesse_%28the_plaque_with_the_je_t%27aime%3Dte_iubesc_in_311_laguages%29.jpg/440px-Place_des_Abbesse_%28the_plaque_with_the_je_t%27aime%3Dte_iubesc_in_311_laguages%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="2736" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/%E5%B7%B4%E9%BB%8E" title="巴黎">巴黎</a><a href="/wiki/%E7%88%B1%E5%A2%99#法国巴黎市的爱墙" title="爱墙">爱墙</a>，上面用超过250种语言书写“我爱你”。<a href="#cite_note-124">[120]</a></figcaption></figure> 语言仰仗<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%A8%80%E8%AF%AD%E5%85%B1%E5%90%8C%E4%BD%93&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="言语共同体（页面不存在）">言语共同体</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/speech_community" class="extiw" title="en:speech community">speech community</a>）而存在。虽然人类有能力学习任何一种语言，但身处言语共同体中的人类，尤其是儿童，只有在成长环境中有长辈或同伴使用该语言时，他们才会<a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E4%B9%A0%E5%BE%97" title="语言习得">这样做</a>。语言也在社会沟通之中用以解决大量任务，故语言运用的许多方面可以视为针对这些目的所作的调整。<a href="#cite_note-Myths-123">[119]</a>语言在代际或言语共同体之间传递的方式会导致语言不断变化，不断分化出新语言，或者通过<a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E6%8E%A5%E8%A7%A6" class="mw-redirect" title="语言接触">语言接触</a>相互融合。这个过程类似于<a href="/wiki/%E6%BC%94%E5%8C%96" title="演化">进化</a>，其一代代的变化将最终形成一株<a href="/wiki/%E7%B3%BB%E7%BB%9F%E5%8F%91%E7%94%9F%E6%A0%91" class="mw-redirect" title="系统发生树">树状语言谱系</a>。<a href="#cite_note-125">[121]</a> 不过，语言与生物有机体的不同之处在于，语言在扩散的过程中因为要与其他语言的说话者接触，所以很容易融入其他语言的元素。人类还经常会使用多种语言，除了童年时获得的<a href="/wiki/%E6%AF%8D%E8%AF%AD" class="mw-redirect" title="母语">第一语言</a>，他们在成长过程中还会学习新的语言。当今全球化世界当中语言接触不断增加，导致许多小语言正在逐渐<a href="/wiki/%E7%80%95%E5%8D%B1%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80" title="瀕危語言">濒危</a>，其使用者转向使用那些具有更大影响力、能够面向更大范围言语共同体的语言。<a href="#cite_note-126">[122]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="语用">语用</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80&action=edit&section=24" title="编辑章节：语用">编辑</a>]</div> <div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目：<a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E7%94%A8%E5%AD%A6" title="语用学">语用学</a></div> “意义与记号通过社会习俗相互紧密联系”，语义研究基于这一假设来研究意义，但并不研究社会习俗的形成及其影响语言的方式。相反，通常在词语和记号使用的研究当中，词语在不同社会背景下会具有不同的含义。例如<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%9B%B4%E7%A4%BA%E8%AF%AD&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="直示语（页面不存在）">直示语</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/deixis" class="extiw" title="en:deixis">deixis</a>）（Deixis），这一类词描述说话者与某些实体之间在说话当时的特定时空关系，如“我”（表示说话人），“现在”（表示说话的时刻）和“这里”（表示说话的位置）。随着社会习俗的变化，其记号也会逐渐改变其意义。语用学便研究语言表达的意义如何随语境变化，而 deixis 则是我们利用语言指涉某个实体的重要手段。<a href="#cite_note-127">[123]</a>语用学关注的是语言的使用模式以及这些模式如何促成意义。例如，所有语言的语言表达都既可用于传递信息，也可视同付诸行动。某些行为仅诉诸语言就能有实际效果，比如通过“命名”来为某个实体创造一个新名称，或使用“某人及其妻子”的称呼来创造婚姻这一社会契约。这类行为被称为<a href="/wiki/%E8%A8%80%E8%AA%9E%E8%A1%8C%E7%82%BA%E7%90%86%E8%AB%96" title="言語行為理論">言语行为</a>。当然，它们也可以通过书面或手语来实施。<a href="#cite_note-128">[124]</a> 语言表达的形式往往不与其在特定社会背景中的实际意义相对应。例如，如果一个人在餐桌上问：“你能够得到盐么？”，他并不是真的在问手够不够长去拿盐，而是想让人帮忙把盐递给他。这个意义是由其所使用的语境暗示的；这些意义的影响被称为<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%BC%9A%E8%AF%9D%E5%90%AB%E4%B9%89&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="会话含义（页面不存在）">会话含义</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/conversational_implicature" class="extiw" title="en:conversational implicature">conversational implicature</a>）。这些语言运用的社会规则只在某些特定情况下是合适的，不同言语共同体对于其社会背景的理解不同，对语言运用的理解也就不一样。学习这些内容也是<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%BA%A4%E6%B5%81%E8%83%BD%E5%8A%9B&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="交流能力（页面不存在）">交流能力</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/communicative_competence" class="extiw" title="en:communicative competence">communicative competence</a>）习得当中非常大的一环。<a href="#cite_note-129">[125]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="语言习得">语言习得</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80&action=edit&section=25" title="编辑章节：语言习得">编辑</a>]</div> <div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目：<a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E4%B9%A0%E5%BE%97" title="语言习得">语言习得</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%AC%AC%E4%BA%8C%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80%E7%BF%92%E5%BE%97" title="第二語言習得">第二語言習得</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%AC%AC%E4%BA%8C%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80" class="mw-redirect" title="第二语言">第二语言</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E6%95%99%E8%82%B2" class="mw-redirect" title="语言教育">语言教育</a></div> 任何<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%BA%E7%9A%84%E6%88%90%E9%95%B7" title="人的成長">正常发育</a>的健康人都会学习并使用语言。儿童会学习他们自小就充分接触的一门或多门周围所使用的语言。而无论<a href="/wiki/%E6%89%8B%E8%AA%9E" title="手語">手語</a>还是<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%A3%E8%AF%AD" title="口语">口语</a>，儿童对于它们的学习历程基本相同。<a href="#cite_note-130">[126]</a>这种学习过程被称为第一语言习得，它与许多其他类型的学习不同，不需要直接或专业的教学。在《<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%BA%E7%B1%BB%E7%9A%84%E7%94%B1%E6%9D%A5" title="人类的由来">人类的由来</a>》中，博物学家<a href="/wiki/%E6%9F%A5%E5%B0%94%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E8%BE%BE%E5%B0%94%E6%96%87" title="查尔斯·达尔文">查尔斯·达尔文</a>称这一过程为“一种获得艺术的本能倾向”。<a href="#cite_note-Language_Instinct-15">[14]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r70089473/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:224px;max-width:224px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:222px;max-width:222px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Kituwah_Academy.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Kituwah_Academy.png/220px-Kituwah_Academy.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="122" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Kituwah_Academy.png/330px-Kituwah_Academy.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Kituwah_Academy.png/440px-Kituwah_Academy.png 2x" data-file-width="621" data-file-height="343" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%8E%E5%9B%BD" title="美国">美国</a><a href="/wiki/%E5%8C%97%E5%8D%A1%E7%BD%97%E8%8E%B1%E7%BA%B3%E5%B7%9E" class="mw-redirect" title="北卡罗莱纳州">北卡罗莱纳州</a><a href="/wiki/%E5%88%87%E7%BE%85%E5%9F%BA%E4%BA%BA" title="切羅基人">切罗基</a>印第安保留地内一所学校的课堂。该地自<a href="/wiki/%E5%AD%B8%E5%89%8D%E6%95%99%E8%82%B2" title="學前教育">学前教育</a>起便以<a href="/wiki/%E5%88%87%E7%BD%97%E5%9F%BA%E8%AF%AD" class="mw-redirect" title="切罗基语">切罗基语</a>为教学语言，切罗基语也是当地学生的<a href="/wiki/%E6%AF%8D%E8%AF%AD" class="mw-redirect" title="母语">母语</a>。</div></div></div></div></div> 尽管正常发育的婴儿中特定习得阶段的时间存在很大差异，第一语言习得的发展顺序仍然是相当规律的。从出生开始，相比于其他声音，新生儿就更容易对人类言语做出反应。大约一个月大的时候，婴儿似乎就能够区分不同的<a href="/wiki/%E8%AA%9E%E9%9F%B3" title="語音">語音</a>。大约六个月大的时候，孩子会开始<a href="/wiki/%E7%89%99%E7%89%99%E5%AD%B8%E8%AA%9E" title="牙牙學語">唠叨</a>，去发出他们周围使用的语音，或者做出周围出现的<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%89%8B%E5%BD%A2&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="手形（页面不存在）">手形</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/handshape" class="extiw" title="en:handshape">handshape</a>）。十二至十八个月个月左右婴儿会开始使用词语，十八个月左右其平均词汇量大约是50个词语。儿童最开始会使用<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%8B%AC%E5%AD%97%E8%AF%AD&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="独字语（页面不存在）">独字语</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holophrasis" class="extiw" title="en:Holophrasis">Holophrasis</a>），即仅用一个词来表达自己的想法。此后几个月便会出现双字语，再随后几个月内将开始产生<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%94%B5%E6%8A%A5%E5%BC%8F%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="电报式语言（页面不存在）">电报式语言</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/telegraphic_speech" class="extiw" title="en:telegraphic speech">telegraphic speech</a>）或者一些短句子，这些短句子的<a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E6%B3%95" title="语法">语法</a>远比成人语言的语法简单，但从其语法结构可见规律性。但确表现出规律性的语法结构体。从三岁到五岁左右，儿童说话或者做手语的能力就会发展到和成人相若的程度，其语言习得过程基本完成。<a href="#cite_note-OGrady-Cho-131">[127]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kennison-132">[128]</a>2013年的研究表明，未出生的胎儿在某种程度上已经能够获得语言。<a href="#cite_note-133">[129]</a><a href="#cite_note-134">[130]</a> 通过在日常生活或课程中接触，人可以在任何年龄习得第二甚至更多的语言。学习第二语言的孩子比成年人更有可能达到母语水平，但一般来说，第二语言使用者很难比得过母语使用者。第一语言习得和额外语言习得之间的一个重要区别是，额外语言习得的过程会受到学习者已知语言的影响。<a href="#cite_note-135">[131]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="语言与文化">语言与文化</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80&action=edit&section=26" title="编辑章节：语言与文化">编辑</a>]</div> <div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">参见：<a href="/wiki/%E6%96%87%E5%8C%96" title="文化">文化</a>和<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%A8%80%E8%AF%AD%E5%85%B1%E5%90%8C%E4%BD%93&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="言语共同体（页面不存在）">言语共同体</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speech_community" class="extiw" title="en:Speech community">Speech community</a>）</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Arnold_Lakhovsky_Conversation.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Arnold_Lakhovsky_Conversation.png/220px-Arnold_Lakhovsky_Conversation.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="184" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Arnold_Lakhovsky_Conversation.png/330px-Arnold_Lakhovsky_Conversation.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Arnold_Lakhovsky_Conversation.png/440px-Arnold_Lakhovsky_Conversation.png 2x" data-file-width="1999" data-file-height="1671" /></a><figcaption><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%98%BF%E8%AF%BA%E5%BE%B7%C2%B7%E6%8B%89%E7%A7%91%E5%BC%97%E6%96%AF%E5%9F%BA&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="阿诺德·拉科弗斯基（页面不存在）">阿诺德·拉科弗斯基</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E8%AF%BA%E5%BE%B7%C2%B7%E6%8B%89%E7%A7%91%E5%BC%97%E6%96%AF%E5%9F%BA" class="extiw" title="en:阿诺德·拉科弗斯基">阿诺德·拉科弗斯基</a>）的作品《会话》（1935）</figcaption></figure> 语言是文化的载体，每个民族的语言都带有该民族特有的文化印记，不同民族的文化差异可以表现在语言和交际之中，人们在学习<a href="/wiki/%E7%AC%AC%E4%BA%8C%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80" class="mw-redirect" title="第二语言">第二语言</a>的时候，必然会经历一些陌生的文化现象，这些文化现象就成为一种理解和使用<a href="/wiki/%E7%9B%AE%E7%9A%84%E8%AF%AD" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="目的语">目的语</a>的文化障碍，可理解为特定<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%A8%80%E8%AF%AD%E5%85%B1%E5%90%8C%E4%BD%93&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="言语共同体（页面不存在）">言语共同体</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/speech_community" class="extiw" title="en:speech community">speech community</a>）内的特定语言规范，也是该共同体的大文化的一部分。语言不仅在发音、词汇和语法上有所不同，其“语言文化”也五花八门。人类利用语言来识别某个文化群体，区别开其他的群体。即使是同一语言的使用者，也会用几种不同的方式去使用该语言，这每一种方式都表示大文化所隶属的特定子群。语言学家和人类学家，特别是<a href="/wiki/%E7%A4%BE%E4%BC%9A%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E5%AD%A6" title="社会语言学">社会语言学家</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%BA%E7%B1%BB%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E5%AD%A6" title="人类语言学">人类语言学家</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80%E4%BA%BA%E9%A1%9E%E5%AD%B8" title="語言人類學">语言人类学家</a>，专门研究说话方式在言语共同体之间的变化。<a href="#cite_note-Duranti2003-136">[132]</a> 语言学家使用“<a href="/wiki/%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80%E8%AE%8A%E9%AB%94" class="mw-redirect" title="語言變體">語言變體</a>”这一术语来指代说一种语言的不同方式，它包含了地理或社会文化意义上的<a href="/wiki/%E6%96%B9%E8%A8%80" title="方言">方言</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E8%AA%9E%E5%9F%9F" title="語域">語域</a>，以及<a href="/wiki/%E6%AC%A1%E6%96%87%E5%8C%96" title="次文化">次文化</a>当中的<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%AF%AD%E4%BD%93%E5%88%87%E6%8D%A2&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="语体切换（页面不存在）">语体</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/style_shifting" class="extiw" title="en:style shifting">style shifting</a>）。语言人类学家和语言社会学家将交流语体定义为在特定文化中使用和理解语言的方式。<a href="#cite_note-Foley-137">[133]</a> 由于语言使用规范由特定群体的成员共享，因此交流语体也成为展示和构建群体身份的一种方式。语言差异可能成为社会群体之间划分的显着标志，例如，说一口带有特定口音的语言可以代表一个人的少数民族或少数社会阶层身份、其祖籍或者他作为第二语言使用者的地位。这些差异不是语言系统的一部分，而是人们如何使用语言作为构建群体的一种重要的社会工具。<a href="#cite_note-138">[134]</a> 然而，许多语言也会用一些语法惯例标记社会等级或社会对立，来凸显说话者绝对或相对的社会地位。在许多语言中，男女之间、年龄层之间或<a href="/wiki/%E7%A4%BE%E4%BC%9A%E9%98%B6%E7%BA%A7" title="社会阶级">社会阶级</a>之间说话的方式存在语体甚至语法上的差异，就像某些语言根据听话者是谁而使用不同的词语一样。例如，在澳大利亚的<a href="/wiki/%E8%BF%AA%E7%88%BE%E5%B7%B4%E7%88%BE%E8%AA%9E" title="迪爾巴爾語">迪爾巴爾語</a>中，已婚男子在其婆婆面前讲话时，必须使用一套特殊的词语来提及日常用品。<a href="#cite_note-139">[135]</a>又例如，一些文化里面有精妙的“社交<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%9B%B4%E7%A4%BA%E8%AF%AD&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="直示语（页面不存在）">直示语</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/deixis" class="extiw" title="en:deixis">deixis</a>）”系统，或通过语言手段表达社交距离的系统。<a href="#cite_note-Foley_1997_p-140">[136]</a>在英语中，社交直示语主要通过区分姓氏和其他姓氏，以及“夫人”、“医生”或“阁下”等头衔来识别某些人。但在其他语言中，这种系统可能非常复杂，并且并覆盖到语言的整个语法和词汇当中。例如，在东亚语言中，如<a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%B0%E8%AF%AD" title="泰语">泰语</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%BC%85%E7%94%B8%E8%AF%AD" title="缅甸语">缅甸语</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E7%88%AA%E5%93%87%E8%AF%AD" class="mw-redirect" title="爪哇语">爪哇语</a>，说话者会根据他和听话者在等级体系中的相对位置来使用不同的单词，其中动物和儿童等级最低，神和皇室成员等级最高。<a href="#cite_note-Foley_1997_p-140">[136]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="文字书写">文字书写</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80&action=edit&section=27" title="编辑章节：文字书写">编辑</a>]</div> <div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目：<a href="/wiki/%E6%96%87%E5%AD%97" title="文字">文字</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E6%9B%B8%E5%AF%AB" title="書寫">書寫</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E8%AD%98%E5%AD%97" title="識字">識字</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Winnipeg_Forks_-_Plains_Cree_Inscription.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Winnipeg_Forks_-_Plains_Cree_Inscription.jpg/300px-Winnipeg_Forks_-_Plains_Cree_Inscription.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="98" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Winnipeg_Forks_-_Plains_Cree_Inscription.jpg/450px-Winnipeg_Forks_-_Plains_Cree_Inscription.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Winnipeg_Forks_-_Plains_Cree_Inscription.jpg/600px-Winnipeg_Forks_-_Plains_Cree_Inscription.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1341" data-file-height="436" /></a><figcaption>一份用<a href="/wiki/%E5%8A%A0%E6%8B%BF%E5%A4%A7%E5%8E%9F%E4%BD%8F%E6%B0%91%E9%9F%B3%E7%AF%80%E6%96%87%E5%AD%97" title="加拿大原住民音節文字">加拿大原住民音節文字</a>书写的沼泽<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%8B%E9%87%8C%E8%AF%AD" title="克里语">克里语</a>铭文</figcaption></figure> 历史长河当中，人类发明了许多用图形媒介表示语言的方式，这些方式被称为书写系统。 书写令语言对人类更加有用处。它可以在人体外部储存大量信息，并可重复检索、允许长距离交流，原本仅靠语音和手语是没办法做到这一点的。许多语言具有不同的体裁、语体，区分书面语和口语，甚至在一部分语言共同体里面，书面语与口语在很大程度上是分开的，如<a href="/wiki/%E7%B2%A4%E8%AF%AD" title="粤语">粤语</a>。有证据表明，书写的运用也会对人类的认知发展产生影响，这可能是因为获得识字通常需要正确而正规的教育。<a href="#cite_note-141">[137]</a> <a href="/wiki/%E4%B9%A6%E5%86%99%E7%B3%BB%E7%BB%9F" class="mw-redirect" title="书写系统">书写系统</a>最开始发明于公元前4千年后期<a href="/wiki/%E9%9D%92%E9%93%9C%E6%97%B6%E4%BB%A3" title="青铜时代">青铜时代</a>初叶。<a href="/wiki/%E8%8B%8F%E7%BE%8E%E5%B0%94" title="苏美尔">苏美尔</a>古老的<a href="/wiki/%E6%A5%94%E5%BD%A2%E6%96%87%E5%AD%97" title="楔形文字">楔形文字</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%83%E5%8F%8A" title="埃及">埃及</a>的<a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%A3%E4%B9%A6%E4%BD%93" title="圣书体">象形文字</a>通常被认为是最早的书写系统，它们都脱胎于公元前3400-3200年左右出现的原始文字符号系统，而最早的连贯文本在公元前2600年左右出现。人们普遍认为苏美尔人的文字独立发明的，而对于埃及文字是完全独立于苏美尔而发明的，还是文化传播而来的，则颇具争议。对于在公元前6000年左右发展起来的<a href="/wiki/%E6%B1%89%E5%AD%97" title="汉字">汉字</a>也存在类似的争论。人们普遍认为<a href="/wiki/%E5%89%8D%E5%93%A5%E4%BC%A6%E5%B8%83%E6%97%B6%E6%9C%9F" class="mw-redirect" title="前哥伦布时期">前哥伦布时期</a>的<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%B8%AD%E7%BE%8E%E6%B4%B2%E4%B9%A6%E5%86%99%E7%B3%BB%E7%BB%9F&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="中美洲书写系统（页面不存在）">中美洲书写系统</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesoamerican_writing_systems" class="extiw" title="en:Mesoamerican writing systems">Mesoamerican writing systems</a>）（包括<a href="/wiki/%E5%A5%A5%E5%B0%94%E6%A2%85%E5%85%8B%E6%96%87%E6%98%8E" title="奥尔梅克文明">奥尔梅克</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E7%91%AA%E9%9B%85%E6%96%87%E5%AD%97" title="瑪雅文字">瑪雅文字</a>）具有独立的起源。<a href="#cite_note-Coulmas-97">[94]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="语言变化">语言变化</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80&action=edit&section=28" title="编辑章节：语言变化">编辑</a>]</div> <div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目：<a href="/wiki/%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80%E8%AE%8A%E5%8C%96" title="語言變化">語言變化</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E6%B3%95%E5%8C%96" title="语法化">语法化</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Beowulf.firstpage.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Beowulf.firstpage.jpeg/220px-Beowulf.firstpage.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="349" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Beowulf.firstpage.jpeg/330px-Beowulf.firstpage.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/08/Beowulf.firstpage.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="363" data-file-height="576" /></a><figcaption>《贝奥武甫》手稿第一页，作于中世纪早期（公元800-1100年），以<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E8%8B%B1%E8%AF%AD" title="古英语">古英语</a>书写。虽然古英语是现代英语的直系祖先，但当今的英语使用者如果没有受过专门教育的话完全不能理解</figcaption></figure> 所有语言都会随着说话者采用或发明新的说话方式而发生变化，而且这些变化会在言语共同体内扩散。语言变化是全方位的，语言会在语音、词汇、形态、语法甚至语用等任何层面发生变化。尽管语言变化最初往往消极对待这些变化，认为这是一种语言消退或语言规范的弱化，但这变化实乃自然而且不可避免的。<a href="#cite_note-142">[138]</a> 语言变化可能会影响特定语音或整个<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%AF%AD%E9%9F%B3%E7%B3%BB%E7%BB%9F&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="语音系统（页面不存在）">语音系统</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonological_change" class="extiw" title="en:Phonological change">Phonological change</a>）。<a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E9%9F%B3%E5%8F%98%E5%8C%96" class="mw-redirect" title="语音变化">语音变化</a>包括语音或语音特征的替换，这种替换会导致原有语音损失，甚至完全变成以前没有的新语音。语音也会因应其前后的语音而变化。语音变化通常具有规律性，故无论无论满足结构条件与否，语音都会成体系地变化，任何非语音因素都可以忽略。但体系性变化并不绝对，语音变化也常有仅影响一个或几个词地个例。有时个别的变化会触发语音系统的<a href="/wiki/%E9%93%BE%E5%8F%98" title="链变">链式音移</a>，如<a href="/wiki/%E6%97%A5%E8%80%B3%E6%9B%BC%E8%AF%AD%E6%97%8F" title="日耳曼语族">日耳曼语族</a>所有的<a href="/wiki/%E5%A1%9E%E9%9F%B3" title="塞音">塞音</a>都曾发生过<a href="/wiki/%E9%93%BE%E5%BC%8F%E9%9F%B3%E7%A7%BB" class="mw-redirect" title="链式音移">链式音移</a>，最开始 *bʰ 变为 /b/，导致原来的 *b 变为 /p/，然后又导致原来的 *p 变为 /f/。这一过程被称为<a href="/wiki/%E6%A0%BC%E6%9E%97%E5%AE%9A%E5%BE%8B" title="格林定律">格林定律</a>。这也可以解释为何<a href="/wiki/%E6%84%8F%E5%A4%A7%E5%88%A9%E8%AF%AD%E6%97%8F" title="意大利语族">意大利语族</a>里面 p 开头的词 pater 和 pisces 对应到日耳曼语族里面就会变成 p 开头的 father 和 fish。<a href="#cite_note-143">[139]</a>链式音移的另外一个著名例子是英语的<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%83%E9%9F%B3%E5%A4%A7%E6%8E%A8%E7%A7%BB" class="mw-redirect" title="元音大推移">元音大推移</a>，这是现代英语<a href="/wiki/%E6%AD%A3%E5%86%99%E6%B3%95" class="mw-redirect" title="正写法">正写法</a>与发音不一致的主要原因。 语音变化的另外一种原因是<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%85%83%E9%9F%B3%E7%BC%A9%E5%90%88&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="元音缩合（页面不存在）">元音缩合</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crasis" class="extiw" title="en:Crasis">Crasis</a>），即由于发音模糊等原因，两个独立的词里面大量音素脱落，逐渐缩短为一个词当中的两个音节甚至两个语音的现象。例如拉丁语 mea domina 后来变成了<a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%95%E8%AF%AD" title="法语">法语</a>中的 madame 和美国英语中的 ma'am。<a href="#cite_note-144">[140]</a> 语言在<a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E6%B3%95" title="语法">语法</a>层面也会发生变化，这些现象常常在词或词素脱落，且语法系统无意识地重组予以代偿时发生。例如，标准西班牙语利用屈折变化 -s 来标记动词第二人称，但一部分<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8A%A0%E5%8B%92%E6%AF%94%E6%B5%B7%E8%A5%BF%E7%8F%AD%E7%89%99%E8%AF%AD&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="加勒比海西班牙语（页面不存在）">加勒比海西班牙语</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caribbean_Spanish" class="extiw" title="en:Caribbean Spanish">Caribbean Spanish</a>）当中 -s 脱落，导致它们只能前置人称代词 tú 来表示第二人称。故西班牙语当中 ¿como te llamas? <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r61209503">[ˈkomo te ˈjamas]（“你叫什么名字？”）这一句子到了<a href="/wiki/%E5%8A%A0%E5%8B%92%E6%AF%94%E6%B5%B7%E5%9C%B0%E5%8C%BA" class="mw-redirect" title="加勒比海地区">加勒比海地区</a>就变成了 ¿como tú te llama? <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r61209503">[ˈkomo tu te ˈjama]。故细微的语音变化也会影响形态和语法。<a href="#cite_note-145">[141]</a>语法变化的另外一个常见原因是某些特定话语模式的固化即<a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E6%B3%95%E5%8C%96" title="语法化">语法化</a>，如<a href="/wiki/%E7%86%9F%E8%AF%AD" title="熟语">熟语</a>的形成等。例如英语 going to 失去了其进行<a href="/wiki/%E4%BD%93_(%E8%AF%AD%E6%B3%95)" title="体 (语法)">体</a>和运动的含义，成为了将来时的标志，在某些英语方言里面这种变化非常彻底（如 I'm gonna）。 语言变化可能会受到其内部因素推动，例如特定语音在难以听辨或发音的情况下就会促使语音变化，或者通过成体系的变化使一些罕见的语言结构<a href="/wiki/%E6%BC%82%E5%8F%98" class="mw-redirect" title="漂变">常态化</a>。<a href="#cite_note-146">[142]</a>语言变化的另外一些因素则是社会性的，例如当某些发音代表了特定群体、社会阶层或意识形态集团的时候，希望进入这些群体的人就会模仿、采用那些发音，客观上就发生了语音变化。故身份构建和政治议题也会对语言结构产生深远影响。<a href="#cite_note-147">[143]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="语言接触">语言接触</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80&action=edit&section=29" title="编辑章节：语言接触">编辑</a>]</div> <div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目：<a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E6%8E%A5%E8%A7%A6" class="mw-redirect" title="语言接触">语言接触</a></div> 语言接触也是导致语言特性在语言之间传播的重要原因。当两种语言或语言变体的使用者定期互动，就会发生语言接触。<a href="#cite_note-148">[144]</a><a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%9A%E8%AF%AD%E5%88%B6" title="多语制">多语制</a>可能一直是<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%96%E7%95%8C%E6%AD%B7%E5%8F%B2" title="世界歷史">人类历史</a>的常态，现代世界的大多数人都能说多门语言。在<a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%91%E6%97%8F%E5%9B%BD%E5%AE%B6" class="mw-redirect" title="民族国家">民族国家</a>的概念兴起之前，单语制一般只是岛屿居民的特征。但是，<a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%91%E6%97%8F%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" class="mw-redirect" title="民族主义">民族主义</a><a href="/wiki/%E6%84%8F%E8%AF%86%E5%BD%A2%E6%80%81" class="mw-redirect" title="意识形态">意识形态</a>使得一个<a href="/wiki/%E5%9B%BD%E5%AE%B6" title="国家">国家</a>，一种语言的观念广为世人接受，单语制也就流行了开来。尽管如此，世界上约250个国家当中却存在大约6000种语言，说明大多数国家里面还是存在多种语言，故大多数语言仍然都会与其他语言密切接触。<a href="#cite_note-149">[145]</a> 当不同语言的使用者密切互动，他们的语言往往会相互影响。长时间的语言接触过后，一个语言特征会在不同的语言当中扩散，使得不同系属的语言得以趋同。这可能会在许多语言密切接触的地区产生<a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E8%81%94%E7%9B%9F" title="语言联盟">语言联盟</a>，当中互不相关的语言开始共享大量语言特征。有记录的语言联盟包括<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%B7%B4%E5%B0%94%E5%B9%B2%E8%AF%AD%E5%8C%BA&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="巴尔干语区（页面不存在）">巴尔干语区</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balkan_language_area" class="extiw" title="en:Balkan language area">Balkan language area</a>）、<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%B8%AD%E7%BE%8E%E6%B4%B2%E8%AF%AD%E5%8C%BA&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="中美洲语区（页面不存在）">中美洲语区</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesoamerican_language_area" class="extiw" title="en:Mesoamerican language area">Mesoamerican language area</a>）和<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%9F%83%E5%A1%9E%E4%BF%84%E6%AF%94%E4%BA%9A%E8%AF%AD%E5%8C%BA&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="埃塞俄比亚语区（页面不存在）">埃塞俄比亚语区</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethiopian_language_area" class="extiw" title="en:Ethiopian language area">Ethiopian language area</a>）。此外，由于特定<a href="/w/index.php?title=Areal_feature_(linguistics)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Areal feature (linguistics)（页面不存在）">地域特征</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/areal_feature_(linguistics)" class="extiw" title="en:areal feature (linguistics)">areal feature (linguistics)</a>）的广泛扩散，南亚、欧洲和东南亚等一些较大的地区有时被视为语言联盟。<a href="#cite_note-150">[146]</a><a href="#cite_note-151">[147]</a> 语言接触也会导致其他语言现象，如<a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E8%9E%8D%E5%90%88" title="语言融合">语言融合</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%96%E6%9D%A5%E8%AF%AD" title="外来语">词汇借用</a>甚至<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%AF%8D%E6%B1%87%E9%87%8D%E7%BD%AE&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="词汇重置（页面不存在）">词汇重置</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/relexification" class="extiw" title="en:relexification">relexification</a>）（本土词汇渐渐被优势语言的借词所取代）。在极端而持续的语言接触下，它可能导致形成一些新的<a href="/wiki/%E6%B7%B7%E5%90%88%E8%AF%AD" title="混合语">混合语言</a>，这些混合语言难以被归类到单一语言系属中去。例如<a href="/wiki/%E7%9A%AE%E9%92%A6%E8%AF%AD" title="皮钦语">皮钦语</a>，这类混合语言形成于不同语言的成年使用者之间的定期接触，通常他们都不会说对方的语言，但是通过皮钦语可以构建一种简化了各自语法和语音体系，但同时又具有两方语言特征的交流方式。皮钦语也因此不会有母语使用者，定义上皮钦语的使用者都用另外一种语言作为第一语言。但如果一种皮钦语成为了某个言语共同体的主要语言，那么皮钦语就会成为这个言语共同体里面儿童的母语，并随着这些儿童长大而在结构上变得更复杂。这些语言就另称之为<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%8B%E9%87%8C%E5%A5%A5%E5%B0%94%E8%AF%AD" class="mw-redirect" title="克里奥尔语">克里奥尔语</a>，例如<a href="/wiki/%E5%B7%B4%E5%B8%83%E4%BA%9A%E7%9A%AE%E9%92%A6%E8%AF%AD" title="巴布亚皮钦语">巴布亚皮钦语</a>，它是<a href="/wiki/%E5%B7%B4%E5%B8%83%E4%BA%9A%E6%96%B0%E5%87%A0%E5%86%85%E4%BA%9A" title="巴布亚新几内亚">巴布亚新几内亚</a>的官方语言，起初源于<a href="/wiki/%E8%8B%B1%E8%AF%AD" title="英语">英语</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%97%E5%B2%9B%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" class="mw-redirect" title="南岛语系">南岛语</a>；还有<a href="/wiki/%E6%B5%B7%E5%9C%B0%E5%85%8B%E9%87%8C%E5%A5%A7%E7%88%BE%E8%AA%9E" title="海地克里奧爾語">海地克里奧爾語</a>，以及加拿大的<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%B1%B3%E5%A5%87%E5%A4%AB%E8%AF%AD&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="米奇夫语（页面不存在）">米奇夫语</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michif_language" class="extiw" title="en:Michif language">Michif language</a>）等。<a href="#cite_note-152">[148]</a><a href="#cite_note-153">[149]</a><a href="#cite_note-154">[150]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="语言多样性">语言多样性</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80&action=edit&section=30" title="编辑章节：语言多样性">编辑</a>]</div> <div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable noprint">参见<a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E5%88%97%E8%A1%A8" title="语言列表">语言列表</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E4%BB%A5%E4%BA%BA%E5%8F%A3%E6%8E%92%E5%88%97%E7%9A%84%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E5%88%97%E8%A1%A8" class="mw-redirect" title="以人口排列的语言列表">以人口排列的语言列表</a>以获取更详尽的列表。</div> <table class="wikitable" style="width: 200px; float: right; margin:10px;"> <tbody><tr> <th>語言</th> <th>母語使用人數 (以百萬計)<a href="#cite_note-Ethnologue-155">[151]</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%98%E8%AF%9D" title="官话">汉语官话</a></td> <td>848 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E7%8F%AD%E7%89%99%E8%AF%AD" title="西班牙语">西班牙语</a></td> <td>329 <a href="#cite_note-157">[註 5]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/%E8%8B%B1%E8%AF%AD" title="英语">英语</a></td> <td>328 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/%E8%91%A1%E8%90%84%E7%89%99%E8%AA%9E" title="葡萄牙語">葡萄牙語</a></td> <td>250 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E6%8B%89%E4%BC%AF%E8%AF%AD" title="阿拉伯语">阿拉伯语</a></td> <td>221 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%B0%E5%9C%B0%E8%AF%AD" title="印地语">印地语</a></td> <td>182 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/%E5%AD%9F%E5%8A%A0%E6%8B%89%E8%AF%AD" title="孟加拉语">孟加拉语</a></td> <td>181 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/%E4%BF%84%E8%AF%AD" title="俄语">俄语</a></td> <td>144 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/%E6%97%A5%E8%AF%AD" title="日语">日语</a></td> <td>122 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/%E7%88%AA%E5%93%87%E8%AA%9E" title="爪哇語">爪哇語</a></td> <td>84.3 </td></tr></tbody></table> “<a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%91%E6%97%8F%E8%AA%9E" title="民族語">民族語</a>”网站把「活的語言」（仍在使用的語言）定義為「一門至少擁有一名母語使用者的語言」。目前已知的「活的語言」的準確數量為6,000-7,000種之間，這種差異可歸因於「統計者如何定義語言」以及「如何區分語言和<a href="/wiki/%E6%96%B9%E8%A8%80" title="方言">方言</a>」這兩點。截至2016年，“民族語”記錄了7,097種活的人類語言。<a href="#cite_note-158">[153]</a>“民族語”基于语言的<a href="/wiki/%E7%9B%B8%E4%BA%92%E7%90%86%E8%A7%A3%E6%80%A7" title="相互理解性">相互理解性</a>研究划分语言，故其划分的语言种类来得比一般较为保守的分类多，如<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%B9%E9%BA%A6%E8%AF%AD" title="丹麦语">丹麦语</a>一般被视为一种单一语言，其下存在两种方言，而“民族語”则视之为丹麦语和<a href="/wiki/%E6%97%A5%E5%BE%B7%E5%85%B0%E8%AF%AD" title="日德兰语">日德兰语</a>两种独立语言。<a href="#cite_note-Ethnologue-155">[151]</a> “民族語”网站也显示，389种语言（约占总数6%）的使用者数达100万以上。所有这些语言的使用者总数占世界总人口的94%，而剩下94%的语言的使用者只占世界人口的6%。右表是“民族語”估算得出世界上使用者数前十的语言及其使用者数（2009年数据）。<a href="#cite_note-Ethnologue-155">[151]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="语言和方言">语言和方言</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80&action=edit&section=31" title="编辑章节：语言和方言">编辑</a>]</div> <div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目：<a href="/wiki/%E6%96%B9%E8%A8%80#“方言”和“语言”的界定" title="方言">方言 § “方言”和“语言”的界定</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Novi_Sad_mayor_office.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Novi_Sad_mayor_office.jpg/220px-Novi_Sad_mayor_office.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Novi_Sad_mayor_office.jpg/330px-Novi_Sad_mayor_office.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Novi_Sad_mayor_office.jpg/440px-Novi_Sad_mayor_office.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1088" data-file-height="1632" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/%E5%A1%9E%E5%B0%94%E7%BB%B4%E4%BA%9A" title="塞尔维亚">塞尔维亚</a><a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%BA%E5%A8%81%E8%90%A8" class="mw-redirect" title="诺威萨">诺威萨市</a><a href="/wiki/%E5%B8%82%E9%95%BF" title="市长">市长</a>办公室外的<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%9A%E8%AF%AD%E5%88%B6" title="多语制">多语</a>标识，使用了该市的4种官方语言：<a href="/wiki/%E5%A1%9E%E5%B0%94%E7%BB%B4%E4%BA%9A%E8%AF%AD" title="塞尔维亚语">塞尔维亚语</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%8C%88%E7%89%99%E5%88%A9%E8%AF%AD" title="匈牙利语">匈牙利语</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E6%96%AF%E6%B4%9B%E4%BC%90%E5%85%8B%E8%AF%AD" title="斯洛伐克语">斯洛伐克语</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E6%BD%98%E8%AB%BE%E5%B0%BC%E4%BA%9E%E7%9B%A7%E6%A3%AE%E5%B0%BC%E4%BA%9E%E8%AA%9E" title="潘諾尼亞盧森尼亞語">潘諾尼亞盧森尼亞語</a></figcaption></figure> 语言学家<a href="/wiki/%E9%A6%AC%E5%85%8B%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E9%AD%8F%E5%9B%A0%E8%B3%B4%E5%B8%8C" title="馬克斯·魏因賴希">馬克斯·魏因賴希</a>有句十分有名的论述，“语言就是有着<a href="/wiki/%E9%99%86%E5%86%9B" title="陆军">陆军</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E6%B5%B7%E5%86%9B" title="海军">海军</a>的方言”（a language is a dialect with an army and navy.）<a href="#cite_note-5_minute_linguist-159">[154]</a>，尽管如此，<a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80" class="mw-redirect" title="语言">语言</a>与<a href="/wiki/%E6%96%B9%E8%A8%80" title="方言">方言</a>之间并无明显界限，而政治上的边界往往会影响语言变体作为语言或方言的区分。例如，<a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%A2%E5%AE%B6%E8%AA%9E" class="mw-redirect" title="客家語">客家語</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%B2%A4%E8%AF%AD" title="粤语">粤语</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%98%E8%AF%9D" title="官话">官话</a>常被視作漢語的方言，儘管其差異更甚於<a href="/wiki/%E6%8C%AA%E5%A8%81%E8%AA%9E" class="mw-redirect" title="挪威語">挪威語</a>及其衍生語言<a href="/wiki/%E7%91%9E%E5%85%B8%E8%AA%9E" title="瑞典語">瑞典語</a>之間的差異。<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%97%E6%96%AF%E6%8B%89%E5%A4%AB%E5%85%A7%E6%88%B0" title="南斯拉夫內戰">南斯拉夫內戰</a>以前，<a href="/wiki/%E5%A1%9E%E5%B0%94%E7%BB%B4%E4%BA%9A-%E5%85%8B%E7%BD%97%E5%9C%B0%E4%BA%9A%E8%AF%AD" title="塞尔维亚-克罗地亚语">塞尔维亚-克罗地亚语</a>被视为同一语言的两种方言，但现在<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%8B%E7%BD%97%E5%9C%B0%E4%BA%9A%E8%AF%AD" title="克罗地亚语">克罗地亚语</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E5%A1%9E%E5%B0%94%E7%BB%B4%E4%BA%9A%E8%AF%AD" title="塞尔维亚语">塞尔维亚语</a>分别使用<a href="/wiki/%E6%8B%89%E4%B8%81%E5%AD%97%E6%AF%8D" title="拉丁字母">拉丁字母</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E9%87%8C%E5%B0%94%E5%AD%97%E6%AF%8D" title="西里尔字母">西里尔字母</a>，同时也被视为不同的语言。换言之，语言的区分不仅取决于文化差异、<a href="/wiki/%E6%96%87%E5%AD%97" title="文字">文字</a>系统、<a href="/wiki/%E7%9B%B8%E4%BA%92%E7%90%86%E8%A7%A3%E6%80%A7" title="相互理解性">相互理解性</a>，也取决于政治考量。<a href="#cite_note-160">[155]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="世界语言系属">世界语言系属</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80&action=edit&section=32" title="编辑章节：世界语言系属">编辑</a>]</div> <div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目：<a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E7%B3%BB%E5%B1%9E%E5%88%86%E7%B1%BB" title="语言系属分类">语言系属分类</a></div> <div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">参见：<a href="/wiki/%E6%96%B9%E8%A8%80%E5%AD%A6" title="方言学">方言学</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E6%AD%B7%E5%8F%B2%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80%E5%AD%B8" title="歷史語言學">歷史語言學</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB%E5%88%97%E8%A1%A8" title="语系列表">语系列表</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Les_familles_de_langues_sans_legende.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Les_familles_de_langues_sans_legende.png/900px-Les_familles_de_langues_sans_legende.png" decoding="async" width="900" height="427" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/64/Les_familles_de_langues_sans_legende.png 1.5x" data-file-width="1339" data-file-height="636" /></a><figcaption>世界口語语系分布图： <table border="0" style="background-color:transparent;"> <tbody><tr> <td valign="top" width="25%"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r84565780">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid var(--border-color-notice,black);color:inherit}.mw-parser-output .legend-color-styled{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid var(--border-color-notice,black);color:inherit}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend">  <a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%9A%E9%9D%9E%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="亚非语系">亚非语系</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84565780"><div class="legend">  <a href="/wiki/%E5%B0%BC%E6%97%A5%E5%B0%94-%E5%88%9A%E6%9E%9C%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="尼日尔-刚果语系">尼日尔-刚果语系</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84565780"><div class="legend">  <a href="/wiki/%E5%B0%BC%E7%BD%97-%E6%92%92%E5%93%88%E6%8B%89%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="尼罗-撒哈拉语系">尼罗-撒哈拉语系</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84565780"><div class="legend">  <a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E4%BE%9D%E6%A1%91%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" class="mw-redirect" title="科依桑语系">科依桑语系</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84565780"><div class="legend">  <a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%B0%E6%AC%A7%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="印欧语系">印欧语系</a></div> </td> <td valign="top" width="25%"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84565780"><div class="legend">  <a href="/wiki/%E9%AB%98%E5%8A%A0%E7%B4%A2%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" class="mw-redirect" title="高加索语系">高加索语系</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84565780"><div class="legend">  <a href="/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E5%B0%94%E6%B3%B0%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="阿尔泰语系">阿尔泰语系</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84565780"><div class="legend">  <a href="/wiki/%E4%B9%8C%E6%8B%89%E5%B0%94%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="乌拉尔语系">乌拉尔语系</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84565780"><div class="legend">  <a href="/wiki/%E8%BE%BE%E7%BD%97%E6%AF%97%E8%8D%BC%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="达罗毗荼语系">达罗毗荼语系</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84565780"><div class="legend">  <a href="/wiki/%E6%B1%89%E8%97%8F%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="汉藏语系">汉藏语系</a></div> </td> <td valign="top" width="25%"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84565780"><div class="legend">  <a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%97%E4%BA%9A%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="南亚语系">南亚语系</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84565780"><div class="legend">  <a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%97%E5%B2%9B%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" class="mw-redirect" title="南岛语系">南岛语系</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84565780"><div class="legend">  <a href="/wiki/%E5%B8%95%E9%A9%AC-%E6%81%A9%E6%B0%B8%E7%94%98%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" class="mw-redirect" title="帕马-恩永甘语系">帕马-恩永甘语系</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84565780"><div class="legend">  <a href="/wiki/%E8%B7%A8%E6%96%B0%E5%87%A0%E5%86%85%E4%BA%9A%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="跨新几内亚语系">跨新几内亚语系</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84565780"><div class="legend">  <a href="/wiki/%E5%A3%AE%E4%BE%97%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" class="mw-redirect" title="壮侗语系">壮侗语系</a></div> </td> <td valign="top" width="25%"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84565780"><div class="legend">  <a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%8E%E6%B4%B2%E5%8E%9F%E4%BD%8F%E6%B0%91%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80" class="mw-redirect" title="美洲原住民语言">北美印第安语系</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84565780"><div class="legend">  <a href="/wiki/%E7%B4%8D-%E5%BE%B7%E5%85%A7%E8%AA%9E%E7%B3%BB" title="納-德內語系">纳-德内语系</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84565780"><div class="legend">  <a href="/wiki/%E7%88%B1%E6%96%AF%E5%9F%BA%E6%91%A9-%E9%98%BF%E7%95%99%E7%94%B3%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="爱斯基摩-阿留申语系">爱斯基摩-阿留申语系</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84565780"><div class="legend">  <a href="/wiki/%E5%AD%A4%E7%AB%8B%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80" title="孤立语言">孤立语系</a></div> </td></tr></tbody></table></figcaption></figure> 世界上的语言可以依据其共同祖语等亲缘关系，大致按照语门＞语系＞语族＞语支＞语言＞方言的层次划入不同的<a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E7%B3%BB%E5%B1%9E%E5%88%86%E7%B1%BB" title="语言系属分类">语言系属分类</a>，实际上分类层次可能更多更复杂。目前已被认定的语言系属有上百种，但随着今后研究深入发掘更多证据，一些系属可能会被划入更大的分类里面。同时，目前也有数十种语言被列为<a href="/wiki/%E5%AD%A4%E7%AB%8B%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80" title="孤立语言">孤立语言</a>，尚无法找到它们与其他语言之间的关联，如<a href="/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E7%8F%AD%E7%89%99" title="西班牙">西班牙</a>的<a href="/wiki/%E5%B7%B4%E6%96%AF%E5%85%8B%E8%AF%AD" class="mw-redirect" title="巴斯克语">巴斯克语</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%8E%E5%9B%BD" title="美国">美国</a><a href="/wiki/%E6%96%B0%E5%A2%A8%E8%A5%BF%E5%93%A5%E5%B7%9E" title="新墨西哥州">新墨西哥州</a>的<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A5%96%E5%B0%BC%E8%AF%AD&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="祖尼语（页面不存在）">祖尼语</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zuni_language" class="extiw" title="en:Zuni language">Zuni language</a>）、<a href="/wiki/%E5%A2%A8%E8%A5%BF%E5%93%A5" title="墨西哥">墨西哥</a>的<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%A1%94%E6%8B%89%E6%96%AF%E5%9D%8E%E8%AF%AD&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="塔拉斯坎语（页面不存在）">塔拉斯坎语</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pur%C3%A9pecha_language" class="extiw" title="en:Purépecha language">Purépecha language</a>）、<a href="/wiki/%E6%97%A5%E6%9C%AC" title="日本">日本</a>的<a href="/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E4%BC%8A%E5%8A%AA%E8%AF%AD" class="mw-redirect" title="阿伊努语">阿伊努语</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E5%B7%B4%E5%9F%BA%E6%96%AF%E5%9D%A6" title="巴基斯坦">巴基斯坦</a>的<a href="/wiki/%E5%B8%83%E9%AD%AF%E5%A4%8F%E6%96%AF%E5%9F%BA%E8%AA%9E" title="布魯夏斯基語">布魯夏斯基語</a>等等。<a href="#cite_note-Katzner-161">[156]</a>还有一些小语系未列出。 <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r79074265">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E6%B1%89%E8%97%8F%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="汉藏语系">汉藏语系</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E6%B1%89%E8%AF%AD%E6%97%8F" title="汉语族">汉语族</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%97%8F%E7%BC%85%E8%AF%AD%E6%97%8F" class="mw-redirect" title="藏缅语族">藏缅语族</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BE%97%E5%8F%B0%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" class="mw-redirect" title="侗台语系">侗台语系</a>（有争议，有中国学者认为属汉藏语系） <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BB%A1%E5%A4%AE%E8%AF%AD%E6%97%8F" class="mw-redirect" title="仡央语族">仡央语族</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BE%97%E6%B0%B4%E8%AF%AD%E6%94%AF" title="侗水语支">侗水语族</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%87%A8%E9%AB%98%E8%AA%9E" title="臨高語">临高语</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%BB%8E%E8%AF%AD%E6%94%AF" title="黎语支">黎语族</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%A3%AE%E5%82%A3%E8%AF%AD%E6%94%AF" class="mw-redirect" title="壮傣语支">壮傣语族</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%8B%97%E7%91%B6%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="苗瑶语系">苗瑶语系</a>（有争议，有中国学者认为属汉藏语系） <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E8%8B%97%E8%AF%AD%E6%94%AF" class="mw-redirect" title="苗语支">苗语族</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%91%B6%E8%AF%AD%E6%94%AF" title="瑶语支">瑶语族</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%B0%E6%AC%A7%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="印欧语系">印欧语系</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E6%97%A5%E8%80%B3%E6%9B%BC%E8%AF%AD%E6%97%8F" title="日耳曼语族">日耳曼语族</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%84%8F%E5%A4%A7%E5%88%A9%E8%AF%AD%E6%97%8F" title="意大利语族">意大利语族</a>（由<a href="/wiki/%E6%8B%89%E4%B8%81%E8%AA%9E" class="mw-redirect" title="拉丁語">拉丁語</a>衍生出<a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%85%E6%9B%BC%E8%AA%9E%E6%97%8F" class="mw-redirect" title="羅曼語族">羅曼語族</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%87%AF%E5%B0%94%E7%89%B9%E8%AF%AD%E6%97%8F" title="凯尔特语族">凯尔特语族</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%A2%E7%BD%97%E7%9A%84%E8%AF%AD%E6%97%8F" title="波罗的语族">波罗的语族</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%96%AF%E6%8B%89%E5%A4%AB%E8%AF%AD%E6%97%8F" title="斯拉夫语族">斯拉夫语族</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%B0%E5%BA%A6-%E4%BC%8A%E6%9C%97%E8%AF%AD%E6%97%8F" title="印度-伊朗语族">印度-伊朗语族</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%B8%8C%E8%85%8A%E8%AF%AD" title="希腊语">希腊语</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E5%B0%94%E5%B7%B4%E5%B0%BC%E4%BA%9A%E8%AF%AD" title="阿尔巴尼亚语">阿尔巴尼亚语</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%9A%E7%BE%8E%E5%B0%BC%E4%BA%9A%E8%AF%AD" title="亚美尼亚语">亚美尼亚语</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%89%E7%BA%B3%E6%89%98%E5%88%A9%E4%BA%9A%E8%AF%AD%E6%97%8F" class="mw-redirect" title="安纳托利亚语族">安纳托利亚语族</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%90%90%E7%81%AB%E7%BD%97%E8%AF%AD%E6%97%8F" class="mw-redirect" title="吐火罗语族">吐火罗语族</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%AB%98%E5%8A%A0%E7%B4%A2%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" class="mw-redirect" title="高加索语系">高加索语系</a>（有争议） <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%97%E9%AB%98%E5%8A%A0%E7%B4%A2%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="南高加索语系">南高加索语族</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8C%97%E9%AB%98%E5%8A%A0%E7%B4%A2%E8%AA%9E%E7%B3%BB" title="北高加索語系">北高加索语族</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%B9%8C%E6%8B%89%E5%B0%94%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="乌拉尔语系">乌拉尔语系</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E8%8A%AC%E5%85%B0-%E4%B9%8C%E6%88%88%E5%B0%94%E8%AF%AD%E6%97%8F" title="芬兰-乌戈尔语族">芬兰-乌戈尔语族</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%90%A8%E8%8E%AB%E8%80%B6%E5%BE%B7%E8%AF%AD%E6%97%8F" title="萨莫耶德语族">萨莫耶德语族</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E5%B0%94%E6%B3%B0%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="阿尔泰语系">阿尔泰语系</a>（阿尔泰语系是否存在尚有争议） <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E7%AA%81%E5%8E%A5%E8%AF%AD%E6%97%8F" class="mw-redirect" title="突厥语族">突厥语族</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%92%99%E5%8F%A4%E8%AF%AD%E6%97%8F" class="mw-redirect" title="蒙古语族">蒙古语族</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%BB%A1-%E9%80%9A%E5%8F%A4%E6%96%AF%E8%AF%AD%E6%97%8F" class="mw-redirect" title="满-通古斯语族">满-通古斯语族</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%97%A5%E8%AF%AD" title="日语">日语</a>（有争议，世界上多数学者认为是独立语言，或与<a href="/wiki/%E7%90%89%E7%90%83%E8%AF%AD" class="mw-redirect" title="琉球语">琉球语</a>组成<a href="/wiki/%E6%97%A5%E6%9C%AC%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" class="mw-redirect" title="日本语系">日本语系</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%9C%9D%E9%B2%9C%E8%AF%AD" class="mw-redirect" title="朝鲜语">朝鲜语</a>（有争议，世界上多数学者认为是独立语言）</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%BE%BE%E7%BD%97%E6%AF%97%E8%8D%BC%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="达罗毗荼语系">达罗毗荼语系</a> <ul><li>北部语族</li> <li>中部语族</li> <li>南部语族</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%97%E4%BA%9A%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="南亚语系">南亚语系</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E5%AD%9F-%E9%AB%98%E6%A3%89%E8%AF%AD%E6%97%8F" class="mw-redirect" title="孟-高棉语族">孟-高棉语族</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%92%99%E8%BE%BE%E8%AF%AD%E6%97%8F" title="蒙达语族">蒙（扪）达语族</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%B0%BC%E7%A7%91%E5%B7%B4%E8%AF%AD%E6%97%8F" class="mw-redirect" title="尼科巴语族">尼科巴语族</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%97%E5%B2%9B%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" class="mw-redirect" title="南岛语系">南岛语系</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%B0%E7%81%A3%E5%8D%97%E5%B3%B6%E8%AA%9E%E6%97%8F" class="mw-redirect" title="台灣南島語族">台湾南岛语族</a>（由多个语族组成）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%A9%AC%E6%9D%A5-%E6%B3%A2%E5%88%A9%E5%B0%BC%E8%A5%BF%E4%BA%9A%E8%AF%AD%E6%97%8F" title="马来-波利尼西亚语族">马来-波利尼西亚语族</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%97%AA%E5%90%AB%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" class="mw-redirect" title="闪含语系">闪含语系</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E9%97%AA%E8%AF%AD%E6%97%8F" class="mw-redirect" title="闪语族">闪语族</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%9F%8F%E6%9F%8F%E5%B0%94%E8%AF%AD%E6%97%8F" title="柏柏尔语族">柏柏尔语族</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%B9%8D%E5%BE%97%E8%AF%AD%E6%97%8F" title="乍得语族">乍得语族</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%BA%93%E6%96%BD%E7%89%B9%E8%AF%AD%E6%97%8F" class="mw-redirect" title="库施特语族">库施特语族</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%83%E5%8F%8A%E8%AA%9E%E6%97%8F" class="mw-redirect" title="埃及語族">埃及-科普特语族</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%B0%BC%E6%97%A5%E5%B0%94-%E5%88%9A%E6%9E%9C%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="尼日尔-刚果语系">尼日尔-刚果语系</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%A7%E8%A5%BF%E6%B4%8B-%E5%88%9A%E6%9E%9C%E8%AF%AD%E6%97%8F" title="大西洋-刚果语族">大西洋-刚果语族</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%B0%94%E5%A4%9A%E5%87%A1%E8%AF%AD%E6%97%8F" title="科尔多凡语族">科尔多凡语族</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%9B%BC%E5%BE%B7%E8%AA%9E%E6%97%8F" title="曼德語族">曼德语族</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%B8%95%E9%A9%AC-%E6%81%A9%E6%B0%B8%E7%94%98%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" class="mw-redirect" title="帕马-恩永甘语系">帕马-恩永甘语系</a></li></ul> </div> <a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%B0%E6%AC%A7%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="印欧语系">印欧语系</a>语言的使用者最多，达全球人口的46%<a href="#cite_note-EthnologueFamily-162">[157]</a>，其中包括了<a href="/wiki/%E8%8B%B1%E8%AF%AD" title="英语">英语</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E7%8F%AD%E7%89%99%E8%AF%AD" title="西班牙语">西班牙语</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E4%BF%84%E8%AF%AD" title="俄语">俄语</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%B0%E5%BA%A6%E6%96%AF%E5%9D%A6%E8%AF%AD" title="印度斯坦语">印度斯坦语</a>（<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%B0%E5%9C%B0%E8%AF%AD" title="印地语">印地语</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E4%B9%8C%E5%B0%94%E9%83%BD%E8%AF%AD" title="乌尔都语">乌尔都语</a>）等主要语言。它们首先经<a href="/wiki/%E6%AC%A7%E6%B4%B2%E6%B0%91%E6%97%8F%E5%A4%A7%E8%BF%81%E5%BE%99" class="mw-redirect" title="欧洲民族大迁徙">民族大迁徙</a>（公元400—800年）扩散到<a href="/wiki/%E6%AC%A7%E4%BA%9A%E5%A4%A7%E9%99%86" class="mw-redirect" title="欧亚大陆">欧亚大陆</a>各处，<a href="#cite_note-163">[158]</a><a href="#cite_note-164">[159]</a>而后又随着<a href="/wiki/%E6%AE%96%E6%B0%91%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="殖民主义">欧洲的殖民扩张</a>在<a href="/wiki/%E9%9D%9E%E6%B4%B2" title="非洲">非洲</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%8E%E6%B4%B2" title="美洲">美洲</a>取得了政治上乃至规模上的主导地位。<a href="/wiki/%E6%B1%89%E8%97%8F%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="汉藏语系">汉藏语系</a>语言占全球人口的20%<a href="#cite_note-EthnologueFamily-162">[157]</a>，主要分布在<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%9C%E4%BA%9A" title="东亚">东亚</a>，包括<a href="/wiki/%E6%B1%89%E8%AF%AD" title="汉语">汉语</a>的<a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%98%E8%AF%9D" title="官话">官话</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%A2%E5%AE%B6%E8%AF%9D" title="客家话">客家话</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%B2%A4%E8%AF%AD" title="粤语">粤语</a>，及其他数百种更小的语言。<a href="#cite_note-Comrie_2009-165">[160]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ogilvie_2008-166">[161]</a> <a href="/wiki/%E9%9D%9E%E6%B4%B2" title="非洲">非洲</a>大地上存在更多的语言系属，其中分布最广的是<a href="/wiki/%E5%B0%BC%E6%97%A5%E5%B0%94-%E5%88%9A%E6%9E%9C%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="尼日尔-刚果语系">尼日尔-刚果语系</a>，包括<a href="/wiki/%E6%96%AF%E7%93%A6%E5%B8%8C%E9%87%8C%E8%AF%AD" title="斯瓦希里语">斯瓦希里语</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E4%BF%AE%E7%B4%8D%E8%AA%9E" class="mw-redirect" title="修納語">修納語</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E7%BA%A6%E9%B2%81%E5%B7%B4%E8%AF%AD" title="约鲁巴语">约鲁巴语</a>等，占世界人口的6.9%。<a href="#cite_note-EthnologueFamily-162">[157]</a><a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%9A%E9%9D%9E%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="亚非语系">亚非语系</a>在非洲的规模则稍微少一些，但其中<a href="/wiki/%E9%97%AA%E7%B1%B3%E7%89%B9%E8%AF%AD%E6%97%8F" title="闪米特语族">闪米特语族</a>也有大量使用者，包括<a href="/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E6%8B%89%E4%BC%AF%E8%AF%AD" title="阿拉伯语">阿拉伯语</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%B8%8C%E4%BC%AF%E6%9D%A5%E8%AF%AD" title="希伯来语">希伯来语</a>等，以及分布于撒哈拉沙漠的<a href="/wiki/%E8%B1%AA%E8%90%A8%E8%AF%AD" title="豪萨语">豪萨语</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E6%9F%8F%E6%9F%8F%E5%B0%94%E8%AF%AD%E6%97%8F" title="柏柏尔语族">柏柏尔语族</a>诸语。<a href="#cite_note-Comrie_2009-165">[160]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ogilvie_2008-166">[161]</a> <a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%97%E5%B2%9B%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" class="mw-redirect" title="南岛语系">南岛语系</a>的使用者占全球人口的5.5%，覆盖了从<a href="/wiki/%E9%A9%AC%E8%BE%BE%E5%8A%A0%E6%96%AF%E5%8A%A0" title="马达加斯加">马达加斯加</a>到<a href="/wiki/%E6%B5%B7%E6%B4%8B%E4%B8%9C%E5%8D%97%E4%BA%9A" title="海洋东南亚">东南亚各群岛</a>乃至<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%A7%E6%B4%8B%E6%B4%B2" title="大洋洲">大洋洲</a>的广阔范围。<a href="#cite_note-EthnologueFamily-162">[157]</a><a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%97%E5%B2%9B%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" class="mw-redirect" title="南岛语系">南岛语系</a>包括了<a href="/wiki/%E9%A9%AC%E6%8B%89%E5%8A%A0%E6%96%AF%E8%AF%AD" class="mw-redirect" title="马拉加斯语">马拉加斯语</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E6%AF%9B%E5%88%A9%E8%AF%AD" title="毛利语">毛利语</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E8%90%A8%E6%91%A9%E4%BA%9A%E8%AF%AD" class="mw-redirect" title="萨摩亚语">萨摩亚语</a>以及<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8D%B0%E5%BA%A6%E5%B0%BC%E8%A5%BF%E4%BA%9A%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="印度尼西亚语言（页面不存在）">印度尼西亚</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages_of_Indonesia" class="extiw" title="en:Languages of Indonesia">Languages of Indonesia</a>）和<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%B0%E7%81%A3%E5%8D%97%E5%B3%B6%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80" class="mw-redirect" title="台灣南島語言">台湾</a>的<a href="/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E4%BD%8F%E6%B0%91" title="原住民">原住民</a>语言等。南岛语于公元前3000年左右发源于<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%B0%E6%B9%BE" class="mw-redirect" title="台湾">台湾</a>，后利用先进的航海技术沿诸多岛链扩散到大洋洲各处。其他主要的语言系属包括<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%97%E4%BA%9A" title="南亚">南亚</a>的<a href="/wiki/%E8%BE%BE%E7%BD%97%E6%AF%97%E8%8D%BC%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="达罗毗荼语系">达罗毗荼语系</a>（包括<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%A1%E7%BA%B3%E8%BE%BE%E8%AF%AD" title="卡纳达语">卡纳达语</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%B0%E7%B1%B3%E5%B0%94%E8%AF%AD" title="泰米尔语">泰米尔语</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%B0%E5%8D%A2%E5%9B%BA%E8%AF%AD" title="泰卢固语">泰卢固语</a>等）、<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E4%BA%9A" title="中亚">中亚</a>的<a href="/wiki/%E7%AA%81%E5%8E%A5%E8%AF%AD%E6%97%8F" class="mw-redirect" title="突厥语族">突厥语族</a>（属<a href="/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E5%B0%94%E6%B3%B0%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="阿尔泰语系">阿尔泰语系</a>，如<a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%9F%E8%80%B3%E5%85%B6%E8%AF%AD" title="土耳其语">土耳其语</a>）以及<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%9C%E5%8D%97%E4%BA%9A" title="东南亚">东南亚</a>的<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%97%E4%BA%9A%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="南亚语系">南亚语系</a>（如<a href="/wiki/%E9%AB%98%E6%A3%89%E8%AF%AD" title="高棉语">高棉语</a>）和<a href="/wiki/%E4%BE%97%E5%82%A3%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" class="mw-redirect" title="侗傣语系">侗傣语系</a>（如<a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%B0%E8%AF%AD" title="泰语">泰语</a>）。<a href="#cite_note-Comrie_2009-165">[160]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ogilvie_2008-166">[161]</a> 有些地方语言多样性非常丰富，如<a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%8E%E6%B4%B2" title="美洲">美洲</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%B7%B4%E5%B8%83%E4%BA%9A%E6%96%B0%E5%87%A0%E5%86%85%E4%BA%9A" title="巴布亚新几内亚">巴布亚新几内亚</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E9%9D%9E" title="西非">西非</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%97%E4%BA%9A" title="南亚">南亚</a>等，会存在上百种小的语言系属。尽管人数上并不占优，这些地方的语言占据了世界语言总量的多数。主要有<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%97%E7%BE%8E%E6%B4%B2" title="南美洲">南美洲</a>的<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%85%8B%E4%B8%98%E9%A9%AC%E6%8B%89%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="克丘马拉语系（页面不存在）">克丘马拉语系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quechumaran_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Quechumaran languages">Quechumaran languages</a>）、<a href="/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E6%8B%89%E7%93%A6%E5%85%8B%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" class="mw-redirect" title="阿拉瓦克语系">阿拉瓦克语系</a>和<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%9B%BE%E7%9A%AE-%E7%93%9C%E6%8B%89%E5%B0%BC%E8%AF%AD%E6%97%8F&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="图皮-瓜拉尼语族（页面不存在）">图皮-瓜拉尼语族</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tupi-Guarani_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Tupi-Guarani languages">Tupi-Guarani languages</a>），<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E7%BE%8E%E6%B4%B2" title="中美洲">中美洲</a>的<a href="/wiki/%E7%8C%B6%E4%BB%96%EF%BC%8D%E9%98%BF%E8%8C%B2%E7%89%B9%E5%85%8B%E8%AA%9E%E7%B3%BB" class="mw-redirect" title="猶他－阿茲特克語系">猶他－阿茲特克語系</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E6%AD%90%E6%89%98-%E6%9B%BC%E6%A0%BC%E8%AA%9E%E7%B3%BB" title="歐托-曼格語系">歐托-曼格語系</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E9%A6%AC%E9%9B%85%E8%AA%9E%E7%B3%BB" title="馬雅語系">馬雅語系</a>，以及<a href="/wiki/%E5%8C%97%E7%BE%8E%E6%B4%B2" title="北美洲">北美洲</a>的<a href="/wiki/%E7%B4%8D%EF%BC%8D%E5%BE%B7%E5%85%A7%E8%AA%9E%E7%B3%BB" class="mw-redirect" title="納－德內語系">納－德內語系</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E6%98%93%E6%B4%9B%E9%AD%81%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="易洛魁语系">易洛魁语系</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E5%B0%94%E5%86%88%E6%98%86%E8%AF%AD%E6%97%8F" title="阿尔冈昆语族">阿尔冈昆语族</a>等<a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%8E%E6%B4%B2%E5%8E%9F%E4%BD%8F%E6%B0%91%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80" class="mw-redirect" title="美洲原住民语言">原住民语言</a>。在<a href="/wiki/%E6%BE%B3%E5%A4%A7%E5%88%A9%E4%BA%9A" title="澳大利亚">澳大利亚</a>，大部分<a href="/wiki/%E6%BE%B3%E5%A4%A7%E5%88%A9%E4%BA%9A%E5%8E%9F%E4%BD%8F%E6%B0%91%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80" title="澳大利亚原住民语言">原住民语言</a>都属于<a href="/wiki/%E5%B8%95%E9%A9%AC-%E6%81%A9%E6%B0%B8%E7%94%98%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" class="mw-redirect" title="帕马-恩永甘语系">帕马-恩永甘语系</a>。而<a href="/wiki/%E6%96%B0%E5%87%A0%E5%86%85%E4%BA%9A" class="mw-redirect" title="新几内亚">新几内亚</a>除了南岛语，存在大量小系属和<a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E5%B2%9B" title="语言岛">语言岛</a>。<a href="#cite_note-Katzner-161">[156]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="濒危语言">濒危语言</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80&action=edit&section=33" title="编辑章节：濒危语言">编辑</a>]</div> <div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目：<a href="/wiki/%E7%80%95%E5%8D%B1%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80" title="瀕危語言">瀕危語言</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E8%BD%AC%E7%A7%BB" class="mw-redirect" title="语言转移">语言转移</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80%E6%BB%85%E4%BA%A1" title="語言滅亡">語言滅亡</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Linguistic_diversity.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Linguistic_diversity.png/300px-Linguistic_diversity.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Linguistic_diversity.png/450px-Linguistic_diversity.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Linguistic_diversity.png/600px-Linguistic_diversity.png 2x" data-file-width="1425" data-file-height="625" /></a><figcaption>地图上标为红色的8个国家覆盖了世界上50%的语言；蓝色区域有着世界上最高的语言多样性，而且还覆盖了世界上绝大部分濒危语言</figcaption></figure> 当一门语言的绝大部分使用者死亡或者<a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E8%BD%AC%E7%A7%BB" class="mw-redirect" title="语言转移">转向</a>说另外一门语言时，这门语言就陷入<a href="/wiki/%E7%80%95%E5%8D%B1%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80" title="瀕危語言">濒危状态</a>。如果不再有人那它当作母语，那么它就会成为<a href="/wiki/%E6%AD%BB%E8%AF%AD" class="mw-redirect" title="死语">死语</a>；再往下去，如果完全没有人使用这门语言，那么它就会<a href="/wiki/%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80%E6%BB%85%E4%BA%A1" title="語言滅亡">灭绝</a>。语言灭绝一再在人类历史上发生，但20世纪以来的<a href="/wiki/%E6%96%B0%E6%AE%96%E6%B0%91%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="新殖民主义">新殖民主义</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%A8%E7%90%83%E5%8C%96" title="全球化">全球化</a>加剧了这一趋势，经济上强大的语言凌驾再其他语言之上，使用人数较少的语言濒临危机。<a href="#cite_note-Handbook-5">[4]</a> 目前尚不清楚世界上总共有多少种语言，其统计取决于很多因素。一般认为截至2010年，世界上共有6,000<a href="#cite_note-Moseley-167">[162]</a>至7,000种语言，其中50％至90％将在2100年前灭绝。<a href="#cite_note-Handbook-5">[4]</a>世界上50％的人口使用<a href="/wiki/%E4%BB%A5%E6%AF%8D%E8%AA%9E%E4%BA%BA%E5%8F%A3%E6%8E%92%E5%BA%8F%E7%9A%84%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80%E5%88%97%E8%A1%A8" title="以母語人口排序的語言列表">排名前20种语言</a>，每种语言都超过5000万人，而其他许多语言都只在小范围使用，其中大部分语言的使用者不到1万人。<a href="#cite_note-EthnologueFamily-162">[157]</a> <a href="/wiki/%E8%81%94%E5%90%88%E5%9B%BD%E6%95%99%E8%82%B2%E3%80%81%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%8A%E6%96%87%E5%8C%96%E7%BB%84%E7%BB%87" title="联合国教育、科学及文化组织">联合国教科文组织</a>将语言濒危程度分为五级：“脆弱”（儿童只在家庭使用）、“危险”（没有儿童使用）、“重大危险”（主要使用者为老人）、“极度危险”（主要使用者仅为老人，且<a href="/w/index.php?title=Speaker_types&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Speaker types（页面不存在）">不作为第一语言使用</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speaker_types" class="extiw" title="en:Speaker types">Speaker types</a>））和“灭绝”。尽管一直有思潮认为将语言统一为<a href="/wiki/%E8%8B%B1%E8%AF%AD" title="英语">英语</a>或者<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%96%E7%95%8C%E8%AF%AD" title="世界语">世界语</a>等<a href="/wiki/%E9%80%9A%E7%94%A8%E8%AF%AD" class="mw-redirect" title="通用语">通用语言</a>会更好，但普遍观点认为语言的消失会损害世界文化多样性。而反观圣经旧约中关于巴别塔的叙述，人们也普遍认为语言多样性会导致政治冲突，但也有观点认为这与世界上许多重大暴力事件的事实相违背，如<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%97%E5%8C%97%E6%88%98%E4%BA%89" title="南北战争">南北战争</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%97%E6%96%AF%E6%8B%89%E5%A4%AB%E5%85%A7%E6%88%B0" title="南斯拉夫內戰">南斯拉夫内战</a>，又或者是<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%A2%E6%97%BA%E8%BE%BE" title="卢旺达">卢旺达</a>的种族灭绝，发生这些事件的地区语言多样性都比较低；而很多稳定的政治单位都是高度多语化的。<a href="#cite_note-168">[163]</a> 许多项目致力于<a href="/wiki/%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80%E5%BE%A9%E8%88%88" title="語言復興">振兴</a>濒危语言和促进少数民族语言的教育和识字来预防或减缓这种损失。在世界范围内也许多国家<a href="/wiki/%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80%E6%94%BF%E7%AD%96" title="語言政策">专门立法</a>保护和稳定原住民<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%A8%80%E8%AF%AD%E5%85%B1%E5%90%8C%E4%BD%93&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="言语共同体（页面不存在）">言语共同体</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/speech_community" class="extiw" title="en:speech community">speech community</a>）的语言。少数语言学家认为语言丧失作为一种自然过程不应该人为抵消，为后代记录濒危语言足矣。<a href="#cite_note-169">[164]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="参见">参见</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80&action=edit&section=34" title="编辑章节：参见">编辑</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r79074265"><div class="div-col" style="column-width:25em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E5%AD%A6" title="语言学">语言学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%87%AA%E7%84%B6%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80" title="自然语言">自然语言</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%AA%9E%E6%B3%95" class="mw-redirect" title="語法">語法</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%96%87%E5%AD%97" title="文字">文字</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%A8%80%E8%AF%AD" class="mw-redirect" title="言语">言语</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%A3%E8%AF%AD" title="口语">口语</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%89%8B%E8%AA%9E" title="手語">手語</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%96%B9%E8%A8%80" title="方言">方言</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%B7%B4%E5%88%A5%E5%A1%94" title="巴別塔">巴別塔</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%80%9A%E7%94%A8%E8%AA%9E" title="通用語">通用語</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E7%9A%84%E8%B5%B7%E6%BA%90" title="语言的起源">语言的起源</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E7%9A%84%E7%B1%BB%E5%9E%8B%E5%88%86%E7%B1%BB" class="mw-redirect" title="语言的类型分类">语言的类型分类</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E7%B3%BB%E5%B1%9E%E5%88%86%E7%B1%BB" title="语言系属分类">语言系属分类</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E5%88%97%E8%A1%A8" title="Category:语言列表">语言列表</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BB%A5%E4%BA%BA%E5%8F%A3%E6%8E%92%E5%88%97%E7%9A%84%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E5%88%97%E8%A1%A8" class="mw-redirect" title="以人口排列的语言列表">以人口排列的语言列表</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB%E5%88%97%E8%A1%A8" title="语系列表">语系列表</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%BA%E7%B1%BB%E4%BA%A4%E6%B5%81" class="mw-redirect" title="人类交流">人类交流</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%9B%BD%E9%99%85%E8%BE%85%E5%8A%A9%E8%AF%AD" title="国际辅助语">国际辅助语</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%9B%B8%E4%BA%92%E7%90%86%E8%A7%A3%E6%80%A7" title="相互理解性">相互理解性</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80%E7%9B%A3%E7%AE%A1%E6%A9%9F%E6%A7%8B%E5%88%97%E8%A1%A8&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="語言監管機構列表（页面不存在）">語言監管機構列表</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_language_regulators" class="extiw" title="en:List of language regulators">List of language regulators</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%AE%98%E6%96%B9%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E5%88%97%E8%A1%A8&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="官方语言列表（页面不存在）">官方语言列表</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%97%E6%95%99%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E9%97%AE%E9%A2%98" title="宗教语言问题">宗教語言問題</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%BF%83%E7%90%86%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E5%AD%A6" title="心理语言学">心理语言学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%A8%80%E8%AA%9E%E6%B2%BB%E7%99%82" title="言語治療">言語治療</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%88%B6%E8%AF%AD%E5%81%87%E8%AF%B4&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="父语假说（页面不存在）">父语假说</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Father_Tongue_hypothesis" class="extiw" title="en:Father Tongue hypothesis">Father Tongue hypothesis</a>）</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="注释">注释</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80&action=edit&section=35" title="编辑章节：注释">编辑</a>]</div> <div id="references-NoteFoot"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> 漢語被一些語言學家視作「漢語族」，其下擁有多種獨立的語言；被另一些語言學家視作一種單一種語言，下屬為多個方言區。 </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%A7%E7%8C%A9%E7%8C%A9" title="大猩猩">大猩猩</a><a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%AF%E5%8F%AF_(%E5%A4%A7%E7%8C%A9%E7%8C%A9)" title="可可 (大猩猩)">可可</a>据闻能够使用1000多个<a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%8E%E5%9C%8B%E6%89%8B%E8%AA%9E" title="美國手語">美國手語</a>单词，并能理解2000多个英语口语词汇。有人质疑她使用记号的能力是否基于对简单操作的复杂理解。<a href="#cite_note-30">[29]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> 功能语法分析语法结构，形式和结构语法也是如此；但功能语法还分析了整个交际情境：言语活动的目的、参与者和话语背景。功能主义者认为，交际情境会以激励、约束、解释或其他方式确定语法结构，而形式和结构语法不仅在信息基础上人为设限，而且其结构性描述也不充分。因此，功能语法与形式语法和结构语法的不同之处在于它旨在解释而非模拟，这解释的基础就是交际情境。<a href="#cite_note-68">[66]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> 星号前缀 * 通常表示该句子是不合语法的，即在语法上不正确。 </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a> “<a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%91%E6%97%8F%E8%AA%9E" title="民族語">民族语</a>”的这一结论基于1995年以前的数字。最近的母语使用人数为420（百万）。<a href="#cite_note-156">[152]</a> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="参考文献">参考文献</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80&action=edit&section=36" title="编辑章节：参考文献">编辑</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="引用">引用</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80&action=edit&section=37" title="编辑章节：引用">编辑</a>]</div> <div class="reflist columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 25em; -webkit-column-width: 25em; column-width: 25em; list-style-type: decimal;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200108143445/https://www.lexico.com/en/definition/language">LANGUAGE English Definition and Meaning</a>. 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[2022-03-30]. （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lexico.com/en/definition/language">原始内容</a>存档于2020-01-08） （英语）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80&rft.atitle=LANGUAGE+English+Definition+and+Meaning&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Lexico&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.lexico.com%2Fen%2Fdefinition%2Flanguage&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTomasello1996">Tomasello (1996)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hauser_2002-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hauser_2002_3-0">3.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hauser_2002_3-1">3.1</a> <a href="#CITEREFHauserChomskyFitch2002">Hauser, Chomsky & Fitch (2002)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Handbook-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Handbook_5-0">4.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Handbook_5-1">4.1</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Handbook_5-2">4.2</a> <a href="#CITEREFAustinSallabank2011">Austin & Sallabank (2011)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-AHD-6"><a href="#cite_ref-AHD_6-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMifflin1992">Mifflin (1992)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.zdic.net/z/24/kx/8A9E.htm">《康熙字典》語</a>. [2018-08-19]. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180130022335/http://www.zdic.net/z/24/kx/8A9E.htm">存档</a>于2018-01-30）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80&rft.btitle=%E3%80%8A%E5%BA%B7%E7%86%99%E5%AD%97%E5%85%B8%E3%80%8B+%E8%AA%9E&rft.genre=unknown&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.zdic.net%2Fz%2F24%2Fkx%2F8A9E.htm&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.zdic.net/z/24/sw/8A00.htm">《說文解字注》言</a>. [2018-08-19]. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181027092545/http://www.zdic.net/z/24/sw/8A00.htm">存档</a>于2018-10-27）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80&rft.btitle=%E3%80%8A%E8%AA%AA%E6%96%87%E8%A7%A3%E5%AD%97%E6%B3%A8%E3%80%8B+%E8%A8%80&rft.genre=unknown&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.zdic.net%2Fz%2F24%2Fsw%2F8A00.htm&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Lyons2-9"><a href="#cite_ref-Lyons2_9-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLyons1981">Lyons (1981</a>:2頁) </li> <li id="cite_note-LyonsIntro-10"><a href="#cite_ref-LyonsIntro_10-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLyons1981">Lyons (1981</a>:1–8頁) </li> <li id="cite_note-TraskLanguage-11"><a href="#cite_ref-TraskLanguage_11-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTrask2007">Trask (2007</a>:129–31頁) </li> <li id="cite_note-Bett_2010-12"><a href="#cite_ref-Bett_2010_12-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBett2010">Bett (2010)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Devitt_Setrelny_1999-13"><a href="#cite_ref-Devitt_Setrelny_1999_13-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDevittSterelny1999">Devitt & Sterelny (1999)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hauser_Fitch_2003-14"><a href="#cite_ref-Hauser_Fitch_2003_14-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHauserFitch2003">Hauser & Fitch (2003)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Language_Instinct-15">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Language_Instinct_15-0">14.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Language_Instinct_15-1">14.1</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Language_Instinct_15-2">14.2</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Language_Instinct_15-3">14.3</a> <a href="#CITEREFPinker1994">Pinker (1994)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTrask2007">Trask (2007</a>:93頁) </li> <li id="cite_note-Saussure-17">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Saussure_17-0">16.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Saussure_17-1">16.1</a> <a href="#CITEREFSaussure1983">Saussure (1983)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCampbell2001">Campbell (2001</a>:96頁) </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTrask2007">Trask (2007</a>:130頁) </li> <li id="cite_note-Chomsky_1957-20"><a href="#cite_ref-Chomsky_1957_20-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChomsky1957">Chomsky (1957)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTrask2007">Trask (2007</a>:93, 130頁) </li> <li id="cite_note-NewmeyerForm-22">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NewmeyerForm_22-0">21.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-NewmeyerForm_22-1">21.1</a> <a href="#cite_ref-NewmeyerForm_22-2">21.2</a> <a href="#cite_ref-NewmeyerForm_22-3">21.3</a> <a href="#CITEREFNewmeyer1998">Newmeyer (1998</a>:3–6頁) </li> <li id="cite_note-“Myths”-23"><a href="#cite_ref-“Myths”_23-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEvansLevinson2009">Evans & Levinson (2009)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFVan_Valin2001">Van Valin (2001)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNerlich2010">Nerlich (2010</a>:192頁) </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHockett1960">Hockett (1960)</a>; <a href="#CITEREFDeacon1997">Deacon (1997)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Trask5-27">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Trask5_27-0">26.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Trask5_27-1">26.1</a> <a href="#CITEREFTrask1999">Trask (1999</a>:1–5頁) </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEngesserCrane2015">Engesser & Crane (2015)</a> harv模板錯誤: 無指向目標: CITEREFEngesserCrane2015 (<a href="/wiki/Category:%E5%90%AB%E6%9C%89%E5%93%88%E4%BD%9B%E5%8F%82%E8%80%83%E6%96%87%E7%8C%AE%E6%A0%BC%E5%BC%8F%E7%B3%BB%E5%88%97%E6%A8%A1%E6%9D%BF%E9%93%BE%E6%8E%A5%E6%8C%87%E5%90%91%E9%94%99%E8%AF%AF%E7%9A%84%E9%A1%B5%E9%9D%A2" title="Category:含有哈佛参考文献格式系列模板链接指向错误的页面">幫助</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEngesserRidley2017">Engesser & Ridley (2017)</a> harv模板錯誤: 無指向目標: CITEREFEngesserRidley2017 (<a href="/wiki/Category:%E5%90%AB%E6%9C%89%E5%93%88%E4%BD%9B%E5%8F%82%E8%80%83%E6%96%87%E7%8C%AE%E6%A0%BC%E5%BC%8F%E7%B3%BB%E5%88%97%E6%A8%A1%E6%9D%BF%E9%93%BE%E6%8E%A5%E6%8C%87%E5%90%91%E9%94%99%E8%AF%AF%E7%9A%84%E9%A1%B5%E9%9D%A2" title="Category:含有哈佛参考文献格式系列模板链接指向错误的页面">幫助</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCandland1993">Candland (1993)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Deacon_1997-32">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Deacon_1997_32-0">30.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Deacon_1997_32-1">30.1</a> <a href="#CITEREFDeacon1997">Deacon (1997)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTrask2007">Trask (2007</a>:165–66頁) </li> <li id="cite_note-Haugen-34"><a href="#cite_ref-Haugen_34-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHaugen1973">Haugen (1973)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ulbaek_1998-35">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ulbaek_1998_35-0">33.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ulbaek_1998_35-1">33.1</a> <a href="#CITEREFUlbaek1998">Ulbaek (1998)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-#1-36">^ <a href="#cite_ref-#1_36-0">34.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-#1_36-1">34.1</a> <a href="#CITEREFChomsky2000">Chomsky (2000</a>:4頁) </li> <li id="cite_note-Tomasello_2008-37"><a href="#cite_ref-Tomasello_2008_37-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTomasello2008">Tomasello (2008)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dunn_2011-38"><a href="#cite_ref-Dunn_2011_38-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDunn2011">Dunn (2011)</a> harv模板錯誤: 無指向目標: CITEREFDunn2011 (<a href="/wiki/Category:%E5%90%AB%E6%9C%89%E5%93%88%E4%BD%9B%E5%8F%82%E8%80%83%E6%96%87%E7%8C%AE%E6%A0%BC%E5%BC%8F%E7%B3%BB%E5%88%97%E6%A8%A1%E6%9D%BF%E9%93%BE%E6%8E%A5%E6%8C%87%E5%90%91%E9%94%99%E8%AF%AF%E7%9A%84%E9%A1%B5%E9%9D%A2" title="Category:含有哈佛参考文献格式系列模板链接指向错误的页面">幫助</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-Atkinson_2011-39"><a href="#cite_ref-Atkinson_2011_39-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAtkinson2011">Atkinson (2011)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFThe_Economist2011">The Economist (2011)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cross_Woodruff_2009-41"><a href="#cite_ref-Cross_Woodruff_2009_41-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCross2009">Cross (2009)</a> harv模板錯誤: 無指向目標: CITEREFCross2009 (<a href="/wiki/Category:%E5%90%AB%E6%9C%89%E5%93%88%E4%BD%9B%E5%8F%82%E8%80%83%E6%96%87%E7%8C%AE%E6%A0%BC%E5%BC%8F%E7%B3%BB%E5%88%97%E6%A8%A1%E6%9D%BF%E9%93%BE%E6%8E%A5%E6%8C%87%E5%90%91%E9%94%99%E8%AF%AF%E7%9A%84%E9%A1%B5%E9%9D%A2" title="Category:含有哈佛参考文献格式系列模板链接指向错误的页面">幫助</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-Rudolf_2009-42"><a href="#cite_ref-Rudolf_2009_42-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBothaKnight2009">Botha & Knight (2009)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto-43"><a href="#cite_ref-auto_43-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFVaneechoutte2014">Vaneechoutte (2014)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFitch2010">Fitch (2010</a>:466–507頁) </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAnderson2012">Anderson (2012</a>:107頁) </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAnderson2012">Anderson (2012</a>:104頁) </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKeglSenghasCoppola1998">Kegl, Senghas & Coppola (1998)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLiebermanCrelin1971">Lieberman & Crelin (1971)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFArensburgVandermeerschDudaySchepartz1989">Arensburg et al. (1989)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFitch2010">Fitch (2010</a>:250–92頁) </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDillerCann2009">Diller & Cann (2009)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHenshilwoodDubreuil2009">Henshilwood & Dubreuil (2009)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKnight2009">Knight (2009)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWatts2009">Watts (2009)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFArcadi2000">Arcadi (2000)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFClarkHenneberg2017">Clark & Henneberg (2017)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFoley1997">Foley (1997</a>:70–74頁)<a href="#CITEREFFitch2010">Fitch (2010</a>:292–93頁) </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNewmeyer2005">Newmeyer (2005)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTrask2007">Trask (2007)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJohnson2009">Johnson (2009)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHarold_G._Coward1990">Harold G. Coward (1990</a>:105頁) harv模板錯誤: 無指向目標: CITEREFHarold_G._Coward1990 (<a href="/wiki/Category:%E5%90%AB%E6%9C%89%E5%93%88%E4%BD%9B%E5%8F%82%E8%80%83%E6%96%87%E7%8C%AE%E6%A0%BC%E5%BC%8F%E7%B3%BB%E5%88%97%E6%A8%A1%E6%9D%BF%E9%93%BE%E6%8E%A5%E6%8C%87%E5%90%91%E9%94%99%E8%AF%AF%E7%9A%84%E9%A1%B5%E9%9D%A2" title="Category:含有哈佛参考文献格式系列模板链接指向错误的页面">幫助</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMitchell2009">Mitchell (2009)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCampbell2001">Campbell (2001</a>:82–83頁) </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBloomfield1914">Bloomfield (1914</a>:310頁) </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-65"><a href="#cite_ref-:0_65-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREF索绪尔1999">索绪尔 (1999)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFClarke1990">Clarke (1990</a>:143–44頁) </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFoley1997">Foley (1997</a>:82–83頁) </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNichols1984">Nichols (1984)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCroftCruse2004">Croft & Cruse (2004</a>:1–4頁) </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTrask1999">Trask (1999</a>:11–14, 105–13頁) </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFisherLaiMonaco2003">Fisher, Lai & Monaco (2003)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lesser205-73">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lesser205_73-0">70.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lesser205_73-1">70.1</a> <a href="#CITEREFLesser1989">Lesser (1989</a>:205–06頁) </li> <li id="cite_note-大腦的奧秘-74"><a href="#cite_ref-大腦的奧秘_74-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREF中村克樹2014">中村克樹 (2014</a>:58-59頁) </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTrask1999">Trask (1999</a>:105–07頁) </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTrask1999">Trask (1999</a>:108頁) </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSandlerLillo-Martin2001">Sandler & Lillo-Martin (2001</a>:554頁) </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMacMahon1989">MacMahon (1989</a>:2頁) </li> <li id="cite_note-MacMahon5-79">^ <a href="#cite_ref-MacMahon5_79-0">76.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MacMahon5_79-1">76.1</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MacMahon5_79-2">76.2</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MacMahon5_79-3">76.3</a> <a href="#CITEREFMacMahon1989">MacMahon (1989</a>:3頁) </li> <li id="cite_note-IPA-80">^ <a href="#cite_ref-IPA_80-0">77.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-IPA_80-1">77.1</a> <a href="#CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association1999">International Phonetic Association (1999</a>:3–8頁) </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMacMahon1989">MacMahon (1989</a>:11–15頁) </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMacMahon1989">MacMahon (1989</a>:6–11頁) </li> <li id="cite_note-LadefogedMaddieson-83">^ <a href="#cite_ref-LadefogedMaddieson_83-0">80.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-LadefogedMaddieson_83-1">80.1</a> <a href="#CITEREFLadefogedMaddieson1996">Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lyons17-84">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lyons17_84-0">81.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lyons17_84-1">81.1</a> <a href="#CITEREFLyons1981">Lyons (1981</a>:17–24頁) </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTrask1999">Trask (1999</a>:35頁) </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLyons1981">Lyons (1981</a>:218–24頁) </li> <li id="cite_note-Levinson_1983-87">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Levinson_1983_87-0">84.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Levinson_1983_87-1">84.1</a> <a href="#CITEREFLevinson1983">Levinson (1983)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGoldsmith1995">Goldsmith (1995)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association1999">International Phonetic Association (1999)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association1999">International Phonetic Association (1999</a>:27頁) </li> <li id="cite_note-Trask214-91">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Trask214_91-0">88.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Trask214_91-1">88.1</a> <a href="#CITEREFTrask2007">Trask (2007</a>:214頁) </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association1999">International Phonetic Association (1999</a>:4頁) </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStokoe1960">Stokoe (1960)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStokoeCasterlineCroneberg1965">Stokoe, Casterline & Croneberg (1965)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSandlerLillo-Martin2001">Sandler & Lillo-Martin (2001</a>:539–40頁) </li> 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Travel France Online. 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[2011-07-17]. （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://spinner.cofc.edu/linguist/archives/2005/08/whats_the_diffe.html?referrer=webcluster&">原始内容</a>存档于2010-12-19）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80&rft.atitle=What%27s+the+difference+between+dialect+and+language%3F&rft.aufirst=E.M.&rft.aulast=Rickerson&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Five+Minute+Linguist&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fspinner.cofc.edu%2Flinguist%2Farchives%2F2005%2F08%2Fwhats_the_diffe.html%3Freferrer%3Dwebcluster%26&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLyons1981">Lyons (1981</a>:26頁) </li> <li id="cite_note-Katzner-161">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Katzner_161-0">156.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Katzner_161-1">156.1</a> <a href="#CITEREFKatzner1999">Katzner (1999)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-EthnologueFamily-162">^ <a href="#cite_ref-EthnologueFamily_162-0">157.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-EthnologueFamily_162-1">157.1</a> <a href="#cite_ref-EthnologueFamily_162-2">157.2</a> <a href="#cite_ref-EthnologueFamily_162-3">157.3</a> <a href="#cite_ref-EthnologueFamily_162-4">157.4</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis2009">Lewis (2009)</a>, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ethnologue.com/statistics/family">Summary by language family</a> （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20160101054116/http://www.ethnologue.com/statistics/family">页面存档备份</a>，存于<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91%E6%A1%A3%E6%A1%88%E9%A6%86" title="互联网档案馆">互联网档案馆</a>）" </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMallory1989">Mallory (1989</a>:185頁) </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStrazny2000">Strazny (2000</a>:163頁) </li> <li id="cite_note-Comrie_2009-165">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Comrie_2009_165-0">160.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Comrie_2009_165-1">160.1</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Comrie_2009_165-2">160.2</a> <a href="#CITEREFComrie2009">Comrie (2009)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ogilvie_2008-166">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ogilvie_2008_166-0">161.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ogilvie_2008_166-1">161.1</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ogilvie_2008_166-2">161.2</a> <a href="#CITEREFBrownOgilvie2008">Brown & Ogilvie (2008)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Moseley-167"><a href="#cite_ref-Moseley_167-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMoseley2010">Moseley (2010)</a>: "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unesco.org/culture/languages-atlas/index.php">Statistics</a> （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20120627041634/http://www.unesco.org/culture/languages-atlas/index.php">页面存档备份</a>，存于<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91%E6%A1%A3%E6%A1%88%E9%A6%86" title="互联网档案馆">互联网档案馆</a>）" </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAustinSallabank2011">Austin & Sallabank (2011</a>:10–11頁) </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLadefoged1992">Ladefoged (1992)</a> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="来源">来源</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80&action=edit&section=38" title="编辑章节：来源">编辑</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r80540462">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-100{font-size:100%}</style><div class="refbegin columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 35em; -webkit-column-width: 35em; column-width: 35em;"> <dl><dd><cite id="CITEREFAgha2006" class="citation book">Agha, Agha. 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Science. 2013 [2017-12-12]. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151104124655/http://news.sciencemag.org/brain-behavior/2013/08/babies-learn-recognize-words-womb">存档</a>于2015-11-04）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80&rft.atitle=Babies+Learn+to+Recognize+Words+in+the+Womb&rft.aufirst=Beth&rft.aulast=Skwarecki&rft.date=2013&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.sciencemag.org%2Fbrain-behavior%2F2013%2F08%2Fbabies-learn-recognize-words-womb&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"> </dd> <dd><cite id="CITEREFStokoe1960" class="citation journal">Stokoe, William C. Sign Language Structure: An Outline of the Visual Communication Systems of the American Deaf. 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Psychology Press. 1996: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/communicatingmea0000unse/page/275">275</a>–308. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-0-8058-2118-5" title="Special:网络书源/978-0-8058-2118-5">ISBN 978-0-8058-2118-5</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80&rft.atitle=The+Cultural+Roots+of+Language&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft.aulast=Tomasello&rft.btitle=Communicating+Meaning%3A+The+Evolution+and+Development+of+Language&rft.date=1996&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.isbn=978-0-8058-2118-5&rft.pages=275-308&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcommunicatingmea0000unse&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </dd> <dd><cite id="CITEREFTomasello2008" class="citation book">Tomasello, Michael. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/originsofhumanco0000toma">Origin of Human Communication</a>. 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Routledge. 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80&rft.aufirst=Robert+Lawrence&rft.aulast=Trask&rft.btitle=Language+and+Linguistics%3A+The+Key+Concepts&rft.date=2007&rft.edition=2nd&rft.genre=book&rft.pub=Routledge&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flanguagelinguist0000tras&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </dd> <dd><cite id="CITEREFUlbaek1998" class="citation book">Ulbaek, Ib. The Origin of Language and Cognition. J. R. Hurford & C. Knight (编). Approaches to the evolution of language. 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Human Evolution. 2014, 29: 1–33 [2018-08-07]. （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://users.ugent.be/~mvaneech/Vaneechoutte.%202014.%20The%20origin%20of%20articulate%20language.pdf">原始内容</a> (PDF)存档于2022-07-18）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80&rft.atitle=The+Origin+of+Articulate+Language+Revisited%3A+The+Potential+of+a+Semi-Aquatic+Past+of+Human+Ancestors+to+Explain+the+Origin+of+Human+Musicality+and+Articulate+Language&rft.aufirst=Mario&rft.aulast=Vaneechoutte&rft.date=2014&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Human+Evolution&rft.pages=1-33&rft.volume=29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fusers.ugent.be%2F~mvaneech%2FVaneechoutte.%25202014.%2520The%2520origin%2520of%2520articulate%2520language.pdf&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"> </dd> <dd><cite id="CITEREFVan_Valin2001" class="citation book">Van Valin, jr, Robert D. Functional Linguistics. Mark Aronoff; Janie Rees-Miller (编). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/handbooklinguist00aron_948">The Handbook of Linguistics</a>. Blackwell. 2001: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/handbooklinguist00aron_948/page/319">319</a>–37.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80&rft.atitle=Functional+Linguistics&rft.aufirst=jr%2C+Robert+D.&rft.aulast=Van+Valin&rft.btitle=The+Handbook+of+Linguistics&rft.date=2001&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.pages=319-37&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhandbooklinguist00aron_948&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </dd> <dd><cite id="CITEREFWatts2009" class="citation book">Watts, I. Red ochre, body painting, and language: interpreting the Blombos ochre.. R. Botha; C. Knight (编). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cradlelanguagest00both">The Cradle of Language.</a>. Oxford University Press. 2009: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cradlelanguagest00both/page/62">62</a>-92.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80&rft.atitle=Red+ochre%2C+body+painting%2C+and+language%3A+interpreting+the+Blombos+ochre.&rft.aufirst=I.&rft.aulast=Watts&rft.btitle=The+Cradle+of+Language.&rft.date=2009&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.pages=62-92&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcradlelanguagest00both&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </dd> <dd><cite id="CITEREFZentella2002" class="citation book">Zentella, Ana Celia. Spanish in New York. García, Ofelia; Fishman, Joshua (编). The Multilingual Apple: Languages in New York City. Walter de Gruyter. 2002.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80&rft.atitle=Spanish+in+New+York&rft.aufirst=Ana+Celia&rft.aulast=Zentella&rft.btitle=The+Multilingual+Apple%3A+Languages+in+New+York+City&rft.date=2002&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </dd> <dd><cite id="CITEREF中村克樹2014" class="citation book">中村克樹. 高智賢 , 编. 彩色版徹底圖解：大腦的奧秘初版. 楓樹林出版事業有限公司. 2014: p.58–59. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-986-5688-00-4" title="Special:网络书源/978-986-5688-00-4">ISBN 978-986-5688-00-4</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80&rft.au=%E4%B8%AD%E6%9D%91%E5%85%8B%E6%A8%B9&rft.btitle=%E5%BD%A9%E8%89%B2%E7%89%88%E5%BE%B9%E5%BA%95%E5%9C%96%E8%A7%A3%EF%BC%9A%E5%A4%A7%E8%85%A6%E7%9A%84%E5%A5%A7%E7%A7%98&rft.date=2014&rft.edition=%E5%88%9D%E7%89%88&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-986-5688-00-4&rft.pages=p.58-59&rft.pub=%E6%A5%93%E6%A8%B9%E6%9E%97%E5%87%BA%E7%89%88%E4%BA%8B%E6%A5%AD%E6%9C%89%E9%99%90%E5%85%AC%E5%8F%B8&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  引文格式1维护：冗余文本 (<a href="/wiki/Category:%E5%BC%95%E6%96%87%E6%A0%BC%E5%BC%8F1%E7%BB%B4%E6%8A%A4%EF%BC%9A%E5%86%97%E4%BD%99%E6%96%87%E6%9C%AC" title="Category:引文格式1维护：冗余文本">link</a>)</dd> <dd><cite id="CITEREF胡明扬1994" class="citation book">胡明扬. 语法研究入门. 马庆株 (编). 语义语法范畴. 1994.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80&rft.atitle=%E8%AF%AD%E6%B3%95%E7%A0%94%E7%A9%B6%E5%85%A5%E9%97%A8&rft.au=%E8%83%A1%E6%98%8E%E6%89%AC&rft.btitle=%E8%AF%AD%E4%B9%89%E8%AF%AD%E6%B3%95%E8%8C%83%E7%95%B4&rft.date=1994&rft.genre=bookitem&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </dd> <dd><cite id="CITEREF索绪尔1999" class="citation book">索绪尔, 弗迪南. 普通语言学教程. 北京: 商务印书馆. 1999. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/7100020867" title="Special:网络书源/7100020867">ISBN 7100020867</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80&rft.aufirst=%E5%BC%97%E8%BF%AA%E5%8D%97&rft.aulast=%E7%B4%A2%E7%BB%AA%E5%B0%94&rft.btitle=%E6%99%AE%E9%80%9A%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E5%AD%A6%E6%95%99%E7%A8%8B&rft.date=1999&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=7100020867&rft.place=%E5%8C%97%E4%BA%AC&rft.pub=%E5%95%86%E5%8A%A1%E5%8D%B0%E4%B9%A6%E9%A6%86&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> </dd></dl> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="外部链接">外部链接</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80&action=edit&section=39" title="编辑章节：外部链接">编辑</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r82655521">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:#f9f9f9;display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r83112147">.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow{padding:0.75em 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow>b{display:block}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul{border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.75em 0;width:217px;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul>li{min-height:31px}.mw-parser-output .sister-logo{display:inline-block;width:31px;line-height:31px;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-link{display:inline-block;margin-left:4px;width:182px;vertical-align:middle}</style><div role="navigation" aria-labelledby="sister-projects" class="side-box metadata side-box-right sister-box sistersitebox plainlinks"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r82655520">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> 語言在维基百科的<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:%E7%BB%B4%E5%9F%BA%E5%AA%92%E4%BD%93%E5%A7%8A%E5%A6%B9%E9%A1%B9%E7%9B%AE" title="Wikipedia:维基媒体姊妹项目">姊妹项目</a></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Wiktionary-logo.svg/27px-Wiktionary-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="26" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Wiktionary-logo.svg/41px-Wiktionary-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Wiktionary-logo.svg/54px-Wiktionary-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="370" data-file-height="350" />维基词典上的<a href="https://zh.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80" class="extiw" title="wikt:Special:Search/語言">字词解释</a></li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" />维基共享资源上的<a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Atlas_of_languages" class="extiw" title="c:Atlas of languages">多媒体资源</a></li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/27px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/41px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/54px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="759" data-file-height="415" />维基新闻上的<a href="https://zh.wikinews.org/wiki/Special:Search/%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80" class="extiw" title="n:Special:Search/語言">新闻</a></li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/23px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/35px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/46px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" />维基语录上的<a href="https://zh.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/語言">名言</a></li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/26px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="26" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/39px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/51px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" />维基文库上的<a href="https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/Special:Search/%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80" class="extiw" title="s:Special:Search/語言">原始文献</a></li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/27px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/41px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/54px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" />维基教科书上的<a href="https://zh.wikibooks.org/wiki/Special:Search/%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80" class="extiw" title="b:Special:Search/語言">教科书和手册</a></li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/27px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/41px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/54px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="512" />维基学院上的<a href="https://zh.wikiversity.org/wiki/School:Language_and_Literature" class="extiw" title="v:School:Language and Literature">学习资源</a></li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/27px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/41px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/54px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="193" data-file-height="193" />维基导游上的<a href="https://zh.wikivoyage.org/wiki/Talk" class="extiw" title="voy:Talk">旅行资讯</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://wals.info/">World Atlas of Language Structures</a> （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20110226184610/http://wals.info/">页面存档备份</a>，存于<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91%E6%A1%A3%E6%A1%88%E9%A6%86" title="互联网档案馆">互联网档案馆</a>），（语音，语法，词汇）结构属性大型数据库</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ethnologue.com/">Ethnologue: Languages of the World</a> （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20071227170852/http://www.ethnologue.com/">页面存档备份</a>，存于<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91%E6%A1%A3%E6%A1%88%E9%A6%86" title="互联网档案馆">互联网档案馆</a>），全球已知语言总目录</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.netz-tipp.de/languages.html">Distribution of languages on the Internet (2002)</a> （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20090523053915/http://www.netz-tipp.de/languages.html">页面存档备份</a>，存于<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91%E6%A1%A3%E6%A1%88%E9%A6%86" title="互联网档案馆">互联网档案馆</a>）</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.goethe.de/lhr/prj/mac/enindex.htm">The impact of language in a globalised world - Goethe-Institut</a> （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20190726081259/http://www.goethe.de/lhr/prj/mac/enindex.htm">页面存档备份</a>，存于<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91%E6%A1%A3%E6%A1%88%E9%A6%86" title="互联网档案馆">互联网档案馆</a>）</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats7.htm">Top Languages in the world Internet usage population and penetration report (Nov 2007)</a> （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20120426122721/http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats7.htm">页面存档备份</a>，存于<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91%E6%A1%A3%E6%A1%88%E9%A6%86" title="互联网档案馆">互联网档案馆</a>）</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://wiki.frath.net/Main_Page">Wiki of Languages and constructed Languages</a> （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20101110075922/http://wiki.frath.net/Main_Page">页面存档备份</a>，存于<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91%E6%A1%A3%E6%A1%88%E9%A6%86" title="互联网档案馆">互联网档案馆</a>）</li></ul> <div style="clear: both; height: 1em"></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r84265675">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline 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navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:%E4%B8%96%E7%95%8C%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="Template:世界语系"><abbr title="查看该模板">查</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:%E4%B8%96%E7%95%8C%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Template talk:世界语系（页面不存在）"><abbr title="讨论该模板">论</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BC%96%E8%BE%91%E9%A1%B5%E9%9D%A2/Template:%E4%B8%96%E7%95%8C%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="Special:编辑页面/Template:世界语系"><abbr title="编辑该模板">编</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="语言系属分类" style="font-size:110%;margin:0 5em"><a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E7%B3%BB%E5%B1%9E%E5%88%86%E7%B1%BB" title="语言系属分类">语言系属分类</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding: 0.35em 1.0em; line-height: 1.1em; text-align: left;">非洲</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0px;padding: 0.25em 0; line-height: 1.4em;;padding: 0;"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;width:7.25em; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%9A%E9%9D%9E%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="亚非语系">亚非语系</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px;padding:0.25em 0; line-height:1.4em; width:auto;"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E6%9F%8F%E6%9F%8F%E5%B0%94%E8%AF%AD%E6%97%8F" title="柏柏尔语族">柏柏尔语族</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%B9%8D%E5%BE%97%E8%AF%AD%E6%97%8F" title="乍得语族">乍得语族</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%83%E5%8F%8A%E8%AF%AD" title="埃及语">埃及語族</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%97%AA%E7%B1%B3%E7%89%B9%E8%AF%AD%E6%97%8F" title="闪米特语族">闪米特语族</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%BA%AB%E5%B8%8C%E7%89%B9%E8%AA%9E%E6%97%8F" title="庫希特語族">库希特语族</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%A5%A5%E8%8E%AB%E8%AF%AD%E6%97%8F" title="奥莫语族">奥摩语族</a>*</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;width:7.25em; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/%E5%B0%BC%E6%97%A5%E5%B0%94-%E5%88%9A%E6%9E%9C%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="尼日尔-刚果语系">尼日尔-刚果语系</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px;padding:0.25em 0; line-height:1.4em; width:auto;"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%A7%E8%A5%BF%E6%B4%8B-%E5%88%9A%E6%9E%9C%E8%AF%AD%E6%97%8F" title="大西洋-刚果语族">大西洋-刚果语族</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%9B%BC%E5%BE%B7%E8%AA%9E%E6%97%8F" title="曼德語族">曼德语族</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%B1%BB%E4%BC%8A%E4%B9%94%E8%AF%AD%E6%97%8F&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="类伊乔语族（页面不存在）">类伊乔语族</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ijoid_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Ijoid languages">Ijoid languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%A4%9A%E8%B4%A1%E8%AF%AD%E6%97%8F&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="多贡语族（页面不存在）">多贡语族</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dogon_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Dogon languages">Dogon languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%85%8B%E9%B2%81%E8%AF%AD%E6%97%8F&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="克鲁语族（页面不存在）">克鲁语族</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kru_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Kru languages">Kru languages</a>） <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siamou_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Siamou language（页面不存在）">Siamou language</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siamou_language" class="extiw" title="en:Siamou language">Siamou language</a>）*</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%B0%94%E5%A4%9A%E5%87%A1%E8%AF%AD%E6%97%8F" title="科尔多凡语族">科尔多凡语族</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lafofa_languages&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lafofa languages（页面不存在）">Lafofa languages</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lafofa_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Lafofa languages">Lafofa languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Katloid_languages&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Katloid languages（页面不存在）">Katloid languages</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katloid_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Katloid languages">Katloid languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rashad_languages&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rashad languages（页面不存在）">Rashad languages</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rashad_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Rashad languages">Rashad languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Talodi%E2%80%93Heiban_languages&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Talodi–Heiban languages（页面不存在）">Talodi–Heiban languages</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talodi%E2%80%93Heiban_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Talodi–Heiban languages">Talodi–Heiban languages</a>）</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;width:7.25em; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/%E5%B0%BC%E7%BD%97-%E6%92%92%E5%93%88%E6%8B%89%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="尼罗-撒哈拉语系">尼罗-撒哈拉语系</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px;padding:0.25em 0; line-height:1.4em; width:auto;"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%B4%9D%E5%B0%94%E5%A1%94%E8%AF%AD%E6%97%8F&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="贝尔塔语族（页面不存在）">贝尔塔语族</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berta_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Berta languages">Berta languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A7%91%E7%A9%86%E5%85%B9%E8%AF%B8%E8%AF%AD&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="科穆兹诸语（页面不存在）">科穆兹诸语</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komuz_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Komuz languages">Komuz languages</a>） <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=B%CA%BCaga_languages&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bʼaga languages（页面不存在）">Bʼaga languages</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%CA%BCaga_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Bʼaga languages">Bʼaga languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A7%91%E9%A9%AC%E8%AF%AD%E6%97%8F&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="科马语族（页面不存在）">科马语族</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koman_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Koman languages">Koman languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shabo_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Shabo language（页面不存在）">Shabo language</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shabo_language" class="extiw" title="en:Shabo language">Shabo language</a>）*</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%AF%8C%E7%88%BE%E8%AA%9E%E6%97%8F" title="富爾語族">富爾語族</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kadu_languages&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kadu languages（页面不存在）">Kadu languages</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kadu_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Kadu languages">Kadu languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kuliak_languages&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kuliak languages（页面不存在）">Kuliak languages</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuliak_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Kuliak languages">Kuliak languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%BA%93%E7%BA%B3%E9%A9%AC%E8%AF%AD%E6%97%8F&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="库纳马语族（页面不存在）">库纳马语族</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kunama_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Kunama languages">Kunama languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%A9%AC%E5%B7%B4%E8%AF%AD%E6%97%8F" title="马巴语族">马巴语族</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%92%92%E5%93%88%E6%8B%89%E8%AF%AD%E6%97%8F&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="撒哈拉语族（页面不存在）">撒哈拉语族</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saharan_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Saharan languages">Saharan languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%A1%91%E6%B5%B7%E8%AA%9E%E6%97%8F" title="桑海語族">桑海語族</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%B8%AD%E8%8B%8F%E4%B8%B9%E8%AF%AD%E6%97%8F&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="中苏丹语族（页面不存在）">中苏丹语族</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Sudanic_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Central Sudanic languages">Central Sudanic languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%B8%9C%E8%8B%8F%E4%B8%B9%E8%AF%AD%E6%97%8F&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="东苏丹语族（页面不存在）">东苏丹语族</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Sudanic_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Eastern Sudanic languages">Eastern Sudanic languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mimi_of_Decorse&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mimi of Decorse（页面不存在）">Mimi of Decorse</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mimi_of_Decorse" class="extiw" title="en:Mimi of Decorse">Mimi of Decorse</a>）</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;width:7.25em; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E4%BC%8A%E6%A1%91%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="科伊桑语系">科伊桑语系</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px;padding:0.25em 0; line-height:1.4em; width:auto;"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A7%91%E4%BC%8A-%E5%A4%B8%E8%BF%AA%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="科伊-夸迪语系（页面不存在）">科伊-夸迪语系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khoe%E2%80%93Kwadi_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Khoe–Kwadi languages">Khoe–Kwadi languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%9B%BE%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="图语系（页面不存在）">图语系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuu_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Tuu languages">Tuu languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="科语系">科语系</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%93%88%E6%89%8E%E8%AF%AD&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="哈扎语（页面不存在）">哈扎语</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadza_language" class="extiw" title="en:Hadza language">Hadza language</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%A1%91%E8%BE%BE%E9%9F%A6%E8%AF%AD" title="桑达韦语">桑达韦语</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;width:7.25em; font-weight:normal;">孤立和未分类语言</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px;padding:0.25em 0; line-height:1.4em; width:auto;"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bangime_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bangime language（页面不存在）">Bangime language</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangime_language" class="extiw" title="en:Bangime language">Bangime language</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jalaa_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jalaa language（页面不存在）">Jalaa language</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jalaa_language" class="extiw" title="en:Jalaa language">Jalaa language</a>）</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding: 0.35em 1.0em; line-height: 1.1em; text-align: left;">欧洲</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0px;padding: 0.25em 0; line-height: 1.4em;;padding: 0;"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%B0%E6%AC%A7%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="印欧语系">印欧语系</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%B9%8C%E6%8B%89%E5%B0%94%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="乌拉尔语系">乌拉尔语系</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%B7%B4%E6%96%AF%E5%85%8B%E8%AA%9E" title="巴斯克語">巴斯克語</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%AA%81%E5%8E%A5%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="突厥语系">突厥语族</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%92%99%E5%8F%A4%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="蒙古语系">蒙古语系</a>（<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%A1%E7%88%BE%E6%A2%85%E5%85%8B%E8%A1%9B%E6%8B%89%E7%89%B9%E8%AA%9E" title="卡爾梅克衛拉特語">卡爾梅克衛拉特語</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%9A%E9%9D%9E%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="亚非语系">亚非语系</a>（<a href="/wiki/%E9%A9%AC%E8%80%B3%E4%BB%96%E8%AF%AD" title="马耳他语">马耳他语</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%A1%9E%E6%B5%A6%E8%B7%AF%E6%96%AF%E9%98%BF%E6%8B%89%E4%BC%AF%E8%AF%AD" title="塞浦路斯阿拉伯语">塞浦路斯阿拉伯语</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%AC%AC%E5%8B%92%E5%B0%BC%E5%AE%89%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="第勒尼安语系">第勒尼安语系</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%B1%B3%E8%AF%BA%E5%AE%89%E8%AF%AD&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="米诺安语（页面不存在）">米诺安语</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minoan_language" class="extiw" title="en:Minoan language">Minoan language</a>）</li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="高加索诸语言" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;width:7.25em; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/%E9%AB%98%E5%8A%A0%E7%B4%A2%E8%AF%B8%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80" title="高加索诸语言">高加索诸语言</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px;padding:0.25em 0; line-height:1.4em; width:auto;"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8C%97%E9%AB%98%E5%8A%A0%E7%B4%A2%E8%AA%9E%E7%B3%BB" title="北高加索語系">北高加索語系</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%9C%E5%8C%97%E9%AB%98%E5%8A%A0%E7%B4%A2%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="东北高加索语系">东北高加索语系</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E5%8C%97%E9%AB%98%E5%8A%A0%E7%B4%A2%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="西北高加索语系">西北高加索语系</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%97%E9%AB%98%E5%8A%A0%E7%B4%A2%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="南高加索语系">南高加索语系</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding: 0.35em 1.0em; line-height: 1.1em; text-align: left;">亚洲 不含高加 索地区</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0px;padding: 0.25em 0; line-height: 1.4em;;padding: 0;"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;width:7.25em; font-weight:normal;">中东</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px;padding:0.25em 0; line-height:1.4em; width:auto;"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%9A%E9%9D%9E%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="亚非语系">亚非语系</a>（<a href="/wiki/%E9%97%AA%E7%B1%B3%E7%89%B9%E8%AF%AD%E6%97%8F" title="闪米特语族">闪米特语族</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%83%A1%E9%87%8C%E4%BA%9A-%E4%B9%8C%E6%8B%89%E5%B0%94%E5%9B%BE%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="胡里亚-乌拉尔图语系（页面不存在）">胡里亚-乌拉尔图语系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hurro-Urartian_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Hurro-Urartian languages">Hurro-Urartian languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%83%E8%98%AD%E8%AA%9E" title="埃蘭語">埃蘭語</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%8B%8F%E7%BE%8E%E5%B0%94%E8%AF%AD" title="苏美尔语">苏美尔语</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%B0%E6%AC%A7%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="印欧语系">印欧语系</a>（<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%B0%E5%BA%A6-%E4%BC%8A%E6%9C%97%E8%AF%AD%E6%97%8F" title="印度-伊朗语族">印度-伊朗语族</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%89%E9%82%A3%E6%89%98%E5%88%A9%E4%BA%9E%E8%AA%9E%E6%97%8F" title="安那托利亞語族">安那托利亞語族</a>）</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;width:7.25em; font-weight:normal;">北亚和中亚</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px;padding:0.25em 0; line-height:1.4em; width:auto;"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E4%B9%8C%E6%8B%89%E5%B0%94%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="乌拉尔语系">乌拉尔语系</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E5%B0%94%E6%B3%B0%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="阿尔泰语系">阿尔泰语系</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E8%92%99%E5%8F%A4%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="蒙古语系">蒙古語系</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%BB%A1-%E9%80%9A%E5%8F%A4%E6%96%AF%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="满-通古斯语系">满-通古斯语系</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%AA%81%E5%8E%A5%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="突厥语系">突厥语族</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E8%A5%BF%E4%BC%AF%E5%88%A9%E4%BA%9E%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80" title="古西伯利亞語言">古西伯利亚语言</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E6%A5%9A%E7%A7%91%E5%A5%87-%E5%A0%AA%E5%AF%9F%E5%8A%A0%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="楚科奇-堪察加语系">楚科奇—堪察加语系</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%B6%E5%B0%BC%E5%A1%9E%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="叶尼塞语系">叶尼塞语系</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%B0%BC%E5%A4%AB%E8%B5%AB%E8%AA%9E" title="尼夫赫語">尼夫赫语（族）</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%B0%A4%E5%8D%A1%E5%90%89%E5%B0%94%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="尤卡吉尔语系">尤卡吉尔语系</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%88%B1%E6%96%AF%E5%9F%BA%E6%91%A9%E2%80%94%E9%98%BF%E7%95%99%E7%94%B3%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" class="mw-redirect" title="爱斯基摩—阿留申语系">爱斯基摩—阿留申语系</a>*</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;width:7.25em; font-weight:normal;">东亚和东南亚</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px;padding:0.25em 0; line-height:1.4em; width:auto;"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E6%B1%89%E8%97%8F%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="汉藏语系">汉藏语系</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%A3%AF%E4%BE%97%E8%AA%9E%E7%B3%BB" title="壯侗語系">壯侗語系</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%8B%97%E7%91%B6%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="苗瑶语系">苗瑶语系</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%97%E4%BA%9A%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="南亚语系">南亚语系</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%97%E5%B3%B6%E8%AA%9E%E7%B3%BB" title="南島語系">南島語系</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%B0%E6%AC%A7%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="印欧语系">印欧语系</a>（<a href="/wiki/%E5%90%90%E7%81%AB%E7%BD%97%E8%AF%AD" title="吐火罗语">吐火罗语</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%9C%9D%E9%B2%9C%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="朝鲜语系">扶余－新罗语系</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%97%A5%E6%9C%AC-%E7%90%89%E7%90%83%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="日本-琉球语系">日本-琉球语系</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E4%BC%8A%E5%8A%AA%E8%AA%9E" title="阿伊努語">阿伊努語</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;width:7.25em; font-weight:normal;">南亚</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px;padding:0.25em 0; line-height:1.4em; width:auto;"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E6%B1%89%E8%97%8F%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="汉藏语系">汉藏语系</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%97%E4%BA%9A%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="南亚语系">南亚语系</a>（<a href="/wiki/%E8%92%99%E8%BE%BE%E8%AF%AD%E6%97%8F" title="蒙达语族">蒙达语族</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%A1%E8%A5%BF%E8%AF%AD%E6%94%AF" title="卡西语支">卡西语支</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%BE%BE%E7%BD%97%E6%AF%97%E8%8D%BC%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="达罗毗荼语系">达罗毗荼语系</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%89%E8%BE%BE%E6%9B%BC%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="安达曼语系">安达曼语系</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%A7%E5%AE%89%E8%BE%BE%E6%9B%BC%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="大安达曼语系">大安达曼语系</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%BF%81%E5%A5%87%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="翁奇语系">翁奇语系</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%A3%AE%E8%92%82%E7%B4%8D%E7%88%BE%E8%AA%9E" title="森蒂納爾語">森蒂納爾語</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%B8%83%E9%AD%AF%E5%A4%8F%E6%96%AF%E5%9F%BA%E8%AA%9E" title="布魯夏斯基語">布鲁夏斯基语</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%B0%BC%E5%93%88%E5%88%A9%E8%AF%AD" title="尼哈利语">尼哈利语</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%BA%93%E5%AD%99%E8%BE%BE%E8%AF%AD&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="库孙达语（页面不存在）">库孙达语</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kusunda_language" class="extiw" title="en:Kusunda language">Kusunda language</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%B0%E6%AC%A7%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="印欧语系">印欧语系</a>（<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%B0%E5%BA%A6-%E4%BC%8A%E6%9C%97%E8%AF%AD%E6%97%8F" title="印度-伊朗语族">印度-伊朗语族</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%A3%AF%E4%BE%97%E8%AA%9E%E7%B3%BB" title="壯侗語系">壯侗語系</a>（<a href="/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E6%B4%AA%E5%A7%86%E8%AA%9E" title="阿洪姆語">阿洪姆語</a>）</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;width:7.25em; font-weight:normal;">分类有争议语言</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px;padding:0.25em 0; line-height:1.4em; width:auto;"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E9%AD%AF%E7%B4%8D%E6%81%B0%E7%88%BE%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80" title="阿魯納恰爾語言">阿魯納恰爾語言</a> <ul><li>傳統上歸入漢藏語系，含<a href="/wiki/%E9%B2%81%E8%8B%8F%E8%AF%AD%E6%94%AF" title="鲁苏语支">鲁苏语支</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%88%8D%E6%9C%B1%E5%A5%94%E8%AF%AD%E6%94%AF" title="舍朱奔语支">舍朱奔语支</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%A1%91%E6%9C%97%E8%AF%AD%E7%BE%A4" title="桑朗语群">桑朗语群</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%A0%BC%E6%9B%BC%E8%AF%AD%E6%94%AF" title="格曼语支">格曼语支</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%B9%89%E9%83%BD%E2%80%94%E8%BE%BE%E8%AE%A9%E8%AF%AD%E6%94%AF" class="mw-redirect" title="义都—达让语支">义都—达让语支</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%B0%9A%E5%BD%AD%E8%AA%9E" title="尚彭語">尚彭語</a>（傳統上歸入南亚语系）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%81%A9%E5%8A%A0%E8%AF%BA%E8%AF%AD&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="恩加诺语（页面不存在）">恩加诺语</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enggano_language" class="extiw" title="en:Enggano language">Enggano language</a>）（傳統上歸入南島語系）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%85%8B%E7%BA%B3%E5%8D%9A%E4%BC%8A%E8%AF%AD" title="克纳博伊语">克纳博伊语</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%93%88%E6%8F%90%E8%AA%9E" title="哈提語">哈提語</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding: 0.35em 1.0em; line-height: 1.1em; text-align: left;">大洋洲 含马来群 岛东部</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0px;padding: 0.25em 0; line-height: 1.4em;;padding: 0;"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%97%E5%B3%B6%E8%AA%9E%E7%B3%BB" title="南島語系">南島語系</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;width:7.25em; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/%E5%B7%B4%E5%B8%83%E4%BA%9E%E8%AB%B8%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80" title="巴布亞諸語言">巴布亞諸語言</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px;padding:0.25em 0; line-height:1.4em; width:auto;"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;width:7.25em; font-weight:normal;">广义<a href="/wiki/%E8%B7%A8%E6%96%B0%E5%87%A0%E5%86%85%E4%BA%9A%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="跨新几内亚语系">跨新几内亚语系</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px;padding:0.25em 0; line-height:1.4em; width:auto;"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li>狭义跨新几内亚语系 <ul><li>核心跨新几内亚语系</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%92%A6%E5%B8%83%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="钦布语系（页面不存在）">钦布语系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chimbu%E2%80%93Wahgi_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Chimbu–Wahgi languages">Chimbu–Wahgi languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%81%A9%E5%8A%A0%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="恩加语系（页面不存在）">恩加语系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engan_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Engan languages">Engan languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%A9%AC%E5%BD%93%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="马当语系（页面不存在）">马当语系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madang_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Madang languages">Madang languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%B8%8A%E7%94%B1%E9%98%BF%E7%89%B9%E6%B2%B3%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="上由阿特河语系（页面不存在）">上由阿特河语系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper_Yuat_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Upper Yuat languages">Upper Yuat languages</a>）</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;width:7.25em; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%A5%BF%E5%B7%B4%E5%B8%83%E4%BA%9A%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="西巴布亚语系（页面不存在）">西巴布亚语系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Papuan_languages" class="extiw" title="en:West Papuan languages">West Papuan languages</a>）</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px;padding:0.25em 0; line-height:1.4em; width:auto;"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li>……</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%BA%9A%E7%93%A6-%E8%90%A8%E9%9F%A6%E9%B2%81%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="亚瓦-萨韦鲁语系（页面不存在）">亚瓦-萨韦鲁语系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yawa_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Yawa languages">Yawa languages</a>）*</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%98%BF%E6%9C%AC%E8%AF%AD&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="阿本语（页面不存在）">阿本语</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abun_language" class="extiw" title="en:Abun language">Abun language</a>）*</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%BF%88%E5%B8%83%E6%8B%89%E7%89%B9%E8%AF%AD&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="迈布拉特语（页面不存在）">迈布拉特语</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maybrat_language" class="extiw" title="en:Maybrat language">Maybrat language</a>）*</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%A7%86%E6%99%AE%E5%B0%94%E8%AF%AD&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="姆普尔语（页面不存在）">姆普尔语</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mpur_language" class="extiw" title="en:Mpur language">Mpur language</a>）*</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;width:7.25em; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%A5%BF%E5%8C%97%E5%B7%B4%E5%B8%83%E4%BA%9A%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="西北巴布亚语系（页面不存在）">西北巴布亚语系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northwest_Papuan_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Northwest Papuan languages">Northwest Papuan languages</a>）</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px;padding:0.25em 0; line-height:1.4em; width:auto;"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%B3%95%E6%96%AF%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="法斯语系（页面不存在）">法斯语系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fas_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Fas languages">Fas languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%A3%AE%E5%A1%94%E5%B0%BC%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="森塔尼语系（页面不存在）">森塔尼语系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demta%E2%80%93Sentani_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Demta–Sentani languages">Demta–Sentani languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%BE%B9%E5%A2%83%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="边境语系（页面不存在）">边境语系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Border_languages_(New_Guinea)" class="extiw" title="en:Border languages (New Guinea)">Border languages (New Guinea)</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%96%AF%E7%A7%91%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="斯科语系（页面不存在）">斯科语系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skou_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Skou languages">Skou languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%89%98%E5%B0%94-%E5%A5%8E%E5%B0%94%E5%B7%B4%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="托尔-奎尔巴语系（页面不存在）">托尔-奎尔巴语系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foja_Range_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Foja Range languages">Foja Range languages</a>）</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;width:7.25em; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%B7%B4%E5%B8%83%E4%BA%9A%E6%B9%BE%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="巴布亚湾语系（页面不存在）">巴布亚湾语系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papuan_Gulf_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Papuan Gulf languages">Papuan Gulf languages</a>）</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px;padding:0.25em 0; line-height:1.4em; width:auto;"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%BA%93%E5%9C%9F%E5%B8%83%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="库土布语系（页面不存在）">库土布语系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kutubuan_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Kutubuan languages">Kutubuan languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%9B%BE%E9%98%BF%E6%B2%B3%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="图阿河语系（页面不存在）">图阿河语系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teberan%E2%80%93Pawaian_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Teberan–Pawaian languages">Teberan–Pawaian languages</a>） <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Teberan_languages&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Teberan languages（页面不存在）">Teberan languages</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teberan_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Teberan languages">Teberan languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wiru_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wiru language（页面不存在）">Wiru language</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wiru_language" class="extiw" title="en:Wiru language">Wiru language</a>）*</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pawaia_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pawaia language（页面不存在）">Pawaia language</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pawaia_language" class="extiw" title="en:Pawaia language">Pawaia language</a>）*</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=East_Strickland_languages&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="East Strickland languages（页面不存在）">East Strickland languages</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Strickland_languages" class="extiw" title="en:East Strickland languages">East Strickland languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Doso%E2%80%93Turumsa_languages&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Doso–Turumsa languages（页面不存在）">Doso–Turumsa languages</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doso%E2%80%93Turumsa_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Doso–Turumsa languages">Doso–Turumsa languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Turama%E2%80%93Kikorian_languages&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Turama–Kikorian languages（页面不存在）">Turama–Kikorian languages</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turama%E2%80%93Kikorian_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Turama–Kikorian languages">Turama–Kikorian languages</a>）</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;width:7.25em; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%B8%9C%E5%B7%B4%E5%B8%83%E4%BA%9A%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="东巴布亚语言（页面不存在）">东巴布亚语言</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Papuan_languages" class="extiw" title="en:East Papuan languages">East Papuan languages</a>）</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px;padding:0.25em 0; line-height:1.4em; width:auto;"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%80%B6%E5%8B%92-%E8%A5%BF%E6%96%B0%E4%B8%8D%E5%88%97%E9%A2%A0%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="耶勒-西新不列颠语系（页面不存在）">耶勒-西新不列颠语系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yele_%E2%80%93_West_New_Britain_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Yele – West New Britain languages">Yele – West New Britain languages</a>） <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E5%85%A7%E5%A7%86%E8%AA%9E" title="阿內姆語">阿內姆語</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%98%BF%E5%A1%94%E8%AF%AD&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="阿塔语（页面不存在）">阿塔语</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ata_language" class="extiw" title="en:Ata language">Ata language</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%80%B6%E5%8B%92%E8%AF%AD&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="耶勒语（页面不存在）">耶勒语</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yele_language" class="extiw" title="en:Yele language">Yele language</a>）*</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%B8%9C%E6%96%B0%E4%B8%8D%E5%88%97%E9%A2%A0%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="东新不列颠语系（页面不存在）">东新不列颠语系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_New_Britain_languages" class="extiw" title="en:East New Britain languages">East New Britain languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8C%97%E5%B8%83%E5%B9%B2%E7%BB%B4%E5%B0%94%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="北布干维尔语系（页面不存在）">北布干维尔语系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Bougainville_languages" class="extiw" title="en:North Bougainville languages">North Bougainville languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8D%97%E5%B8%83%E5%B9%B2%E7%BB%B4%E5%B0%94%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="南布干维尔语系（页面不存在）">南布干维尔语系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Bougainville_languages" class="extiw" title="en:South Bougainville languages">South Bougainville languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%B8%AD%E6%89%80%E7%BD%97%E9%97%A8%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="中所罗门语系（页面不存在）">中所罗门语系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Solomon_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Central Solomon languages">Central Solomon languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%8B%8F%E8%B7%AF%E5%8D%A1%E8%AF%AD&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="苏路卡语（页面不存在）">苏路卡语</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulka_language" class="extiw" title="en:Sulka language">Sulka language</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A7%91%E8%B7%AF%E8%AF%AD_(%E5%B7%B4%E5%B8%83%E4%BA%9A%E6%96%B0%E5%87%A0%E5%86%85%E4%BA%9A)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="科路语 (巴布亚新几内亚)（页面不存在）">科路语</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kol_language_(Papua_New_Guinea)" class="extiw" title="en:Kol language (Papua New Guinea)">Kol language (Papua New Guinea)</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%BA%93%E6%AC%A7%E7%89%B9%E8%AF%AD&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="库欧特语（页面不存在）">库欧特语</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuot_language" class="extiw" title="en:Kuot language">Kuot language</a>）</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;width:7.25em; font-weight:normal;">其他</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px;padding:0.25em 0; line-height:1.4em; width:auto;"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%B7%A6%E6%A2%85%E6%B2%B3-%E8%90%A8%E9%A9%AC%E4%BA%9A%E6%B2%B3%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="左梅河-萨马亚河语系（页面不存在）">左梅河-萨马亚河语系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arai%E2%80%93Samaia_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Arai–Samaia languages">Arai–Samaia languages</a>） <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%B7%A6%E6%A2%85%E6%B2%B3%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="左梅河语系（页面不存在）">左梅河语系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Left_May_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Left May languages">Left May languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%90%A8%E9%A9%AC%E4%BA%9A%E6%B2%B3%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="萨马亚河语系（页面不存在）">萨马亚河语系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amto%E2%80%93Musan_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Amto–Musan languages">Amto–Musan languages</a>）</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%AF%94%E5%8D%97%E5%BE%B7%E9%9B%B7%E4%BA%9A-%E6%88%88%E4%BC%8A%E6%8B%89%E6%8B%89%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="比南德雷亚-戈伊拉拉语系（页面不存在）">比南德雷亚-戈伊拉拉语系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binanderean%E2%80%93Goilalan_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Binanderean–Goilalan languages">Binanderean–Goilalan languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%B8%9C%E6%9E%81%E4%B9%90%E9%B8%9F%E6%B9%BE%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="东极乐鸟湾语系（页面不存在）">东极乐鸟湾语系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Geelvink_Bay_languages" class="extiw" title="en:East Geelvink Bay languages">East Geelvink Bay languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%9F%83%E8%8E%B1%E7%8E%9B%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="埃莱玛语系（页面不存在）">埃莱玛语系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eleman_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Eleman languages">Eleman languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%80%83%E9%9B%B7-%E7%A7%91%E8%90%A8%E9%9B%B7%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="考雷-科萨雷语系（页面不存在）">考雷-科萨雷语系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaure%E2%80%93Kosare_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Kaure–Kosare languages">Kaure–Kosare languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%A5%87%E7%93%A6%E4%BC%8A%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="奇瓦伊语系（页面不存在）">奇瓦伊语系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiwaian_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Kiwaian languages">Kiwaian languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%B9%96%E5%8E%9F%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="湖原语系（页面不存在）">湖原语系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lakes_Plain_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Lakes Plain languages">Lakes Plain languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%B8%8B%E6%9B%BC%E4%BC%AF%E6%8B%89%E8%8E%AB%E6%B2%B3%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="下曼伯拉莫河语系（页面不存在）">下曼伯拉莫河语系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lower_Mamberamo_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Lower Mamberamo languages">Lower Mamberamo languages</a>）*</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%9F%83%E7%89%B9%E7%BA%B3%E6%B9%BE%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="埃特纳湾语系（页面不存在）">埃特纳湾语系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mairasi_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Mairasi languages">Mairasi languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%BF%9D%E7%93%A6%E8%A5%BF%E6%B2%B3%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="保瓦西河语系（页面不存在）">保瓦西河语系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pauwasi_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Pauwasi languages">Pauwasi languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%B3%BD%E7%B4%8D%E5%B9%BE%E8%AA%9E%E7%B3%BB" title="賽納幾語系">賽納幾語系</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%A1%9E%E5%8A%AA%E6%B2%B3%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="塞努河语系（页面不存在）">塞努河语系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senu_River_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Senu River languages">Senu River languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%A1%9E%E7%9A%AE%E5%85%8B%E6%B2%B3-%E6%8B%89%E7%A9%86%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="塞皮克河-拉穆语言（页面不存在）">塞皮克河-拉穆语言</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sepik%E2%80%93Ramu_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Sepik–Ramu languages">Sepik–Ramu languages</a>） <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%A1%9E%E7%9A%AE%E5%85%8B%E6%B2%B3%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="塞皮克河语系（页面不存在）">塞皮克河语系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sepik_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Sepik languages">Sepik languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%8B%89%E7%A9%86-%E4%B8%8B%E5%A1%9E%E7%9A%AE%E5%85%8B%E6%B2%B3%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="拉穆-下塞皮克河语系（页面不存在）">拉穆-下塞皮克河语系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramu%E2%80%93Lower_Sepik_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Ramu–Lower Sepik languages">Ramu–Lower Sepik languages</a>） <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%8B%89%E7%A9%86%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="拉穆语系（页面不存在）">拉穆语系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramu_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Ramu languages">Ramu languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%B8%8B%E5%A1%9E%E7%9A%AE%E5%85%8B%E6%B2%B3%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="下塞皮克河语系（页面不存在）">下塞皮克河语系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lower_Sepik_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Lower Sepik languages">Lower Sepik languages</a>）</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tayap_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tayap language（页面不存在）">Tayap language</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tayap_language" class="extiw" title="en:Tayap language">Tayap language</a>）</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%89%98%E9%87%8C%E5%88%87%E5%88%A9%E8%AA%9E%E6%97%8F" title="托里切利語族">托里切利語族</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%B7%A8%E5%BC%97%E8%8E%B1-%E5%B8%83%E6%8B%89%E5%8D%A1%E6%B2%B3%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="跨弗莱-布拉卡河语言（页面不存在）">跨弗莱-布拉卡河语言</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trans-Fly%E2%80%93Bulaka_River_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Trans-Fly–Bulaka River languages">Trans-Fly–Bulaka River languages</a>） <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%B7%A8%E5%BC%97%E8%8E%B1%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="跨弗莱语系（页面不存在）">跨弗莱语系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trans-Fly_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Trans-Fly languages">Trans-Fly languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%B8%83%E6%8B%89%E5%8D%A1%E6%B2%B3%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="布拉卡河语系（页面不存在）">布拉卡河语系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulaka_River_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Bulaka River languages">Bulaka River languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%8E%AB%E5%B0%94%E9%BB%91%E5%BE%B7%E6%B2%B3%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="莫尔黑德河语系（页面不存在）">莫尔黑德河语系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yam_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Yam languages">Yam languages</a>）</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%94%B1%E9%98%BF%E7%89%B9%E6%B2%B3%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="由阿特河语系（页面不存在）">由阿特河语系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuat_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Yuat languages">Yuat languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abinomn_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Abinomn language（页面不存在）">Abinomn language</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abinomn_language" class="extiw" title="en:Abinomn language">Abinomn language</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Porome_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Porome language（页面不存在）">Porome language</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porome_language" class="extiw" title="en:Porome language">Porome language</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%9D%A6%E5%8D%9A%E6%8B%89%E8%AF%AD" title="坦博拉语">坦博拉语</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;width:7.25em; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/%E6%BE%B3%E5%A4%A7%E5%88%A9%E4%BA%9A%E5%8E%9F%E4%BD%8F%E6%B0%91%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80" title="澳大利亚原住民语言">澳洲原住民语言</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px;padding:0.25em 0; line-height:1.4em; width:auto;"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;width:7.25em; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%A4%A7%E5%B8%95%E7%91%AA-%E5%8A%AA%E5%B9%B2%E8%AA%9E%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="大帕瑪-努干語系（页面不存在）">大帕瑪-努干語系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macro-Pama%E2%80%93Nyungan_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Macro-Pama–Nyungan languages">Macro-Pama–Nyungan languages</a>）</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px;padding:0.25em 0; line-height:1.4em; width:auto;"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E5%B8%95%E9%A9%AC-%E5%B0%BC%E6%B0%B8%E7%94%98%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="帕马-尼永甘语系">帕马-尼永甘语系</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%A4%A7%E8%B4%A1%E7%BB%B4%E5%B0%BC%E5%8F%A4%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="大贡维尼古语系（页面不存在）">大贡维尼古语系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macro-Gunwinyguan_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Macro-Gunwinyguan languages">Macro-Gunwinyguan languages</a>） <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%B4%A1%E7%BB%B4%E5%B0%BC%E5%8F%A4%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="贡维尼古语系（页面不存在）">贡维尼古语系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gunwinyguan_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Gunwinyguan languages">Gunwinyguan languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%A9%AC%E5%AE%81%E9%87%8C%E8%BE%BE%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="马宁里达语系（页面不存在）">马宁里达语系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maningrida_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Maningrida languages">Maningrida languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%98%86%E5%8A%A0%E6%8B%89%E5%8D%A1%E5%B0%BC%E8%AF%AD&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="昆加拉卡尼语（页面不存在）">昆加拉卡尼语</a>（：<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kungarakany_language:%E6%98%86%E5%8A%A0%E6%8B%89%E5%8D%A1%E5%B0%BC%E8%AF%AD&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kungarakany language:昆加拉卡尼语（页面不存在）">昆加拉卡尼语</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8A%A0%E5%8F%A4%E4%B9%85%E8%AF%AD&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="加古久语（页面不存在）">加古久语</a>（：<a href="/w/index.php?title=Gaagudju_language:%E5%8A%A0%E5%8F%A4%E4%B9%85%E8%AF%AD&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gaagudju language:加古久语（页面不存在）">加古久语</a>）</li> <li>马雅腊以-马拉语言</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%94%90%E5%9F%BA%E5%85%8B%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="唐基克语系（页面不存在）">唐基克语系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tangkic_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Tangkic languages">Tangkic languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8A%A0%E5%8B%92%E4%B8%87%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="加勒万语系（页面不存在）">加勒万语系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garawan_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Garawan languages">Garawan languages</a>）</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;width:7.25em; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/%E5%A1%94%E6%96%AF%E9%A6%AC%E5%B0%BC%E4%BA%9E%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80" title="塔斯馬尼亞語言">塔斯馬尼亞語言</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px;padding:0.25em 0; line-height:1.4em; width:auto;"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8C%97%E5%A1%94%E6%96%AF%E9%A9%AC%E5%B0%BC%E4%BA%9A%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="北塔斯马尼亚语系（页面不存在）">北塔斯马尼亚语系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Tasmanian_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Northern Tasmanian languages">Northern Tasmanian languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%B8%9C%E5%8C%97%E5%A1%94%E6%96%AF%E9%A9%AC%E5%B0%BC%E4%BA%9A%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="东北塔斯马尼亚语系（页面不存在）">东北塔斯马尼亚语系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northeastern_Tasmanian_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Northeastern Tasmanian languages">Northeastern Tasmanian languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%B8%9C%E5%A1%94%E6%96%AF%E9%A9%AC%E5%B0%BC%E4%BA%9A%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="东塔斯马尼亚语系（页面不存在）">东塔斯马尼亚语系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Tasmanian_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Eastern Tasmanian languages">Eastern Tasmanian languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%A5%BF%E5%A1%94%E6%96%AF%E9%A9%AC%E5%B0%BC%E4%BA%9A%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="西塔斯马尼亚语系（页面不存在）">西塔斯马尼亚语系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Tasmanian_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Western Tasmanian languages">Western Tasmanian languages</a>）</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;width:7.25em; font-weight:normal;">其他</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px;padding:0.25em 0; line-height:1.4em; width:auto;"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%B8%83%E5%8A%AA%E7%8F%AD%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="布努班语系（页面不存在）">布努班语系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bunuban_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Bunuban languages">Bunuban languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%BE%BE%E5%B0%94%E6%96%87%E5%9C%B0%E5%8C%BA%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="达尔文地区语系（页面不存在）">达尔文地区语系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darwin_Region_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Darwin Region languages">Darwin Region languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%88%B4%E5%88%A9%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="戴利语言（页面不存在）">戴利语言</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daly_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Daly languages">Daly languages</a>） <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%B8%9C%E6%88%B4%E5%88%A9%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="东戴利语系（页面不存在）">东戴利语系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Daly_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Eastern Daly languages">Eastern Daly languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8D%97%E6%88%B4%E5%88%A9%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="南戴利语系（页面不存在）">南戴利语系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Daly_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Southern Daly languages">Southern Daly languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%A5%BF%E6%88%B4%E5%88%A9%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="西戴利语系（页面不存在）">西戴利语系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Daly_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Western Daly languages">Western Daly languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8C%97%E6%88%B4%E5%88%A9%E8%AF%AD&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="北戴利语（页面不存在）">北戴利语</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malak-Malak_language" class="extiw" title="en:Malak-Malak language">Malak-Malak language</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%93%A6%E5%90%89%E8%BF%8E%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="瓦吉迎语系（页面不存在）">瓦吉迎语系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wagaydyic_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Wagaydyic languages">Wagaydyic languages</a>）</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%BC%8A%E7%93%A6%E7%96%86%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="伊瓦疆语系（页面不存在）">伊瓦疆语系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iwaidjan_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Iwaidjan languages">Iwaidjan languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%B4%BE%E8%85%8A%E5%8D%A1%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="贾腊卡语系（页面不存在）">贾腊卡语系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jarrakan_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Jarrakan languages">Jarrakan languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marrku%E2%80%93Wurrugu_languages&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Marrku–Wurrugu languages（页面不存在）">Marrku–Wurrugu languages</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marrku%E2%80%93Wurrugu_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Marrku–Wurrugu languages">Marrku–Wurrugu languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%B1%B3%E6%81%A9%E8%BF%AA%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="米恩迪语系（页面不存在）">米恩迪语系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mirndi_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Mirndi languages">Mirndi languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%BA%BD%E5%B0%94%E7%BA%BD%E5%85%B0%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="纽尔纽兰语系（页面不存在）">纽尔纽兰语系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nyulnyulan_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Nyulnyulan languages">Nyulnyulan languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%B2%83%E7%BD%97%E5%85%B0%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="沃罗兰语系（页面不存在）">沃罗兰语系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worrorran_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Worrorran languages">Worrorran languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%93%A6%E6%89%8E%E6%9B%BC%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="瓦扎曼语系（页面不存在）">瓦扎曼语系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wardaman_language" class="extiw" title="en:Wardaman language">Wardaman language</a>） <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E7%93%A6%E5%9F%BA%E6%9B%BC%E8%AF%AD" title="瓦基曼语">瓦基曼语</a>*</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%87%91%E6%AF%94%E5%B0%A4%E8%AF%AD" title="金比尤语">金比尤语</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%8F%90%E7%BB%B4%E8%AF%AD" title="提维语">提维语</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding: 0.35em 1.0em; line-height: 1.1em; text-align: left;"><a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%8E%E6%B4%B2%E5%8E%9F%E4%BD%8F%E6%B0%91%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80" title="美洲原住民語言">北美洲</a> 含中美洲 </th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0px;padding: 0.25em 0; line-height: 1.4em;"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E5%B0%94%E5%90%89%E5%85%8B%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="阿尔吉克语系">阿尔吉克语系</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chumashan_languages&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Chumashan languages（页面不存在）">Chumashan languages</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chumashan_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Chumashan languages">Chumashan languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%88%B1%E6%96%AF%E5%9F%BA%E6%91%A9%E2%80%94%E9%98%BF%E7%95%99%E7%94%B3%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" class="mw-redirect" title="爱斯基摩—阿留申语系">爱斯基摩—阿留申语系</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%B4%8D-%E5%BE%B7%E5%85%A7%E8%AA%9E%E7%B3%BB" title="納-德內語系">納—德內語系</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%8C%B6%E4%BB%96-%E9%98%BF%E8%8C%B2%E7%89%B9%E5%85%8B%E8%AA%9E%E7%B3%BB" title="猶他-阿茲特克語系">猶他—阿茲特克語系</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yuki%E2%80%93Wappo_languages&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yuki–Wappo languages（页面不存在）">Yuki–Wappo languages</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuki%E2%80%93Wappo_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Yuki–Wappo languages">Yuki–Wappo languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%A4%A7%E5%A5%87%E5%B8%83%E6%81%B0%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="大奇布恰语系（页面不存在）">大奇布恰语系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macro-Chibchan_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Macro-Chibchan languages">Macro-Chibchan languages</a>） <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E5%A5%87%E5%B8%83%E6%81%B0%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="奇布恰语系">奇布恰语系</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lencan_languages&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lencan languages（页面不存在）">Lencan languages</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lencan_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Lencan languages">Lencan languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%B1%B3%E8%8B%8F%E7%8E%9B%E5%B0%94%E6%BD%98%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="米苏玛尔潘语系（页面不存在）">米苏玛尔潘语系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misumalpan_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Misumalpan languages">Misumalpan languages</a>）</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%B5%B7%E9%81%94%E8%AA%9E" title="海達語">海達語</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kutenai_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kutenai language（页面不存在）">Kutenai language</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kutenai_language" class="extiw" title="en:Kutenai language">Kutenai language</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Timucua_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Timucua language（页面不存在）">Timucua language</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timucua_language" class="extiw" title="en:Timucua language">Timucua language</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tonkawa_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tonkawa language（页面不存在）">Tonkawa language</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tonkawa_language" class="extiw" title="en:Tonkawa language">Tonkawa language</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Waikuri_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Waikuri language（页面不存在）">Waikuri language</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waikuri_language" class="extiw" title="en:Waikuri language">Waikuri language</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cuitlatec_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cuitlatec language（页面不存在）">Cuitlatec language</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuitlatec_language" class="extiw" title="en:Cuitlatec language">Cuitlatec language</a>）</li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;width:7.25em; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%A4%A7%E8%8B%8F%E6%97%8F%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="大苏族语系（页面不存在）">大苏族语系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macro-Siouan_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Macro-Siouan languages">Macro-Siouan languages</a>）</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px;padding:0.25em 0; line-height:1.4em; width:auto;"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siouan_languages&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Siouan languages（页面不存在）">Siouan languages</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siouan_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Siouan languages">Siouan languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yuchi_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yuchi language（页面不存在）">Yuchi language</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuchi_language" class="extiw" title="en:Yuchi language">Yuchi language</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caddoan_languages&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Caddoan languages（页面不存在）">Caddoan languages</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caddoan_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Caddoan languages">Caddoan languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%98%93%E6%B4%9B%E9%AD%81%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="易洛魁语系">易洛魁语系</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;width:7.25em; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%9C%8D%E5%9D%8E%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="霍坎语系（页面不存在）">霍坎语系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hokan_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Hokan languages">Hokan languages</a>）</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px;padding:0.25em 0; line-height:1.4em; width:auto;"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Karuk_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Karuk language（页面不存在）">Karuk language</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karuk_language" class="extiw" title="en:Karuk language">Karuk language</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shastan_languages&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Shastan languages（页面不存在）">Shastan languages</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shastan_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Shastan languages">Shastan languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Palaihnihan_languages&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Palaihnihan languages（页面不存在）">Palaihnihan languages</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palaihnihan_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Palaihnihan languages">Palaihnihan languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chimariko_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Chimariko language（页面不存在）">Chimariko language</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chimariko_language" class="extiw" title="en:Chimariko language">Chimariko language</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yana_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yana language（页面不存在）">Yana language</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yana_language" class="extiw" title="en:Yana language">Yana language</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Washo_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Washo language（页面不存在）">Washo language</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washo_language" class="extiw" title="en:Washo language">Washo language</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Esselen_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Esselen language（页面不存在）">Esselen language</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esselen_language" class="extiw" title="en:Esselen language">Esselen language</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pomoan_languages&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pomoan languages（页面不存在）">Pomoan languages</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pomoan_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Pomoan languages">Pomoan languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%94%B1%E7%8E%9B%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="由玛语系（页面不存在）">由玛语系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuman%E2%80%93Cochim%C3%AD_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Yuman–Cochimí languages">Yuman–Cochimí languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seri_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Seri language（页面不存在）">Seri language</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seri_language" class="extiw" title="en:Seri language">Seri language</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Comecrudan_languages&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Comecrudan languages（页面不存在）">Comecrudan languages</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comecrudan_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Comecrudan languages">Comecrudan languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%93%8A%E5%A1%94%E7%88%BE%E8%AA%9E" title="瓊塔爾語">瓊塔爾語</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%B8%8C%E5%8D%A1%E5%85%8B%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="希卡克语系（页面不存在）">希卡克语系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jicaquean_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Jicaquean languages">Jicaquean languages</a>）</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;width:7.25em; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%BD%A9%E7%BA%BD%E8%92%82%E5%AE%89%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="佩纽蒂安语系（页面不存在）">佩纽蒂安语系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penutian_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Penutian languages">Penutian languages</a>）</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px;padding:0.25em 0; line-height:1.4em; width:auto;"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinookan_languages&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Chinookan languages（页面不存在）">Chinookan languages</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinookan_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Chinookan languages">Chinookan languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%AB%98%E5%8E%9F%E4%BD%A9%E5%8A%AA%E8%92%82%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="高原佩努蒂语系（页面不存在）">高原佩努蒂语系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plateau_Penutian_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Plateau Penutian languages">Plateau Penutian languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Takelma_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Takelma language（页面不存在）">Takelma language</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Takelma_language" class="extiw" title="en:Takelma language">Takelma language</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kalapuyan_languages&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kalapuyan languages（页面不存在）">Kalapuyan languages</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalapuyan_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Kalapuyan languages">Kalapuyan languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coast_Oregon_Penutian_languages&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Coast Oregon Penutian languages（页面不存在）">Coast Oregon Penutian languages</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coast_Oregon_Penutian_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Coast Oregon Penutian languages">Coast Oregon Penutian languages</a>） <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alsea_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Alsea language（页面不存在）">Alsea language</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alsea_language" class="extiw" title="en:Alsea language">Alsea language</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Siuslaw_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Siuslaw language（页面不存在）">Siuslaw language</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siuslaw_language" class="extiw" title="en:Siuslaw language">Siuslaw language</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coosan_languages&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Coosan languages（页面不存在）">Coosan languages</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coosan_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Coosan languages">Coosan languages</a>）</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wintuan_languages&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wintuan languages（页面不存在）">Wintuan languages</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wintuan_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Wintuan languages">Wintuan languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%BF%88%E6%9D%9C%E8%AF%AD" title="迈杜语">迈杜语</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yok-Utian_languages&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yok-Utian languages（页面不存在）">Yok-Utian languages</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yok-Utian_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Yok-Utian languages">Yok-Utian languages</a>） <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yokuts_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yokuts language（页面不存在）">Yokuts language</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yokuts_language" class="extiw" title="en:Yokuts language">Yokuts language</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Utian_languages&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Utian languages（页面不存在）">Utian languages</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utian_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Utian languages">Utian languages</a>）</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tsimshianic_languages&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tsimshianic languages（页面不存在）">Tsimshianic languages</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsimshianic_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Tsimshianic languages">Tsimshianic languages</a>）</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;width:7.25em; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%B5%B7%E6%B9%BE%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="海湾语系（页面不存在）">海湾语系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Gulf languages">Gulf languages</a>）</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px;padding:0.25em 0; line-height:1.4em; width:auto;"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%BB%98%E6%96%AF%E7%A7%91%E5%90%89%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="默斯科吉语系（页面不存在）">默斯科吉语系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muskogean_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Muskogean languages">Muskogean languages</a>）</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;width:7.25em; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%8E%AB%E6%A1%91%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="莫桑语系（页面不存在）">莫桑语系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosan_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Mosan languages">Mosan languages</a>）</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px;padding:0.25em 0; line-height:1.4em; width:auto;"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%94%AF%E9%BB%98%E5%BA%93%E4%BA%9A%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="支默库亚语系（页面不存在）">支默库亚语系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chimakuan_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Chimakuan languages">Chimakuan languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%96%A9%E5%88%A9%E5%B8%8C%E8%AA%9E%E7%B3%BB" title="薩利希語系">薩利希語系</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%93%A6%E5%8D%A1%E4%BB%80%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="瓦卡什语系（页面不存在）">瓦卡什语系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wakashan_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Wakashan languages">Wakashan languages</a>）</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;width:7.25em; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%99%AE%E9%9F%A6%E5%B8%83%E6%B4%9B%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E8%81%94%E7%9B%9F&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="普韦布洛语言联盟（页面不存在）">普韦布洛语言联盟</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pueblo_linguistic_area" class="extiw" title="en:Pueblo linguistic area">Pueblo linguistic area</a>）</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px;padding:0.25em 0; line-height:1.4em; width:auto;"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tanoan_languages&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tanoan languages（页面不存在）">Tanoan languages</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanoan_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Tanoan languages">Tanoan languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Keres_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Keres language（页面不存在）">Keres language</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keres_language" class="extiw" title="en:Keres language">Keres language</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Zuni_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Zuni language（页面不存在）">Zuni language</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zuni_language" class="extiw" title="en:Zuni language">Zuni language</a>）</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;width:7.25em; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%B8%AD%E9%83%A8%E7%BE%8E%E6%B4%B2%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E8%81%94%E7%9B%9F&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="中部美洲语言联盟（页面不存在）">中部美洲语言联盟</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesoamerican_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Mesoamerican languages">Mesoamerican languages</a>）</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px;padding:0.25em 0; line-height:1.4em; width:auto;"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E9%A6%AC%E9%9B%85%E8%AA%9E%E7%B3%BB" title="馬雅語系">馬雅語系</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%B1%B3%E8%B5%AB-%E7%B4%A2%E5%85%8B%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="米赫-索克语系（页面不存在）">米赫-索克语系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mixe%E2%80%93Zoque_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Mixe–Zoque languages">Mixe–Zoque languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%AD%90%E6%89%98-%E6%9B%BC%E6%A0%BC%E8%AA%9E%E7%B3%BB" title="歐托-曼格語系">歐托-曼格語系</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%89%98%E6%89%98%E7%BA%B3%E5%8D%A1%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="托托纳卡语系（页面不存在）">托托纳卡语系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Totonacan_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Totonacan languages">Totonacan languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%93%A6%E9%9F%A6%E8%AF%AD&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="瓦韦语（页面不存在）">瓦韦语</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huave_language" class="extiw" title="en:Huave language">Huave language</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%99%AE%E9%9B%B7%E4%BD%A9%E6%9F%A5%E8%AF%AD" title="普雷佩查语">普雷佩查语</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Xincan_languages&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Xincan languages（页面不存在）">Xincan languages</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xincan_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Xincan languages">Xincan languages</a>）</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding: 0.35em 1.0em; line-height: 1.1em; text-align: left;"><a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%8E%E6%B4%B2%E5%8E%9F%E4%BD%8F%E6%B0%91%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80" title="美洲原住民語言">南美洲</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0px;padding: 0.25em 0; line-height: 1.4em;"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Andoque%E2%80%93Urequena_languages&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Andoque–Urequena languages（页面不存在）">Andoque–Urequena languages</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andoque%E2%80%93Urequena_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Andoque–Urequena languages">Andoque–Urequena languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arawan_languages&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Arawan languages（页面不存在）">Arawan languages</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arawan_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Arawan languages">Arawan languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E5%8A%B3%E5%9D%8E%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="阿劳坎语系">阿劳坎语系</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E6%8B%89%E7%93%A6%E5%85%8B%E8%AA%9E%E6%97%8F" title="阿拉瓦克語族">阿拉瓦克語族</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arutani%E2%80%93Sape_languages&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Arutani–Sape languages（页面不存在）">Arutani–Sape languages</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arutani%E2%80%93Sape_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Arutani–Sape languages">Arutani–Sape languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aymaran_languages&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Aymaran languages（页面不存在）">Aymaran languages</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aymaran_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Aymaran languages">Aymaran languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Barbacoan_languages&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Barbacoan languages（页面不存在）">Barbacoan languages</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbacoan_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Barbacoan languages">Barbacoan languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Catacaoan_languages&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Catacaoan languages（页面不存在）">Catacaoan languages</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catacaoan_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Catacaoan languages">Catacaoan languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wamo%E2%80%93Chapakura_languages&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wamo–Chapakura languages（页面不存在）">Wamo–Chapakura languages</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wamo%E2%80%93Chapakura_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Wamo–Chapakura languages">Wamo–Chapakura languages</a>） <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chapacuran_languages&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Chapacuran languages（页面不存在）">Chapacuran languages</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chapacuran_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Chapacuran languages">Chapacuran languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Guamo_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Guamo language（页面不存在）">Guamo language</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guamo_language" class="extiw" title="en:Guamo language">Guamo language</a>）</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Charruan_languages&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Charruan languages（页面不存在）">Charruan languages</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charruan_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Charruan languages">Charruan languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Choco_languages&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Choco languages（页面不存在）">Choco languages</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Choco_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Choco languages">Choco languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Macro-Panoan_languages&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Macro-Panoan languages（页面不存在）">Macro-Panoan languages</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macro-Panoan_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Macro-Panoan languages">Macro-Panoan languages</a>） <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%B8%95%E8%AF%BA-%E5%A1%94%E5%8D%A1%E7%BA%B3%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="帕诺-塔卡纳语系（页面不存在）">帕诺-塔卡纳语系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pano-Tacanan_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Pano-Tacanan languages">Pano-Tacanan languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Moseten%E2%80%93Chonan_languages&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Moseten–Chonan languages（页面不存在）">Moseten–Chonan languages</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moseten%E2%80%93Chonan_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Moseten–Chonan languages">Moseten–Chonan languages</a>） <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chimane_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Chimane language（页面不存在）">Chimane language</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chimane_language" class="extiw" title="en:Chimane language">Chimane language</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chonan_languages&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Chonan languages（页面不存在）">Chonan languages</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chonan_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Chonan languages">Chonan languages</a>）</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Guajiboan_languages&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Guajiboan languages（页面不存在）">Guajiboan languages</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guajiboan_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Guajiboan languages">Guajiboan languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Har%C3%A1kmbut%E2%80%93Katukinan_languages&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Harákmbut–Katukinan languages（页面不存在）">Harákmbut–Katukinan languages</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Har%C3%A1kmbut%E2%80%93Katukinan_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Harákmbut–Katukinan languages">Harákmbut–Katukinan languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jirajaran_languages&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jirajaran languages（页面不存在）">Jirajaran languages</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jirajaran_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Jirajaran languages">Jirajaran languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Macro-Jibaro_languages&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Macro-Jibaro languages（页面不存在）">Macro-Jibaro languages</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macro-Jibaro_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Macro-Jibaro languages">Macro-Jibaro languages</a>） <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chicham_languages&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Chicham languages（页面不存在）">Chicham languages</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicham_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Chicham languages">Chicham languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cahuapanan_languages&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cahuapanan languages（页面不存在）">Cahuapanan languages</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cahuapanan_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Cahuapanan languages">Cahuapanan languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urarina_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Urarina language（页面不存在）">Urarina language</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urarina_language" class="extiw" title="en:Urarina language">Urarina language</a>）</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Katembri%E2%80%93Taruma_languages&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Katembri–Taruma languages（页面不存在）">Katembri–Taruma languages</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katembri%E2%80%93Taruma_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Katembri–Taruma languages">Katembri–Taruma languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mascoian_languages&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mascoian languages（页面不存在）">Mascoian languages</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mascoian_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Mascoian languages">Mascoian languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mataco%E2%80%93Guaicuru_languages&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mataco–Guaicuru languages（页面不存在）">Mataco–Guaicuru languages</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mataco%E2%80%93Guaicuru_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Mataco–Guaicuru languages">Mataco–Guaicuru languages</a>） <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Matacoan_languages&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Matacoan languages（页面不存在）">Matacoan languages</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matacoan_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Matacoan languages">Matacoan languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%93%9C%E4%BC%8A%E5%BA%93%E9%B2%81%E4%BA%9A%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="瓜伊库鲁亚语系（页面不存在）">瓜伊库鲁亚语系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guaicuruan_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Guaicuruan languages">Guaicuruan languages</a>）</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Macro-Puinavean_languages&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Macro-Puinavean languages（页面不存在）">Macro-Puinavean languages</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macro-Puinavean_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Macro-Puinavean languages">Macro-Puinavean languages</a>） <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nadahup_languages&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nadahup languages（页面不存在）">Nadahup languages</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nadahup_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Nadahup languages">Nadahup languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Puinave_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Puinave language（页面不存在）">Puinave language</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puinave_language" class="extiw" title="en:Puinave language">Puinave language</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nukak_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nukak language（页面不存在）">Nukak language</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nukak_language" class="extiw" title="en:Nukak language">Nukak language</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Maku_language_of_Auari&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Maku language of Auari（页面不存在）">Maku language of Auari</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maku_language_of_Auari" class="extiw" title="en:Maku language of Auari">Maku language of Auari</a>）</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nambikwaran_languages&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nambikwaran languages（页面不存在）">Nambikwaran languages</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nambikwaran_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Nambikwaran languages">Nambikwaran languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Macro-Otom%C3%A1koan_languages&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Macro-Otomákoan languages（页面不存在）">Macro-Otomákoan languages</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macro-Otom%C3%A1koan_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Macro-Otomákoan languages">Macro-Otomákoan languages</a>） <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Otom%C3%A1koan_languages&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Otomákoan languages（页面不存在）">Otomákoan languages</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otom%C3%A1koan_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Otomákoan languages">Otomákoan languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trumai_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Trumai language（页面不存在）">Trumai language</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trumai_language" class="extiw" title="en:Trumai language">Trumai language</a>）</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%85%8B%E4%B8%98%E4%BA%9E%E8%AA%9E" title="克丘亞語">克丘亞語</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Duho_languages&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Duho languages（页面不存在）">Duho languages</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duho_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Duho languages">Duho languages</a>） <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ticuna%E2%80%93Yuri_languages&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ticuna–Yuri languages（页面不存在）">Ticuna–Yuri languages</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ticuna%E2%80%93Yuri_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Ticuna–Yuri languages">Ticuna–Yuri languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hod%C3%AF_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hodï language（页面不存在）">Hodï language</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hod%C3%AF_language" class="extiw" title="en:Hodï language">Hodï language</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Betoi_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Betoi language（页面不存在）">Betoi language</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Betoi_language" class="extiw" title="en:Betoi language">Betoi language</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Piaroa%E2%80%93Saliban_languages&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Piaroa–Saliban languages（页面不存在）">Piaroa–Saliban languages</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piaroa%E2%80%93Saliban_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Piaroa–Saliban languages">Piaroa–Saliban languages</a>）</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Timotean_languages&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Timotean languages（页面不存在）">Timotean languages</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timotean_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Timotean languages">Timotean languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tiniguan_languages&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tiniguan languages（页面不存在）">Tiniguan languages</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiniguan_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Tiniguan languages">Tiniguan languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%96%E5%8D%A1%E8%AB%BE%E5%AE%89%E8%AA%9E%E7%B3%BB" title="圖卡諾安語系">圖卡諾安語系</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Uru%E2%80%93Chipaya_languages&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Uru–Chipaya languages（页面不存在）">Uru–Chipaya languages</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uru%E2%80%93Chipaya_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Uru–Chipaya languages">Uru–Chipaya languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yanomaman_languages&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yanomaman languages（页面不存在）">Yanomaman languages</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yanomaman_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Yanomaman languages">Yanomaman languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%89%8E%E7%A9%86%E7%A7%91%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="扎穆科语系">扎穆科语系</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Saparo%E2%80%93Yawan_languages&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Saparo–Yawan languages（页面不存在）">Saparo–Yawan languages</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saparo%E2%80%93Yawan_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Saparo–Yawan languages">Saparo–Yawan languages</a>） <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%90%A8%E5%B8%95%E7%BD%97%E4%BA%9A%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="萨帕罗亚语系（页面不存在）">萨帕罗亚语系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zaparoan_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Zaparoan languages">Zaparoan languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Peba%E2%80%93Yaguan_languages&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Peba–Yaguan languages（页面不存在）">Peba–Yaguan languages</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peba%E2%80%93Yaguan_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Peba–Yaguan languages">Peba–Yaguan languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Omurano_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Omurano language（页面不存在）">Omurano language</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omurano_language" class="extiw" title="en:Omurano language">Omurano language</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Taushiro_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Taushiro language（页面不存在）">Taushiro language</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taushiro_language" class="extiw" title="en:Taushiro language">Taushiro language</a>）</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%9A%E6%8B%89-%E7%BB%B4%E6%89%98%E6%89%98%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="博拉-维托托语系">博拉-维托托语系</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8D%9A%E6%8B%89%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="博拉语系（页面不存在）">博拉语系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boran_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Boran languages">Boran languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%BB%B4%E6%89%98%E6%89%98%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="维托托语系（页面不存在）">维托托语系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Witotoan_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Witotoan languages">Witotoan languages</a>）</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%A5%87%E7%A9%86%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="奇穆语系">奇穆语系</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%83%E6%96%AF%E6%A2%85%E6%8B%89%E8%BE%BE-%E9%9B%85%E9%B2%81%E7%BD%97%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="埃斯梅拉达-雅鲁罗语系">埃斯梅拉达-雅鲁罗语系</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%B8%8C%E7%BB%B4%E6%89%98%E2%80%93%E4%B9%94%E9%9A%86%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="希维托–乔隆语系">希比托–乔隆语系</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%A2%E8%8E%B1%E2%80%93%E6%AF%94%E8%8E%B1%E6%8B%89%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="卢莱–比莱拉语系">卢莱–比莱拉语系</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%83%AD-%E5%9B%BE%E7%9A%AE-%E5%8A%A0%E5%8B%92%E6%AF%94%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="热-图皮-加勒比语系（页面不存在）">热-图皮-加勒比语系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Je%E2%80%93Tupi%E2%80%93Carib_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Je–Tupi–Carib languages">Je–Tupi–Carib languages</a>） <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%A4%A7%E7%83%AD%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="大热语系（页面不存在）">大热语系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macro-J%C3%AA_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Macro-Jê languages">Macro-Jê languages</a>） <ul><li>可能含<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chiquitano_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Chiquitano language（页面不存在）">Chiquitano language</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chiquitano_language" class="extiw" title="en:Chiquitano language">Chiquitano language</a>）*</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fulni%C3%B4_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Fulniô language（页面不存在）">Fulniô language</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fulni%C3%B4_language" class="extiw" title="en:Fulniô language">Fulniô language</a>）*</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Guat%C3%B3_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Guató language（页面不存在）">Guató language</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guat%C3%B3_language" class="extiw" title="en:Guató language">Guató language</a>）*</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%9B%BE%E7%9A%AE%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="图皮语系">图皮语系</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8A%A0%E5%8B%92%E6%AF%94%E4%BA%9A%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="加勒比亚语系（页面不存在）">加勒比亚语系</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cariban_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Cariban languages">Cariban languages</a>）</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tequiraca%E2%80%93Canichana_languages&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tequiraca–Canichana languages（页面不存在）">Tequiraca–Canichana languages</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tequiraca%E2%80%93Canichana_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Tequiraca–Canichana languages">Tequiraca–Canichana languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aikan%C3%A3_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Aikanã language（页面不存在）">Aikanã language</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aikan%C3%A3_language" class="extiw" title="en:Aikanã language">Aikanã language</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alacalufan_languages&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Alacalufan languages（页面不存在）">Alacalufan languages</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alacalufan_languages" class="extiw" title="en:Alacalufan languages">Alacalufan languages</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cams%C3%A1_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Camsá language（页面不存在）">Camsá language</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cams%C3%A1_language" class="extiw" title="en:Camsá language">Camsá language</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Candoshi-Shapra_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Candoshi-Shapra language（页面不存在）">Candoshi-Shapra language</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Candoshi-Shapra_language" class="extiw" title="en:Candoshi-Shapra language">Candoshi-Shapra language</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E4%BE%9D%E8%AF%AD" title="阿依语">阿依语</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Irantxe_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Irantxe language（页面不存在）">Irantxe language</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irantxe_language" class="extiw" title="en:Irantxe language">Irantxe language</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Itonama_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Itonama language（页面不存在）">Itonama language</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Itonama_language" class="extiw" title="en:Itonama language">Itonama language</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kunza_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kunza language（页面不存在）">Kunza language</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kunza_language" class="extiw" title="en:Kunza language">Kunza language</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Leco_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Leco language（页面不存在）">Leco language</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leco_language" class="extiw" title="en:Leco language">Leco language</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Movima_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Movima language（页面不存在）">Movima language</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Movima_language" class="extiw" title="en:Movima language">Movima language</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A9%86%E6%8B%89%E8%AF%AD&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="穆拉语（页面不存在）">穆拉语</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mura_language" class="extiw" title="en:Mura language">Mura language</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%BA%B3%E8%90%A8%E8%AF%AD" title="纳萨语">纳萨语</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%93%A6%E5%A5%A5%E8%AF%AD" title="瓦奥语">瓦奥语</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warao_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Warao language（页面不存在）">Warao language</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warao_language" class="extiw" title="en:Warao language">Warao language</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yahgan_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yahgan language（页面不存在）">Yahgan language</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yahgan_language" class="extiw" title="en:Yahgan language">Yahgan language</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yuracar%C3%A9_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yuracaré language（页面不存在）">Yuracaré language</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuracar%C3%A9_language" class="extiw" title="en:Yuracaré language">Yuracaré language</a>）</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div class="hlist"><ul><li>黄色背景：<a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E8%81%94%E7%9B%9F" title="语言联盟">语言的区域分类</a>，语言间没有亲属关系</li><li>斜体：有争议的分类</li><li>星号：有观点认为不属于上级分类</li></ul></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84265675"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84261037"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="语言哲学" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="collapsible-title navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84265675"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84244141"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="Template:语言哲学"><abbr title="查看该模板">查</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="Template talk:语言哲学"><abbr title="讨论该模板">论</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BC%96%E8%BE%91%E9%A1%B5%E9%9D%A2/Template:%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="Special:编辑页面/Template:语言哲学"><abbr title="编辑该模板">编</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="语言哲学" style="font-size:110%;margin:0 5em"><a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="语言哲学">语言哲学</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6%E5%AE%B6" title="Category:语言哲学家">哲学家</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E6%9F%8F%E6%8B%89%E5%9B%BE" title="柏拉图">柏拉图</a>（“<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%8B%E6%8B%89%E5%BA%95%E9%AD%AF%E7%AF%87" title="克拉底魯篇">克拉底鲁</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cratylus_(dialogue)" class="extiw" title="en:Cratylus (dialogue)">Cratylus (dialogue)</a>）”）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%AB%98%E7%88%BE%E5%90%89%E4%BA%9E" title="高爾吉亞">高爾吉亞</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%9A%E9%87%8C%E5%A3%AB%E5%A4%9A%E5%BE%B7" title="亚里士多德">亚里士多德</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%96%AF%E5%A4%9A%E8%91%9B%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" title="斯多葛主義">斯多葛主義</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%9A%AE%E6%B5%AA%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="皮浪主义">皮浪主义</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%BB%8F%E9%99%A2%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="经院哲学">经院哲学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%8A%E6%9C%AC%C2%B7%E9%AD%AF%E4%B8%96%E5%BE%B7" title="伊本·魯世德">伊本·魯世德</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%8A%E6%9C%AC%C2%B7%E8%B5%AB%E5%8B%92%E6%95%A6" title="伊本·赫勒敦">伊本·赫勒敦</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%89%98%E9%A9%AC%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E9%9C%8D%E5%B8%83%E6%96%AF" title="托马斯·霍布斯">托马斯·霍布斯</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%88%88%E7%89%B9%E5%BC%97%E9%87%8C%E5%BE%B7%C2%B7%E8%8E%B1%E5%B8%83%E5%B0%BC%E8%8C%A8" title="戈特弗里德·莱布尼茨">莱布尼茨</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%BA%A6%E7%BF%B0%C2%B7%E6%88%88%E7%89%B9%E5%BC%97%E9%87%8C%E5%BE%B7%C2%B7%E8%B5%AB%E5%B0%94%E5%BE%B7" title="约翰·戈特弗里德·赫尔德">赫尔德</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%B7%AF%E5%BE%B7%E7%BB%B4%E5%B8%8C%C2%B7%E8%AF%BA%E5%B0%94&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="路德维希·诺尔（页面不存在）">诺尔</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig_Noire" class="extiw" title="en:Ludwig Noire">Ludwig Noire</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%A8%81%E5%BB%89%C2%B7%E9%A6%AE%C2%B7%E6%B4%AA%E5%A0%A1" title="威廉·馮·洪堡">洪堡</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%8B%A5%E5%85%8B%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E9%98%BF%E8%98%87%E7%88%BE%E9%96%80%E8%BF%AA&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="若克斯·阿蘇爾門迪（页面不存在）">阿蘇爾門迪</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joxe_Azurmendi" class="extiw" title="en:Joxe Azurmendi">Joxe Azurmendi</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%BC%97%E9%87%8C%E8%8C%A8%C2%B7%E6%AF%9B%E7%89%B9%E7%BA%B3&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="弗里茨·毛特纳（页面不存在）">毛特纳</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fritz_Mauthner" class="extiw" title="en:Fritz Mauthner">Fritz Mauthner</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BF%9D%E7%BD%97%C2%B7%E5%88%A9%E7%A7%91" title="保罗·利科">保罗·利科</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%B4%B9%E8%BF%AA%E5%8D%97%C2%B7%E5%BE%B7%C2%B7%E7%B4%A2%E7%BB%AA%E5%B0%94" title="费迪南·德·索绪尔">索绪尔</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%88%88%E7%89%B9%E6%B4%9B%E5%B8%83%C2%B7%E5%BC%97%E9%9B%B7%E6%A0%BC" title="戈特洛布·弗雷格">弗雷格</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%95%E8%98%AD%E8%8C%B2%C2%B7%E9%AE%91%E4%BA%9E%E5%A3%AB" title="法蘭茲·鮑亞士">博厄斯</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BF%9D%E7%BE%85%C2%B7%E7%94%B0%E7%AB%8B%E5%85%8B" title="保羅·田立克">田立克</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%84%9B%E5%BE%B7%E8%8F%AF%C2%B7%E8%96%A9%E4%B8%95%E7%88%BE" title="愛德華·薩丕爾">萨丕尔</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%A6%E7%BA%B3%E5%BE%B7%C2%B7%E5%B8%83%E9%BE%99%E8%8F%B2%E5%B0%94%E5%BE%B7" title="伦纳德·布龙菲尔德">布龙菲尔德</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%A8%E5%88%A9%C2%B7%E6%9F%8F%E6%A0%BC%E6%A3%AE" title="亨利·柏格森">柏格森</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%88%A9%E7%B6%AD%C2%B7%E7%B6%AD%E8%B0%B7%E6%96%AF%E5%9F%BA" title="利維·維谷斯基">維谷斯基</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%B7%AF%E5%BE%B7%E7%BB%B4%E5%B8%8C%C2%B7%E7%BB%B4%E7%89%B9%E6%A0%B9%E6%96%AF%E5%9D%A6" title="路德维希·维特根斯坦">维特根斯坦</a> <ul><li>“<a href="/wiki/%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6%E7%A0%94%E7%A9%B6" title="哲学研究">哲学研究</a>”</li> <li>“<a href="/wiki/%E9%80%BB%E8%BE%91%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6%E8%AE%BA" title="逻辑哲学论">逻辑哲学论</a>”</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%AF%E7%89%B9%E5%85%B0%C2%B7%E7%BD%97%E7%B4%A0" title="伯特兰·罗素">罗素</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%B2%81%E9%81%93%E5%A4%AB%C2%B7%E5%8D%A1%E5%B0%94%E7%BA%B3%E6%99%AE" title="鲁道夫·卡尔纳普">卡尔纳普</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%9B%85%E5%85%8B%C2%B7%E5%BE%B7%E9%87%8C%E8%BE%BE" title="雅克·德里达">德里达</a> <ul><li>“<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%AE%BA%E6%96%87%E5%AD%97%E5%AD%A6&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="论文字学（页面不存在）">论文字学</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Of_Grammatology" class="extiw" title="en:Of Grammatology">Of Grammatology</a>）”</li> <li>“<a href="/w/index.php?title=Limited_Inc&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Limited Inc（页面不存在）">Limited Inc</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limited_Inc" class="extiw" title="en:Limited Inc">Limited Inc</a>）”</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%9C%AC%E6%9D%B0%E6%98%8E%C2%B7%E6%9D%8E%C2%B7%E6%B2%83%E5%A4%AB" title="本杰明·李·沃夫">沃尔夫</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E6%96%AF%E5%A1%94%E5%A4%AB%C2%B7%E4%BC%AF%E6%A0%BC%E6%9B%BC" title="古斯塔夫·伯格曼">伯格曼</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%B4%84%E7%BF%B0%C2%B7%E5%A5%A7%E6%96%AF%E4%B8%81" title="約翰·奧斯丁">奧斯丁</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%BA%E5%A7%86%C2%B7%E4%B9%94%E5%A7%86%E6%96%AF%E5%9F%BA" title="诺姆·乔姆斯基">乔姆斯基</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%B1%89%E6%96%AF-%E6%A0%BC%E5%A5%A5%E5%B0%94%E6%A0%BC%C2%B7%E4%BC%BD%E8%BE%BE%E9%BB%98%E5%B0%94" title="汉斯-格奥尔格·伽达默尔">伽达默尔</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%B4%A2%E5%B0%94%C2%B7%E9%98%BF%E4%BC%A6%C2%B7%E5%85%8B%E9%87%8C%E6%99%AE%E5%85%8B" title="索尔·阿伦·克里普克">克里普克</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E5%B0%94%E5%BC%97%E9%9B%B7%E5%BE%B7%C2%B7%E6%9C%B1%E5%B0%94%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E8%89%BE%E8%80%B6%E5%B0%94" title="阿尔弗雷德·朱尔斯·艾耶尔">艾耶尔</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%8A%E8%8E%89%E8%8E%8E%E7%99%BD%C2%B7%E5%AE%89%E6%96%AF%E5%BA%B7%E5%A7%86" title="伊莉莎白·安斯康姆">安斯康姆</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%BF%88%E5%85%8B%E5%B0%94%C2%B7%E8%BE%BE%E7%B1%B3%E7%89%B9" title="迈克尔·达米特">迈克尔·达米特</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%94%90%E7%BA%B3%E5%BE%B7%C2%B7%E6%88%B4%E7%BB%B4%E6%A3%AE" title="唐纳德·戴维森">戴维森</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BF%9D%E7%BE%85%C2%B7%E6%A0%BC%E8%90%8A%E6%96%AF" title="保羅·格萊斯">格莱斯</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%90%89%E5%B0%94%E4%BC%AF%E7%89%B9%C2%B7%E8%B5%96%E5%B0%94" title="吉尔伯特·赖尔">吉尔伯特·赖尔</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%BD%BC%E5%BE%97%C2%B7%E5%BC%97%E9%9B%B7%E5%BE%B7%E9%87%8C%E5%85%8B%C2%B7%E6%96%AF%E7%89%B9%E5%8A%B3%E6%A3%AE" title="彼得·弗雷德里克·斯特劳森">斯特劳森</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%A8%81%E6%8B%89%E5%BE%B7%C2%B7%E8%8C%83%C2%B7%E5%A5%A5%E6%9B%BC%C2%B7%E8%92%AF%E5%9B%A0" title="威拉德·范·奥曼·蒯因">蒯因</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%B8%8C%E6%8B%89%E9%87%8C%C2%B7%E6%80%80%E7%89%B9%E5%93%88%E5%B0%94%C2%B7%E6%99%AE%E7%89%B9%E5%8D%97" title="希拉里·怀特哈尔·普特南">普特南</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%BA%A6%E7%BF%B0%C2%B7%E7%91%9F%E5%B0%94" title="约翰·瑟尔">希尔勒</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E7%90%86%E8%AE%BA" title="Category:语言理论">理论</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%8C%87%E7%A7%B0%E7%9A%84%E5%9B%A0%E6%9E%9C%E7%90%86%E8%AE%BA&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="指称的因果理论（页面不存在）">指称的因果理论</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causal_theory_of_reference" class="extiw" title="en:Causal theory of reference">Causal theory of reference</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%AF%B9%E6%AF%94%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="对比主义（页面不存在）">对比主义</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contrastivism" class="extiw" title="en:Contrastivism">Contrastivism</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%9B%A0%E8%A2%AD%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="因袭主义（页面不存在）">因袭主义</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conventionalism" class="extiw" title="en:Conventionalism">Conventionalism</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%85%8B%E6%8B%89%E8%92%82%E5%8D%A2%E6%96%AF%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="克拉蒂卢斯主义（页面不存在）">克拉蒂卢斯主义</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cratylism" class="extiw" title="en:Cratylism">Cratylism</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%A7%A3%E6%A7%8B%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" title="解構主義">解構主義</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%90%8D%E7%A7%B0%E7%9A%84%E6%91%B9%E7%8A%B6%E8%AF%8D%E7%90%86%E8%AE%BA&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="名称的摹状词理论（页面不存在）">名称的摹状词理论</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Descriptivist_theory_of_names" class="extiw" title="en:Descriptivist theory of names">Descriptivist theory of names</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%B8%AD%E4%BB%8B%E6%8C%87%E7%A7%B0%E7%90%86%E8%AE%BA&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="中介指称理论（页面不存在）">中介指称理论</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_reference_theory" class="extiw" title="en:Direct reference theory">Direct reference theory</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dramatism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dramatism（页面不存在）">Dramatism</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dramatism" class="extiw" title="en:Dramatism">Dramatism</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%A1%A8%E7%8E%B0%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="表现主义">表现主义</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E5%86%B3%E5%AE%9A%E8%AE%BA&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="语言决定论（页面不存在）">语言决定论</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_determinism" class="extiw" title="en:Linguistic determinism">Linguistic determinism</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%80%BB%E8%BE%91%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90%E8%AE%BA" title="逻辑原子论">逻辑原子论</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%80%BB%E8%BE%91%E5%AE%9E%E8%AF%81%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="逻辑实证主义">逻辑实证主义</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%8C%87%E7%A7%B0%E7%90%86%E8%AE%BA&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="指称理论（页面不存在）">指称理论</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediated_reference_theory" class="extiw" title="en:Mediated reference theory">Mediated reference theory</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%94%AF%E5%90%8D%E8%AB%96" title="唯名論">唯名論</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%9D%9E%E8%AA%8D%E7%9F%A5%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" title="非認知主義">非认知主义</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-cognitivism" class="extiw" title="en:Non-cognitivism">Non-cognitivism</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%98%B3%E6%80%A7%E4%B8%AD%E5%BF%83%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="阳性中心主义（页面不存在）">阳性中心主义</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phallogocentrism" class="extiw" title="en:Phallogocentrism">Phallogocentrism</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%AF%82%E9%9D%9C%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" title="寂靜主義">寂靜主義</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%85%B3%E8%81%94%E7%90%86%E8%AE%BA&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="关联理论（页面不存在）">关联理论</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relevance_theory" class="extiw" title="en:Relevance theory">Relevance theory</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%AF%AD%E4%B9%89%E5%A4%96%E5%9C%A8%E8%AE%BA&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="语义外在论（页面不存在）">语义外在论</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semantic_externalism" class="extiw" title="en:Semantic externalism">Semantic externalism</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%AF%AD%E4%B9%89%E6%95%B4%E4%BD%93%E8%AE%BA&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="语义整体论（页面不存在）">语义整体论</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semantic_holism" class="extiw" title="en:Semantic holism">Semantic holism</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%B5%90%E6%A7%8B%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" title="結構主義">結構主義</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%8C%87%E4%BB%A3%E7%90%86%E8%AE%BA&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="指代理论（页面不存在）">指代理论</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supposition_theory" class="extiw" title="en:Supposition theory">Supposition theory</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%85%B1%E7%94%9F%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="共生哲学（页面不存在）">共生哲学</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbiosism" class="extiw" title="en:Symbiosism">Symbiosism</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A5%9E%E5%AD%A6%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E6%97%A0%E8%AE%A4%E7%9F%A5%E4%B8%8A%E7%9A%84%E6%84%8F%E4%B9%89&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="神学语言无认知上的意义（页面不存在）">神学语言无认知上的意义</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theological_noncognitivism" class="extiw" title="en:Theological noncognitivism">Theological noncognitivism</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%91%B9%E7%8A%B6%E8%AF%8D%E7%90%86%E8%AE%BA" title="摹状词理论">摹状词理论</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%AA%8C%E8%AF%81%E7%90%86%E8%AE%BA" class="mw-redirect" title="验证理论">验证理论</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">概念</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E6%AD%A7%E7%BE%A9" title="歧義">歧義</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E7%9B%B8%E5%AF%B9%E8%AE%BA" class="mw-redirect" title="语言相对论">语言相对论</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%AA%9E%E6%84%8F" title="語意">語意</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">語言</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%9C%9F%E5%80%BC%E8%BD%BD%E4%BD%93&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="真值载体（页面不存在）">真值载体</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth-bearer" class="extiw" title="en:Truth-bearer">Truth-bearer</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%91%BD%E9%A2%98" title="命题">命题</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BD%BF%E7%94%A8-%E6%8F%90%E5%8F%8A%E5%8D%80%E5%88%A5" title="使用-提及區別">使用-提及區別</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%A6%82%E5%BF%B5" title="概念">概念</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%88%86%E7%B1%BB" class="mw-redirect" title="分类">分类</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%9B%86%E5%90%88_(%E6%95%B0%E5%AD%A6)" title="集合 (数学)">集合</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%B1%BB_(%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6)" title="类 (哲学)">类</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%86%85%E6%B6%B5" title="内涵">内涵</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%80%BB%E8%BE%91%E5%BD%A2%E5%BC%8F&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="逻辑形式（页面不存在）">逻辑形式</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_form" class="extiw" title="en:Logical form">Logical form</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%85%83%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80" title="元語言">元語言</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%BF%83%E6%99%BA%E8%A1%A8%E5%BE%B5" title="心智表徵">心理表征</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%8D%E5%90%88%E6%80%A7%E5%8E%9F%E7%90%86" title="复合性原理">复合性原理</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%80%A7%E8%B4%A8_(%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6)" title="性质 (哲学)">性质</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%AC%A6%E5%8F%B7_(%E7%AC%A6%E5%8F%B7%E5%AD%A6)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="符号 (符号学)（页面不存在）">符号</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sign_(semiotics)" class="extiw" title="en:Sign (semiotics)">Sign (semiotics)</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%84%8F%E4%B9%89%E5%92%8C%E6%8C%87%E7%A7%B0&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="意义和指称（页面不存在）">意义和指称</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sense_and_reference" class="extiw" title="en:Sense and reference">Sense and reference</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%A8%80%E8%AF%AD%E8%A1%8C%E4%B8%BA%E7%90%86%E8%AE%BA" class="mw-redirect" title="言语行为理论">言语行为理论</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%AC%A6%E5%8F%B7" class="mw-redirect" title="符号">符号</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%9E%E4%BD%93" class="mw-redirect" title="实体">实体</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%A5%E5%AD%90" title="句子">句子</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%99%88%E8%BF%B0_(%E9%80%BB%E8%BE%91)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="陈述 (逻辑)（页面不存在）">陈述</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6%E7%B4%A2%E5%BC%95&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="语言哲学索引（页面不存在）">更多...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">相关条目</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E5%88%86%E6%9E%90%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="分析哲學">分析哲學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BF%A1%E6%81%AF%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" class="mw-redirect" title="信息哲学">信息哲学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6%E9%80%BB%E8%BE%91" title="哲学逻辑">哲学逻辑</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E5%AD%A6" title="语言学">语言学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E7%94%A8%E5%AD%A6" title="语用学">语用学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BF%AE%E8%BE%9E%E5%AD%A6" title="修辞学">修辞学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E4%B9%89%E5%AD%A6" title="语义学">语义学</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%BD%A2%E5%BC%8F%E8%AF%AD%E4%B9%89%E5%AD%A6_(%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E5%AD%A6)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="形式语义学 (语言学)（页面不存在）">形式语义学</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formal_semantics_(linguistics)" class="extiw" title="en:Formal semantics (linguistics)">Formal semantics (linguistics)</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%AC%A6%E8%99%9F%E5%AD%B8" title="符號學">符號學</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Symbol_question.svg/16px-Symbol_question.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Symbol_question.svg/23px-Symbol_question.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Symbol_question.svg/31px-Symbol_question.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="Category:语言哲学">分类</a></li> <li><img alt="历史上的今天" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Nuvola_apps_date.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_date.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Nuvola_apps_date.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_date.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Nuvola_apps_date.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_date.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /><a href="/wiki/Special:%E9%93%BE%E5%87%BA%E6%9B%B4%E6%94%B9/Template:%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="Special:链出更改/Template:语言哲学">历史</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84265675"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84261037"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="文字系統" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="collapsible-title navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84265675"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84244141"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Writing_systems" title="Template:Writing systems"><abbr title="查看该模板">查</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Writing_systems" title="Template talk:Writing systems"><abbr title="讨论该模板">论</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BC%96%E8%BE%91%E9%A1%B5%E9%9D%A2/Template:Writing_systems" title="Special:编辑页面/Template:Writing systems"><abbr title="编辑该模板">编</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="文字系統" style="font-size:110%;margin:0 5em"><a href="/wiki/%E6%96%87%E5%AD%97" title="文字">文字系統</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">概觀</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E6%96%87%E5%AD%97%E5%8F%B2" title="文字史">文字史</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%AD%97%E6%AF%8D%E7%9A%84%E6%AD%B7%E5%8F%B2" title="字母的歷史">字母的歷史</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%AD%97%E4%BD%8D" title="字位">字位</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%96%87%E5%AD%97_(Unicode)" title="文字 (Unicode)">Unicode收录的文字</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">列表</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E6%96%87%E5%AD%97%E5%88%97%E8%A1%A8" title="文字列表">文字列表</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_languages_by_writing_system&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of languages by writing system（页面不存在）">Languages by writing system</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_languages_by_writing_system" class="extiw" title="en:List of languages by writing system">List of languages by writing system</a>） / <a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_languages_by_first_written_accounts&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of languages by first written accounts（页面不存在）">by first written account</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_languages_by_first_written_accounts" class="extiw" title="en:List of languages by first written accounts">List of languages by first written accounts</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%9C%AA%E8%A7%A3%E8%AF%BB%E6%96%87%E5%AD%97" title="未解读文字">未解读文字</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_inventors_of_writing_systems&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of inventors of writing systems（页面不存在）">Inventors of writing systems</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors_of_writing_systems" class="extiw" title="en:List of inventors of writing systems">List of inventors of writing systems</a>）</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/%E6%96%87%E5%AD%97%E5%88%97%E8%A1%A8" title="文字列表">形態</a><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%96%87%E5%AD%97%E7%B3%BB%E7%BB%9F%E7%B1%BB%E5%9E%8B&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="文字系统类型（页面不存在）">类型</a>（維基數據所列：<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q119520394" class="extiw" title="d:Q119520394">Q119520394</a>）</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E8%B1%A1%E5%BD%A2%E7%AC%A6%E5%8F%B7" title="象形符号">象形符号</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%BD%A2%E6%84%8F%E7%AC%A6%E5%8F%B7" title="形意符号">形意符号</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%AE%B0%E6%95%B0%E7%B3%BB%E7%BB%9F" title="记数系统">记数系统</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E7%B4%A0%E6%96%87%E5%AD%97" title="语素文字">语素文字</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%9F%B3%E7%AF%80%E6%96%87%E5%AD%97" title="音節文字">音節文字</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%8A%E9%9F%B3%E7%AF%80%E6%96%87%E5%AD%97" title="半音節文字">半音節文字</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%BE%85%E9%9F%B3%E9%9F%B3%E7%B4%A0%E6%96%87%E5%AD%97" title="辅音音素文字">辅音音素文字</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%85%83%E9%9F%B3%E9%99%84%E6%A0%87%E6%96%87%E5%AD%97" title="元音附标文字">元音附标文字</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%85%A8%E9%9F%B3%E7%B4%A0%E6%96%87%E5%AD%97" title="全音素文字">全音素文字</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%89%B9%E5%BE%B5%E6%96%87%E5%AD%97" title="特徵文字">特徵文字</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84265675"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84261037"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="語言單位" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="collapsible-title navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84265675"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84244141"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E5%8D%95%E4%BD%8D" title="Template:语言单位"><abbr title="查看该模板">查</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E5%8D%95%E4%BD%8D&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Template talk:语言单位（页面不存在）"><abbr title="讨论该模板">论</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BC%96%E8%BE%91%E9%A1%B5%E9%9D%A2/Template:%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E5%8D%95%E4%BD%8D" title="Special:编辑页面/Template:语言单位"><abbr title="编辑该模板">编</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="語言單位" style="font-size:110%;margin:0 5em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">語言</a>單位</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E9%9F%B3%E5%AD%A6" title="语音学">语音</a>单位</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E8%AA%9E%E9%9F%B3" title="語音">語音</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E9%9F%B3%E8%8A%82" title="音节">音节</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%85%83%E9%9F%B3" title="元音">元音</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%BE%85%E9%9F%B3" 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/></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">各地</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb120423179">法国</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb120423179">BnF data</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4056449-6">德国</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007555618705171">以色列</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85074518">美国</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000048532&P_CON_LNG=ENG">拉脱维亚</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.canary-84779d6bf6-hj2hv","wgBackendResponseTime":249,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"3.341","walltime":"3.901","ppvisitednodes":{"value":34871,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":1410393,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":72471,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":29,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":347,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":170844,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":3,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 2989.876 1 -total"," 29.99% 896.696 6 Template:Navbox"," 25.54% 763.737 1 Template:世界语系"," 22.72% 679.430 309 Template:Tsl"," 21.39% 639.482 7 Template:Navbox_subgroups"," 13.56% 405.334 1 Template:Reflist"," 13.14% 392.747 86 Template:Cite_book"," 8.95% 267.579 163 Template:Harvcoltxt"," 5.26% 157.369 1 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[\"CITEREFChomsky1957\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChomsky2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClackson2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClarkHenneberg2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClarke1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFComrie1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFComrie2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCoulmas2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCroft2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCroftCruse2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCrossWoodruff2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCrystal1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCrystal2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCysouwGood2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDeacon1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDevittSterelny1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDillerCann2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDixon1972\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDunnGreenhillLevinsonGray2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDuranti2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEngesserCraneSavageRussel2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEngesserRidleyTownsend2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEvansLevinson2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFisherLaiMonaco2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFitch2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFoley1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoldsmith1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGreenberg1966\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaspelmath2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaugen1973\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHauserChomskyFitch2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHauserFitch2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHenshilwoodDubreuil2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHockett1960\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohnson2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKatzner1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKeglSenghasCoppola1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKennison2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKnight2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLabov1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLabov2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLadefoged1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLadefogedMaddieson1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLesser1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLevinson1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLewis2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLiebermanCrelin1971\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLoos2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLyons1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMacMahon1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMacMahon1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMacaro2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMallory1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMatrasBakker2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMifflin1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMitchell2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoseley2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNerlich2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNewmeyer1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNewmeyer2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNichols1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNichols1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFO\u0026#039;GradyCho2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOlson1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPayne1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPinker1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRickerson\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRomaine2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSandlerLillo-Martin2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSaussure1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFScientific_American2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSenft2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSkwarecki2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStokoe1960\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStokoeCasterlineCroneberg1965\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStrazny2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSwadesh1934\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThe_Economist2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThomason2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThomasonKaufman1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTomasello1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTomasello2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTrask1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTrask1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTrask2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUlbaek1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVan_Valin2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVaneechoutte2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWatts2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZentella2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREF中村克樹2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREF索绪尔1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREF胡明扬1994\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 2,\n [\"-\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 86,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 26,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 9,\n [\"Cquote\"] = 1,\n [\"Dead link\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col\"] = 2,\n [\"Div col end\"] = 2,\n [\"GA\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvcoltxt\"] = 163,\n [\"IPA\"] = 9,\n [\"Ipa\"] = 18,\n [\"Jpn\"] = 2,\n [\"Lang\"] = 11,\n [\"Lang-en\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang-la\"] = 1,\n [\"Le\"] = 2,\n [\"Legend\"] = 19,\n [\"Main\"] = 6,\n [\"Main article\"] = 13,\n [\"Main list\"] = 1,\n [\"Multiple image\"] = 5,\n [\"NoteFoot\"] = 1,\n [\"NoteTag\"] = 5,\n [\"PIE\"] = 6,\n [\"Portal bar\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"ReflistF\"] = 1,\n [\"ReflistH\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 3,\n [\"Sister project links\"] = 1,\n [\"Tsl\"] = 61,\n [\"Wayback\"] = 8,\n [\"Writing systems\"] = 1,\n [\"世界语系\"] = 1,\n [\"提示\"] = 1,\n [\"规范控制\"] = 1,\n [\"语言单位\"] = 1,\n [\"语言哲学\"] = 1,\n [\"语言接触\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["?","420","21.0"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getExpensiveData","160","8.0"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","160","8.0"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::find","160","8.0"],["dataWrapper 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