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Available in 29 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-29" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">29 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pflanzensoziologie" title="Pflanzensoziologie – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Pflanzensoziologie" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%8A" title="علم النبات النباتي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="علم النبات النباتي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%96%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%8D%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Фітацэналогія – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Фітацэналогія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%96%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%8D%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%91%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Фітацэналёгія – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Фітацэналёгія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fitosociologija" title="Fitosociologija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Fitosociologija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fitosociologia" title="Fitosociologia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Fitosociologia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fytocenologie" title="Fytocenologie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Fytocenologie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plantesociologi" title="Plantesociologi – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Plantesociologi" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pflanzensoziologie" title="Pflanzensoziologie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Pflanzensoziologie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fitosociolog%C3%ADa" title="Fitosociología – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Fitosociología" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fitosociologio" title="Fitosociologio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Fitosociologio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%B9%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C_%DA%AF%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%87%DB%8C" title="جامعه‌شناسی گیاهی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="جامعه‌شناسی گیاهی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phytosociologie" title="Phytosociologie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Phytosociologie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fitosociolox%C3%ADa" title="Fitosocioloxía – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Fitosocioloxía" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%8B%9D%EB%AC%BC%EC%82%AC%ED%9A%8C%ED%95%99" title="식물사회학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="식물사회학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fitocenologija" title="Fitocenologija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Fitocenologija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fitosociologia" title="Fitosociologia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Fitosociologia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%98%D7%95%D7%A1%D7%95%D7%A6%D7%99%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%92%D7%99%D7%94" title="פיטוסוציולוגיה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פיטוסוציולוגיה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Фитоценология – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Фитоценология" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fitosociologija" title="Fitosociologija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Fitosociologija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Фитоценологија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Фитоценологија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vegetatiekunde" title="Vegetatiekunde – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Vegetatiekunde" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E7%A4%BE%E4%BC%9A%E5%AD%A6" title="植物社会学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="植物社会学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fitosocjologia" title="Fitosocjologia – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Fitosocjologia" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fitossociologia" title="Fitossociologia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Fitossociologia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Геоботаника – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Геоботаника" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fitocenologija" title="Fitocenologija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Fitocenologija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Фитоценологија – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Фитоценологија" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%96%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Фітоценологія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Фітоценологія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q1138244#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected 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citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Phytosociology" title="Special:EditPage/Phytosociology">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Phytosociology%22">"Phytosociology"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Phytosociology%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Phytosociology%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Phytosociology%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Phytosociology%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Phytosociology%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">July 2023</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">The empirical study of plant growth in communities</div> <p><b>Phytosociology</b>, also known as <b>phytocoenology</b> or simply <b>plant sociology</b>, is the study of groups of species of plant that are usually found together. Phytosociology aims to <a href="/wiki/Empirical_evidence" title="Empirical evidence">empirically</a> describe the vegetative environment of a given territory. A specific community of plants is considered a social unit, the product of definite conditions, present and past, and can exist only when such conditions are met. In phyto-sociology, such a unit is known as a <b>phytocoenosis</b> (or phytocoenose). A phytocoenosis is more commonly known as a plant community, and consists of the sum of all plants in a given area. It is a subset of a <a href="/wiki/Biocoenosis" title="Biocoenosis">biocoenosis</a>, which consists of all organisms in a given area. More strictly speaking, a phytocoenosis is a set of plants in area that are interacting with each other through competition or other ecological processes. Coenoses are not equivalent to <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">ecosystems</a>, which consist of organisms and the physical environment that they interact with. A phytocoensis has a <a href="/wiki/Species_distribution" title="Species distribution">distribution</a> which can be mapped. Phytosociology has a system for describing and classifying these phytocoenoses in a hierarchy, known as <b>syntaxonomy</b>, and this system has a nomenclature. The science is most advanced in Europe, Africa and Asia. </p><p>In the United States this concept was largely rejected in favour of studying environments in more individualistic terms regarding species, where specific associations of plants occur randomly because of individual preferences and responses to gradients, and there are no sharp boundaries between phytocoenoses. The terminology '<a href="/wiki/Plant_community" title="Plant community">plant community</a>' is usually used in the US for a habitat consisting of a number of specific plant species. </p><p>It has been a successful approach in the scope of contemporary vegetation science because of its highly descriptive and predictive powers, and its usefulness in nature management issues. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phytosociology&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The term 'phytosociology' was coined in 1896 by <a href="/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Paczoski" title="Józef Paczoski">Józef Paczoski</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Soviet_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Soviet-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term 'phytocoenology' was coined by <a href="/wiki/Helmut_Gams" title="Helmut Gams">Helmut Gams</a> in 1918.<sup id="cite_ref-Soviet_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Soviet-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Gams1918_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gams1918-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While the terminology phytocoenosis grew to be most popular in France, Switzerland, Germany and the Soviet Union, the terminology phytosociology remained in use in some European countries.<sup id="cite_ref-Soviet_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Soviet-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Phytosociology is a further refinement of the <a href="/wiki/Phytogeography" title="Phytogeography">phytogeography</a> introduced by <a href="/wiki/Alexander_von_Humboldt" title="Alexander von Humboldt">Alexander von Humboldt</a> at the very beginning of the 19th century.<sup id="cite_ref-Soviet_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Soviet-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Decocq2016_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Decocq2016-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Phytocoenology was initially considered to be a subdiscipline of 'geobotany'.<sup id="cite_ref-Gams1918_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gams1918-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Scandinavia" title="Scandinavia">Scandinavia</a> the concept of plant associations was popular at an early date. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hampus_von_Post&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hampus von Post (page does not exist)">Hampus von Post</a> (1842, 1862),<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ragnar_Hult" title="Ragnar Hult">Ragnar Hult</a> (1881, 1898),<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Thore_Christian_Elias_Fries" title="Thore Christian Elias Fries">Thore Christian Elias Fries</a> (1913),<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Gustaf_Einar_Du_Rietz" title="Gustaf Einar Du Rietz">Gustaf Einar Du Rietz</a> (1921).<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Rübel (1922, 1930),<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pavillard (1927),<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Schröter & Kirchner (1886–1902),<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Flahault & <a href="/wiki/Carl_Joseph_Schr%C3%B6ter" title="Carl Joseph Schröter">Carl Joseph Schröter</a> (1910),<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> an important botanist to apply and popularise the science was <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Sukachev" title="Vladimir Sukachev">Vladimir Sukachev</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The science of phytosociology has hardly penetrated into the English-speaking world, where the <a href="/wiki/Community_(ecology)#Individualistic_theory" title="Community (ecology)">continuum concept of community</a> prevailed, opposed to the concept of a 'society' of plants.<sup id="cite_ref-Decocq2016_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Decocq2016-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nonetheless it had some early adherents in the United States, notably <a href="/wiki/Frederic_Clements" title="Frederic Clements">Frederic Clements</a> in particular, who used the concept to characterise the vegetation of California. Largely following European ideas, he devised his own system to classify habitat types using vegetation.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Clements most important contribution was his study of <a href="/wiki/Succession_(ecology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Succession (ecology)">succession</a>. His work has seen much local usage.<sup id="cite_ref-Soviet_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Soviet-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Britain <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Tansley" title="Arthur Tansley">Arthur Tansley</a> was the first to apply phytosociological concepts to the vegetation of the kingdom in 1911 after learning of its application elsewhere in Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tansley eventually broadened the concept and thus came up with the idea of an <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">ecosystem</a>, combining all biotic and abiotic ecological aspects of an environment. The work of Tansley and Clements was quite divergent from the rest. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Usage_today">Usage today</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phytosociology&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Usage today"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Modern phytosociology for largely follows the work of <a href="/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Paczoski" title="Józef Paczoski">Józef Paczoski</a> in Poland, <a href="/wiki/Josias_Braun-Blanquet" title="Josias Braun-Blanquet">Josias Braun-Blanquet</a> in France and <a href="/wiki/Gustaf_Einar_Du_Rietz" title="Gustaf Einar Du Rietz">Gustaf Einar Du Rietz</a> in Sweden.<sup id="cite_ref-Decocq2016_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Decocq2016-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Europe a complete classification system has been developed to describe the vegetation types found across the continent. These are used as habitat-type classifications in the <a href="/wiki/NATURA_2000" class="mw-redirect" title="NATURA 2000">NATURA 2000</a> network and in <a href="/wiki/Habitats_Directive" title="Habitats Directive">Habitats Directive</a> legislation. Each phytocoenose has been given a number, and protected areas can thus be classified according to the habitats they contain. In Europe this information is generally mapped per 2 km² blocks for <a href="/wiki/Wildlife_conservation" title="Wildlife conservation">conservation</a> purposes, such as monitoring particularly endangered habitat types, predicting success of <a href="/wiki/Reintroduction" class="mw-redirect" title="Reintroduction">reintroductions</a>, or estimating more specific <a href="/wiki/Carrying_capacity" title="Carrying capacity">carrying capacities</a>. Because certain habitats are deemed more imperilled (i.e. having a higher conservation value) than others, a numerical conservation value of a specific site can be approximated. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phytosociology&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Overview"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The aim of phytosociology is to achieve a sufficient empirical model of vegetation using combinations of plant species (or subspecies, i.e. <a href="/wiki/Taxa" class="mw-redirect" title="Taxa">taxa</a>) that characterize discrete vegetation units. Vegetation units as understood by phytosociologists may express largely abstract vegetation concepts (e.g. the set of all hard-leaved <a href="/wiki/Evergreen_forest" title="Evergreen forest">evergreen forests</a> of western <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediterranean">Mediterranean</a> area) or actual readily recognizable vegetation types (e.g. cork-oak oceanic forests on <a href="/wiki/Pleistocene" title="Pleistocene">Pleistocene</a> dunes with dense canopy in <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberian Peninsula</a>). Such conceptual units are called <b>syntaxa</b> (singular "syntaxon") and can be set in a hierarchy system called "synsystem" or syntaxonomic system. Creating new syntaxa or adjusting the synsystem is called <b>syntaxonomy</b>. Before the rules were agreed upon, a number of slightly different systems of classification existed. These were known as "schools" or "traditions", and there were two main systems: the older Scandinavian school and the Zürich-Montpellier school,<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> also sometimes called the Braun-Blanquet approach.<sup id="cite_ref-Dengler2008_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dengler2008-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Relevé"><span id="Relev.C3.A9"></span>Relevé</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phytosociology&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Relevé"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first step in phytosociology is gathering data. This is done with what is known as a <b>relevé</b>, a plot in which all the species are identified, and their abundance both vertically and in area are calculated. Other data are also recorded for a relevé: the geographic location, environmental factors and vegetation structure. <a href="/wiki/Boolean_function" title="Boolean function">Boolean operators</a> and (formerly) tables are used to sort the data. As the calculations needed are difficult and tedious to do manually, modern ecologists feed the relevé data into software programs that use algorithms to crunch the numbers.<sup id="cite_ref-Dengler2008_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dengler2008-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Association_model">Association model</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phytosociology&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Association model"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The basic unit of syntaxonomy, the organisation and nomenclature of phytosociological relationships, is the "<a href="/wiki/Association_(ecology)" title="Association (ecology)">association</a>", defined by its characteristic combination of plant taxa. Sometimes other habitat features such as the management by humans (mowing regime, for example), <a href="/wiki/Physiognomy" title="Physiognomy">physiognomy</a> and/or the stage in <a href="/wiki/Ecological_succession" title="Ecological succession">ecological succession</a> may also be considered. Such an association is usually viewed as a discrete phytocoenose. Similar and neighbouring associations can be grouped in larger ecological conceptual units, with a group of plant associations called an "alliance". Similar alliances may be grouped in "orders" and orders in vegetation "classes". The setting of syntaxa in such a hierarchy makes up the syntaxonomical system. </p><p>The most important workers to define the modern system were initially <a href="/wiki/Charles_Flahault" title="Charles Flahault">Charles Flahault</a>, with the work of his student <a href="/wiki/Josias_Braun-Blanquet" title="Josias Braun-Blanquet">Josias Braun-Blanquet</a> being the what is generally considered the final version of syntaxonomical nomenclature. Braun-Blanquet further refined and standardised the work of Flahault and many others when he worked on the phytocoenosis of the southern <a href="/wiki/C%C3%A9vennes" title="Cévennes">Cévennes</a>. He established the modern system of classifying vegetation.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Braun-Blanquet's method uses the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_name" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific name">scientific name</a> of its most characteristic species as namesake, changing the ending of the <a href="/wiki/Generic_epithet" class="mw-redirect" title="Generic epithet">generic epithet</a> to "-<i>etum</i>" and treating the <a href="/wiki/Specific_epithet" class="mw-redirect" title="Specific epithet">specific epithet</a> as an <a href="/wiki/Adjective" title="Adjective">adjective</a>. Thus, a particular type of <a href="/wiki/Mesotrophic_soil" title="Mesotrophic soil">mesotrophic</a> grassland widespread in western Europe and dominated only by the grass <i><a href="/wiki/Arrhenatherum_elatius" title="Arrhenatherum elatius">Arrhenatherum elatius</a></i> becomes "<i><a href="/wiki/Arrhenatheretum_elatioris" class="mw-redirect" title="Arrhenatheretum elatioris">Arrhenatheretum elatioris</a></i> <small>Br.-Bl.</small>". To distinguish between similar plant communities dominated by the same species, other important species are included in the name, but the name is otherwise is formed according to the same rules. Another type of mesotrophic <a href="/wiki/Pasture" title="Pasture">pasture</a> dominated by black knapweed (<i><a href="/wiki/Centaurea_nigra" title="Centaurea nigra">Centaurea nigra</a></i>) and the grass <i><a href="/wiki/Cynosurus_cristatus" title="Cynosurus cristatus">Cynosurus cristatus</a></i>, which is also widespread in western Europe, is consequently named <i><a href="/wiki/Centaureo-Cynosuretum_cristati" class="mw-redirect" title="Centaureo-Cynosuretum cristati">Centaureo-Cynosuretum cristati</a></i> <small>Br.-Bl. & Tx.</small>. If the second species is characteristic but notably less dominant than the first one, its genus name may be used as the adjective,<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> for example in <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pterocarpetum_rhizophorosus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pterocarpetum rhizophorosus (page does not exist)">Pterocarpetum rhizophorosus</a></i>, a type of <a href="/wiki/Tropical" class="mw-redirect" title="Tropical">tropical</a> <a href="/wiki/Scrubland" class="mw-redirect" title="Scrubland">scrubland</a> near water which has abundant <i><a href="/wiki/Pterocarpus_officinalis" title="Pterocarpus officinalis">Pterocarpus officinalis</a></i> and significant (though not overwhelmingly prominent) red mangrove (<i><a href="/wiki/Rhizophora_mangle" title="Rhizophora mangle">Rhizophora mangle</a></i>). </p><p>Today an <i>International Code of Phytosociological Nomenclature</i><sup id="cite_ref-iavs_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-iavs-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> exists, in which the rules for naming syntaxa are given. Its use has increased among botanists.<sup id="cite_ref-iavs_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-iavs-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Anglo-American ecology, the association concept is mostly linked to the work of the mid-twentieth century botanist <a href="/wiki/Henry_A._Gleason_(botanist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry A. Gleason (botanist)">Henry Gleason</a>, who set it up as an alternative to <a href="/wiki/Frederic_Clements" title="Frederic Clements">Frederic Clement</a>'s views on the <a href="/wiki/Superorganism" title="Superorganism">superorganismic framework</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The philosophical parameters of the association concept have also come under study by environmental philosophers as to how it values and defends the natural environment.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vegetation_complexes">Vegetation complexes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phytosociology&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Vegetation complexes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Modern phytosociologists try to include higher levels of complexity in the perception of vegetation, namely by describing whole <a href="/wiki/Succession_(ecology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Succession (ecology)">successional units</a> (vegetation series) or, in general, vegetation complexes. Other developments include the use of <a href="/wiki/Multivariate_statistics" title="Multivariate statistics">multivariate statistics</a> for the definition of syntaxa and their interpretation. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Data_collections">Data collections</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phytosociology&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Data collections"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Phytosociological data contain information collected in relevés (or plots) listing each species cover-abundance values and the measured environmental variables. This data is conveniently databanked in a program like TURBOVEG<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> allowing for editing, storage and export to other applications. </p><p>Data is usually classified and sorted using TWINSPAN<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in host programs like <a href="/wiki/JUICE_(software)" title="JUICE (software)">JUICE</a> to create realistic species-relevé associations. Further patterns are investigated using clustering and resemblance methods, and <a href="/wiki/Ordination_(statistics)" title="Ordination (statistics)">ordination techniques</a> available in software packages like CANOCO<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or the <a href="/wiki/R_(programming_language)" title="R (programming language)">R</a>-package vegan.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phytosociology&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Josias_Braun-Blanquet" title="Josias Braun-Blanquet">Josias Braun-Blanquet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Paczoski" title="Józef Paczoski">Józef Paczoski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_Rodrigo_Pinto_da_Silva" title="António Rodrigo Pinto da Silva">António Rodrigo Pinto da Silva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victor_Westhoff" title="Victor Westhoff">Victor Westhoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/JUICE_(software)" title="JUICE (software)">JUICE - program for phytosociologists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_community" title="Plant community">Plant community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytogeography" title="Phytogeography">Phytogeography</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phytosociology&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Phytosociology" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Phytosociology">Phytosociology</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Soviet-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Soviet_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Soviet_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Soviet_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Soviet_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Soviet_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Rabotnov TA. 1970-1979. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Phytocoenology">Phytocoenology.</a> In: The Great Soviet Encyclopedia, 3rd ed.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gams1918-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gams1918_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gams1918_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFGams1918" class="citation journal cs1">Gams, Helmut (27 March 1918). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ngzh.ch/archiv/1918_63/63_3-4/63_17.pdf">"Prinzipienfragen der Vegetationsforschung. 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Rastogi: Meerut, p. 140-142, <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fjmhn4g5VHkC&pg=PA140">[8]</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dengler2008-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Dengler2008_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dengler2008_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDenglerChytrýEwald2008" class="citation book cs1">Dengler, J.; Chytrý, M.; Ewald, J. (2008). "Phytosociology". In Jørgensen, Sven Erik; Fath, Brian D. (eds.). <i>Encyclopedia of Ecology</i> (Second ed.). Academic Press. pp. 2767–2779. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB978-008045405-4.00533-4">10.1016/B978-008045405-4.00533-4</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-045405-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-08-045405-4"><bdi>978-0-08-045405-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Phytosociology&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Ecology&rft.pages=2767-2779&rft.edition=Second&rft.pub=Academic+Press&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FB978-008045405-4.00533-4&rft.isbn=978-0-08-045405-4&rft.aulast=Dengler&rft.aufirst=J.&rft.au=Chytr%C3%BD%2C+M.&rft.au=Ewald%2C+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhytosociology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nicolson, M. (1993). National Styles, Divergent Classifications: A comparative case study from the history of French and American plant ecology. Knowledge and Society: Studies in the Sociology of Science Past and Present, 8, 139-186.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Braun-Blanquet, J. (1932). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/7161#/summary"><i>Plant sociology; the study of plant communities</i></a>. New York and London, McGraw-Hill</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-iavs-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-iavs_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-iavs_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeberMoravecTheurillat2000" class="citation journal cs1">Weber, H.E.; Moravec, J.; Theurillat, J.-P. 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"TURBOVEG, a comprehensive data base management system for vegetation data". <i>Journal of Vegetation Science</i>. <b>12</b> (4): 589–591. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001JVegS..12..589H">2001JVegS..12..589H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3237010">10.2307/3237010</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3237010">3237010</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Vegetation+Science&rft.atitle=TURBOVEG%2C+a+comprehensive+data+base+management+system+for+vegetation+data&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=589-591&rft.date=2001&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3237010%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3237010&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2001JVegS..12..589H&rft.aulast=Hennekens&rft.aufirst=SM&rft.au=Schamin%C3%A9e%2C+JHJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhytosociology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hill MO (1979) TWINSPAN: A FORTRAN Programme for arranging multivariate data in an ordered two-way table by classification of the individuals and attributes. Ecology and Systematics, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">ter Braak CJF, Šmilauer P (2002) CANOCO Reference manual and CanoDraw for Windows User’s guide: Software for Canonical Community Ordination (version 4.5). Microcomputer Power, Ithaca, NY</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOksanen2010" class="citation web cs1">Oksanen, J. (2010) (March 11, 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191020192237/http://cc.oulu.fi/~jarioksa/opetus/metodi/vegantutor.pdf">"Multivariate Analysis of Ecological Communities in R: vegan tutorial"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cc.oulu.fi/~jarioksa/opetus/metodi/vegantutor.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on October 20, 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 20,</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Multivariate+Analysis+of+Ecological+Communities+in+R%3A+vegan+tutorial&rft.date=2010-03-11&rft.aulast=Oksanen&rft.aufirst=J.+%282010%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcc.oulu.fi%2F~jarioksa%2Fopetus%2Fmetodi%2Fvegantutor.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhytosociology" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_numeric_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list">link</a>)</span> PDF</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phytosociology&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iavs.org/pdf/Code.pdf">International Code of Phytosociological Nomenclature</a>, 3rd edition</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050817143006/http://www.jscarrion.com/research/pinus.htm">Landscape disagreement with phytosociological theories</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050826040651/http://www.yale.edu/fes519b/saltonstall/page3.htm">Phytosociology</a> Methods of Ecosystem Analysis, yale.edu</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biblio.tu-bs.de/geobot/english/">Technical University of Braunschweig, Working Group for Vegetation Ecology and Experimental Plant Sociology, accessed 20 April 2010</a></li></ul> <div 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